This module was prepared by the Wolaita Sodo University School of informatics

Department of information systems

Module on Computer networking

and
Information security

Developed By:
Hailye Teklesilassie (MSc.)
Admasu Desalegn (MSc.)
Mukrem Mubarek (BSc.)
Henok Alemneh (BSc.)

Compiled & Edited By: Hailye Teklesilassie (MSc)

February 2023
 Module Preface
This resource module is designed and developed in support of the Computer networking and
information security It provides learning resources and teaching ideas. Dear students, in chapter
one you have been studied about the network, Over view of network, elements and
characteristics of network, network architectures, computer network & human network.

In chapter two, Data communication in chapter three, network types in chapter four, protocols, in
chapter five, OSI reference model, in chapter six, Switching & Multiplexing, in chapter seven,
Introduction to IP Addressing and Subnetting, in chapter eight, Data Security and Integrity, in
chapter nine, system and network administration, in chapter ten, information Systems security.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1. What is network ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Over view of network ............................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Networks in Our Daily Lives ................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Network as a plat form .......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 What are the elements of a network? .................................................................................... 5
1.5 What are the characteristics of network architectures? ......................................................... 6
1.6 Computer Networks versus Human Network ....................................................................... 6
Chapter 2: ........................................................................................................................................ 8
2. Data Communications ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1. What is communication? ...................................................................................................... 8
2.2. The platform for communication ....................................................................................... 13
2.2.1. Communicating the Message .................................................................................... 14
2.3. Data transmission ............................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1. Concepts and Terminology ............................................................................................. 16
2.3.2. Analog and Digital Data Transmission .................................................................... 16
2.3.3. Transmission Impairments ....................................................................................... 18
2.4. Components of the network ............................................................................................... 20
2.4.1. End Devices & their role ............................................................................................. 22
2.4.2. Intermediary Devices & their role ............................................................................... 32
2.4.3. Network Media ............................................................................................................ 42
Chapter 3: ...................................................................................................................................... 44
3. Network Types .......................................................................................................................... 44
3.1 Computer Network Types ................................................................................................... 44
3.1. LANs, WANs and Internetworks ....................................................................................... 44
3.2. Peer to peer versus Server based Networks ....................................................................... 51
3.3. Packet-switched and Circuit switched networks ................................................................ 53
3.4. Network cabling & Topologies .......................................................................................... 56
Chapter 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 77
4. Protocols ................................................................................................................................... 77

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 4.1 Network protocols ............................................................................................................... 77
4.1. Rules & Network Protocols................................................................................................ 77
4.3. Layered Models .................................................................................................................. 89
4.3. Layered Models .................................................................................................................. 90
4.3.1. The TCP/IP Model....................................................................................................... 92
4.3.2. The OSI Model ............................................................................................................ 97
4.3.3. Comparing OSI Model with TCP/IP Model .............................................................. 109
Chapter 5: .................................................................................................................................. 115
OSI Reference Model ................................................................................................................. 115
5.1. Layered Framework of OSI.............................................................................................. 115
5.2. Overview & functions of each layer ................................................................................ 116
Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 122
Switching & Multiplexing .......................................................................................................... 122
6.1. Switching Concept and Types .......................................................................................... 122
6.2. Multiplexing Concepts and Types ................................................................................... 123
Chapter 7 ..................................................................................................................................... 126
7. Introduction to IP Addressing and Subnetting ........................................................................ 126
7.1 Classful & Classless Addressing ....................................................................................... 127
7.2.2 Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) ................................................................ 137
Chapter 8 ..................................................................................................................................... 139
8. 1.Data Security and Integrity .................................................................................................. 139
8.1. Fundamentals of secure networks; cryptography ............................................................. 139
8.2. Encryption and privacy .................................................................................................... 142
8.3. Authentication protocols .................................................................................................. 146
8.4. Firewalls ........................................................................................................................... 148
8.5. Virtual private networks ................................................................................................... 154
8.6. Transport layer security.................................................................................................... 164
Chapter 9 ..................................................................................................................................... 167
9. Overview ................................................................................................................................. 167
9.1. system and network administration .............................................................................. 167
9.1.1.Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 169
Self-test objectives ...................................................................................................................... 169

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1. What kinds of issues does system administration cover? ....................................................... 169
2. Is system administration management or engineering? .......................................................... 169
3. Why does the physical environment play a role in system administration? ........................... 169
4. Describe why ethics and human values are important. ........................................................... 169
5. Is system administration a science? Why/why not? ............................................................... 169
6. State the top-most principles that guide network and system administrators. ........................ 169
9.1.2. System theory in organization ................................................................................... 169
9.1.3. What are Information systems? ................................................................................. 170
9.2. Fundamental concepts. ..................................................................................................... 172
9.4. Wireless LAN ................................................................................................................... 191
9.3. Network design and implementation................................................................................ 194
9.4. LINUX SYSTEM AND NETWORK ADMINISTRATION .......................................... 201
9.5. Network Administration................................................................................................... 208
9.4.1. User Management ...................................................................................................... 211
9.4.2. Hardware Management.............................................................................................. 213
9.4.3. Data Backups ............................................................................................................. 213
9.4.5. Troubleshooting ......................................................................................................... 215
9.4.6. Monitoring ................................................................................................................. 215
9.4.7. Local Documentation ................................................................................................ 215
9.4.8. Security Concerns ...................................................................................................... 215
9.4.9. Helping Users ............................................................................................................ 216
9.5. Network security .............................................................................................................. 216
9.6. Specials............................................................................................................................. 218
Chapter 10 ................................................................................................................................... 222
10.1. overview of information systems security ..................................................................... 222
10.2. Basic Information Security Concepts ............................................................................. 223
10.4. WHAT IS ARPANET? .................................................................................................. 226
10.5. Introduction to Cybersecurity Fundamentals ................................................................. 227
10.6. Understanding the Fundamentals of Cybersecurity ....................................................... 227
10.7. Network Security............................................................................................................ 239
10.8.1. Confidentiality ......................................................................................................... 240
10.8.2. Integrity ................................................................................................................... 241

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 10.8.3. Availability .............................................................................................................. 241
10.8.4. Authenticity ............................................................................................................. 242
10.8.5. Non-Repudiation ..................................................................................................... 242
10.8.6. Questions related to this topic ................................................................................. 242
10.9.6. Social engineering defined ...................................................................................... 245
References ................................................................................................................................... 247

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 Chapter 1

Introduction

1. What is network
Computer networking as we know it today may be said to have gotten its start with the Arpanet
development in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Prior to that time there were computer vendor
“networks” designed primarily to connect terminals and remote job entry stations to a
mainframe?

Year Event

1961 The idea of ARPANET, one of the earliest computer networks, was proposed
by Leonard Klein rock in 1961, in his paper titled "Information Flow in Large
Communication Nets."
1965 The term "packet" was coined by Donald Davies in 1965, to describe data sent between
Computers over a network.
1969 ARPANET was one of the first computer networks to use packet switching.
Development of ARPANET started in 1966, and the first two nodes, UCLA and
SRI (Stanford Research Institute), were connected, officially starting ARPANET in 1969.
1969 The first RFC surfaced in April 1969, as a document to define and provide information
About computer communications, network protocols, and procedures.
1969 The first network switch and IMP (Interface Message Processor) was sent to UCLA on
August 29, 1969. It was used to send the first data transmission on ARPANET.
1969 The Internet was officially born, with the first data transmission sent between UCLA and
SRI on October 29, 1969, at 10:30 p.m.
1970 Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA released NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) in 1970.
NCP is a file sharing protocol for use with NetWare.
1971 Ray Tomlinson sent the first e-mail in 1971.
1971 ALOHA net, a UHF wireless packet network, is used in Hawaii to connect the islands
Together. Although it is not Wi-Fi, it helps lay the foundation for Wi-Fi.

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1973 Ethernet is developed by Robert Metcalfe in 1973 while working at Xerox PARC.
1973 The first international network connection, called SATNET, is deployed in 1973 by
ARPA.
1973 An experimental VoIP call was made in 1973, officially introducing VoIP technology
And capabilities. However, the first software allowing users to make VoIP calls was not
Available until 1995.
1974 The first routers were used at Xerox in 1974. However, these first routers were not
Considered true IP routers.
1976 Ginny Strazisar developed the first true IP router, originally called a gateway, in 1976.
1978 Bob Kahn invented the TCP/IP protocol for networks and developed it, with help from
Vint Cerf, in 1978.
1981 Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4, was officially defined in RFC 791 in 1981. IPv4
was the first major version of the Internet protocol.
1981 BITNET was created in 1981 as a network between IBM mainframe systems in the
United States.
1981 CSNET (Computer Science Network) was developed by the U.S. National Science
Foundation in 1981.
1983 ARPANET finished the transition to using TCP/IP in 1983.
1983 Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel implemented the first DNS in 1983.
1986 The NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) came online in 1986.
It was a backbone for ARPANET, before eventually replacing ARPANET
in the early 1990s.
1986 BITNET II was created in 1986 to address bandwidth issues with the original BITNET.
1988 The first T1 backbone was added to ARPANET in 1988.
1988 WaveLAN network technology, the official precursor to Wi-Fi, was introduced to
The market by AT&T, Lucent, and NCR in 1988.
1988 Details about network firewall technology was first published in 1988. The published
paper discussed the first firewall, called a packet filter firewall, that was developed by
Digital Equipment Corporation the same year.
1990 Kalpana, a U.S. network hardware company, developed and introduced the first network

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 Switch in 1990.
1996 IPv6 was introduced in 1996 as an improvement over IPv4, including a wider range of IP
Addresses, improved routing, and embedded encryption.
1997 The first version of the 802.11 standard for Wi-Fi is introduced in June 1997, providing transmission
Speeds up to 2 Mbps.
1999 The 802.11a standard for Wi-Fi was made official in 1999, designed to use the 5 GHz band and
provide transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps.
1999 802.11b devices were available to the public starting mid-1999, providing transmission speeds
up to 11 Mbps.
1999 The WEP encryption protocol for Wi-Fi is introduced in September 1999, for use with 802.11b.
2003 802.11g devices were available to the public starting in January 2003, providing transmission speeds
Up to 20 Mbps.
2003 The WPA encryption protocol for Wi-Fi is introduced in 2003, for use with 802.11g.
2003 The WPA2 encryption protocol is introduced in 2004, as an improvement over and replacement
For WPA. All Wi-Fi devices are required to be WPA2 certified by 2006.
2009 The 802.11n standard for Wi-Fi was made official in 2009. It provides higher transfer speeds
Over 802.11a and 802.11g, and it can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths.
2018 The Wi-Fi Alliance introduced WPA3 encryption for Wi-Fi in January 2018, which includes
Security enhancements over WPA2.

1.1 Over view of network

A computer network is comprised of connectivity devices and components. ... To share data and
resources between two or more computers is known as networking. There are different types of a
computer network such as LAN, MAN, WAN and wireless network.

How did network start?

ARPANET began the networking long ago. In 1957, when SPUTNIK Satellite was launched by
Russia. An agency named ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA)
was started by American, and its first satellite was launched within 18 months after
establishment. Then they used ARPANET to share the information on another computer.
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 What types of network?

A computer network is mainly of four types:

 LAN(Local Area Network)

 PAN(Personal Area Network)
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

Which is the first network

The Arpanet

Switched on in late October 1969, the Arpanet is the first large-scale, general-purpose computer
network to connect different kinds of computers together.
What are the basic concept of networking?

The foundations of networking: switches, routers, and wireless access points. Switches, routers,
and wireless access points are the essential networking basics. Through them, devices
connected to your network can communicate with one another and with other networks, like the
Internet.

1.2 Networks in Our Daily Lives

Among all of the essentials for human existence, the need to interact with others ranks just below

Our need to sustain life. Communication is almost as important to us as our reliance on air, water,

Food, and shelter.

The methods that we use to communicate are constantly changing and evolving. Whereas we were

once limited to face-to-face interactions, breakthroughs in technology have significantly extended

The reach of our communications. From cave paintings to the printing press to radio and television,

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each new development has improved and enhanced our ability to connect and communicate with

Others.

The creation and interconnection of robust data networks has had a profound effect on

communication, and has become the new platform on which modern communications occur.

Networks connect people and promote unregulated communication.

Networks are the platforms on which to run businesses, to address emergencies, to

inform individuals, and to support education, science, and government.

The Internet is the largest network in existence. In fact, the term Internet,

means a network of networks. It is actually a collection of interconnected private and

public networks. It is incredible how quickly the Internet has become an integral part

of our daily routines.

1.3 Network as a plat form

A network-based platform is a piece of technology or software that connects users with other
members of a community to create mutually beneficial opportunities. ... The usefulness of
the platform snowballs as more and more members join the network. This phenomenon is
known as the Network Effect

1.4 What are the elements of a network?

Networks are comprised of four basic elements: hardware, software, protocols and the
connection medium. All data networks are comprised of these elements, and cannot function
without them.
What are the 3 basic elements of a network?

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 Basic elements of a computer network include hardware, software, and protocols. The
interrelationship of these basic elements constitutes the infrastructure of the network.

1.5 What are the characteristics of network architectures?

As networks evolve, we are discovering that there are four basic characteristics that the
underlying architectures need to address in order to meet user expectations:

 Fault tolerance. Is the process of working of a system in a proper way in spite of the occurrence
of the failures in the system? ... Hence, systems are designed in such a way that in case of error
availability and failure, system does the work properly and given correct result.
 Scalability. Is the measure of a system's ability to increase or decrease in performance and cost
in response to changes in application and system processing demands? ... Enterprises that are
growing rapidly should pay special attention to scalability when evaluating hardware and
software.
 QoS. Quality of service (QoS) refers to any technology that manages data traffic to reduce
packet loss, latency and jitter on a network. QoS controls and manages network resources by
setting priorities for specific types of data on the network.
 Security. The quality or state of being secure: such as.

 A: freedom from danger: safety.

 B: freedom from fear or anxiety.

 C: freedom from the prospect of being laid off job security.

1.6 Computer Networks versus Human Network

Both of them have memory, both of them use electrical signals, both of them can retrieve and
transmit data, both of them have partitions and both of them connect data in order to reach to
conclusions which are logical and working

The difference between Human network and Computer network is explained in the following
points:

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 HUMAN NETWORK:

1. They possess Biological neurons or nerve cells.

2. The Neuron size is approximately 10 m to 6 m.
3. They consume the energy of about 6-10 joule per operation per second.
4. Moreover, they possess high Learning capability.

COMPUTER NETWORK:

1. Network is made up of Silicon transistors.

2. The size of a Single transistor is about 10 m to 9 m.
3. It consumes Energy between the range of 10-16 joules per operation per second.
4. Possesses high Programming Capability.

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Chapter 2:

2. Data Communications
2.1. What is communication?

The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to
make common (Weakley, 1967). Communication is defined as the process of understanding and
sharing meaning (Pearson & Nelson, 2000).

At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction between
participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on the process, which we’ll examine
in depth across this text, of coming to understand and share another’s point of view effectively.

The first key word in this definition is process. A process is a dynamic activity that is hard to
describe because it changes (Pearson & Nelson, 2000). Imagine you are alone in your kitchen
thinking. Someone you know (say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What
has changed? Now, imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you haven’t
met before—and this stranger listen intently as you speak, almost as if you were giving a speech.
What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might watch your words more
closely. The feedback or response from your mother and the stranger (who are, in essence, your
audience) may cause you to reevaluate what you are saying. When we interact, all these
factors—and many more—influence the process of communication.

The second key word is understanding: “To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and to relate
our perception and interpretation to what we already know.” (McLean, 2003) If a friend tells you
a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend points out the
window and you see a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the words and the
concepts or objects they refer to is an important part of the communication process.

Next comes the word sharing. Sharing means doing something together with one or more people.
You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or you may benefit
jointly from a resource, as when you and several coworkers share a pizza. In communication,
sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or insights to others. You can also

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share with yourself (a process called intrapersonal communication) when you bring ideas to
consciousness, ponder how you feel about something, or figure out the solution to a problem and
have a classic “Aha!” moment when something becomes clear.

Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents both a
bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context the word is used in and by
asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and understand the message.
Eight Essential Components of Communication

In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down into a series of
eight essential components:

 Source
 Message
 Channel
 Receiver
 Feedback
 Environment
 Context
 Interference

Each of these eight components serves an integral function in the overall process. Let’s explore
them one by one.
 Source

The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the source is
the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new information with
the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body
language, and choice of clothing. The speaker begins by first determining the message—what to
say and how to say it. The second step involves encoding the message by choosing just the right
order or the perfect words to convey the intended meaning. The third step is to present or send
the information to the receiver or audience. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the
source perceives how well they received the message and responds with clarification or
supporting information.
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 Message

“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience.”
(McLean, 2005) When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem to be
only the words you choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the beginning. The
words are brought together with grammar and organization. You may choose to save your most
important point for last. The message also consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your
tone of voice, your body language, and your appearance—and in a report, with your writing
style, punctuation, and the headings and formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message
may be the environment or context you present it in and the noise that might make your message
hard to hear or see.

Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are aware there
is a World Series game tonight. Your audience might have a hard time settling down, but you
may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important game tonight.” In this way, by
expressing verbally something that most people in your audience are aware of and interested in,
you might grasp and focus their attention.
 Channel

“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.”
(McLean, 2005) For example, think of your television. How many channels do you have on your
television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable or in the
signal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Television combines an audio
signal you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the message to the receiver or
audience. Turn off the volume on your television. Can you still understand what is happening?
Many times you can, because the body language conveys part of the message of the show. Now
turn up the volume but turn around so that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the
dialogue and follow the story line.

Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message. Spoken
channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations and voice mail
messages, radio, public address systems, and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP). Written

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channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine
articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
 Receiver

“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in
ways both intended and unintended by the source.” (McLean, 2005) To better understand this
component, think of a receiver on a football team. The quarterback throws the football (message)
to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to catch the ball. The quarterback may intend for
the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the receiver may see things differently and
miss the football (the intended meaning) altogether.

As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your audience
“sizes you up,” much as you might check them out long before you take the stage or open your
mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on how to adjust your
opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what you would look for if you
were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will be in order to place the ball
correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between source and receiver in a business
communication context. All of this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how
communication is always changing.
 Feedback

When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving
feedback. Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or
nonverbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how accurately (or how
poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for
the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source
could make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of
communication also increases (Leavitt & Mueller, 1951).

For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with four sales
reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that it is World Series
season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your message, but you hear no
replies from your listeners. You might assume that this means they understood and agreed with

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you, but later in the month you might be disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If
you followed up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of
you have any questions?”) you might have an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find
out whether any of the sales reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.
 Environment

“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive
messages.” (McLean, 2005) The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound
equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the environment. The
environment can also include factors like formal dress, that may indicate whether a discussion is
open and caring or more professional and formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate
conversation when they are physically close to each other, and less likely when they can only see
each other from across the room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of
communication. The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your
environment will impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out
where you’ll be speaking before the day of the actual presentation.
 Context

“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of
the individuals involved.” (McLean, 2005) A professional communication context may involve
business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language
and behavior among the participants.

A presentation or discussion does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to class,
you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the instructor. The
degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the contextual expectations
for communication held by the participants. The person sitting next to you may be used to
informal communication with instructors, but this particular instructor may be used to verbal and
nonverbal displays of respect in the academic environment. You may be used to formal
interactions with instructors as well, and find your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we
have homework today?” as rude and inconsiderate when they see it as normal. The nonverbal

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response from the instructor will certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the
interaction, both the word choices and how they were said.

Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those expectations
out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or quinceañeras are often formal
events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time for silence as the bride walks down the
aisle, or the father may have the first dance with his daughter as she is transformed from a girl to
womanhood in the eyes of her community. In either celebration there may come a time for
rambunctious celebration and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding
or quinceañera context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
 Interference

Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that blocks
or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.”(McLean, 2005) For example, if you
drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns, billboards,
or perhaps the radio in your car interrupted your thoughts, or your conversation with a passenger.

2.2. The platform for communication

What is a Communication Platform? A communication platform

Is a cloud-based platform that allows organizations to add communication services

like messaging, voice and video to their business applications and processes?

Types of Communication Software

 Instant Messaging Apps. Instant messaging is a preferred form of communication for

consumers and companies. ...
 Collaboration Tools. ...
 Video Conferencing. ...
 Customer Relationship Management. ...
 Tech Support. ...
 Brosix. ...
 Dropbox.
 Google Drive.

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The main platform to communicate is social media. In past, they using letters and telephone
while in the present they using a social media, emails, etc.

2.2.1. Communicating the Message

2.3. Data transmission

What is data transmission?

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital
devices. Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically,
data transmission enables devices or components within devices to speak to each other.

How does data transmission work between digital devices?

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are two
methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and parallel
transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over multiple channels.

What is serial transmission?

When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a
specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is
important as it dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a
reliable data transmission method because a

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly. The
time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to provide time
between transmissions.

The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required between
the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective method. A disadvantage is
that data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.

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Synchronous Serial Transmission
Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data transmitter
and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop bits,
and gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent
because the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However, data accuracy is highly dependent
on timing being synced correctly between devices. In comparison with asynchronous serial
transmission, this method is usually more expensive.

When is serial transmission used to send data?

Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in cases where
the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it
transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received in-
sync with one another.

What is parallel transmission?

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over
multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using
serial transmission methods.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

 it is easier to program;
 and data is sent faster.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels
than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer
distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of where this can be seen is with a
voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when
there is skipping or interference on a video stream.

15
2.3.1. Concepts and Terminology

• Transmission terminology – Transmission from transmitter to receiver goes over some

transmission medium using electromagnetic waves Guided media. Waves are guided along a
physical path; twisted pair, optical fiber, coaxial cable unguided media. Waves are not guided;
air waves, radio direct link. Signal goes from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate
devices, other than amplifiers and repeaters Point-to-point link. Guided media with direct link
between two devices, with those two devices being the only ones sharing the medium Multipoint
guided configuration.

More than two devices can share the same medium – Simplex, half duplex, and full duplex
transmission

• Frequency, spectrum, and bandwidth – Signal is generated by a transmitter and transmitted

over a medium – Signal is a function of time or frequency (components of different frequency) –
Time-domain concepts Continuous signal. Signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time;
no breaks or discontinuities in signal Discrete signal. Signal intensity can take one of two
prespecified values for any amount of time Periodic signal. Same signal pattern repeats over
time; signal is said to be periodic if s(t + T) = s(t) − ∞ < t < ∞ T is the period of the signal; sine
wave Aperiodic signal. Signal that is not periodic Peak amplitude.

Maximum signal intensity over time; typically measured in volts Frequency f. Rate at which
signal repeats; measured in cycles per second or Hz Period T. Amount of times required for one
repetition of signal T = 1 f Phase. Measure of relative position in time within a single period of a
signal ∗ For a periodic signal f(t), phase is fractional part t p of the period P through which t has
advanced relative to an arbitrary origin

General sine wave can be written as s(t) = A sin(2πf t + φ) Wavelength λ.

Distance occupied by a single cycle ∗ Consider a signal traveling at velocity ν ∗ Wavelength is

related to period as

2.3.2. Analog and Digital Data Transmission

• Analog vs digital (continuous vs discrete)

16
• Data – Entities that convey information

• Signaling – Physical propagation of signal along suitable medium

• Transmission – Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

Two forms of transmission:

• digital transmission: data transmission using square waves

• analog transmission: data transmission using all other waves Four possibilities to consider:

• analog data via analog transmission → “as is” (e.g., radio)

• analog data via digital transmission → sampling (e.g., voice, audio, video)

• digital data via analog transmission → broadband & wireless

• digital data via digital transmission → baseband (e.g., Ethernet)

Why consider digital transmission?

Common to both: problem of attenuation.

• Decrease in signal strength as a function of distance

• Increase in attenuation as a function of frequency Rejuvenation of signal via amplifiers

(analog) and repeaters (digital)

Delay distortion: different frequency components travel at different speeds. Most problematic:
effect of noise −→ thermal, interference,

• Analog: Amplification also amplifies noise—filtering out just noise, in general, is a complex
problem.

• Digital: Repeater just generates a new square wave; more resilient against ambiguity.

Analog transmission of digital data

Three pieces of information to manipulate: amplitude, frequency, phase.

• Amplitude modulation (AM): encode bits using amplitude levels.

• Frequency modulation (FM): encode bits using frequency differences.

• Phase modulation (PM): encode bits using phase shifts

17
2.3.3. Transmission Impairments
• Attenuation

– To reduce the amplitude of an electrical signal with little or no distortion

– Logarithmic in nature for guided media; expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit
distance

– For unguided media, complex function of distance and atmospheric conditions

– Three considerations for transmission engineer

1. Received signal must have sufficient strength to enable detection

2. Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

3. Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency

– Signal strength must be strong but not too strong to overload the circuitry of transmitter or
receiver, which will cause distortion

– Beyond a certain distance, attenuation becomes large to require the use of repeaters or
amplifiers to boost the signal

– Attenuation distorts the received signal, reducing intelligibility

∗ Attenuation can be equalized over a band of frequencies

∗ Use amplifiers than can amplify higher frequencies more than low frequencies

• Delay distortion

– Peculiar to guided transmission media

– Caused by the fact that the velocity of signal propagation through a guided medium varies with
frequency

∗ In bandlimited signal, velocity tends to be highest near the center frequency and falls
off

towards the two edges of band

18
 ∗ Varying frequency components arrive at the receiver at different times, resulting in
phase

shifts between different frequencies

– In digital data transmission, some signal components of one bit position will spill over into
other bit positions, causing intersymbol interference

– May be reduced by using equalization techniques

• Noise

– Undesired signals that are inserted into the real signal during transmission

– Four types of noise

1. Thermal noise
∗ also called white noise
∗ Occurs due to thermal agitation of electrons
∗ Function of temperature and present in all electronic devices
∗ Uniformly distributed across frequency spectrum
∗ cannot be eliminated and places an upper bound on system performance
∗ Thermal noise in a bandwidth of 1 Hz in any device or conductor is
N0 = kT W/Hz
Where N0 = Noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.3803 × 10−23 J/◦K
T = temperature in degree kelvin
∗ At room temperature, T = 17◦C, or 290◦K, and the thermal noise power density is
N0 = 1.3803 × 10−23 × 290
= 4 × 10−21 W/Hz
= −204 dBW/Hz
∗ Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency ·
Thermal noise in a bandwidth of B Hz can be expressed as
N = kT B
Or, in decibel-watts

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 N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B
= −228.6 + 10 log T + 10 log BdBW
Given a receiver with an effective noise temperature of 100◦ K and a 10 mhz bandwidth,
thermal noise level at the output is
N = −228.6 + 10 log 102 + 10 log 107
= −228.6 + 20 + 70
= −138.6dBW
2. Intermodulation noise
∗ Signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium
∗ May result in signals that are sum or difference or multiples of original frequencies
∗ Occurs when there is some nonlinearity in the transmitter, receiver, or intervening
transmission system · Nonlinearity may be caused by component malfunction or
excessive signal strength
3. Crosstalk
∗ Unwanted coupling between signal paths
∗ Occurs due to electric coupling between nearby twisted pairs, multiple signals on a
coaxial cable, or unwanted signals picked up by microwave antennas
∗ Typically same order of magnitude or less than thermal noise
4. Impulse noise
∗ Noncontiguous noise, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration
and high amplitudes
∗ May be caused by lightning, or flaws in communications system
∗ Not a major problem for analog data but can be significant for digital data ·

A spike of 0.01 s will not destroy any voice data but will destroy 560 bits being
transmitted at 56 kbps

2.4. Components of the network

What is a Computer Network?

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 o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires,
optical fibers or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through
a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary
from simple to complex level.

Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required
for installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home. The hardware components
are the server, client, peer, transmission medium, and connecting devices. The software
components are operating system and protocols.

The following figure shows a network along with its component

Hardware Components

 Server’s −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they

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 give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers,
database servers, print servers etc.

 Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to
access and use the network resources.

 Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.

 Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is
transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided
media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like
microwaves, infra-red waves etc.

 Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or

computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting
devices are:

2.4.1. End Devices & their role

Major components of a computer network are:
NIC (National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to
identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.

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Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the
network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say
that switch sends the message directly from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals.

There are three types of cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is
more expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using
light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is
more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router
What is a Router? The router is a physical or virtual internetworking device that is designed to
receive, analyze, and forward data packets between computer networks. A router examines a
destination IP address of a given data packet, and it uses the headers and forwarding tables to
decide the best way to transfer the packets. There are some popular companies that develop
routers; such are Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-Link, Nortel, etc. Some important points of
routers are given below:
o A router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network)
environments. For example, it is used in offices for connectivity, and you can also
establish the connection between distant networks such as from Bhopal to
o It shares information with other routers in networking.
o It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
o Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like switches and hubs.

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A router works on the third layer of the OSI model, and it is based on the IP address of a
computer. It uses protocols such as ICMP to communicate between two or more networks. It is
also known as an intelligent device as it can calculate the best route to pass the network packets
from source to the destination automatically.

A virtual router is a software function or software-based framework that performs the same
functions as a physical router. It may be used to increase the reliability of the network by virtual
router redundancy protocol, which is done by configuring a virtual router as a default gateway. A
virtual router runs on commodity servers, and it is packaged with alone or other network
functions, like load balancing, firewall packet filtering, and wide area network optimization
capabilities.

Why Routers?

A router is more capable as compared to other network devices, such as a hub, switch, etc., as
these devices are only able to execute the basic functions of the network. For example, a hub is a
basic networking device that is mainly used to forward the data between connected devices, but
it cannot analyze or change anything with the transferring data. On the other hand, the router has
the capability to analyze and modify the data while transferring it over a network, and it can send

24
it to another network. For example, generally, routers allow sharing a single network connection
between multiple devices.

How does Router work?

A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and compares it with the
routing table to decide the packet's next path. The list of routing tables provides directions to
transfer the data to a particular network destination. They have a set of rules that compute the
best path to forward the data to the given IP address.

Routers use a modem such as a cable, fiber, or DSL modem to allow communication between
other devices and the internet. Most of the routers have several ports to connect different devices
to the internet at the same time. It uses the routing tables to determine where to send data and
from where the traffic is coming.

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A routing table mainly defines the default path used by the router. So, it may fail to find the best
way to forward the data for a given packet. For example, the office router along a single default
path instructs all networks to its internet services provider.

There are two types of tables in the router that are static and dynamic. The static routing tables
are configured manually, and the dynamic routing tables are updated automatically by dynamic
routers based on network activity.

Features of Router
o A router works on the 3rd layer (Network Layer) of the OSI model, and it is able to
communicate with its adjacent devices with the help of IP addresses and subnet.
o A router provides high-speed internet connectivity with the different types of ports like
gigabit, fast-Ethernet, and STM link port.
o It allows the users to configure the port as per their requirements in the network.
o Routers' main components are central processing unit (CPU), flash memory, RAM, Non-
Volatile RAM, console, network, and interface card.

26
 o Routers are capable of routing the traffic in a large networking system by considering the
sub-network as an intact network.
o Routers filter out the unwanted interference, as well as carry out the data encapsulation
and DE capsulation process.
o Routers provide the redundancy as it always works in master and slave mode.
o It allows the users to connect several LAN and WAN.
o Furthermore, a router creates various paths to forward the data.

Applications of Routers

There are various areas where a router is used:

o Routers are used to connect hardware equipment with remote location networks
like BSC, MGW, IN, SGSN, and other servers.
o It provides support for a fast rate of data transmission because it uses high STM links for
connectivity; that's why it is used in both wired or wireless communication.
o Internet service providers widely use routers to send the data from source to destination
in the form of e-mail, a web page, image, voice, or a video file. Furthermore, it can send
data all over the world with the help of an IP address of the destination.
o Routers offer access restrictions. It can be configured in a way that allows for few users
to access the overall data and allows others to access the few data only, which is defined
for them.
o Routers are also used by software testers for WAN communications. For example, the
software manager of an organization is located in Agra, and its executive is located at a
different place like Pune or Bangalore. Then the router provides the executive the method
to share his software tools and other applications with the manager with the help of
routers by connecting their PCs to the router using WAN architecture.
o In wireless networks, by configuring VPN in routers, it can be used in the client-server
model, which allows sharing the internet, video, data, voice, and hardware resources. As
shown in the below picture:

27
 o In modern times, routers have the facility of inbuilt USB ports within the hardware. They
have enough internal storage capacity. External storage devices can be used with routers
to store and share data.
o Routers are used to set up the operation and maintenance center of an organization, which
is known as the NOC center. All equipment at a distant location are connected by routers
on optical cable at a central location, which also offer redundancy through the main link
and protection link topology.

Types of Routers

There are various types of routers in networking; such are given below:

1. Wireless Router: Wireless routers are used to offer Wi-Fi connectivity to laptops,
smartphones, and other devices with Wi-Fi network capabilities, and it can also provide standard
ethernet routing for a small number of wired network systems.

Wireless routers are capable of generating a wireless signal in your home or office, and it allows
the computers to connect with routers within a range, and use the internet. If the connection is

28
indoors, the range of the wireless router is about 150 feet, and when the connection is outdoors,
then its range is up to 300 feet.

Furthermore, you can make more secure wireless routers with a password or get your IP address.
Thereafter, you can log in to your router by using a user ID and password that will come with
your router.

2. Brouter: A brouter is a combination of the bridge and a router. It allows transferring the data
between networks like a bridge. And like a router, it can also route the data within a network to
the individual systems. Thus, it combines these two functions of bridge and router by routing
some incoming data to the correct systems while transferring the other data to another network.

3. Core router: A core router is a type of router that can route the data within a network, but it is
not able to route the data between the networks. It is a computer communication system device
and the backbone of networks, as it helps to link all network devices. It is used by internet
service providers (ISPs), and it also provides various types of fast and powerful data
communication interfaces.

4. Edge router: An edge router is a lower-capacity device that is placed at the boundary of a
network. It allows an internal network to connect with the external networks. It is also called as
an access router. It uses an External BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to provides connectivity
with remote networks over the internet.

There are two types of edge routers in networking:

o Subscriber edge router

o Label edge router

The subscriber edge router belongs to an end-user organization, and it works in a situation
where it acts on a border device.

The label edge router is used in the boundary of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
networks. It acts as a gateway between the LAN, WAN, or the internet.

29
5. Broadband routers: Broadband routers are mainly used to provide high-speed internet access
to computers. It is needed when you connect to the internet through phone and use voice over IP
technology (VOIP).

All broadband routers have the option of three or four Ethernet ports for connecting the laptop
and desktop systems. A broadband router is configured and provided by the internet service
provider (ISP). It is also known as a broadband modem, asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL), or digital subscriber line (DSL) modem.

Benefits of Router

There are so many benefits of a router, which are given below:

o Security: Router provides the security, as LANs work in broadcast mode. The
information is transmitted over the network and traverses the entire cable system.
Although the data is available to each station, but the station which is specifically
addressed reads the data.
o Performance enhancement: It enhances the performance within the individual network.
For example, if a network has 14 workstations, and all generate approximately the same
volume of traffic. The traffic of 14 workstations runs through the same cable in a single
network. But if the network is divided into two sub-networks each with 7 workstations,
then a load of traffic is reduced to half. As each of the networks has its own servers and
hard disk, so fewer PCs will need the network cabling system.
o Reliability: Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down when the server has
stopped, or there is a defect in the cable, then the router services, and other networks will
not be affected. The routers separate the affected network, whereas the unaffected
networks remain connected, without interrupting the work and any data loss.
o Networking Range: In networking, a cable is used to connect the devices, but its length
cannot exceed 1000 meters. A router can overcome this limitation by performing the
function of a repeater (Regenerating the signals). The physical range can be as per the
requirement of a particular installation, as long as a router is installed before the
maximum cable range exceeds.

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Routing Protocols

Routing protocols specify a way for the router to identify other routers on the network and make
dynamic decisions to send all network messages. There are several protocols, which are given
below:

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): It is used to calculate the best route for the given packets to
reach the destination, as they move via a set of connected networks. It is identified by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as Interior Gateway Protocol.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): It helps manage how packets are routed on the internet via
exchange of information between edge routers. It provides network stability for routers if one
internet connection goes down while forwarding the packets, it can adapt another network
connection quickly to send the packets.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): It specifies how routing information will be
exchanged between gateways within an independent network. Then, the other network protocols
can use the routing information to determine how transmissions should be routed.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): In this protocol, if a router is unable
to find a path to a destination from the tables, it asks route to its neighbors, and they pass the
query to their neighbors until a router has found the path. When the entry of routing table
changes in one of the routers, it informs its neighbors only about the changes, but do not send the
entire table.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP): It decides how routing information can be exchanged
between two neighbor gateway hosts, each of which has its own router. Additionally, it is
commonly used to exchange routing table information between hosts on the internet.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP): It determines how routers can share information while
transferring traffic among connected group of local area networks. The maximum number of
hops that can be allowed for RIP is 15, which restricts the size of networks that RIP can support.

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2.4.2. Intermediary Devices & their role

Difference between Bridge and Router

Bridge Router

A bridge is a networking device that is A router is also a networking device that

used to connect two local area networks sends the data from one network to another
(LANs) by using media access control network with the help of their IP addresses.
addresses and transmit the data between
them.

A bridge is able to connect only two A router is capable of connecting the LAN
different LAN segments. and WAN.

A bridge transfers the data in the form of A router transfers the data in the form of
frames. packets.

It sends data based on the MAC address It sends data based on the IP address of a
of a device. device.

The bridge has only one port to connect The router has several ports to connect the
the device. devices.

The bridge does not use any table to The router uses a routing table to send the
forward the data. data.

Difference between Hub, Switch, and Router

32
There are three primarily networking devices that connect the computers from one to another.
These devices are hub, switch, and router. These all have the ability to connect one computer to
another, but there is some difference between them. The difference between a hub, switch, and
router are given below:

Hub: A hub is a basic networking device that is used to connect computers or other networking
devices together. A hub does not use any routing table to send the data to the destination.
Although it can identify basic errors of networks like collisions, it can be a security risk to
broadcast all information to the multiple ports. As the hub is a dumb device, it does not need an
IP address. Furthermore, Hubs are cheaper than a switch or router.

Switch: A switch is a hardware device that also connects computers to each other. A switch is
different as compared to a hub in that way; it handles packets of data. Whenever a switch
receives a packet, it decides the device to which the packet can be sent, and sends it to that
device only. A hub broadcasts the packet to all computers, but the switch does not circulate the
packet to all devices, which means bandwidth is not shared with the network, and thus it
increases the efficiency of the network. That's why switches are more preferred as compared to a
hub.

Router: A router is more different from a switch or hub. It is mainly used to route the data
packets to another network instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only. A router is
commonly found in homes and offices as it allows your network to communicate with other
networks through the internet. Basically, a router provides more features to your networks like
firewall, VPN, QoS, traffic monitoring, etc.

What is Routing Table in Router?

A routing table determines the path for a given packet with the help of an IP address of a device
and necessary information from the table and sends the packet to the destination network. The
routers have the internal memory that is known as Random Access Memory (RAM). All the
information of the routing table is stored in RAM of routers.

For example:

33
Destination (Network ID) Subnet mask Interface

200.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 Eth0

200.1.2.64 255.255.255.128 Eth1

200.1.2.128 255.255.255.255 Eth2

Default Eth3

A routing table contains the following entities:

o It contains an IP address of all routers which are required to decide the way to reach the
destination network.
o It includes extrovert interface information.
o Furthermore, it is also contained IP addresses and subnet mask of the destination host.

Network Element in Router

There are two types of a network element in the router which are as follows:

Control plane: A router supports a routing table that determines which path and physical
interface connection should be used to send the packet. It is done by using internal pre-
configured directives, which are called static routes, or by learning routes with the help of
routing protocol. A routing table stores the static and dynamic routes. Then the control-plane
logic eliminates the unnecessary directives from the table and constructs a forwarding
information base that is used by the forwarding plane.

Forwarding plane: A router sends data packets between incoming and outgoing interface
connections. It uses information stored in the packet header and matches it to entries in the FIB,
which is supplied by the control plane; accordingly, it forwards the data packet to the correct
network type. It is also called the user plane or data plane.

34
How to buy a Router?

There are many points to keep in mind while buying a router:

1. Type of Connection: Which kind of router should you buy depends on the type of
connection you have. For example, if you want to use the internet connection from your
telephone services providers like BSNL or MTNL, you will need an ADSL router. In this
router, you have to use the hardware that is provided to you with your connection.
Although this router may have limited functionalities on some fronts.
Alternatively, you can purchase an advanced router that allows you sharing storage,
including printer over a wireless connection. If you use the connection provided by the
local cable operator, you will need a non-ADSL router.
2. Standard: The routers support standards like 802.11ac, 802.11n, etc. The routers that
support 802.11ac standard, enhances the speed to transfer the data more than three times
the speed of 802.11n standard routers. It uses the 5GHz frequency band, which is less
crowded as compared to the regular 2.4GHz band. Furthermore, it also provides better
network performance for file transfers and streaming media content.
The routers that support 802.11ac standard are beneficial as they are compatible with 'n'
standard, by which your older devices can also work without any problem.Alternatively;
you can save some money and full fill your requirements by purchasing 'n' standard
routers.
3. Dual-band: Most of 'n' standard routers operate in the 2.4GHz frequency, but a dual-
band router is better as it supports the 5GHz band. Furthermore, it can also connect with
smartphones and laptops on 5GHz, while other routers can operate over 2.4GHz only.
4. USB port: Routers with USB ports allow you to plug flash drives, including printers, to
share these resources over the network. These functions are suitable for a small area as
they can be used within the wireless network without using the internet.
Some routers provide backup internet by 3G data dongles when your main connection
goes down. But these routers work with specific brands only. So, before purchasing a
router, check if it supports the dongle you are using.

35
 5. Multiple antennas: External antennas are strong enough to increase the overall range of
your router as well as are suitable for environments where you need signals across
multiple walls or doors.

Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on
the motherboard.

Repeaters

Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that amplify or
regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are incorporated in networks to
expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal boosters.

Why are Repeaters needed?

When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated depending upon the
nature of the channel or the technology. This poses a limitation upon the length of the LAN or
coverage area of cellular networks. This problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at certain
intervals. Repeaters amplifies the attenuated signal and then retransmits it. Digital repeaters can
even reconstruct signals distorted by transmission loss.

36
So, repeaters are popularly incorporated to connect between two LANs thus forming a large
single LAN. This is shown in the following diagram −

Types of Repeaters
According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be classified into two
categories −

 Analog Repeaters − They can only amplify the analog signal.

 Digital Repeaters − They can reconstruct a distorted signal.

According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized into two types

 Wired Repeaters − they are used in wired LANs.

 Wireless Repeaters − they are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two categories −

 Local Repeaters − they connect LAN segments separated by small distance.

 Remote Repeaters − they connect LANs that are far from each other.

Advantages of Repeaters

37
  Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of
networks.

 They are cost effective.

 Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.

 They can connect signals using different types of cables.

Disadvantages of Repeaters

 Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.

 They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.

 They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.

 Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.

Gateways

A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. It may be
a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network.
While a gateway protects the nodes within network, it also a node itself. The gateway node is
considered to be on the "edge" of the network as all data must flow through it before coming in
or going out of the network. It may also translate data received from outside networks into a
format or protocol recognized by devices within the internal network.
A router is a common type of gateway used in home networks. It allows computers within the
local network to send and receive data over the Internet. A firewall is a more advanced type of
gateway, which filters inbound and outbound traffic, disallowing incoming data from suspicious
or unauthorized sources. A proxy server is another type of gateway that uses a combination of
hardware and software to filter traffic between two networks. For example, a proxy server may
only allow local computers to access a list of authorized websites.

NOTE: Gateway is also the name of a computer hardware company founded in the United States
in 1985. The company was acquired by Acer in 2007 but still sells computers under the Gateway
name.

38
Features of Gateways
 Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that inflows or out
flows from that network.

 It forms a passage between two different networks operating with different transmission
protocols.

 A gateway operates as a protocol converter, providing compatibility between the different

protocols used in the two different networks.

 The feature that differentiates a gateway from other network devices is that it can operate
at any layer of the OSI model.

 It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating networks.

39
  When used in enterprise scenario, a gateway node may be supplemented as proxy server
or firewall.

 A gateway is generally implemented as a node with multiple NICs (network interface

cards) connected to different networks. However, it can also be configured using
software.

 It uses packet switching technique to transmit data across the networks.

Types of Gateways
On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two categories −

 Unidirectional Gateways − they allow data to flow in only one direction. Changes made
in the source node are replicated in the destination node, but not vice versa. They can be
used as archiving tools.

 Bidirectional Gateways − they allow data to flow in both directions. They can be used
as synchronization tools.

On basis of functionalities, there can be a variety of gateways, the prominent among them are as
follows −

 Network Gateway − This is the most common type of gateway that provides as interface
between two dissimilar networks operating with different protocols. Whenever the term
gateway is mentioned without specifying the type, it indicates a network gateway.

 Cloud Storage Gateway − It is a network node or server that translates storage requests
with different cloud storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access
Protocol) or REST (Representational State Transfer).It facilitates integration of private
cloud storage into applications without necessitating transfer of the applications into any
public cloud, thus simplifying data communication.

 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O) − It connects devices on the Internet to satellites and

spacecraft orbiting the earth. Two prominent I2O gateways are Project HERMES and
Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO).

40
  IoT Gateway − IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things)
devices in the field and translates between sensor protocols before sending it to the cloud
network. They connect IoT devices, cloud network and user applications.

 VoiP Trunk Gateway − It facilitates data transmission between plain old telephone
service (POTS) devices like landline phones and fax machines, with VoIP (voice over
Internet Protocol) network.

Switches
What is a network switch?
A network switch is a device that operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model—Layer 2. It
takes in packets being sent by devices that are connected to its physical ports and sends them out
again, but only through the ports that lead to the devices the packets are intended to reach. They
can also operate at the network layer--Layer 3 where routing occurs.

Switches are a common component of networks based on Ethernet, Fibre Channel,

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), and InfiniBand, among others. In general, though, most
switches today use ether net

How does a network switch work?

Once a device is connected to a switch, the switch notes its media access control (MAC) address,
a code that’s baked into the device’s network-interface card (NIC) that attaches to an ethernet
cable that attaches to the switch. The switch uses the MAC address to identify which attached
device outgoing packets are being sent from and where to deliver incoming packets.

So the MAC address identifies the physical device as opposed to the network layer (Layer 3) IP
address, which can be assigned dynamically to a device and change over time.

When a device sends a packet to another device, it enters the switch and the switch reads its
header to determine what to do with it. It matches the destination address or addresses and sends
the packet out through the appropriate ports that leads to the destination devices.

To reduce the chance for collisions between network traffic going to and from a switch and a
connected device at the same time, most switches offer full-duplex functionality in which

41
packets coming from and going to a device have access to the full bandwidth of the switch
connection. (Picture two people talking on a cell phone as opposed to a walkie-talkie).

While it’s true that switches operate at Layer 2, they can also operate at Layer 3, which is
necessary for them to support virtual LANs (VLAN), logical network segments that can span
subnets. In order for traffic to get from one subnet to another it must pass between switches, and
this is facilitated by routing capabilities built into the switches.

2.4.3. Network Media

Uses Of Computer Network

o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical
location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server
is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the server
remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email
system which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business
over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e.,
they are doing their business over the internet.

42
Software Components

 Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in

the server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications,
printers etc.

 Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for
computer networks. The two popular protocol suites are −

o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)

o b. TCP / IP Model

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Chapter 3:

3. Network Types
3.1 Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

3.1. LANs, WANs and Internetworks

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
44
 o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

45
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

46
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

47
Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:
o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

48
 o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose
if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and
other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases
the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.

49
 o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can
be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can
inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a
local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing.
The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An
extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other
computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection
to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main
aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization employees.
An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

50
Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be
accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to
another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

3.2. Peer to peer versus Server based Networks

The two major types of network operating systems are:

 Peer-to-Peer
 Client/Server

Nearly all modern networks are a combination of both. The networking design can be considered
independent of the servers and workstations that will share it.

Peer-to-Peer

Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on their
computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not have
a file server or a centralized management source (See fig. 1). In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the resources available on
the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area
networks. Nearly all modern desktop operating systems, such as Macintosh OSX, Linux, and
Windows, can function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

51
 Fig. 1. Peer-to-peer network

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Client/Server

Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the
system, providing access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients)
have access to the resources available on the file servers. The network operating system provides
the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple users to
simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location. UNIX/Linux and the
Microsoft family of Windows Servers are examples of client/server network operating systems.

52
 Fig. 2. Client/server network

Advantages of a client/server network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

3.3. Packet-switched and Circuit switched networks

What is Circuit Switching?

Circuit switching is defined as the method of switching which is used for establishing a
dedicated communication path between the sender and the receiver. The link which is established
between the sender and the receiver is in the physical form. Analog telephone network is a well-

53
known example of circuit switching. Bandwidth is fixed in this type of switching. Let us know in
detail about the advantages and disadvantages of circuit switching.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Advantages

 The bandwidth used is fixed.

 The quality of communication is increased as a dedicated communication channel is

used.

 The rate at which the data is transmitted is fixed.

 While switching, no time is wasted in waiting.

 It is preferred when the communication is long and continuous.

Disadvantages

 Since dedicated channels are used, the bandwidth required is more.

 The utilization of resources is not full.

 Since a dedicated channel has been used, the transmission of other data becomes
impossible.

 The time taken by the two stations for the establishment of the physical link is too long.

 Circuit switching is expensive because every connection uses a dedicated path

establishment.

 The link between the sender and the receiver will be maintained until and unless the user
terminates the link. This will also continue if there is no transfer of data taking place.

What is Packet Switching?

Packet switching is defined as the connectionless network where the messages are divided and
grouped together and this is known as a packet. Each packet is routed from the source to the
destination as individual packets. The actual data in these packets are carried by the payload.
When the packet arrives at the destination, it is the responsibility of the destination to put these
packets in the right order. Let us know in detail about the advantages and disadvantages of
packet switching.

54
Advantages and Disadvantages of Packet Switching
Advantages

 There is no delay in the delivery of the packets as they are sent to the destination as soon
as they are available.

 There is no requirement for massive storage space as the information is passed on to the
destination as soon as they are received.

 Failure in the links does not stop the delivery of the data as these packets can be routed
from other paths too.

 Multiple users can use the same channel while transferring their packets.

 The usage of bandwidth is better in case of packet switching as multiple sources can
transfer packets from the same source link.

Disadvantages

 Installation costs of packet switching are expensive.

 The delivery of these packets becomes easy when complicated protocols are used.

 High-quality voice calls cannot use packet switching as there is a lot of delay in this type
of communication.

 Connectivity issues may lead to loss of information and delay in the delivery of the
information.

You may also want to check out these topics given below!

 Components of Basic Electric Circuit

 Circuit Diagram

 Types of Switches

Let us understand the difference between circuit and switching packet switching.

Circuit Switching Vs Packet Switching

Circuit switching is referred to as the technology of data transfer that utilizes sending messages
from one point to another. This involves sending messages from the receiver to the sender and
back simultaneously. A physical connection gets established during this process along with the

55
receiver; a dedicated circuit is always present to handle data transmissions, through which data is
sent. Packet switching can be used as an alternative to circuit switching. In the packet-switched
networks, data is sent in discrete units that have variable length.

Difference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Each packet containing the information that

A circuit needs to be established to make
needs to be processed goes through the
sure that data transmission takes place.
dynamic route.

A uniform path is followed throughout the There is no uniform path that is followed end
session. to end through the session.

It is most ideal for voice communication, It is used mainly for data transmission as the
while also keeping the delay uniform. delay is not uniform.

Without a connection, it cannot exist, as A connection is not necessary, as it can exist

the connection needs to be present on a without one too. It needs to be present on a
physical layer. network layer.

Data to be transmitted is processed at the Data is processed and transmitted at the

source itself. source as well as at each switching station.

Thus, this explains the Circuit Switching and Packet Switching differences.

3.4. Network cabling & Topologies

What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a

56
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The
type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects
of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Cable Installation Guides
 Wireless LANs
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association)
has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are
emerging).
57
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)

3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet

4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)

100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet

5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet

5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the
RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector
follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire
goes with each pin inside the connector.

58
 Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If
you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place
cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the
UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the
maximum distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires
(referred to as double shield twisted pair).

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to
block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

59
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial
cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths
in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is
difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the
weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.

Fig. 4. BNC connector

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount
of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
60
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it
is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals.

The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 5). A plastic coating
then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent
breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

Fig. 5. Fiber optic cable

There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has
a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can
provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Specification Cable Type

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

10Base2 Thin Coaxial

10Base5 Thick Coaxial

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

100BaseFX Fiber Optic

61
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber

100BaseSX Multimode Fiber

1000BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair

1000BaseFX Fiber Optic

1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber

1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:

 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have
problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical
interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Wireless LANs

62
More and more networks are operating without cables, in the wireless mode. Wireless LANs use
high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the
workstations, servers, or hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some
sort of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed between
transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer distance, wireless communications
can also take place through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by
satellite.

Wireless networks are great for allowing laptop computers, portable devices, or remote
computers to connect to the LAN. Wireless networks are also beneficial in older buildings where
it may be difficult or impossible to install cables.

The two most common types of infrared communications used in schools are line-of-sight and
scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight communication means that there must be an unblocked direct
line between the workstation and the transceiver. If a person walks within the line-of-sight while
there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again. This kind of obstruction can
slow down the wireless network. Scattered infrared communication is a broadcast of infrared
transmissions sent out in multiple directions that bounces off walls and ceilings until it
eventually hits the receiver. Networking communications with laser are virtually the same as
line-of-sight infrared networks.

Wireless standards and speeds

The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global, non-profit organization that helps to ensure standards and
interoperability for wireless networks, and wireless networks are often referred to as WiFi
(Wireless Fidelity). The original Wi-Fi standard (IEEE 802.11) was adopted in 1997. Since then
many variations have emerged (and will continue to emerge). Wi-Fi networks use the Ethernet
protocol.

Standard Max Speed Typical Range

802.11a 54 Mbps 150 feet

63
802.11b 11 Mbps 300 feet

802.11g 54 Mbps 300 feet

802.11n 100 Mbps 300+ feet

Wireless Security

Wireless networks are much more susceptible to unauthorized use than cabled networks.
Wireless network devices use radio waves to communicate with each other. The greatest
vulnerability to the network is that rogue machines can "eves-drop" on the radio wave
communications. Unencrypted information transmitted can be monitored by a third-party, which,
with the right tools (free to download), could quickly gain access to your entire network, steal
valuable passwords to local servers and online services, alter or destroy data, and/or access
personal and confidential information stored in your network servers. To minimize the
possibility of this, all modern access points and devices have configuration options to encrypt
transmissions. These encryption methodologies are still evolving, as are the tools used by
malicious hackers, so always use the strongest encryption available in your access point and
connecting devices.

A NOTE ON ENCRYPTION: As of this writing WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) encryption

can be easily hacked with readily-available free tools which circulate the internet. WPA and
WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access versions 1 and 2) are much better at protecting information, but
using weak passwords or passphrases when enabling these encryptions may allow them to be
easily hacked. If your network is running WEP, you must be very careful about your use of
sensitive passwords or other data.

Three basic techniques are used to protect networks from unauthorized wireless use. Use any and
all of these techniques when setting up your wireless access points:

Encryption.

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 Enable the strongest encryption supported by the devices you will be connecting to the
network. Use strong passwords (strong passwords are generally defined as passwords
containing symbols, numbers, and mixed case letters, at least 14 characters long).

Isolation.

Use a wireless router that places all wireless connections on a subnet independent of the
primary private network. This protects your private network data from pass-through
internet traffic.

Hidden SSID.

Every access point has a Service Set IDentifier (SSID) that by default is broadcast to
client devices so that the access point can be found. By disabling this feature, standard
client connection software won't be able to "see" the access point. However, the eves-
dropping programs discussed previously can easily find these access points, so this alone
does little more than keep the access point name out of sight for casual wireless users.

Advantages of wireless networks:

 Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can be available throughout a
school, at the mall, on an airplane, etc. More and more businesses are also offering free
WiFi access ("Hot spots").
 Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be
as simple as clicking "Connect to a Network" -- in some cases, you will connect
automatically to networks within range.
 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and
installing cables.
 Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as easy as turning the
computer on (as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Disadvantages of wireless networks:

 Security - Be careful. Be vigilant. Protect your sensitive data with backups, isolated
private networks, strong encryption and passwords, and monitor network access traffic to
and from your wireless network.

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  Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for
transmission, they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.
 Inconsistent connections - How many times have you hears "Wait a minute, I just lost my
connection?" Because of the interference caused by electrical devices and/or items
blocking the path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as stable as those
through a dedicated cable.
 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster
options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables. If you are only using wireless
for internet access, the actual internet connection for your home or school is generally
slower than the wireless network devices, so that connection is the bottleneck. If you are
also moving large amounts of data around a private network, a cabled connection will
enable that work to proceed much faster.

What is Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

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Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has
been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".

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 o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.

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Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.

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 o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable

faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

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Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as

compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers
of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the
star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.

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 o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports
on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is
one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing
is required.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms
a parent-child hierarchy.

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Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we
can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

Mesh topology

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 o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect
the communication between connected computers.

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Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router
and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency
of the network.

Hybrid Topology

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 o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid
topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in
Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

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Chapter 4

4. Protocols
4.1 Network protocols

Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that dictate how devices
exchange data across networks. In other words, network protocols can be equated to languages
that two devices must understand for seamless communication of information, regardless of their
infrastructure and design disparities.

4.1. Rules & Network Protocols

The OSI model: How network protocols work

To understand the nuances of network protocols , it's imperative to know about the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model first. Considered the primary architectural model for
internet working communications, the majority of network protocols used today are structurally
based on the OSI model.

The OSI model splits the communication process between two network devices into 7 layers. A
task or group of tasks is assigned to each of these 7 layers. All the layers are self-contained, and
the tasks assigned to them can be executed independently.

To put this into context, here is a representation of the communication process between two
network devices following the OSI model:

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The seven layers in the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers, including layers
7, 6, and 5, and lower layers, including layers 4, 3, 2, and 1. The upper layers deal with
application issues, and the lower layers deal with data transport issues.

Network protocols divide the communication process into discrete tasks across every layer of the
OSI model. One or more network protocols operate at each layer in the communication
exchange.

Following are the detailed descriptions of the functioning of network protocols in each layer of
the OSI model:

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Layer 7: Application layer network Provides standard services such as virtual terminal, file,
protocols and job transfer and operations.

Layer 6: Presentation layer network Masks the differences in data formats between dissimilar
protocols systems.

Encodes and decodes data, encrypts and decrypts data,

and compresses and decompresses data.

Layer 5: Session layer network Manages user sessions and dialogues.

protocols
Establishes and terminates sessions between users.

Layer 4: Transport layer network Manages end-to-end message delivery in networks.

protocols
Renders reliable and sequential packet delivery through
error recovery and flow control mechanisms.

Layer 3: Network layer protocols Routes packets according to unique network device
addresses.

Renders flow and congestion control to prevent network

resource depletion.

Layer 2: Data link layer network Frames packets.

protocols
Detects and corrects packet transmit errors.

Layer 1: Physical layer network Interfaces between network medium and devices.
protocols
Defines optical, electrical, and mechanical characteristics.

Though some say the OSI model is now redundant and less significant than the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP)/IP network model, there are still references to the OSI model even today
as the model's structure helps to frame discussions of protocols and contrast various
technologies.

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Protocol suites & Industry Standards

Classification of network protocols

Now that you know how the OSI model works, you can dive straight into the classification of
protocols. The following are some of the most prominent protocols used in network
communication.

Application layer network protocols

1. DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP is a communication protocol that enables network administrators to automate the

assignment of IP addresses in a network. In an IP network, every device connecting to the
internet requires a unique IP. DHCP lets network admins distribute IP addresses from a central
point and automatically send a new IP address when a device is plugged in from a different place
in the network. DHCP works on a client-server model.

Advantages of using DHCP

Centralized management of IP addresses.

Seamless addition of new clients into a network.

Reuse of IP addresses, reducing the total number of IP addresses required.

Disadvantages of using DHCP

Tracking internet activity becomes tedious, as the same device can have multiple IP addresses
over a period of time.

Computers with DHCP cannot be used as servers, as their IPs change over time.

2. DNS: Domain Name System protocol

The DNS protocol helps in translating or mapping host names to IP addresses. DNS works on a
client-server model, and uses a distributed database over a hierarchy of name servers.

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Hosts are identified based on their IP addresses, but memorizing an IP address is difficult due to
its complexity. IPs are also dynamic, making it all the more necessary to map domain names to
IP addresses. DNS helps resolve this issue by converting the domain names of websites into
numerical IP addresses.

Advantages

DNS facilitates internet access.

Eliminates the need to memorize IP addresses.

Disadvantages

DNS queries don't carry information pertaining to the client who initiated it. This is because the
DNS server only sees the IP from where the query came from, making the server susceptible to
manipulation from hackers.

DNS root servers, if compromised, could enable hackers to redirect to other pages for phishing
data.

3. FTP: File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol enables file sharing between hosts, both local and remote, and runs on top
of TCP. For file transfer, FTP creates two TCP connections: control and data connection. The
control connection is used to transfer control information like passwords, commands to retrieve
and store files, etc., and the data connection is used to transfer the actual file. Both of these
connections run in parallel during the entire file transfer process.

Advantages

 Enables sharing large files and multiple directories at the same time.
 Let’s you resume file sharing if it was interrupted.
 Let’s you recover lost data, and schedule a file transfer.

Disadvantages

 FTP lacks security. Data, usernames, and passwords are transferred in plain text, making
them vulnerable to malicious actors.
 FTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it non-compliant with industry standards.
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4. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

HTTP is an application layer protocol used for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia
information systems. It works on a client-server model, where the web browser acts as the client.
Data such as text, images, and other multimedia files are shared over the World Wide Web using
HTTP. As a request and response type protocol, the client sends a request to the server, which is
then processed by the server before sending a response back to the client.

HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning the client and server are only aware of each other while
the connection between them is intact. After that, both the client and server forget about each
other's existence. Due to this phenomenon, the client and server can't both retain information
between requests.

Advantages

 Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of lesser concurrent connections.
 Errors can be reported without closing connections.
 Owing to lesser TCP connections, network congestion is reduced.

Disadvantages

 HTTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it less secure.

 HTTP requires more power to establish communication and transfer data.

5. IMAP and IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)

IMAP is an email protocol that lets end users access and manipulate messages stored on a mail
server from their email client as if they were present locally on their remote device. IMAP
follows a client-server model, and lets multiple clients access messages on a common mail server
concurrently. IMAP includes operations for creating, deleting, and renaming mailboxes;
checking for new messages; permanently removing messages; setting and removing flags; and
much more. The current version of IMAP is version 4 revision 1.

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Advantages

 As the emails are stored on the mail server, local storage utilization is minimal.
 In case of accidental deletion of emails or data, it is always possible to retrieve them as
they are stored on the mail server.

Disadvantages

 Emails won't work without an active internet connection.

 High utilization of emails by end users requires more mailbox storage, thereby
augmenting costs.

6. POP and POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)

The Post Office Protocol is also an email protocol. Using this protocol, the end user can
download emails from the mail server to their own email client. Once the emails are downloaded
locally, they can be read without an internet connection. Also, once the emails are moved locally,
they get deleted from the mail server, freeing up space. POP3 is not designed to perform
extensive manipulations with the messages on the mail server, unlike IMAP4. POP3 is the latest
version of the Post Office Protocol.

Advantages

 Read emails on local devices without internet connection.

 The mail server need not have high storage capacity, as the emails get deleted when
they're moved locally.

Disadvantages

If the local device on which the emails were downloaded crashes or gets stolen, the emails are
lost.

7. SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is a protocol designed to transfer electronic mail reliably and efficiently. SMTP is a push
protocol and is used to send the email, whereas POP and IMAP are used to retrieve emails on the
end user's side. SMTP transfers emails between systems, and notifies on incoming emails. Using
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SMTP, a client can transfer an email to another client on the same network or another network
through a relay or gateway access available to both networks.

Advantages

 Ease of installation.
 Connects to any system without any restriction.
 It doesn't need any development from your side.

Disadvantages

 Back and forth conversations between servers can delay sending a message, and also
increases the chance of the message not being delivered.
 Certain firewalls can block the ports used with SMTP.

8. Telnet: Terminal emulation protocol

Telnet is an application layer protocol that enables a user to communicate with a remote device.
A Telnet client is installed on the user's machine, which accesses the command line interface of
another remote machine that runs a Telnet server program.

Telnet is mostly used by network administrators to access and manage remote devices. To access
a remote device, a network admin needs to enter the IP or host name of the remote device, after
which they will be presented with a virtual terminal that can interact with the host.

Advantages

 Compatible with multiple operating systems.

 Saves a lot of time due to its swift connectivity with remote devices.

Disadvantages

 Telnet lacks encryption capabilities and sends across critical information in clear text,
making it easier for malicious actors.
 Expensive due to slow typing speeds.

9. SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol

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SNMP is an application layer protocol used to manage nodes, like servers, workstations, routers,
switches, etc., on an IP network. SNMP enables network admins to monitor network
performance, identify network glitches, and troubleshoot them. SNMP protocol is comprised of
three components: a managed device, an SNMP agent, and an SNMP manager.

The SNMP agent resides on the managed device. The agent is a software module that has local
knowledge of management information, and translates that information into a form compatible
with the SNMP manager. The SNMP manager presents the data obtained from the SNMP agent,
helping network admins manage nodes effectively.

Currently, there are three versions of SNMP: SNMP v1, SNMP v2, and SNMP v3. Both versions
1 and 2 have many features in common, but SNMP v2 offers enhancements such as additional
protocol operations. SNMP version 3 (SNMP v3) adds security and remote configuration
capabilities to the previous versions.

Presentation layer network protocols

LPP: Lightweight Presentation Protocol

The Lightweight Presentation Protocol helps provide streamlined support for OSI application
services in networks running on TCP/IP protocols for some constrained environments. LPP is
designed for a particular class of OSI applications, namely those entities whose application
context contains only an Association Control Service Element (ACSE) and a Remote Operations
Service Element (ROSE). LPP is not applicable to entities whose application context is more
extensive, i.e., contains a Reliable Transfer Service Element.

Session layer network protocols

RPC: Remote Procedure Call protocol

RPC is a protocol for requesting a service from a program in a remote computer through a
network, and can be used without having to understand the underlying network technologies.
RPC uses TCP or UDP for carrying the messages between communicating programs. RPC also
works on client-server model. The requesting program is the client, and the service providing
program is the server.

Advantages

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  RPC omits many protocol layers to improve performance.
 With RPC, code rewriting or redeveloping efforts are minimized.

Disadvantages

 Not yet proven to work effectively over wide-area networks.

 Apart from TCP/IP, RPC does not support other transport protocols.

Transport layer network protocols

1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

TCP is a transport layer protocol that provides a reliable stream delivery and virtual connection
service to applications through the use of sequenced acknowledgement. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, as it requires a connection to be established between applications before data
transfer. Through flow control and acknowledgement of data, TCP provides extensive error
checking. TCP ensures sequencing of data, meaning the data packets arrive in order at the
receiving end. Retransmission of lost data packets is also feasible with TCP.

Advantages

 TCP ensures three things: data reaches the destination, reaches it on time, and reaches it
without duplication.
 TCP automatically breaks data into packets before transmission.

Disadvantages

 TCP cannot be used for broadcast and multicast connections.

2. UDP: User Datagram Protocol

UDP is a connection-less transport layer protocol that provides a simple but unreliable message
service. Unlike TCP, UDP adds no reliability, flow control, or error recovery functions. UDP is
useful in situations where the reliability mechanisms of TCP are not necessary. Retransmission
of lost data packets isn't possible with UDP.

Advantages

 Broadcast and multicast connections are possible with UDP.

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  UDP is faster than TCP.

Disadvantages

 In UDP, it's possible that a packet may not be delivered, be delivered twice, or not be
delivered at all.
 Manual disintegration of data packets is needed.

Network layer protocols

1. IP: Internet Protocol (IPv4)

IPv4 is a network layer protocol that contains addressing and control information, which helps
packets be routed in a network. IP works in tandem with TCP to deliver data packets across the
network. Under IP, each host is assigned a 32-bit address comprised of two major parts: the
network number and host number. The network number identifies a network and is assigned by
the internet, while the host number identifies a host on the network and is assigned by a network
admin. The IP is only responsible for delivering the packets, and TCP helps puts them back in
the right order.

Advantages

 IPv4 encrypts data to ensure privacy and security.

 With IP, routing data becomes more scalable and economical.

Disadvantages

 IPv4 is labor intensive, complex, and prone to errors.

2. IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6

IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol, a network layer protocol that possesses
addressing and control information for enabling packets to be routed in the network. IPv6 was
created to deal with IPv4 exhaustion. It increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits to
support more levels of addressing.

Advantages

 More efficient routing and packet processing compared to IPv4.

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  Better security compared to IPv4.

Disadvantages

 IPv6 is not compatible with machines that run on IPv4.

 Challenge in upgrading the devices to IPv6.

3. ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

ICMP is a network layer supporting protocol used by network devices to send error messages
and operational information. ICMP messages delivered in IP packets are used for out-of-band
messages related to network operation or disoperation. ICMP is used to announce network
errors, congestion, and timeouts, as well assist in troubleshooting.

Advantages

 ICMP is used to diagnose network issues.

Disadvantages

 Sending a lot of ICMP messages increases network traffic.

 End users are affected if malicious users send many ICMP destination unreachable
packets.

Data link layer network protocols

1. ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol helps map IP addresses to physical machine addresses (or a
MAC address for Ethernet) recognized in the local network. A table called an ARP cache is used
to maintain a correlation between each IP address and its corresponding MAC address. ARP
offers the rules to make these correlations, and helps convert addresses in both directions.

Advantages

 MAC addresses need not be known or memorized, as the ARP cache contains all the
MAC addresses and maps them automatically with IPs.

Disadvantages

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  ARP is susceptible to security attacks called ARP spoofing attacks.
 When using ARP, sometimes a hacker might be able to stop the traffic altogether. This is
also known as ARP denial-of-services.

2. SLIP: Serial Line IP

SLIP is used for point-to-point serial connections using TCP/IP. SLIP is used on dedicated serial
links, and sometimes for dial-up purposes. SLIP is useful for allowing mixes of hosts and routers
to communicate with one another; for example, host-host, host-router, and router-router are all
common SLIP network configurations. SLIP is merely a packet framing protocol: It defines a
sequence of characters that frame IP packets on a serial line. It does not provide addressing,
packet type identification, error detection or correction, or compression mechanisms.

Advantages

 Since it has a small overhead, it is suitable for usage in microcontrollers.

 It reuses existing dial-up connections and telephone lines.
 It's easy to deploy since it's based on the Internet Protocol.

Disadvantages

 SLIP doesn't support automatic setup of network connections in multiple OSI layers at
the same time.
 SLIP does not support synchronous connections, such as a connection created through the
internet from a modem to an internet service provider (ISP).

4.3. Layered Models

 By breaking the network communication process into manageable layers, the industry can benefit

in the following ways:

 Defines common terms that describe the network functions to those working in the industry and

Allows greater understanding and cooperation.

 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.

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 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer, have defined

Information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.

4.3. Layered Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and
modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered
approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a
particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

Layered Architecture

The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.

Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.

 It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.

It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer
without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will
not affect the other layers.

The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and
hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.

The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

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Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity.
These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.

Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.

In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on
another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.

Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.

In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer n of
another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below it, until
the lowest layer is reached.

Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.

In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable
tasks.

The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among

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different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by
another implementation.

A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

4.3.1. The TCP/IP Model

 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Internet Layer

 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.

Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
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Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the
data into message known as IP datagram.

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link
layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they
can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.

Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various
devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.

The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the
ARP request to the network.

ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the
request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the
form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the
datagram header

ICMP Protocol

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems
back to the sender.

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A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to
route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or
network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is
undeliverable.

An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.

ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.

The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.

ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the
IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is
passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

 It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.

UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has
created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program
that receives the message.

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Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any
ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
 At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.
 At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

Application Layer

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  An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data
over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment
where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-
mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.

DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of
a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses.
Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.

TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.

FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer

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4.3.2. The OSI Model

OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.

 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

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The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end
user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the
layer just above another layer.

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer
of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

 Physical Layer
 Data-Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer

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  Application Layer

Physical layer

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The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.

 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.

Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

Data-Link Layer

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This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 It defines the format of the data on the network.

 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
 It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer

 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.

Media Access Control Layer

 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

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Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added
to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.

Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted.
It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not
exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.

Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it
is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the
acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.

Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at
a given time.

Network Layer

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  It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides

a logical connection between different devices.

Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.

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Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

Transport Layer

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

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The two protocols used in this layer are:

Transmission Control Protocol

 It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
 It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller
units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they
arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the
packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

User Datagram Protocol

 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason,
the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.

Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.

Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a

105
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.

Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-
end rather than across a single link.

Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.

Session Layer

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.

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Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.

Presentation Layer

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data

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from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.

Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the

sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the
network.

Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number
of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

Application Layer

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

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File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access
the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.

Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.

Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

4.3.3. Comparing OSI Model with TCP/IP Model

OSI vs TCP/IP

What is OSI model?

The OSI stands for Open System Interconnection, which was developed in 1980s. It is a
conceptual model used for network communication. It is not implemented entirely, but it is still
referenced today. This OSI model consists of seven layers, and each layer is connected to each
other. The data moves down the OSI model, and each layer adds additional information. The data
moves down until it reaches the last layer of the OSI model. When the data is received at the last
layer of the OSI model, then the data is transmitted over the network. Once the data is reached on
the other side, then the process will get reversed.

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What is TCP/IP model?

The TCP model stands for Transmission Control Protocol, whereas IP stands for Internet
Protocol. A number of protocols that make the internet possibly comes under the TCP/IP model.
Nowadays, we do not hear the name of the TCP/IP model much, we generally hear the name of
the IPv4 or IPv6, but it is still valid. This model consists of 4 layers. Now, we will look at the
diagrammatic representation of the TCP/IP model.

As shown in the above diagram, the TCP/IP model has 4 layers, while the OSI model consists of
7 layers. Diagrammatically, it looks that the 4 layers of the TCP/IP model exactly fit the 7 layers
of the OSI model, but this is not reality. The application layer of the TCP/IP model maps to the
first three layers, i.e., application, session, and presentation layer of the OSI model. The transport
layer of the TCP maps directly to the transport layer of the OSI model. The internet layer of the
TCP/IP model maps directly to the network layer of the OSI model. The last two layers of the
OSI model map to the network layer of the TCP/IP model. TCP/IP is the most widely used
model as compared to the OSI model for providing communication between computers over
the internet.

Similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model

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The following are the similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

Share common architecture

Both the models are the logical models and having similar architectures as both the models are
constructed with the layers.

Define standards

Both the layers have defined standards, and they also provide the framework used for
implementing the standards and devices.

Simplified troubleshooting process

Both models have simplified the troubleshooting process by breaking the complex function into
simpler components.

Pre-defined standards

The standards and protocols which are already pre-defined; these models do not redefine them;
they just reference or use them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by the
IEEE before the development of these models; instead of recreating them, models have used
these pre-defined standards.

Both have similar functionality of 'transport' and 'network' layers

The function which is performed between the 'presentation' and the 'network' layer is similar
to the function performed at the transport layer.

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Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model

Let's see the differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model in a tabular form:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

System
Interconnection.

OSI model has been It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
developed by ISO
Agency Network).
(International Standard
Organization).

It is an independent It consists of standard protocols that lead to the development of an

standard and generic
Internet. It is a communication protocol that provides the
protocol used as a
connection
communication
gateway between the Among the hosts.

network and the end

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user.

In the OSI model, the The transport layer does not provide the surety for the delivery of
transport layer packets.
provides a guarantee
But still, we can say that it is a reliable model.
for the delivery of the
packets.

This model is based on This model is based on a horizontal approach.

a vertical approach.

In this model, the In this model, the session and presentation layer are not different
session and layers.
presentation layers are
Both layers are included in the application layer.
separated, i.e., both the
layers are different.

It is also known as a It is an implemented model of an OSI model.

reference model
through which various
networks are built. For
example, the TCP/IP
model is built from the
OSI model. It is also
referred to as a
guidance tool.

In this model, the The network layer provides only connectionless service.
network layer provides
both connection-

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oriented and
connectionless service.

Protocols in the OSI In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
model are hidden and
can be easily replaced
when the technology
changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and interfaces are not
services, protocols, and properly
interfaces as well as
separated. It is protocol dependent.
provides a proper
distinction between
them. It is protocol
independent.

The usage of this This model is highly used.

model is very low.

It provides It does not provide the standardization to the devices. It provides a

standardization to the
connection between various computers.
devices like router,
motherboard, switches,
and other hardware
devices.

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 Chapter 5:

OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), and formalized in 1984. It provided the first framework
governing how information should be sent across a network.

5.1. Layered Framework of OSI

The OSI model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific network function:

 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network
 Data-link
 Physical

Note that the bottom layer is Layer 1. Various mnemonics make it easier to remember the order
of the OSI model’s layers:

7 Application All Away

6 Presentation People Pizza

5 Session Seem Sausage

4 Transport To Throw

3 Network Need Not

2 Data-link Data Do

1 Physical Processing Please

ISO further developed an entire protocol suite based on the OSI model; however, the OSI
protocol suite was never widely implemented.

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The OSI model itself is now somewhat deprecated – modern protocol suites, such as the TCP/IP
suite, are difficult to fit cleanly within the OSI model’s seven layers. This is especially true of the
upper three layers.

The bottom (or lower) four layers are more clearly defined, and terminology from those layers is
still prevalently used. Many protocols and devices are described by which lower layer they
operate at.

OSI Model - The Upper Layers

The top three layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the upper layers:

 Layer-7 - Application layer

 Layer-6 - Presentation layer
 Layer-5 - Session layer

Protocols that operate at these layers manage application-level functions, and are generally
implemented in software.

The function of the upper layers of the OSI model can be difficult to visualize. Upper layer
protocols do not always fit perfectly within a layer, and often function across multiple layers.

5.2. Overview & functions of each layer

OSI Model - The Application Layer

The Application layer (Layer-7) provides the interface between the user application and the
network. A web browser and an email client are examples of user applications.

The user application itself does not reside at the Application layer - the protocol does. The user
interacts with the application, which in turn interacts with the application protocol.

Examples of Application layer protocols include:

o FTP, via an FTP client

o HTTP, via a web browser
o POP3 and SMTP, via an email client

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Telnet

The Application layer provides a variety of functions:

o Identifies communication partners

o Determines resource availability
o Synchronizes communication

The Application layer interacts with the Presentation layer below it. As it is the top-most layer, it
does not interact with any layers above it.

OSI Model - The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer (Layer-6) controls the formatting and syntax of user data for the
application layer. This ensures that data from the sending application can be understood by the
receiving application.

Standards have been developed for the formatting of data types, such as text, images, audio, and
video.

Examples of Presentation layer formats include:

o Text - RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC

o Images - GIF, JPG, TIF
o Audio - MIDI, MP3, WAV
o Movies - MPEG, AVI, MOV

If two devices do not support the same format or syntax, the Presentation layer can provide
conversion or translation services to facilitate communication.

Additionally, the Presentation layer can perform encryption and compression of data, as
required. However, these functions can also be performed at lower layers as well. For example,
the Network layer can perform encryption, using IPSec.

OSI Model - The Session Layer

The Session layer (Layer-5) is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and ultimately
terminating sessions between devices. If a session is broken, this layer can attempt to recover the
session.
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Sessions communication falls under one of three categories:

 Full-Duplex – simultaneous two-way communication

 Half-Duplex – two-way communication, but not simultaneous
 Simplex – one-way communication

Many modern protocol suites, such as TCP/IP, do not implement Session layer protocols.
Connection management is often controlled by lower layers, such as the Transport layer.

The lack of true Session layer protocols can present challenges for highavailability and failover.
Reliance on lower-layer protocols for session management offers less flexibility than a strict
adherence to the OSI model.

OSI Model - The Lower Layers

The bottom four layers of the OSI model are often referred to as the lower layers:

 Layer-4 – Transport layer

 Layer-3 – Network layer
 Layer-2 – Data-Link layer
 Layer-1 – Physical layer

Protocols that operate at these layers control the end-to-end transport of data between devices,
and are implemented in both software and hardware.

OSI Model - The Transport Layer

The Transport layer (Layer-4) does not actually send data, despite its name. Instead, this layer is
responsible for the reliable transfer of data, by ensuring that data arrives at its destination error-
free and in order.

Transport layer communication falls under two categories:

Connection-oriented – requires that a connection with specific agreed-upon parameters be

established before data is sent.

Connectionless – requires no connection before data is sent.

Connection-oriented protocols provide several important services:

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Segmentation and sequencing – data is segmented into smaller pieces for transport. Each
segment is assigned a sequence number, so that the receiving device can reassemble the data on
arrival.

Connection establishment – connections are established, maintained, and ultimately terminated

between devices.

Acknowledgments – receipt of data is confirmed through the use of acknowledgments.

Otherwise, data is retransmitted, guaranteeing delivery.

Flow control (or windowing) – data transfer rate is negotiated to prevent congestion.

The TCP/IP protocol suite incorporates two Transport layer protocols:

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – connection-oriented

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – connectionless

OSI Model - The Network Layer

The Network layer (Layer-3) controls internetwork communication, and has two key
responsibilities:

Logical addressing – provides a unique address that identifies both the host, and the network
that host exists on.

Routing – determines the best path to a particular destination network, and then routes data
accordingly.

Two of the most common Network layer protocols are:

Internet Protocol (IP)

Novell’s Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).

IPX is almost entirely deprecated. IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6) are covered in
nauseating detail in other guides.

OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer

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While the Network layer is concerned with transporting data between networks, the Data-Link
layer (Layer-2) is responsible for transporting data within a network.

The Data-Link layer consists of two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer

 Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer

The LLC sublayer serves as the intermediary between the physical link and all higher layer
protocols. It ensures that protocols like IP can function regardless of what type of physical
technology is being used.

Additionally, the LLC sublayer can perform flow-control and errorchecking, though such
functions are often provided by Transport layer protocols, such as TCP.

The MAC sublayer controls access to the physical medium, serving as mediator if multiple
devices are competing for the same physical link. Datalink layer technologies have various
methods of accomplishing this - Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD), and Token Ring utilizes a token.

OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer (continued)

The Data-link layer packages the higher-layer data into frames, so that the data can be put onto
the physical wire. This packaging process is referred to as framing or encapsulation.

The encapsulation type will vary depending on the underlying technology. Common Data-link
layer technologies include following:

Ethernet – the most common LAN data-link technology

Token Ring – almost entirely deprecated

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

802.11 Wireless

Frame-Relay

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

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The data-link frame contains the source and destination hardware (or physical) address.
Hardware addresses uniquely identify a host within a network, and are often hardcoded onto
physical network interfaces. However, hardware addresses contain no mechanism for
differentiating one network from another, and can only identify a host within a network.

The most common hardware address is the Ethernet MAC address.

OSI Model - The Physical Layer

The Physical layer (Layer-1) controls the signaling and transferring of raw bits onto the physical
medium. The Physical layer is closely related to the Data-link layer, as many technologies (such
as Ethernet) contain both datalink and physical functions.

The Physical layer provides specifications for a variety of hardware:

 Cabling
 Connectors and transceivers
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Wireless radios
 Hubs Physical-layer devices and topologies are covered extensively in other guides.

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Chapter 6

Switching & Multiplexing

6.1. Switching Concept and Types

Switching

Fully connected networks don't scale well, but you still need to let any possible pair of nodes
communicate.

Switching is the idea that you can dynamically configure a network which is less than fully
connected in order to join any two nodes for communication.Two ways to switch: you can
establish your own dedicated path (circuit switching) or you can take whatever path is available
at the time you send data (packet switching).

Circuit switching

Circuit switching maintains the idea of dedicated connections between two end points, but allows
for sharing of channels within the network, and hence is much more saleable.

Circuit switching takes advantage of the fact that while everybody needs to be able to talk to
everybody else, they aren't likely to all do so at the same time.

The telephone network is based on circuit switching. To make a phone call you ask the PSTN to
establish a dedicated circuit for you. It does this by finding unused channels all along the way
through the network and dedicates them to your call. When you actually start exchanging data
(talking) all of your data follows the same path or circuit through the network. If you pause in
your conversation the circuit you're using is idle, wasting bandwidth. But you never lose data
because you have a guaranteed, reserved circuit, so it is impossible for the system to be too busy
to handle your data.

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6.2. Multiplexing Concepts and Types

Multiplexing and De-multiplexing

 To combine multiple signals (analog or digital) for transmission over a single line or media.
 A common type of multiplexing combines several low-speed signals for transmission over a
single high-speed connection.
 Multiplexing is done by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input
lines to generate one output line i.e. (many to one). Therefore multiplexer (MUX) has
several inputs and one output.
 At the receiving end, a device called DE multiplexer (DEMUX) is used that separates signal
into its component signals. So DEMUX has one input and several outputs.

Concept of Multiplexing

 Input lines and diverts them to single output line.

 The signal from 4 different devices is combined and carried by this single line.
 At the receiving side, a DE multiplexer takes this signal from a single line & breaks it
into the original signals and passes them to the 4 different receivers.

Advantages of Multiplexing

 If no multiplexing is used between the users at two different sites that are distance apart,
then separate communication lines would be required.
 This is not only costly but also become difficult to manage. If multiplexing is used then,
only one line is required. This leads to the reduction in the line cost and also it would be
easier to keep track of one line than several lines.
 More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
 The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Why to use Multiplexing?

• If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a
way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth.

• For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is
shared by each signal.

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• When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision.
Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.

Types of Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are

combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel.
 It is analog technique. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub channel) within the
main channel.
 FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths
of the various signals to be transmitted. Thus each signal having different frequency forms a
particular logical channel on the link and follows this channel only. These channels are then
separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands.
 In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be analog signals. Thus digital signals need to be
converted to analog form, if they are to use FDM.
 A typical analog Internet connection via a twisted pair telephone line requires approximately
three kilohertz (3 kHz) of bandwidth for accurate and reliable data transfer.
 Twisted-pair lines are common in households and small businesses. But major telephone
cables, operating between large businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are
capable of much larger bandwidths.

FDM Process

In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These
modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by
the link.

 Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated

signal.
 These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard bands to prevent signals
from overlapping.

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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability

of fiber-optic cable.
 The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable, but
using a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the available bandwidth.
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and DE
multiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The
difference is that the frequencies are very high.
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique.
 In WDM different signals are optical or light signals that are transmitted through optical
fiber.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

 TDM is the digital multiplexing technique.

 In TDM, the channel/link is divided on the basis of time.
 Total time available in the channel is divided between several users. Each user is allotted
a particular a time interval called time slot or time slice during which the data is
transmitted by that user.
 Thus each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of the channel for fixed
amount of time.
 Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or slice.
 In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data
rate required by sending or receiving devices.
 All the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted simultaneously. Instead, they are
transmitted one-by-one. Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One
cycle or frame is said to be complete when all the signals are transmitted once on the
transmission channel.
 The TDM system can be used to multiplex analog or digital signals, however it is more
suitable for the digital signal multiplexing.
 The TDM signal in the form of frames is transmitted on the common communication
medium

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Chapter 7

7. Introduction to IP Addressing and Subnetting

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.,
computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface
identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows: “A
name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get
there.”

 IP Address is a unique identification given to Host, network device, server for data
communication.
 IP Address stand for Internet Protocol address, it is an addressing scheme used to identify
a system on a network.
 It is a unique address that certain electronic devices currently use to communicate with
each other on a network using internet protocol.
 IPV4 is a 32 bit number represented in 4 decimal numbers, where each decimal number is
of 8 bit (an octet), where each octet is separated by a dot in between. Thus the
representation is known as Dotted Decimal Notation. An IPV4 address is divided into 2
parts with Network ID and Host ID. It allows 232 addresses.
 IPV4 has Unicast, Broadcast & Multicast addresses. Routing Protocols that supports IPV4
addressing are RIPV1, V2, IGRP, OSPF & EIGRP.

Two device on the internet can never have the same address at the same time.

 A protocol such as IPv4 that defines address has an address space.

 An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol.
 If a protocol uses N bits to define an address space is 2N because each bit can have two
different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values
 IPv4 uses a 32 bit address, which means the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296.

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IP Addressing

There are four forms of IP addressing, each with its own unique properties.

1. Unicast: The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in

both IPv4 and IPv6. E It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used
for both sending and receiving. E Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires
the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient

2. Broadcast: In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts

broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy
of it.

3. Multicast: A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers.

4. Any cast: Like broadcast and multicast, any cast is a one-to-many routing topology. However,
the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is
logically closest in the network.

7.1 Classful & Classless Addressing

Classful IP Addressing

 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.
 Each class occupies some part of the address space
 We can find the class of an address
 When given the address in binary notation the first few bits can be immediately tell us the
class of the address
 If the address is given in dotted decimal notation , the first byte describes the class
Systems that have interfaces to more than one network require a unique IP address for
each network interface.
 The first part of an Internet address identifies the network on which the host resides.
 The second part identifies the particular host on the given network

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Class A Networks (/8 Prefix)

 Each Class A network address has an 8-bit network prefix, with thehighest order bit set to 0
(zero) and a 7-bit network number, followed by a 24-bit host number.
 Today, Class A networks are referred to as “/8s” (pronounced “slash eight” or just “eights”)
since they have an 8- bit network prefix.
 A maximum of 126 (2 7-2) /8 networks can be defined.
 The calculation subtracts two because the /8 network 0.0.0.0 is reserved for use as the
default route and the /8 network 127.0.0.0 (also written 127/8 or 127.0.0.0/8) is reserved
for the “loopback” function.
 Each /8 supports a maximum of 2 24 -2 (16,777,214) hosts per network. The host
calculation subtracts two because the all-0s (all zeros or “this network”) and all-1s (all ones
or “broadcast”) host numbers may not be assigned to individual hosts.
 Since the /8 address block contains 2 31 (2,147,483,648) individual addresses and the IPv4
address space contains a maximum of 2 32 (4,294,967,296) addresses, the /8 address space
is 50 percent of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class B Networks (/16 Prefixes)

 Each Class B network address has a 16-bit network prefix, with the two highest order bits
set to 1-0 and a 14-bit network number, followed by a 16- bit host number.
 Class B networks are now referred to as “/16s” since they have a 16-bit network prefix.
 A maximum of 16,384 (2 14 ) /16 networks can be defined with up to 65,534 (216-2)
hosts per network. Since the entire /16 address block contains 230 (1,073,741,824)
addresses, it represents 25 percent of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class C Networks (/24 Prefixes)

 Each Class C network address has a 24-bit network prefix, with the three highest order
bits set to 1-1-0 and a 21-bit network number, followed by an 8-bit host number.
 Class C networks are now referred to as “/24s” since they have a 24-bit network prefix.

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  A maximum of 2,097,152 (2 21) /24 networks can be defined with up to 254 (28-2) hosts
per network. Since the entire /24 address block contains 229 (536,870,912) addresses, it
represents 12.5 percent (or 1/18 th) of the total IPv4 unicast address space.

Class D Networks

 Class D network addresses are not assigned to devices on a network.

 These addresses are used for special-purpose, multicast applications (such as video and
audio-streaming applications).
 These addresses all need to be registered with IANA to be used globally.
 Addresses in this class have the first bits of the first octet set to 1110, yielding addresses
in the first octet ranging from 11100000 to 11101111, or 224 to 239.
 These addresses are not defined by a normal subnet mask; instead, each address is used
for a specific purpose. And because each address is individually used, it uses a
255.255.255.255 mask. 20

Class E Networks

 If Class D is special, Class E addresses are even more special.

 There is no defined use for this address class.
 Officially, it is listed as reserved for usage and testing by IANA and the Internet Research
Task Force (IRTF). In fact, as of RFC3330 in 2002, Class E was updated to “reserved for
future use.”
 Class E comprises absolutely all valid addresses with 240 or higher in the first octet.
 The first bits of the first octet is 1111, which yields addresses from 11110000 to
11111110 — or technically, 11111111 — which, in decimals, are 240 to 254 — or 255.
Because this address class is not being used for address allocation, you cannot know what
the network ID, which defines the valid addresses in a range. So the inclusion of 255 at
the end of the range is moot because this address range is not available for you to use. All
you need to know is that by definition Class E includes all valid addresses higher than
Class D.

Classless Addressing

 During the 1990s, ISP (Internet Service Provider)s came into prominence.

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  An ISP is an organization that provides Internet access for individuals, small business,
and mid-size organization
 An ISP can be granted several class B or class C blocks and then subdivide the range of
addresses(in groups of 2,4,8, or 16 addresses)
 The customers are connected via a dial-up modem, DSL, or capable modem to the ISP
 To facilitate this evolution, in 1996, the Internet authorities announced a new architecture
called classless addressing that would eventually render classful addressing obsolete.
 To simplify the handling of addresses, the internet authorities impose three restriction on
classless address blocks
 The address in a block must be contiguous, one after another
 The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2(1, 2, 4, 8, 16…)
 The first address must be evenly divisible

Example: A classless IP address assigned to a small organization with only 16 IP Addresses

205.16.37.32 205.16.37.33 . . .

205.16.37.4

 A better way to define a block of address in classless addressing is to select any address
in the block and mask it.
 A mask is a 32bit number in which the n left most bits are 1s and the 32-n rightmost bits
are 0s.
 The mask can take a value from 0 to 32
 IN IPV4 classless addressing a block of addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t/n in which
x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n defines the mask
 The address and /n notation completely define the whole block (the first address, the last
address, and the number of addresses).
 The first address in the block can be found by setting the 32-n right most bits in the
binary notation of the address 0.
 The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32-n bits to 1s.
 The number of address in the block can be found by using the formula 232-n

Example: Find the first address, the last address and the number of addresses in the following
classless block 205.16.37.39/28

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Solution

Step 1: Convert the dotted decimal representation into binary

Representation 11001101.00010000.00100101.00100111

Step 2: To find the first address in the block convert the 32-28 right most bits to 0.
11001101.00010000.00100101.00100000=205.16.37.32.

Step 3: To find the last address in the block convert the 32-28 right most bits to 1.
11001101.00010000.00100101.00101111=205.16.37.47.

Step 4: The number of address

Network Masks

A network mask helps you know which portion of the address identifies the network and which
portion of the address identifies the node.

Class A, B, and C networks have default masks, also known as natural masks, as shown here:
Class A: 255.0.0.0

Class B: 255.255.0.0

Class C: 255.255.255.0

An IP address on a Class A network that has not been subnetted would have an address/mask
pair similar to: 8.20.15.1 255.0.0.0.

In order to see how the mask helps you identify the network and node parts of the address,
convert the address and mask to binary numbers.

8.20.15.1

= 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001 255.0.0.0

= 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

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Once you have the address and the mask represented in binary, then identification of the network
and host ID is easier.

1. Any address bits which have corresponding mask bits set to 1 represent the network ID.

2. Any address bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 0 represent the node ID(Host ID).

8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001

255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 ----------------------------------- net id | host

id net id = 00001000 = 8 host id = 00010100.00001111.00000001 = 20.15.1

The Network Address

 When an IPv4 packet is created or forwarded, the destination network address must be
extracted from the destination address.
 This is done by a logic called AND
 The IPv4 host address is logically AND end with its subnet mask to determine the
network address to which the host is associated
 When this AND ing between the address and the subnet mask is performed, the result
yields the network address Anding operation:

1 AND 1 = 1 1 AND 0 = 0 0 AND 1 = 0 0 AND 0 = 0 32Cont… Using the subnet mask to

determine the network address for the host 172.16.132.70/20 Convert binary network address to
decimal

7.2 Subnetting and Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM)

7.2.1 Subnetting

 Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class
A, B, or C network.
 If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C
network, which is unrealistic. But what are the implications of dividing networks for the
network planners?

Dividing the Network into right size:

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  Every network within the internetwork of a corporation or organization is designed to
accommodate a finite number of hosts.
 Some networks, such as point-to-point WAN links, only require a maximum of two hosts.
 Other networks, such as a user LAN in a large building or department, may need to
accommodate hundreds of hosts.
 Network administrators need to devise the internetwork addressing scheme to
accommodate the maximum number of hosts for each network

Network Administrators must Consider the following points:

 Determine the Total Number of Hosts This includes end user devices, servers,
intermediate devices, and router interfaces
 Determine the Number and Size of the Nets based on common groupings of hosts We
subnet our network to overcome issues with location, size, and control.
 Grouping based on common geographic location
 Grouping hosts used for specific purposes
 Grouping based on ownership 35How to create subnet In order to subnet a network,
extend the natural mask with some of the bits from the host ID portion of the address in
order to create a subnetwork ID.

For each bit borrowed, we double the number of sub networks available.

For example, if we borrow 1 bit, we can define 2 subnets, If we borrow 2 bits, we can have 4
subnets.

• Example: if we borrow one bit

√ 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 – Subnet 1

√ 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 -- Subnet 2

• If we borrow two bit

√ 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 – Subnet 1

√11111111.11111111.11111111.01000000--Subnet2

√11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000–Subnet3

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√ 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 -- Subnet4

However, with each bit we borrow, fewer host addresses are available per subnet

Calculating Addresses

Example#1: Router A in the figure above has two interfaces to interconnect two networks. Given
an address block of 192.168.1.0 /24, we need to create two subnets.

 We borrow one bit from the host portion by using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128,
instead of the original 255.255.255.0 mask.
 The most significant bit in the last octet is used to distinguish between the two subnets.
 For one of the subnets, this bit is a "0" and for the other subnet this bit is a "1".
 Formula for calculating subnets we can create by borrowing bits of host address

√ 2 n where n = the number of bits borrowed

In this example, the calculation looks like this:

√ 2 1 = 2 subnets

Formula for calculating the number of hosts in the subnet

2n - 2 where n = the number of bits left for hosts

Applying this formula, (2 7 - 2 = 126) shows that each of these subnets can have 126 hosts.

For each subnet, examine the last octet in binary.

The values in these octets for the two networks are:

Subnet 1: 00000000 = 0

Subnet 2: 10000000 = 12

Defining the Subnet Numbers

Subnet Example #2 Given: An organization is assigned the network number 193.1.1.0/24 and it
needs to define six subnets. The largest subnet is required to support 25 hosts.

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  Since a network address can only be subnetted along binary boundaries, subnets must be
created in blocks of powers of two [2 (21), 4 (22), 8 (23), 16 (24), and so on]. Thus, it is
impossible to define an IP address block such that it contains exactly six subnets.

For this example, the network administrator must define a block of 8 (23) and have two unused
subnets that can be reserved for future growth.

In this example, the organization is subnetting a /24 so it will need three more bits, or a /27, as
the extended network prefix.

 A 27-bit extended network prefix mask can be expressed in dotted- decimal notation as
255.255.255.224.
 A 27-bit extended network prefix leaves 5 bits to define host addresses on each subnet.
This means that each subnetwork with a 27-bit prefix represents a contiguous block of 2
5 (32) individual IP addresses.

However, since the all-0s and all-1s host addresses cannot be allocated, there are 30 (2 5-2)
assignable host addresses on each subnet.

The eight subnet numbers for this example are listed in the following code sample. The
underlined portion of each address identifies the extended network prefix, while the bold digits
identify the 3 bits representing the subnet number field:

Base Net: 11000001.00000001.00000001 .00000000 = 193.1.1.0/24

1. Subnet #0: 11000001.00000001.00000001.000 00000 = 193.1.1.0/27

2. Subnet #1: 11000001.00000001.00000001.001 00000 = 193.1.1.32/27

3. Subnet #2: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00000 = 193.1.1.64/27

4. Subnet #3: 11000001.00000001.00000001.011 00000 = 193.1.1.96/27

5. Subnet #4: 11000001.00000001.00000001.100 00000 = 193.1.1.128/27

6. Subnet #5: 11000001.00000001.00000001.101 00000 = 193.1.1.160/27

7. Subnet #6: 11000001.00000001.00000001.110 00000 = 193.1.1.192/27

8. Subnet #7: 11000001.00000001.00000001.111 00000 = 193.1.1.224/27

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Defining Host Addresses for Each Subnet

 According to Internet practices, the host number field of an IP address cannot contain all
0-bits or all 1-bits.
 The all-0s host number identifies the base network (or subnetwork) number, while the all-
1s host number represents the broadcast address for the network (or subnetwork).
 In our current example, there are 5 bits in the host number field of each subnet address.
This means that each subnet represents a block of 30 host addresses (25 -2 = 30, note that
the 2 is subtracted because the all-0s and the all-1s host addresses cannot be used). The
hosts on each subnet are numbered 1 through 30.
 In general, to define the address assigned to Host #N of a particular subnet, the network
administrator places the binary representation of N into the subnet’ s host number field.
For example, to define the address assigned to Host #15 on Subnet #2, the network
administrator simply places the binary representation of 15 (011112 ) into the 5-bits of
Subnet #2’ s host number field.
 The valid host addresses for Subnet #2 in this example are listed in the following sample
code. The underlined portion of each address identifies the extended network prefix,
while the bold digits identify the 5-bit host number field:

Subnet #2: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00000 = 193.1.1.64/27

Host #1: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00001 = 193.1.1.65/27

Host #2: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00010 = 193.1.1.66/27

Host #3: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00011 = 193.1.1.67/27

Host #4: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00100 = 193.1.1.68/27

Host #5: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 00101 = 193.1.1.69/27

Host #15: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 01111 = 193.1.1.79/27

Host #16: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 10000 = 193.1.1.80/27

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Host #27: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 11011 = 193.1.1.91/27

Host #28: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 11100 = 193.1.1.92/27

Host #29: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 11101 = 193.1.1.93/27

Host #30: 11000001.00000001.00000001.010 11110 = 193.1.1.94/27

7.2.2 Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM)

 VLSM is a technique that network administrators employ in order to use their IP

subnet(s) in a more effective manner.
 By using VLSM, a long mask can be used on a network that has a few hosts and a short
net mask on subnets that have a large number of hosts.
 To use VLSM, however, a routing protocol that supports it has to be used. Cisco routers
support the concept with the following protocols: Integrated IS-IS (Integrated
Intermediate System to Intermediate System), EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol), RIPv2, Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), and static routing.
 VLSM allows networks to have different subnet masks if the routing protocol on the
network on which it is employed supports it.
 VLSM also allows more than one subnet mask within the same network address space,
which is also referred to as “sub netting a subnet.”

Example

 In all of the previous examples of Subnetting, notice that the same subnet mask was
applied for all the subnets. This means that each subnet has the same number of available
host addresses.
 You can need this in some cases, but, in most cases, having the same subnet mask for all
subnets ends up wasting address space.

For example, in the Subnet

Example #3 section, a class C network was split into eight equal-size subnets; however, each
subnet did not utilize all available host addresses, which results in wasted address space.

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VLSM allows you to use different masks for each subnet, thereby using address space
efficiently.

Given the same network and requirements as in Subnet Example #3 develop a subnetting scheme
with the use of VLSM, given:

1. net A: must support 14 hosts

2. netB: must support 28 hosts

3. netC: must support 2 hosts

4. netD: must support 7 hosts

5. netE: must support 28 host.

Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.

1. netA: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 14 hosts

2. netB: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts

3. netC: requires a /30 (255.255.255.252) mask to support 2 hosts

4. netD*: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 7 hosts

5. netE: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts * a /29

(255.255.255.248) would only allow 6 usable host addresses therefore netD requires a /28 mask.

The easiest way to assign the subnets is to assign the largest first.

For example, you can assign in this manner:

1. netB: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30

2. netE: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62

3. netA: 204.15.5.64/28 host address range 65 to 78

4. netD: 204.15.5.80/28 host address range 81 to 94

5. netC: 204.15.5.96/30 host address range 97 to 98

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Chapter 8

8. 1.Data Security and Integrity

1. Data Security:
Data security refers to the prevention of data from unauthorized users. It is only allowed to
access the data to the authorized users. In database, the DBA or head of department can access
all the data. Some users are only allowed to retrieve data, whereas others are allowed to
retrieve as well as to modify the data.

2. Data Integrity:
Data integrity is defined as the data contained in the database is both correct and consistent.
For this purpose, the data stored in the database must satisfy certain types of procedures
(rules). The data in a database must be correct and consistent. So, data stored in the database
must satisfy certain types of procedure (rules). DBMS provides different ways to implement
such types of constraints (rules). This improves data integrity in a database.

8.1. Fundamentals of secure networks; cryptography

Top 5 fundamentals of network security

These network security fundamentals are vital to downtime prevention, government regulation
compliance, reduced liability and reputation protection:

1. Keep patches and updates current

Cyber criminals exploit vulnerabilities in operating systems, software applications, web browsers
and browser plug-ins when administrators are lax about applying patches and updates.

In particular, verify that office computers are running current versions of these much used
programs:

 Adobe Acrobat and Reader

 Adobe Flash
 Oracle Java
 Microsoft Internet Explorer

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  Microsoft Office Suite

Keep an inventory to make sure each device is updated regularly, including mobile devices and
network hardware. And make sure Windows and Apple computers have automatic updating
enabled.

2. Use strong passwords

By now, most users know not to write their passwords on Post-It Notes that are plastered to their
monitors. But there’s more to keeping passwords secure than keeping them out of plain sight.

The definition of a strong password is one that’s difficult to detect by humans and computers, is
at least 6 characters, preferably more, and uses a combination of upper- and lower-case letters,
numbers and symbols.

Symantec gives additional suggestions:

 Don’t use any words from the dictionary. Also avoid proper nouns or foreign words.
 Don’t use anything remotely related to your name, nickname, family members or pets.
 Don’t use any numbers someone could guess by looking at your mail like phone numbers
and street numbers, and
 Choose a phrase that means something to you, take the first letters of each word and
convert some into characters.

The SANS Institute recommends passwords be changed at least every 90 days, and that users not
be allowed to reuse their last 15 passwords. They also suggest that users be locked out of their
accounts for an hour and a half after eight failed log-on attempts within a 45-minute period.

Train users to recognize social engineering techniques used to trick them into divulging their
passwords. Hackers are known to impersonate tech support to get people to give out their
passwords or simply look over users’ shoulders while they type in their passwords.

3. Secure your VPN

Data encryption and identity authentication are especially important to securing a VPN. Any
open network connection is a vulnerability hackers can exploit to sneak onto your network.
Moreover, data is particularly vulnerable while it is traveling over the Internet. Review the

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documentation for your server and VPN software to make sure that the strongest possible
protocols for encryption and authentication are in use.

Multi-factor authentication is the most secure identity authentication method. The more steps
your users must take to prove their identity, the better. For example, in addition to a password,
users could be required to enter a PIN. Or, a random numerical code generated by a key-fob
authenticator every 60 seconds could be used in conjunction with a PIN or password.

 It is also a good idea to use a firewall to separate the VPN network from the rest of the
network.
 Other tips include:
 Use cloud-based email and file sharing instead of a VPN.
 Create and enforce user-access policies. Be stingy when granting access to employees,
contractors and business partners.
 Make sure employees know how to secure their home wireless networks. Malicious
software that infects their devices at home can infect the company network via an open
VPN connection, and
 Before granting mobile devices full access to the network, check them for up-to-date anti-
virus software, firewalls and spam filters.

4. Actively manage user access privileges

Inappropriate user-access privileges pose a significant security threat. Managing employee

access to critical data on an ongoing basis should not be overlooked. More than half of 5,500
companies recently surveyed by HP and the Ponemon Institute said that their employees had
access to “sensitive, confidential data outside the scope of their job requirements.” In reporting
on the study’s findings, eWeek.com said “general business data such as documents, spreadsheets,
emails and other sources of unstructured data were most at risk for snooping, followed by
customer data.” When an employee’s job changes, make sure the IT department is notified so
their access privileges can be modified to fit the duties of the new position.

5. Clean up inactive accounts

Hackers use inactive accounts once assigned to contractors and former employees to gain access
and disguise their activity. The HP/Ponemon Institute report did find that the companies in the

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survey were doing a good job deleting accounts once an employee quit or was laid off. Software
is available for cleaning up inactive accounts on large networks with many users.

Cryptography

Cryptography is the study of secure communications techniques that allow only the sender and
intended recipient of a message to view its contents. The term is derived from the Greek
word kryptos, which means hidden. It is closely associated to encryption, which is the act of
scrambling ordinary text into what's known as ciphertext and then back again upon arrival. In
addition, cryptography also covers the obfuscation of information in images using techniques
such as microdots or merging. Ancient Egyptians were known to use these methods in complex
hieroglyphics, and Roman Emperor Julius Caesar is credited with using one of the first modern
ciphers.

When transmitting electronic data, the most common use of cryptography is to encrypt and
decrypt email and other plain-text messages. The simplest method uses the symmetric or "secret
key" system. Here, data is encrypted using a secret key, and then both the encoded message and
secret key are sent to the recipient for decryption. The problem? If the message is intercepted, a
third party has everything they need to decrypt and read the message. To address this issue,
cryptologists devised the asymmetric or "public key" system. In this case, every user has two
keys: one public and one private. Senders request the public key of their intended recipient,
encrypt the message and send it along. When the message arrives, only the recipient's private key
will decode it — meaning theft is of no use without the corresponding private key.

Best Practices

Users should always encrypt any messages they send, ideally using a form of public key
encryption. It's also a good idea to encrypt critical or sensitive files — anything from sets of
family photos to company data like personnel records or accounting history. Look for a security
solution that includes strong cryptography algorithms along with an easy-to-use interface. This
helps ensure the regular use of encryption functions and prevents data loss even if a mobile
device, hard drive or storage medium falls into the wrong hands.

8.2. Encryption and privacy

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Encryption can help protect data you send, receive, and store, using a device. That can include
text messages stored on your smartphone, running logs saved on your fitness watch, and banking
information sent through your online account.

Encryption is the process that scrambles readable text so it can only be read by the person who
has the secret code, or decryption key. It helps provide data security for sensitive information.

Vast amounts of personal information are managed online and stored in the cloud or on servers
with an ongoing connection to the web. It’s nearly impossible to do business of any kind without
your personal data ending up in an organization’s networked computer system, which is why it’s
important to know how to help keep that data private.

Encryption plays an essential role.

How does encryption work?

Encryption is the process of taking plain text, like a text message or email, and scrambling it into
an unreadable format — called “cipher text.” This helps protect the confidentiality of digital data
either stored on computer systems or transmitted through a network like the internet.

 When the intended recipient accesses the message, the information is translated back to
its original form. This is called decryption.
 To unlock the message, both the sender and the recipient have to use a “secret”
encryption key — a collection of algorithms that scramble and unscramble data back to a
readable format.

Symmetric and asymmetric encryption: What’s the difference?

An encryption key is a series of numbers used to encrypt and decrypt data. Encryption keys are
created with algorithms. Each key is random and unique.

There are two types of encryption systems: symmetric encryption and asymmetric
encryption. Here’s how they’re different.

 Symmetric encryption uses a single password to encrypt and decrypt data.

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  Asymmetric encryption uses two keys for encryption and decryption. A public key,
which is shared among users, encrypts the data. A private key, which is not shared,
decrypts the data.

Types of Encryption

There are several types of encryption, each developed with different needs and security needs in
mind. Here are the most common examples of encryption.

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

Data Encryption Standard is considered a low-level encryption standard. The U.S. government
established the standard in 1977. Due to advances in technology and decreases in the cost of
hardware, DES is essentially obsolete for protecting sensitive data.

Triple DES

Triple DES runs DES encryption three times. Here’s how it works: It encrypts, decrypts, and
encrypts data — thus, “triple.” It strengthens the original DES standard, which became regarded
as too weak a type of encryption for sensitive data.

RSA

RSA takes its name from the familial initials of three computer scientists. It uses a strong and
popular algorithm for encryption. RSA is popular due to its key length and therefore widely used
for secure data transmission.

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

Advanced Encryption Standard is the U.S. government standard as of 2002. AES is used
worldwide.

TwoFish

Two fish is considered one of the fastest encryption algorithms and is free for anyone to use. It’s
used in hardware and software.

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Using encryption via SSL

Most legitimate websites use what is called “secure sockets layer” (SSL), which is a form of
encrypting data when it is being sent to and from a website. This keeps attackers from accessing
that data while it is in transit.

 Look for the padlock icon in the URL bar, and the “s” in the “https://” to make sure you
are conducting secure, encrypted transactions online.
 It’s a good idea to access sites using SSL when:
 You store or send sensitive data online. If you use the internet to carry out tasks such as
filing your taxes, making purchases, renewing your driver’s license, or conducting any
other personal business, visiting sites using SSL is a good idea.
 Your work requires it. Your workplace may have encryption protocols, or it may be
subject to regulations that require encryption. In these cases, encryption is a must.

3 reasons why encryption matters

Why is encryption important? Here are three reasons:

1. Internet privacy concerns are real

 Encryption helps protect your online privacy by turning personal information into “for
your eyes only” messages intended only for the parties that need them — and no one else.
 You should make sure that your emails are being sent over an encrypted connection, or
that you are encrypting each message.
 Most email clients come with the option for encryption in their Settings menu, and if you
check your email with a web browser, take a moment to ensure that SSL encryption is
available.

2. Hacking is big business

 Cybercrime is a global business, often run by multinational outfits.

 Many of the large-scale data breaches that you may have heard about in the news
demonstrate that cybercriminals are often out to steal personal information for financial
gain.

3. Regulations demand it

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  The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) requires healthcare
providers to implement security features that help protect patients’ sensitive health
information online.
 Institutions of higher learning must take similar steps under the Family Education Rights
and Privacy Act (FERPA) to protect student records.
 Retailers must contend with the Fair Credit Practices Act (FCPA) and similar laws that
help protect consumers.
 Encryption helps businesses stay compliant with regulatory requirements and standards.
It also helps protect the valuable data of their customers.

8.3. Authentication protocols

User authentication is the first most priority while responding to the request made by the user
to the software application. There are several mechanisms made which are required to
authenticate the access while providing access to the data. In this blog, we will explore the
most common authentication protocols and will try to explore their merits and demerits.

Types of authentication protocols

1. Kerberos :

Kerberos is a protocol that aids in network authentication. This is used for validating
clients/servers during a network employing a cryptographic key. It is designed for executing
strong authentication while reporting to applications. The overall implementation of the
Kerberos protocol is openly available by MIT and is used in many mass-produced products.

Some advantages of Kerberos:

 It supports various operating systems.

 The authentication key is shared much efficiently than public sharing.

Some disadvantages of Kerberos:

 It is used only to authenticate clients and services used by them.

 It shows vulnerability to soft or weak passwords.

2. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) :

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  LDAP refers to Lightweight Directory Access Protocol. It is a protocol that is used for
determining any individuals, organizations, and other devices during a network
regardless of being on public or corporate internet. It is practiced as Directories-as-a-
Service and is the grounds for Microsoft building Activity Directory.

Some advantages of LDAP:

 It is an automated protocol which makes it modernizing easier.

 It supports existing technologies and allows multiple directories.

Some disadvantages of LDAP:

 It requires the experience of deployment.

 The directory servers are required to be LDAP obedient for deployment.

3. OAuth2 :

OAuth as the name suggests it is an authorization framework that promotes granting limited
access to the user on its account through an HTTP service. When a user requests access to
resources an API call is made and after the authentication token is passed.

Some advantages of OAuth2 :

 It is a simple protocol and is easy to implement.

 It provides server-side authorization of code.

Some disadvantages of OAuth2 :

 It is vulnerable to manage different sets of code.

 It shows serious effects on sites connected to another affected system.

4. SAML :

SAML stands for Security Assertion Markup Language which is based on XML-based
authentication data format which provides the authorization between an identity provider and
service provider. It serves as a product of the OASIS Security Services Technical Committee.

Some advantages of SAML :

 It reduced the administrative costs for the end-users.

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  It provides a single sign-in for authenticating across service providers.

Some disadvantages of SAML:

 It is dependent on the identity provider.

 All the data is managed in a single XML format.

5. RADIUS :

RADIUS stands for Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service. It is a network protocol that
provides sufficient centralized Authentication, Accounting, and Authorization for the users that
use and network services. The functioning of the protocol occurs when the user requests
access to network resources, where the RADIUS server encrypts the credentials which are
entered by the user. After this, the user credentials are mapped through the local database and
provide access.
Some advantages of RADIUS :

 It is a great mechanism for providing multiple access for Admins.

 It provides a unique identity to each user in a session.

Some disadvantages of RADIUS :

 Initial implementation for this mechanism is hard on hardware.

 It has a variety of models that may require a special team which is cost consuming.
 Differentiating between the protocols will not make justice to the protocols because it
depends on the use of the application and for what purpose it is being used.

8.4. Firewalls

What is a Firewall?

A firewall is a type of cybersecurity tool that is used to filter traffic on a network. Firewalls can
be used to separate network nodes from external traffic sources, internal traffic sources, or even
specific applications. Firewalls can be software, hardware, or cloud-based, with each type of
firewall having its own unique pros and cons.

The primary goal of a firewall is to block malicious traffic requests and data packets while
allowing legitimate traffic through.

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8 Types of Firewalls

Firewall types can be divided into several different categories based on their general structure
and method of operation. Here are eight types of firewalls:

 Packet-filtering firewalls
 Circuit-level gateways
 Stateful inspection firewalls
 Application-level gateways (a.k.a. proxy firewalls)
 Next-gen firewalls
 Software firewalls
 Hardware firewalls
 Cloud firewalls

Note: The last three bullets list methods of delivering firewall functionality, rather than being
types of firewall architectures in and of themselves.

 How do these firewalls work? And, which ones are the best for your business’
cybersecurity needs?
 Here are a few brief explainers:

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Packet-Filtering Firewalls

As the most “basic” and oldest type of firewall architecture, packet-filtering firewalls basically
create a checkpoint at a traffic router or switch. The firewall performs a simple check of the data
packets coming through the router—inspecting information such as the destination and
origination IP address, packet type, port number, and other surface-level information without
opening up the packet to inspect its contents.

 If the information packet doesn’t pass the inspection, it is dropped.

 The good thing about these firewalls is that they aren’t very resource-intensive. This
means they don’t have a huge impact on system performance and are relatively simple.
However, they’re also relatively easy to bypass compared to firewalls with more robust
inspection capabilities.

Circuit-Level Gateways

As another simplistic firewall type that is meant to quickly and easily approve or deny traffic
without consuming significant computing resources, circuit-level gateways work by verifying the

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transmission control protocol (TCP) handshake. This TCP handshake check is designed to make
sure that the session the packet is from is legitimate.

While extremely resource-efficient, these firewalls do not check the packet itself. So, if a packet
held malware, but had the right TCP handshake, it would pass right through. This is why circuit-
level gateways are not enough to protect your business by themselves.

Stateful Inspection Firewalls

These firewalls combine both packet inspection technology and TCP handshake verification to
create a level of protection greater than either of the previous two architectures could provide
alone.

However, these firewalls do put more of a strain on computing resources as well. This may slow
down the transfer of legitimate packets compared to the other solutions.

Proxy Firewalls (Application-Level Gateways/Cloud Firewalls)

Proxy firewalls operate at the application layer to filter incoming traffic between your network
and the traffic source—hence, the name “application-level gateway.” These firewalls are
delivered via a cloud-based solution or another proxy device. Rather than letting traffic connect
directly, the proxy firewall first establishes a connection to the source of the traffic and inspects
the incoming data packet.

This check is similar to the stateful inspection firewall in that it looks at both the packet and at
the TCP handshake protocol. However, proxy firewalls may also perform deep-layer packet
inspections, checking the actual contents of the information packet to verify that it contains no
malware.

Once the check is complete, and the packet is approved to connect to the destination, the proxy
sends it off. This creates an extra layer of separation between the “client” (the system where the
packet originated) and the individual devices on your network—obscuring them to create
additional anonymity and protection for your network.

If there’s one drawback to proxy firewalls, it’s that they can create significant slowdown because
of the extra steps in the data packet transferal process.

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Next-Generation Firewalls

Many of the most recently-released firewall products are being touted as “next-generation”
architectures. However, there is not as much consensus on what makes a firewall truly next-gen.

Some common features of next-generation firewall architectures include deep-packet inspection

(checking the actual contents of the data packet), TCP handshake checks, and surface-level
packet inspection. Next-generation firewalls may include other technologies as well, such as
intrusion prevention systems (IPSs) that work to automatically stop attacks against your network.

The issue is that there is no one definition of a next-generation firewall, so it’s important to
verify what specific capabilities such firewalls have before investing in one.

Software Firewalls

Software firewalls include any type of firewall that is installed on a local device rather than a
separate piece of hardware (or a cloud server). The big benefit of a software firewall is that it's
highly useful for creating defense in depth by isolating individual network endpoints from one
another.

However, maintaining individual software firewalls on different devices can be difficult and
time-consuming. Furthermore, not every device on a network may be compatible with a single
software firewall, which may mean having to use several different software firewalls to cover
every asset.

Hardware Firewalls

Hardware firewalls use a physical appliance that acts in a manner similar to a traffic router to
intercept data packets and traffic requests before they're connected to the network's servers.
Physical appliance-based firewalls like this excel at perimeter security by making sure malicious
traffic from outside the network is intercepted before the company's network endpoints are
exposed to risk.

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The major weakness of a hardware-based firewall, however, is that it is often easy for insider
attacks to bypass them. Also, the actual capabilities of a hardware firewall may vary depending
on the manufacturer—some may have a more limited capacity to handle simultaneous
connections than others, for example.

Cloud Firewalls

Whenever a cloud solution is used to deliver a firewall, it can be called a cloud firewall, or
firewall-as-a-service (FaaS). Cloud firewalls are considered synonymous with proxy firewalls by
many, since a cloud server is often used in a proxy firewall setup (though the proxy doesn't
necessarily have to be on the cloud, it frequently is).

The big benefit of having cloud-based firewalls is that they are very easy to scale with your
organization. As your needs grow, you can add additional capacity to the cloud server to filter
larger traffic loads. Cloud firewalls, like hardware firewalls, excel at perimeter security.

Which Firewall Architecture is Right for Your Company?

So, which firewall architecture is the right one for your business?

 The simple packet filtering or circuit-level gateway, which provides basic protection that
has minimal performance impact?
 The stateful inspection architecture that combines the capabilities of both of the previous
two options, but has a larger performance impact? Or

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  A proxy or next-gen firewall that offers far more robust protection in exchange for
additional expenses and an even higher performance impact?

The real question is “why would you only use one?”

No one protection layer, no matter how robust, will ever be enough to protect your business. To
provide better protection, your networks should have multiple layers of firewalls, both at the
perimeter and separating different assets on your network. For example, you could have a
hardware or cloud firewall at the perimeter of your network, then individual software firewalls
on each of your network assets.

 Having additional firewalls helps to make your network tougher to crack by creating
additional defense-in-depth that isolates different assets—making it so attackers have to
perform extra work to reach all of your most sensitive information.
 The particular firewalls that you will want to use will depend on the capabilities of your
network, relevant compliance requirements for your industry, and the resources you have
in place to manage these firewalls.
 Need help finding the ideal firewall architecture for your business’ needs? Consider
starting with a security policy audit and assessment first. This can help you identify all of
the assets on your network that need protecting so you can better optimize your firewall
implementation.

Or, contact Compuquip Cybersecurity to get more assistance with perfecting your company’s
cybersecurity strategy.

8.5. Virtual private networks

What is VPN? How It Works, Types of VPN

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VPN stands for "Virtual Private Network" and describes the opportunity to establish a
protected network connection when using public networks. VPNs encrypt your internet traffic
and disguise your online identity. This makes it more difficult for third parties to track your
activities online and steal data. The encryption takes place in real time.

How does a VPN work?

A VPN hides your IP address by letting the network redirect it through a specially configured
remote server run by a VPN host. This means that if you surf online with a VPN, the VPN server
becomes the source of your data. This means your Internet Service Provider (ISP) and other third
parties cannot see which websites you visit or what data you send and receive online. A VPN
works like a filter that turns all your data into "gibberish". Even if someone were to get their
hands on your data, it would be useless.

What are the benefits of a VPN connection?

A VPN connection disguises your data traffic online and protects it from external access.
Unencrypted data can be viewed by anyone who has network access and wants to see it. With a
VPN, hackers and cyber criminals can’t decipher this data.

 Secure encryption: To read the data, you need an encryption key . Without one, it would
take millions of years for a computer to decipher the code in the event of a brute force
attack . With the help of a VPN, your online activities are hidden even on public
networks.

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  Disguising your whereabouts : VPN servers essentially act as your proxies on the
internet. Because the demographic location data comes from a server in another country,
your actual location cannot be determined. In addition, most VPN services do not store
logs of your activities. Some providers, on the other hand, record your behavior, but do
not pass this information on to third parties. This means that any potential record of your
user behavior remains permanently hidden.
 Access to regional content: Regional web content is not always accessible from
everywhere. Services and websites often contain content that can only be accessed from
certain parts of the world. Standard connections use local servers in the country to
determine your location. This means that you cannot access content at home while
traveling, and you cannot access international content from home. With VPN location
spoofing , you can switch to a server to another country and effectively “change” your
location.
 Secure data transfer: If you work remotely, you may need to access important files on
your company’s network. For security reasons, this kind of information requires a secure
connection. To gain access to the network, a VPN connection is often required. VPN
services connect to private servers and use encryption methods to reduce the risk of data
leakage.

Why should you use a VPN connection?

 Your ISP usually sets up your connection when you connect to the internet. It tracks you
via an IP address. Your network traffic is routed through your ISP's servers, which can
log and display everything you do online.
 Your ISP may seem trustworthy, but it may share your browsing history with advertisers,
the police or government, and/or other third parties. ISPs can also fall victim to attacks by
cyber criminals: If they are hacked, your personal and private data can be compromised.
 This is especially important if you regularly connect to public Wi-Fi networks. You never
know who might be monitoring your internet traffic and what they might steal from you,
including passwords, personal data, payment information, or even your entire identity.

What should a good VPN do?

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You should rely on your VPN to perform one or more tasks. The VPN itself should also be
protected against compromise. These are the features you should expect from a comprehensive
VPN solution:

 Encryption of your IP address: The primary job of a VPN is to hide your IP address
from your ISP and other third parties. This allows you to send and receive information
online without the risk of anyone but you and the VPN provider seeing it.
 Encryption of protocols: A VPN should also prevent you from leaving traces, for
example, in the form of your internet history, search history and cookies. The encryption
of cookies is especially important because it prevents third parties from gaining access to
confidential information such as personal data, financial information and other content on
websites.
 Kill switch: If your VPN connection is suddenly interrupted, your secure connection will
also be interrupted. A good VPN can detect this sudden downtime and terminate
preselected programs, reducing the likelihood that data is compromised.
 Two-factor authentication: By using a variety of authentication methods, a strong VPN
checks everyone who tries to log in. For example, you might be prompted to enter a
password, after which a code is sent to your mobile device. This makes it difficult for
uninvited third parties to access your secure connection.

The history of VPNs

Since humans have been using the internet, there has been a movement to protect and encrypt
internet browser data. The US Department of Defense already got involved in projects working
on the encryption of internet communication data back in the 1960s.

The predecessors of the VPN

Their efforts led to the creation of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network),
a packet switching network, which in turn led to the development of the Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

The TCP/IP had four levels: Link, internet, transport and application. At the internet level,
local networks and devices could be connected to the universal network – and this is where the
risk of exposure became clear. In 1993, a team from Columbia University and AT&T Bell Labs

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finally succeeded in creating a kind of first version of the modern VPN, known as swIPe:
Software IP encryption protocol.

In the following year, Wei Xu developed the IPSec network, an internet security protocol that
authenticates and encrypts information packets shared online. In 1996, a Microsoft employee
named Gurdeep Singh-Pall created a Peer-to-Peer Tunneling Protocol (PPTP).

Early VPNs

Contiguous to Singh-Pall developing PPTP, the internet was growing in popularity and the need
for consumer-ready, sophisticated security systems emerged. At that time, anti-virus programs
were already effective in preventing malware and spyware from infecting a computer system.
However, people and companies also started demanding encryption software that could hide
their browsing history on the internet.

The first VPNs therefore started in the early 2000s, but were almost exclusively used by
companies. However, after a flood of security breaches, especially in the early 2010s, the
consumer market for VPNs started to pick up.

VPNs and their current use

According to the GlobalWebIndex, the number of VPN users worldwide increased more than
fourfold between 2016 and 2018. In countries such as Thailand, Indonesia and China, where
internet use is restricted and censored, one in fiveinternet users uses a VPN. In the USA, Great
Britain and Germany, the proportion of VPN users is lowerat around 5%, but is growing.

One of the biggest drivers for VPN adoption in recent years has been the increasing demand for
content with geographical access restrictions. For example, video streaming services such as
Netflix or YouTube make certain videos available only in certain countries. With contemporary
VPNs, you can encrypt your IP address so that you appear to be surfing from another country,
enabling you to access this content from anywhere.

Here’s how to surf securely with a VPN

A VPN encrypts your surfing behavior, which can only be decoded with the help of a key. Only
your computer and the VPN know this key, so your ISP cannot recognize where you are surfing.
Different VPNs use different encryption processes, but generally function in three steps:

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Once you are online, start your VPN. The VPN acts as a secure tunnel between you and the
internet. Your ISP and other third parties cannot detect this tunnel.

Your device is now on the local network of the VPN, and your IP address can be changed to an
IP address provided by the VPN server.

You can now surf the internet at will, as the VPN protects all your personal data.

What kind of VPNs are there?

There are many different types of VPNs, but you should definitely be familiar with the three
main types:

SSL VPN

Often not all employees of a company have access to a company laptop they can use to work
from home. During the corona crisis in Spring 2020, many companies faced the problem of not
having enough equipment for their employees. In such cases, use of a private device (PC, laptop,
tablet, mobile phone) is often resorted to. In this case, companies fall back on an SSL-
VPN solution, which is usually implemented via a corresponding hardware box.

The prerequisite is usually an HTML-5-capable browser, which is used to call up the company's
login page. HTML-5 capable browsers are available for virtually any operating system. Access is
guarded with a username and password.

Site-to-site VPN

A site-to-site VPN is essentially a private network designed to hide private intranets and allow
users of these secure networks to access each other's resources.

A site-to-site VPN is useful if you have multiple locations in your company, each with its own
local area network (LAN) connected to the WAN (Wide Area Network). Site-to-site VPNs are
also useful if you have two separate intranets between which you want to send files without users
from one intranet explicitly accessing the other.

Site-to-site VPNs are mainly used in large companies. They are complex to implement and do
not offer the same flexibility as SSL VPNs. However, they are the most effective way to ensure
communication within and between large departments.

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Client-to-Server VPN

Connecting via a VPN client can be imagined as if you were connecting your home PC to the
company with an extension cable. Employees can dial into the company network from their
home office via the secure connection and act as if they were sitting in the office. However, a
VPN client must first be installed and configured on the computer.

This involves the user not being connected to the internet via his own ISP, but establishing a
direct connection through his/her VPN provider. This essentially shortens the tunnel phase of the
VPN journey. Instead of using the VPN to create an encryption tunnel to disguise the existing
internet connection, the VPN can automatically encrypt the data before it is made available to the
user.

This is an increasingly common form of VPN, which is particularly useful for providers of
insecure public WLAN. It prevents third parties from accessing and compromising the network
connection and encrypts data all the way to the provider. It also prevents ISPs from accessing
data that, for whatever reason, remains unencrypted and bypasses any restrictions on the user's
internet access (for instance, if the government of that country restricts internet access).

The advantage of this type of VPN access is greater efficiency and universal access to company
resources. Provided an appropriate telephone system is available, the employee can, for example,
connect to the system with a headset and act as if he/she were at their company workplace. For
example, customers of the company cannot even tell whether the employee is at work in the
company or in their home office.

How do I install a VPN on my computer?

Before installing a VPN, it is important to be familiar with the different implementation

methods:

VPN client

Software must be installed for standalone VPN clients. This software is configured to meet the
requirements of the endpoint. When setting up the VPN, the endpoint executes the VPN link and
connects to the other endpoint, creating the encryption tunnel. In companies, this step usually
requires the entry of a password issued by the company or the installation of an appropriate

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certificate. By using a password or certificate, the firewall can recognize that this is an
authorized connection. The employee then identifies him/herself by means of credentials known
to him/her.

Browser extensions

VPN extensions can be added to most web browsers such as Google Chrome and Firefox. Some
browsers, including Opera, even have their own integrated VPN extensions. Extensions make it
easier for users to quickly switch and configure their VPN while surfing the internet. However,
the VPN connection is only valid for information that is shared in this browser. Using other
browsers and other internet uses outside the browser (e.g. online games) cannot be encrypted by
the VPN.

While browser extensions are not quite as comprehensive as VPN clients, they may be an
appropriate option for occasional internet users who want an extra layer of internet security.
However, they have proven to be more susceptible to breaches. Users are also advised to choose
a reputable extension, as data harvesters may attempt to use fake VPN extensions. Data
harvesting is the collection of personal data, such as what marketing strategists do to create a
personal profile of you. Advertising content is then personally tailored to you.

Router VPN

If multiple devices are connected to the same internet connection, it may be easier to implement
the VPN directly on the router than to install a separate VPN on each device. A router VPN is
especially useful if you want to protect devices with an internet connection that are not easy to
configure, such as smart TVs. They can even help you access geographically restricted content
through your home entertainment systems.

A router VPN is easy to install, always provides security and privacy, and prevents your network
from being compromised when insecure devices log on. However, it may be more difficult to
manage if your router does not have its own user interface. This can lead to incoming
connections being blocked.

Company VPN

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A company VPN is a custom solution that requires personalized setup and technical support. The
VPN is usually created for you by the company's IT team. As a user, you have no administrative
influence from the VPN itself and your activities and data transfers are logged by your company.
This allows the company to minimize the potential risk of data leakage. The main advantage of a
corporate VPN is a fully secure connection to the company's intranet and server, even for
employees who work outside the company using their own internet connection.

Can I also use a VPN on my smartphone or other devices?

Yes, there are a number of VPN options for smartphones and other internet-connected devices. A
VPN can be essential for your mobile device if you use it to store payment information or other
personal data or even just to surf the internet. Many VPN providers also offer mobile solutions -
many of which can be downloaded directly from Google Play or the Apple App Store, such
as Kaspersky VPN Secure Connection.

Is a VPN really so secure?

It is important to note that VPNs do not function like comprehensive anti-virus software. While
they protect your IP and encrypt your internet history, a VPN connection does not protect your
computer from outside intrusion. To do this, you should definitely use anti-virus software such
as Kaspersky Internet Security . Because using a VPN on its own does not protect you from
Trojans, viruses, bots or other malware.

Once the malware has found its way onto your device, it can steal or damage your data, whether
you are running a VPN or not. It is therefore important that you use a VPN together with a
comprehensive anti-virus program to ensure maximum security.

Selecting a secure VPN provider

It is also important that you choose a VPN provider that you can trust. While your ISP cannot see
your internet traffic, your VPN provider can. If your VPN provider is compromised, so are you.
For this reason, it is crucial that you choose a trusted VPN provider to ensure both the
concealment of your internet activities and ensure the highest level of security.

How to install a VPN connection on your smartphone

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  As already mentioned, there are also VPN connections for Android smartphones and
iPhones. Fortunately, smartphone VPN services are easy to use and generally include the
following:
 The installation process usually only downloads one app from the iOS App Store or
Google Play Store. Although free VPN providers exist, it’s wise to choose a professional
provider when it comes to security.
 The setup is extremely user-friendly, as the default settings are already mostly designed
for the average smartphone user. Simply log in with your account. Most apps will then
guide you through the key functions of the VPN services.
 Switching on the VPN literally works like a light switch for many VPN apps. You will
probably find the option directly on the home screen.
 Server switching is usually done manually if you want to fake your location. Simply
select the desired country from the offer.
 Advanced setup is available for users requiring a higher degree of data protection.
Depending on your VPN, you can also select other protocols for your encryption method.
 Diagnostics and other functions may also be available in your app. Before you subscribe,
learn about these features to find the right VPN for your needs.

In order to surf the internet safely from now on, all you have to do is first activate the VPN
connection through the app.

But keep the following in mind: A VPN is only as secure as the data usage and storage policies
of its provider. Remember that the VPN service transfers your data to their servers and these
servers connect over the internet on your behalf. If they store data logs, make sure that it is clear
for what purpose these logs are stored. Serious VPN providers usually put your privacy first and
foremost. You should therefore choose a trusted provider such as Kaspersky Secure Connection .

Remember that only internet data is encrypted. Anything that does not use a cellular or Wi-Fi
connection will not be transmitted over the internet. As a result, your VPN will not encrypt your
standard voice calls or texts.

Conclusion

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A VPN connection establishes a secure connection between you and the internet. Via the VPN,
all your data traffic is routed through an encrypted virtual tunnel. This disguises your IP address
when you use the internet, making its location invisible to everyone. A VPN connection is also
secure against external attacks. That’s because only you can access the data in the encrypted
tunnel – and nobody else can because they don’t have the key. A VPN allows you to access
regionally restricted content from anywhere in the world. Many streaming platforms are not
available in every country. You can still access them using the VPN. VPN solutions from
Kaspersky are available for both Windows PCs and Apple Macs.

There are now also many providers of VPN connections for smartphones which keep mobile data
traffic anonymous. You can find certified providers in the Google Play Store or the iOS App
Store. However, remember that only your data traffic on the internet is anonymized and
protected by using a VPN. The VPN connection does not protect you from hacker attacks,
Trojans, viruses or other malware. You should therefore rely on an additional trusted anti-virus
software.

What security solutions include VPN protection?

8.6. Transport layer security

What is Transport Layer Security?

Transport Layer Security (TLS) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard
protocol that provides authentication, privacy and data integrity between two communicating
computer applications. It's the most widely deployed security protocol in use today and is best
suited for web browsers and other applications that require data to be securely exchanged over a
network. This includes web browsing sessions, file transfers, virtual private network (VPN)
connections, remote desktop sessions and voice over IP (VoIP). More recently, TLS is being
integrated into modern cellular transport technologies, including 5G, to protect core network
functions throughout the radio access network (RAN).

How does Transport Layer Security work?

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  TLS uses a client-server handshake mechanism to establish an encrypted and secure
connection and to ensure the authenticity of the communication. Here's a breakdown of
the process:
 Communicating devices exchange encryption capabilities.
 An authentication process occurs using digital certificates to help prove the server is the
entity it claims to be.
 A session key exchange occurs. During this process, clients and servers must agree on a
key to establish the fact that the secure session is indeed between the client and server --
and not something in the middle attempting to hijack the conversation.

The benefits of Transport Layer Security

The benefits of TLS are straightforward when discussing using versus not using TLS. As noted
above, a TLS-encrypted session provides a secure authentication mechanism, data encryption
and data integrity checks. However, when comparing TLS to another secure authentication and
encryption protocol suite, such as Internet Protocol Security, TLS offers added benefits and is a
reason why IPsec is being replaced with TLS in many enterprise deployment situations. These
include benefits such as the following:

 Security is built directly into each application, as opposed to external software or

hardware to build IPsec tunnels.
 There is true end-to-end encryption (E2EE) between communicating devices.
 There is granular control over what can be transmitted or received on an encrypted
session.
 Since TLS operates within the upper layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model, it doesn't have the network address translation (NAT) complications that are
inherent with IPsec.
 TLS offers logging and auditing functions that are built directly into the protocol.

The challenges of TLS

 There are a few drawbacks when it comes to either not using secure authentication or any
encryption -- or when deciding between TLS and other security protocols, such as IPsec.
Here are a few examples:

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  Because TLS operates at Layers 4 through 7 of the OSI model, as opposed to Layer 3,
which is the case with IPsec, each application and each communication flow between
client and server must establish its own TLS session to gain authentication and data
encryption benefits.

The ability to use TLS depends on whether each application supports it.

 Since TLS is implemented on an application-by-application basis to achieve improved

granularity and control over encrypted sessions, it comes at the cost of increased
management overhead.
 Now that TLS is gaining in popularity, threat actors are more focused on discovering and
exploiting potential TLS exploits that can be used to compromise data security and
integrity.

Differences between TLS and SSL

As mentioned previously, SSL is the precursor to TLS. Thus, most of the differences between the
two are evolutionary in nature, as the protocol adjusts to address vulnerabilities and to improve
implementation and integration capabilities.

Key differences between SSL and TLS that make TLS a more secure and efficient protocol are
message authentication, key material generation and the supported cipher suites, with TLS
supporting newer and more secure algorithms. TLS and SSL are not interoperable, though TLS
currently provides some backward compatibility in order to work with legacy systems.
Additionally, TLS -- especially later versions -- completes the handshake process much faster
compared to SSL. Thus, lower communication latency from an end-user perspective is
noticeable.

Attacks against TLS/SSL

Implementation flaws have always been a big problem with encryption technologies, and TLS is
no exception. Even though TLS/SSL communications are considered highly secure, there have
been instances where vulnerabilities were discovered and exploited. But keep in mind that the
examples mentioned below were vulnerabilities in TLS version 1.2 and earlier. All known
vulnerabilities against prior versions of TLS, such as Browser Exploit against SSL/TLS

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(BEAST), Compression Ratio Info-leak Made Easy (CRIME) and protocol downgrade attacks,
have been eliminated through TLS version updates. Examples of significant attacks or incidents
include the following:

The infamous Heartbleed bug was the result of a surprisingly small bug vulnerability discovered
in a piece of cryptographic logic that relates to Open SSL's implementation of the
TLS heartbeat mechanism, which is designed to keep connections alive even when no data is
being transmitted.

Although TLS isn't vulnerable to the POODLE attack because it specifies that all padding bytes
must have the same value and be verified, a variant of the attack has exploited certain
implementations of the TLS protocol that don't correctly validate encryption padding byte
requirements.

The BEAST attack was discovered in 2011 and affected version 1.0 of TLS. The attack focused
on a vulnerability discovered in the protocol's cipher block chaining (CBC) mechanism. This
enabled an attacker to capture and decrypt data being sent and received across the "secure"
communications channel.

An optional data compression feature found within TLS led to the vulnerability known as
CRIME. This vulnerability can decrypt communication session cookies using brute-force
methods. Once compromised, attackers can insert themselves into the encrypted conversation.

The Browser Reconnaissance and Exfiltration via Adaptive Compression of Hypertext

(BREACH) vulnerability also uses compression as its exploit target, like CRIME. However, the
difference between BREACH and CRIME is the fact that BREACH compromises Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) compression, as opposed to TLS compression. But, even if TLS
compression isn't enabled, BREACH can still compromise the session.

Chapter 9

9. Overview
9.1. system and network administration
A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of
rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is

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described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are
the subjects of study of systems theory and other systems sciences.

Systems theory is the understanding of the whole being greater than all the parts that comprise it
and was created because of the effect behaviorism had on psychology. It addresses the weakness
of mechanistic approaches and provides an excellent framework to solve problems because it
analyzes the interdependence and wholeness of the system.

Systems theory has negative and positive feedback loops that influence the systems.

Negative feedback loops do not offer change but help to reinforce the system

Positive feedback loops create changes

A few systems theory examples are as follows:

In the case of air travel, many different systems make the whole experience successful.
For instance, when someone engages in air travel, they must start by purchasing a ticket
and then go through security, having their bags and suitcases scanned in the process. The
plane must also go through a safety check, refueling each time before take-off.

In this scenario, the summation of these systems and subsystems gives a high level of
safety for each flight and is greater together than they are separate.

Organization is the foundation upon which the whole structure of management is erected.
Organization is associated with developing an outline where the overall work is divided into
manageable components in order to facilitate the achievement of objectives or goals. Thus,
organization is the structure or mechanism that enables living things to work together. In a static
sense, an organization is a structure or machinery manned by group of individuals who are
working together towards a common goal. Examples of organization are Corporations,
governments, non-government organizations, armed forces, non-profit organizations etc.

The term organization has been used in four different senses;

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1. Organization as Framework of Relationships: Organization refers to the structure and
interactions among various job positions which are created to realize certain objectives.
2. Organization as a process: Organization is viewed as a dynamic process and a managerial
activity which is vital for planning the utilization of company’s resources.
3. Organization as a System: Organization is also viewed as a system. System concepts recognize
that organizations are made up of components, each of which has exclusive properties, abilities
and reciprocated associations. The constituent elements of a system are linked together in such
complex ways that actions taken by one individual have far reaching effects on others.
4. Organization as a Group of Persons: Organization is very often viewed as a group of persons
contributing their efforts towards certain goals.

9.1.1. Exercises

Self-test objectives /answer these questions whenever you finished chapter nine

1. What kinds of issues does system administration cover?

2. Is system administration management or engineering?

3. Why does the physical environment play a role in system administration?

4. Describe why ethics and human values are important.

5. Is system administration a science? Why/why not?

6. State the top-most principles that guide network and system administrators.
9.1.2. System theory in organization
Systems theory is a theoretical framework for understanding how organizations work. A system
can be defined in different ways, but it’s best characterized as an entity that has all the elements
necessary to carry out its functions.

Boundaries are another component of communication and interaction within the family.
Boundaries have to do with both how information exits and enters the family. For example, some
information may be held only inside the family, while others may be shared with non-family

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members. Boundaries on information can be tied to the expectations set by the family leaders,
such as the parents or caretakers.

Additionally, homeostasis argues that family members always try to obtain a balance within
their interactions; systems theory can also be thought of in terms of homeostasis and teamwork
in a work environment. If a team works very efficiently and accomplishes many tasks, they have
achieved a state of homeostasis. However, if the team is easily disrupted by distractions or is
inefficient, they have not achieved homeostasis. Adaptation is how a family readjusts to anything
that changes within the environment of the family unit.

Systems theory was created because of the effect behaviorism had on psychology. It addresses
the weakness of mechanistic approaches and provides an excellent framework to solve problems
because it analyzes the interdependence and wholeness of the system.

9.1.3. What are Information systems?

Many organizations work with large amounts of data. Data are basic values or facts and are
organized in a database. Many people think of data as synonymous with information; however,
information actually consists of data that has been organized to help answer questions and to
solve problems. An information system is defined as the software that helps organize and
analyze data. So, the purpose of an information system is to turn raw data into useful information
that can be used for decision making in an organization.

General Purpose vs. Specialized Information Systems

There are some general types of information systems. For example, a database management
system (DBMS) is a combination of software and data that makes it possible to organize and
analyze data. DBMS software is typically not designed to work with a specific organization or a
specific type of analysis. Rather, it is a general-purpose information system. Another example is
an electronic spreadsheet. This is a tool for basic data analysis based on formulas that define
relationships among the data. For example, you can use a spreadsheet to calculate averages for a
set of values or to plot the trend of a value over time.

In contrast, there are a number of specialized information systems that have been specifically
designed to support a particular process within an organization or to carry out very specific

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analysis tasks. For example, enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an information system used
to integrate the management of all internal and external information across an entire
organization. Another example is a geographic information system (GIS), which is used to
manage and analyze all types of geographical data. Expert systems are another example of
information system. An expert’s system is designed to solve complex problems by following the
reasoning of an expert.

Typical Components of Information Systems

While information systems may differ in how they are used within an organization, they
typically contain the following components:

1. Hardware: Computer-based information systems use computer hardware, such as

processors, monitors, keyboard and printers.
2. Software: These are the programs used to organize, process and analyze data.
3. Databases: Information systems work with data, organized into tables and files.
4. Network: Different elements need to be connected to each other, especially if many
different people in an organization use the same information system.
5. Procedures: These describe how specific data are processed and analyzed in order to get
the answers for which the information system is designed.

The first four components are part of the general information technology (IT) of an
organization. Procedures, the fifth component, are very specific to the information needed to
answer a specific question.

Different Types

The many different types of information systems can be divided into categories based on where
they are used in the hierarchy of an organization.

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 Information management is the process of collecting, storing,
and organizing data in a way that allows for efficient retrieval
and use. Its purpose is to ensure that the right information is
available to the right people at the right time, in order to facilitate
decision-making and support the efficient operation of an
organization.

9.2. Fundamental concepts.

Protocols in the TCP/IP

TCP/IP has 4 layers Application layer. Programs use application layer protocols to access
network resources. Application layer protocols include: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Server Message Block
(SMB)Domain Name System (DNS), Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), one –way incoming
message) Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), (two –way incoming message)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

Transport layer.

Transport layer protocols control data transfer reliability on the network. Transport layer
protocols include: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

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Internet layer.

The Internet layer protocols control packet movement between networks. Internet layer protocols
include: Internet protocol (IP) (IPv4 and IPv6) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Internet
Group Management Protocol (IGMP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Network interface layer.

The network interface layer protocols define how datagrams from the Internet layer are
transmitted on the media.

Protocols in the TCP/IP Suite

What is an IP Address?

An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are expressed as a set of

four numbers — an example address might be 192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can range
from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Static addressing

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Assign permanent IP address Gives consistency for monitoring Can be laborious for large
networks Dynamic addressing IP address assigned during logon Uses the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

Default gateway

IP address of the router that has a connection to other networks. Name resolution Domain Name
System (DNS) translates domain and computer names to IP addresses

frame and packet.

Network Devices

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.

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Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.

3.Bridge A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.

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4. Switch

A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency (a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device.

5.Routers

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. Router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets.

Wireless router

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6.Gateway

A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may work
upon different networking models. They basically work as the messenger agents that take data
from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.

IP addressing

An IP address is a number identifying of a computer or another device on the Internet. IPv4 vs

IPv6 addresses IPv4 was deployed on ARPANET work (advanced research projects agency NET
work) in 1983 and still powers most of the internet.

IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long. Four bytes

The maximum value of a 32-bit number is 2 power 32, or 4,294,967,296. So the maximum
number of IPv4 addresses, which is called its address space, is about 4.3 billion.

IPv6

A major advantage of IPv6 is that it uses 128 bits of data to store an address, permitting 2 power
128 unique addresses, or 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,76 8,211,456. or 340 trillion
unique address.

IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), and was formalized in 1998.
16-byte, addresses that means 340 trillion address. IP addresses are globally managed by
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and regional Internet registries (RIR).

Subnets and Super nets

Subnets provide a way of chopping/slicing up or Splitting large networks into smaller entities.
Networks might be split up to segment traffic. Networks might be split up to facilitate better use
of an assigned IP address space.

What is IP Subnetting?

IP Subnetting is a process of dividing a large IP network in smaller IP networks. In Subnetting

we create multiple small manageable networks from a single large IP network.

Subnetting example

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178
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What is Super netting

Super netting is the process of summarizing a bunch of contiguous Sub netted networks back in a
single large network. Super netting is also known as route summarization and route aggregation.

Super netting example

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IP address Classes

subnet mask

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A subnet mask is a number that defines a range of IP addresses available within a network. A
subnet mask hides (or masks) the network part of a system's IP address and leaves only the host
part as the machine identifier.

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What is Sub netting?

Sub netting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the address into
two or more subnets. In this case, a part of the host address is reserved to identify the particular
subnet. Classful IP addressing does not provide any flexibility of having a smaller number of
Hosts per Network or more Networks per IP Class. CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing
provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part of the IP address and using them as
Network in Network, called Subnet.

Classful /FLSM

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CLDR/VLSM

By using subnetting, one single Class A IP address can be used to have smaller subnetworks
(128) which provides better network management capabilities.

Class A Subnets

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in Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three octets are used to be
assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from
Host part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly. For example, if one MSB
(Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host bits of second octet and added to Network address,
it creates two Subnets (2 the power of 1 =2) with (2 the power of 23-2) 8388606 Hosts per
Subnet.

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Class B Subnets

By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (2 power of 14
(usable) 16384 /65,536 Networks and (2 power of 16-2) 65,534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can
be sub netted the same way as Class A addresses, by borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is
given all possible combination of Class B subnetting.

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Class C Subnets

Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size network because it can only have
254 hosts in a network. Given below is a list of all possible combination of sub netted Class C IP
address.

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Example 1 Now that you understand subnetting, put this knowledge to use. In this example, you
are given two addresses / mask combinations, written with the prefix/length notation, which have
been assigned to two devices. Your task is to determine if these devices are on the same subnet
or different subnets. You can use the address and mask of each device in order to determine to
which subnet each address belongs. Device A: 172.16.17.30/20 Device B: 172.16.28.15/20
Determine the Subnet for Device A:

172.16.17.30 - 10101100.00010000.00010001.00011110

255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

-----------------| sub|------------

Subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0

Looking at the address bits that have a corresponding mask bit set to one, and setting all the other

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address bits to zero (this is equivalent to performing a logical "AND" between the mask and
address),

shows you to which subnet this address belongs. In this case, Device A belongs to subnet
172.16.16.0.

Determine the Subnet for Device B:

172.16.28.15 - 10101100.00010000.00011100.00001111

255.255.240.0 - 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

-----------------| sub|------------

Subnet = 10101100.00010000.00010000.00000000 = 172.16.16.0

From these determinations, Device A and Device B have addresses that are part of the same
subnet.

Example 2 Given the Class C network of 204.15.5.0/24, subnet the network in order to create the
network in the below figure with the host requirements shown.

Looking at the network shown in the above figure, you can see that you are required to create
five subnets. The largest subnet must support 28 host addresses. Is this possible with a Class C
network? If so, then how? You can start by looking at the subnet requirement. In order to create
the five needed subnets, you would need to use three bits from the Class C host bits. Two bits
would only allow you four subnets (22).

Since you need three subnet bits that leaves you with five bits for the host portion of the address,
how

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many hosts do this support? 25

= 32 (30 usable). This meets the requirement.

Therefore, you have determined that it is possible to create this network with a Class C network.
An example of how you might assign the subnetworks is:

netA: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30

netB: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62

netC: 204.15.5.64/27 host address range 65 to 94

netD: 204.15.5.96/27 host address range 97 to 126

netE: 204.15.5.128/27 host address range 129 to 158

Example 3

Here is a scenario where subnetting is needed. Pretend that a web host with a Class C network
needs to divide the network so that parts of the network can be leased to its customers. Let's
assume that a host has a network address of 216.3.128.0. Let's say that we're going to divide the
network into 2 and dedicate the first half to itself, and the other half to its customers.

216. 3. 128. (0000 0000) (1st half assigned to the web host)

216. 3. 128. (1000 0000) (2nd half assigned to the customers)

The web host will have the subnet mask of 216.3.128.128 (/25). Now, we'll further divide the
2nd

half into eight blocks of 16 IP addresses.

216. 3. 128. (1000 0000) Customer 1 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1001 0000) Customer 2 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1010 0000) Customer 3 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1011 0000) Customer 4 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1100 0000) Customer 5 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

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216. 3. 128. (1101 0000) Customer 6 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1110 0000) Customer 7 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

216. 3. 128. (1111 0000) Customer 8 -- Gets 16 IPs (14 usable)

-----------------------------

255. 255. 255. (1111 0000) (Subnet mask of 255.255.255.240)

9.4. Wireless LAN

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices using
wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area such as a
home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building.

This gives users the ability to move around within the area and remain connected to the network.
Through a gateway, a WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider Internet

What is a Wi-Fi or wireless network vs. a wired network?

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A wireless network allows devices to stay connected to the network but roam untethered (not
connected) to any wires. Access points amplify Wi-Fi signals, so a device can be far from a
router but still be connected to the network.

When you connect to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a cafe, a hotel, an airport lounge, or another public
place, you're connecting to that business's wireless network.

A wired network uses cables to connect devices, such as laptop or desktop computers, to the
Internet or another network. A wired network has some disadvantages when compared to a
wireless network.

biggest disadvantage is that your device is tied to a router. The most common wired networks
use cables connected at one end to an Ethernet port on the network router and at the other end to
a computer or other device.

an ad-hoc network

From Latin meaning ''for this,'' an ad-hoc network is a makeshift chain of devices that can
connect and communicate directly with one another at the time of need.

Point-to-point (telecommunications)

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In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications connection
between two communication endpoints or nodes. An example is a telephone call, in which one
telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be heard by the
other.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides access to packet
switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially
better voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched
connection for data in increments of 64 kilobit/s.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

It is an International Telecommunication Union Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-T)

efficient for call relay and it transmits all information including multiple service types such as
data, video or voice which is conveyed in small fixed size packets called cells.

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DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a modem technology that uses existing telephone lines to
transport high-bandwidth data, such as multimedia and video, to service subscribers. DSL
provides dedicated, point-to-point, public network access.

9.3. Network design and implementation

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Network design requirements. Most businesses actually have only a few requirements for their
network (Scalability, Availability, Security, Manageability): The network should stay up all the
time, even in the event of failed links, equipment failure, and overloaded conditions.

Network scalability

Scalability is the ability of a network to cope with increasing workloads in a cost-effective and
sustainable way, by expanding the network’s bandwidth capacity and supporting its physical
expansion to new development areas.

Network availability

Network availability is the amount of uptime in a network system over a specific time interval.
Uptime refers to the amount of time a network is fully operational. Network availability is
calculated by dividing the uptime by the total time in any period.

The goal is 100% availability, although another commonly referenced goal is known as “five
nines,” or 99.999% availability. That’s the equivalent of only a few minutes of downtime in a
year.

Network security

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Network security consists of the policies, processes and practices adopted to prevent, detect and
monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and
network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a
network, which is controlled by the network administrator.

Network manageability

The ability to effectively operate, monitor and control an entire network is the domain of
network management. Network management is a multifaceted discipline that provides network
administrators with network management tools, protocols and processes to empower optimized
network operations.

Router configuration

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Wireless network configuration

Hierarchical Network Design

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Core Layer - Connects Distribution Layer devices. Also called network backbone. Distribution
Layer - Interconnects the smaller local networks Access Layer - Provides connectivity for
network hosts and end devices.

Network design methodology

Large network design projects are normally divided into three distinct steps: Step 1: Identify the
network requirements. Step 2: Characterize the existing network. Step 3: Design the network
topology and solutions.

Identifying Network Requirements

The network designer works closely with the customer to document the goals of the project.
Goals are usually separated into two categories: Business goals - Focus on how the network can
make the business more successful Technical requirements - Focus on how the technology is
implemented within the network.

Characterizing the Existing Network

Information about the current network and services is gathered and analyzed. It is necessary to
compare the functionality of the existing network with the defined goals of the new project. The
designer determines whether any existing equipment, infrastructure, and protocols can be re-
used, and what new equipment and protocols are needed to complete the design.

Designing the Network Topology

A common strategy for network design is to take a top-down approach. In this approach, the
network applications and service requirements are identified, and then the network is designed to
support them. When the design is complete, a prototype or proof of-concept test is performed

WLAN Topology

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Determining the Scope of the Project

While gathering requirements, the designer identifies the issues that affect the entire network and
those that affect only specific portions. Failure to understand the impact of a particular
requirement often causes a project scope to expand beyond the original estimate.

This oversight can greatly increase the cost and time required to implement the new design. The
new project can be: Impacting the Entire Network Impacting a Portion of the Network.

The Core Layer includes one or more links to the devices at the enterprise edge in order to
support Internet, Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), extranet, and WAN access. Goals of the Core
Layer Provide 100% uptime Maximize throughput • Facilitate network growth

Preventing Failures

The network designer must strive to provide a network that is resistant to failures and can
recover quickly in the event of a failure. Core routers and switches can contain:

Dual power supplies and fans A modular chassis-based design Additional management modules
Reducing Human Error Failures at the Core Layer cause widespread outages. It is critical to have

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written policies and procedures in place to govern how changes are approved, tested, installed,
and documented.

Design Considerations

Most networks contain a combination of dynamic and static routes. Network designers need to
consider the number of routes required to ensure that all destinations in the network are
reachable.

Large routing tables can take significant time to converge. The design of network addressing and
summarization strategies in all layers affects how well the routing protocol can react to a failure.

Demilitarized Zones

In the traditional network firewall design, servers that needed to be accessed from external
networks were located on a demilitarized zone (DMZ). LAN users were treated as trusted users
and usually had few restrictions imposed when they accessed servers on the DMZ.

Secured Employee Access

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To secure employee access, use an entirely separate WLAN infrastructure that does not include
guest access. The recommended practice is to separate the internal users on a different VLAN.

Other wireless implementation recommended practices include: Non-broadcast SSID Strong

encryption User authentication Virtual private network (VPN) tunneling for sensitive data
Firewall and intrusion prevention/IDS

9.4. LINUX SYSTEM AND NETWORK ADMINISTRATION

How to determine risk?

“Risk Assessment” Identify assets Identify threats Identify vulnerabilities Determine likelihood
of damage Estimate cost of recovery Estimate cost of defense A risk is the likelihood of a threat
successfully exploiting a vulnerability and the estimated cost (or potential damage) both in the
short and long term you may incur as a result.

System Security

The thing that makes security difficult is not the software or hardware components. It’s the
human component. Users care about usability, not about security, Users will not change their
default settings. Giving freedom is easier than taking it away.

System Security

The thing that makes security difficult is not the software or hardware components. It’s the
human component. Users care about usability, not about security. Users will not change their
default settings. -Giving freedom is easier than taking it away.

Encryption

Encryption can help mitigate some of the risks sometimes. It may provide security in the areas
of: 1. Secrecy or Confidentiality Did/could anybody else see (parts of) the message? 2. Accuracy
or Integrity Was the message (could it have been) modified before I received it? 3. Authenticity -
Is the party I’m talking to actually who I think it is / they claim they are?

UNIX

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Unix is a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system You can have many users logged into a
system simultaneously, each running many programs. It's the kernel's job to keep each process
and user separate and to regulate access to system hardware, including cup, memory, disk and
other I/O devices.

What is LINUX

Linux is a free Unix-type operating system originally created by Linus Torvalds with the
assistance of developers around the world. It originated in 1991 as a personal project of Linus
Torvalds, a graduate student. The Kernel version 1.0 was released in 1994 and today the most
recent stable version is 2.6.9 Developed under the GNU General Public License, the source code
for Linux is freely available to everyone.

LINUX Distributions

Mandrake: http://www.mandrakesoft.com/ RedHat: http://www.redhat.com/ Fedora:

http://fedora.redhat.com/ SuSE/Novell: http://www.suse.com/ Debian: http://www.debian.org/

Red Hat Enterprise Linux is an Enterprise targeted Operating System. It based on mature Open
Source technology and available at a cost with one-year Red Hat Network subscription for
upgrade and support contract.

UNIX Structure

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unicast, multicast, broadcast, any cast

A unicast communication originates from one computer and is destined for exactly one other
computer (or host). A multicast is destined for a group (of computers). A broadcast is meant for
everyone. An anycast signal goes the (geographically) nearest of a well-defined group.

Linux Resource Monitoring & Management

Most Linux distributions are equipped with tons of monitoring. These tools provide metrics
which can be used to get information about system activities. You can use these tools to find the
possible causes of a performance problem.

UNIX File System

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File System

The Unix file system looks like an inverted tree structure. You start with the root directory,
denoted by /, at the top and work down through sub-directories underneath it.

Each node is either a file or a directory of files, where the latter can contain other files and
directories. You specify a file or directory by its path name, either the full, or absolute, path
name or the one relative to a location. The full path name starts with the root, /, and follows the
branches of the file system, each separated by /, until you reach the desired file, e.g.:
/home/Condron/source/xntp

A relative path name specifies the path relative to another, usually the current working directory
that you are at. Two special directories: the current directory the parent of the current directory
So if I'm at /home/frank and wish to specify the path above in a relative fashion I could use:
/condron/source/xntp This indicates that I should first go up one directory level, then come down
through the condron directory, followed by the source directory and then to xntp.

Structure of Standard Directories in Unix/Linux

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The ancestor of all directories on the system; all other directories are subdirectories of this
directory, either directly or through other subdirectories. Most Linux systems however, follow a
general convention for file system organization at the highest level. /(root):- The top level
directory referred to as root. Contains all files in the file system. /bin:- Executable files for
standard UNIX utilities. /dev:- Files that represent devices. For example, you use the file
`/dev/cdrom' to access the CD−ROM drive.

Standard Linux File System

/etc:- Miscellaneous and system administrative files such as the password file and system start up
files. – /lib:- UNIX program libraries. – /tmp:- Temporary space that can be used by programs or
users. – /usr:-used to store any files that are common to all users on the system.

– /u:- User home directories. – /var:- Variable sized files. – /home:- directory in which every user
on the system has his own personal folder for his own personal files. (my documents in window)
– /mnt:- it is a mounted device. All storage device is mounted to use in the linux. – /proc:-a
deluxe version of the Windows Task Manager. It holds all the information about your system's
processes and resources.

Directories, Files and Inodes

Every directory and file is listed in its parent directory. In the case of the root directory, that
parent is itself. A directory is a file that contains a table listing the files contained within it,
giving file names to the inode numbers in the list. The information about all the files and
directories is maintained in INODE TABLE An Inode (Index Nodes) is an entry in the table
containing information about a including file permissions, UID, file (metadata) GID, size, time
stamp, pointers to files data blocks on the disk etc.

Users, Groups and Access Permissions

In UNIX/LINUX, there is a concept of user and an associated group the system determines
whether or not a user or group can access a file or program based on the permissions assigned to
them. Apart from all the users, there is a special user called Super User or the root which has
permission to access any file and directory.

Access Permissions

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There are three permissions for any file, directory or application program. The following lists the
symbols used to denote each, along with a brief description: r - Indicates that a given category of
user can read a file. w — Indicates that a given category of user can write to a file. x — Indicates
that a given category of user can execute the file.

Each of the three permissions are assigned to three defined categories of users. The categories
are: owner group — The owner of the file or application. — The group that owns the file or
application. others — All users with access to the system.

One can easily view the permissions for a file by invoking a long format listing using the
command ls -l. For instance, if the user juan creates an executable file named test, the output of
the command ls -l test would look like this: -rwxrwxrwx 1 juan student 0 Sep 26 12:25 test

The permissions for this file are listed at the start of the line, starting with rwx. This first set of
symbols define owner access. The next set of rwx symbols define group access the last set of
symbols defining access permitted for all other users.

This listing indicates that the file is readable, writable, and executable by the user who owns the
file (user juan) as well as the group owning the file (which is a group named student). The file is
also world-readable and world- executable, but not world-writable.

Listing the Content of a Directory

ls is used to list the contents of a directory. If the command ls is written with parameter –l then
the command lists contents of the working directory with details. Example: $ ls –l

Moving in Directories

cd try_it Changes the directory to try_it pwd Prints present working directory (e.g.
/home/smith/try_it) cd .. Move to superior directory pwd : Prints /home/smith cd /home The
absolute path pwd : Prints /home cd The system is returned to the user home directory pwd :
Print /home/smith.

Make Directory

The command mkdir my_dir makes new directory my_dir (the path is given relative) as a
subdirectory of the current directory.

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Remove Directory

The command rmdir your_dir removes directory your_dir if it is empty.

Copy File

The command cp file_1 file_2 copies file_1 to file_2. The both files must be in the same working
directory. If they are in various directories, the path must be given.

Rename and/or Move the File

The command mv file_1 file_2 moves file_1 to file_2 both files must be in the same working
directory. If they are in different directories, the path must be given. The file_1 is removed from
the disk.

Remove File

The command rm file_a removes the file_a from the system If you use wildcard. For example,
rm h*c you will remove all files beginning with h and ending with c which are in working
directory. If you write rm *

you will erase all files from your working directory.

Access Permission of File/Directory

The ownership of the file or directory can be changed using the command chown the group of
the file or directory can be changed using the command chgrp The permissions of the file can be
changed using chmod command chmod -R ### -R is optional and when used with directories
will traverse all the sub-directories of the target directory changing ALL the permissions to ###.

Access Permission of File/Directory

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Linux system Resource and performance Monitoring

9.5. Network Administration

What is administration?

208
Merriam Webster: administer, v: to manage or supervise the execution, use, or conduct of
something. In this regard, the main issues are the following: System plan and design Resource
management (checking and repair) Fault diagnosis handing

System administration

Is a set of functions that: – Provides support services – Ensures reliable operations – Promotes
efficient use of the system – Ensures that prescribed service-quality objectives are met • System
administration functions includes installation, configuration, and maintenance of network
equipment and computer systems. – Network equipment switches, routers, DHCP, DNS servers,
etc. – Computer systems database, email server, web server

Is the branch of engineering that is responsible for maintaining reliable computer systems in a
multi-user environment A person who works as a system administration is called system
administrator, or sys admin.

Systems Administration…

Monitoring of systems/software. Performing backups of data. Installing and configuring new

hardware/software. Adding/deleting/creating/modifying user account information, resetting
passwords, etc. Automating operations Responsibility for security. Responsibility for
documenting the configuration of the system. •System performance tuning. Keeping the network
up and running.

The Goal of System Administration

Ensuring the systems are running efficiently and effectively. Supervise system functionality.
Every system must work and be connected to the network. Create backups on media, better if
automatic backup. Create and install desktop and servers. – Create users and assign to them
customizable Graphical User Interface. Update systems for the maximum performance Share
system resources for the maximum network flow share disks between heterogenous systems in
the better position share printers to save superfluous investment Systems starts up and
shutdowns properly Allocating disks spaces and relocating quotas when the needs grows.

The Goal of Network Administration

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Network administration means the management of network infrastructures devices (such as
router and switches) Network administration compromises of 3 majors’ groups: Network
provisioning It consists of planning and design of network which is done by engineer. Network
operations it consists of fault, configurations, traffic, all type of management. It is nerve center of
network management operations. Network maintenance: it consists of all type of installations
and maintenance work.

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What exactly does a System Administrator do? no precise job description – often learned by
experience “makes things run” often known as IT support, Operator, Network Administrator,
System Programmer, System Manager, Service Engineer, Site Reliability Engineer etc.

What sysadmins do?

User account management, Hardware management, perform filesystem backups, restores Install
and configure new software and services, keep systems and services operating, Maintain
documentation Audit security Help users, performance tuning, and more!

9.4.1. User Management

Is Defining the rights of organizational members to information in the organization Involves a
wide range of functionality such as adding/deleting users, controlling user activity through
permissions, managing user roles, updating permissions when users change roles, defining
authentication policies, managing external user stores and manual/automatic logout, and resetting
passwords. Challenge: managing large number of users – Commonly organized into groups
(users with similar privileges) E.g. all faculty members in the computer science department

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access to mailing list Active directory in windows provides centralized user management and
access control for computers.

Any user management system has the following basic components: Users: Users are consumers
who interact with your organizational applications, databases, and other systems. A user can be
a person, a device, or another application/program within or outside of the organization's
network. Because users interact with internal systems and access data, organizations need to
define which data and functionality each user can access by assigning permissions.

Permissions: A permission is a delegation of authority or a right that is assigned to a user or a

group of users to perform an action on a system. Permissions can be granted to or revoked from a
user, user group, or user role automatically or by a system administrator.

User roles: A user role is a grouping of permissions. In addition to assigning individual

permissions to users, admins can create user roles and assign those roles to users. For example,
you might create user roles called VP, Manager, and Employee, each of which has a different set
of permissions, and then assign those roles to users based on their position in the company.
Then, if you need to modify the permissions of all your managers, you can simply modify the
Manager user role, and all the users with that role will have their permissions updated
automatically.

Creating user accounts User Ids, Home directories (quotas, drive capacities) , Default startup
files (paths), Permissions, group memberships, accounting and restrictions, Communicating
policies and procedures, Disabling / removing user accounts, Consistency requires automation,
Username and UID namespace management , Home directory backups and quotas, Removing
user accounts Consistency requires automation , Remove everything, not just home dir and
passwd.

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9.4.2. Hardware Management
Adding and removing hardware, Configuration, cabling, etc. Device driver's installation
Scheduling downtimes and notifying users, Hardware evaluation and purchase, System
configuration and settings, Capacity planning, How many servers? How much bandwidth, disk
space? Data Center management Power, racks, environment (cooling, fire alarm).

9.4.3. Data Backups

Perhaps most important aspect! Backup strategy and policies, Scheduling: when and how often?
–Capacity planning –Location: On-site vs off-site, Installing backup software, Performing
backups and restores, Monitoring backups Checking logs, Verifying media, Disaster recovery
Onsite/Offsite Periodic testing Multiple copies.

Backup

The process of taking a copy of important data to another partition or disk or secondary site for
preservation. The process of backing up data is pivotal to a successful disaster recovery (DR)
plan.

Types of Backup

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9.4.4. Software Installation and Maintenance

Automated consistent OS installs, Evaluation of software, Finding and building open source
software, Purchase of commercial software, Managing software installations Distributing
software to multiple hosts Package management Managing multiple versions of a software pkg,
Patching and updating software, Scheduling downtimes and notifying users, Maintenance of
multiple versions.

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9.4.5. Troubleshooting
Problem discovery, diagnosis, and resolution Often difficult, Problem identification By user
notification By log files or monitoring programs, Tracking and visibility Ensure users know
you’re working on problem , Finding the root cause of problems Provide temporary solution if
necessary Solve the root problem to permanently eliminate.

9.4.6. Monitoring
Hardware and services functioning and operational, Automatically monitor systems for
Problems (disk full, error logs, security) Performance (CPU, memory, disk, network), Log
periodic rotation and backups, Provides data for capacity planning – Convince management of
need for hardware, Two Kinds: – Reactive: Detecting and analyzing failures after they have
occurred, Problem notifications, analyzing logs after failures(e.g. identifying modus operandi,
affected system – Proactive: testing a system for specific issues before they occur, Vulnerability
scanners(automatically identify/prioritize issues), penetration testing.

9.4.7. Local Documentation

Administrative policies and procedures – Backup media locations – Hardware, Location,
Description, configuration, connections – Software, Install media (or download location),
Installation, build, and configuration details, Patches installed, Acceptable use policies, Network
setting.

9.4.8. Security Concerns

System logging and audit facilities – Evaluation and implementation – Monitoring and analysis –
Traps, auditing and monitoring programs, Unexpected or unauthorized use detection, Monitoring
of security advisories – Security holes and weaknesses – Live exploits.

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9.4.9. Helping Users
Request tracking system – Ensures that you don’t forget problems. – Ensures users know you’re
working on their problem; reduces interruptions, status queries. – Lets management know what
you’ve done. User documentation and training – Acceptable Use Policies – Document software,
hardware (printers), etc.

Qualities of a Successful Sysadmin

Customer oriented – Ability to deal with interrupts, time pressure – Communication skills –
Service provider, not system police, Technical knowledge – Hardware, network, and software
knowledge – Debugging and troubleshooting skills, Time management – Automate everything
possible. – Ability to prioritize tasks: urgency and importance.

Implement Strong Security – Less privilege principle, – a role-based security system, –

monitoring critical services, – and conducting vulnerability and penetration testing. – Also,
watch for any signs of a break-in.

9.5. Network security

Network security is any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of your network
and data. It includes both hardware and software technologies.

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Antivirus and antimalware software

"Malware," short for "malicious software," includes viruses, worms, Trojans, ransomware, and
spyware. Sometimes malware will infect a network but lie dormant for days or even weeks. The
best antimalware programs not only scan for malware upon entry, but also continuously track
files afterward to find anomalies, remove malware, and fix damage.

Firewalls

Firewall is a security framework for the network that tracks and regulates incoming and outgoing
network traffic. Firewalls are defined as a network-based or host based system that is based on a
set of security rules to allow or block, It is also capable of filtering traffic from unsecured or
suspicious sources to avoid attacks, such as malicious traffic.

If a firewall filters traffic based on IP address, it operates at the network layer. If a firewall filters
traffic based on port number, it operates at the transport layer, and if a firewall inspects protocol
states or data, then it operates at the application layer.

DMZ or demilitarized zone

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Intrusion prevention systems (IPS/IDS)

An intrusion prevention system (IPS) scans network traffic to actively block attacks. Cisco Next-
Generation IPS (NGIPS) appliances do this by correlating huge amounts of global threat
intelligence to not only block malicious activity but also track the progression of suspect files
and malware across the network to prevent the spread of outbreaks and reinfection.

Virtual private network (VPN)

A virtual private network encrypts the connection from an endpoint to a network, often over the
Internet. Typically, a remote access VPN uses IPsec or Secure Sockets Layer to authenticate the
communication between device and network.

Network security tools (Lab session)

Network Security Monitoring tools, Encryption Tools, Web Vulnerability Scanning tools,
Network Defence Wireless Tools, Packet Sniffers, Antivirus Software, Firewall, Snort, Nagios •
Wireshark Penetration testing tools • Kali Linux , Nikto, Log360, SiteLock.

9.6. Specials

Information Systems Management are applying computer-base for managing information in

organizations for management roles such as interpersonal roles, informational roles and decision-

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based roles. Information Systems Management compound of theories of computer science and
management science. These theories build systems and program utilization.

Troubleshooting (Hardware, Software, Network)

What is Hardware Troubleshooting? This is a process of analyzing, diagnosing, and discovering

operational or mechanical defects within a hardware device or equipment. The main aim is to fix
physical and/or logical flaws within the computer hardware. This process is done by a hardware
or technical support technician.

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Software troubleshooting

Software troubleshooting is the process of scanning, identifying, diagnosing and resolving

problems, errors and bugs in software. It is a systematic process that aims to filter out and
resolve problems, and restore the software to normal operation. It is a subcategory of IT
troubleshooting.

Network troubleshooting

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Network troubleshooting in the process of measuring, identifying, and resolving network-related
issues. It’s also defined as a logical process network engineers follow to improve the overall
network operations. Troubleshooting is a repetitive, rigorous, and effective process that involves
regular analysis and testing of individual network components to ensure smooth operations.

System requirement

System requirement simply means needs of system to run smoothly and efficiently. It is a
structured document that gives a detailed description of system functions, services, and
operational constraints. It requires many hardware and software resources.

Systems design

Systems design is an interdisciplinary engineering activity that enables the realization of

successful systems. A system may be denned as an integrated set of components that accomplish
a defined objective.

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System installation

Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plugins), is the act of
making the program ready for execution. Installation refers to the particular configuration of a
software or hardware with a view to making it usable with the computer.

System configuration

System configuration mainly refers to the specification of a given computer system, from its
hardware components to the software and various processes that are run within that system. It
refers to what types and models of devices are installed and what specific software is being used
to run the various parts of the computer system.

Chapter 10
10.1. overview of information systems security

Information systems security, more commonly referred to as INFOSEC, refers to the processes
and methodologies involved with keeping information confidential, available, and assuring its
integrity.

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It also refers to:

Access controls, which prevent unauthorized personnel from entering or accessing a system.

Protecting information, no matter where that information is, i.e. in transit (such as in an
email) or in a storage area.

The detection and remediation of security breaches, as well as documenting those events.

As computers and other digital devices have become essential to business and commerce,
they have also increasingly become a target for attacks. In order for a company or an
individual to use a computing device with confidence, they must first be assured that the
device is not compromised in any way and that all communications will be secure. This
chapter reviews the fundamental concepts of information systems security and discusses
some of the measures that can be taken to mitigate security threats. The chapter begins
with an overview focusing on how organizations can stay secure. Several different
measures that a company can take to improve security will be discussed. Finally, you will
review a list of security precautions that individuals can take in order to secure their
personal computing environment.

10.2. Basic Information Security Concepts

Three basic information security concepts important to information are Confidentiality,

Integrity, and Availability. If we relate these concepts with the people who use that
information, then it will be authentication, authorization, and non-repudiation.
Information Security is such a broad discipline that it’s easy to get lost in a single area and lose
perspective. Nevertheless, the classic definition of information security is brief and
simple: ‘Information security is the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information also
referred as C-I-A triad or information security triad.

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Confidentiality
When information is read or copied by someone not authorized to do so, then it will be “loss of
confidentiality”. For sensitive information, confidentiality is a very important criterion. Bank
account statements, personal information, credit card numbers, trade secrets, government
documents are some examples of sensitive information. This goal of the CIA triad emphasizes
the need for information protection. For example, confidentiality is maintained for a computer
file, if authorized users are able to view it, while unauthorized persons are blocked from seeing
it.
Integrity
Information can be corrupted or manipulated if it’s available on an insecure network, and is
referred to as “loss of integrity.” This means that unauthorized changes are made to
information, whether by human error or intentional tampering. Integrity is particularly important
for critical safety and financial data used for activities such as electronic funds transfers, air
traffic control, and financial accounting. For example, banks are more concerned about the
integrity of financial records, with confidentiality having only second priority. Some bank

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account holders or depositors leave ATM receipts unchecked and hanging around after
withdrawing cash. This shows that confidentiality does not have the highest priority. In the CIA
triad, integrity is maintained when the information remains unchanged during storage,
transmission, and usage not involving modification to the information.
Availability
Information can be erased or become inaccessible, resulting in “loss of availability.” This means
that people who are authorized to get information are restricted from accessing. Availability is
often the most important attribute in service-oriented businesses that depend on
information. Denying access to information has become a very common attack nowadays.
Almost every week you can find news about high profile websites being taken down by Denial
of Service attacks. The CIA triad goal of availability is the situation where information is
available when and where it is rightly needed.
Now let’s take a look at other key terms in Information Security – Authorization,
Authentication, and Nonrepudiation processes and methods, which are some of the main controls
aimed at protecting the C-I-A triad.
The first events in the history of exploiting security date back to the days of telephony.
Telephone signals were sent via copper cables. Telephone lines could be tapped and
conversations could be heard. In the early days of telephone systems, telephone operators
intentionally misdirected calls and eavesdropped on conversations. In the 1970s, a set of people
known as phreakers exploited the weakness of digital switching telephone systems for fun.
Phreakers discovered the signal frequency at which the numbers are dialed and tried to match the
frequency by blowing a whistle and fooling the electronic switching system to make calls for
free. Among these phreakers, John Draper found that he could make long-distance calls for free
by building an electronic box that could whistle different frequencies.

During the 1960s and 1970s, telephone networks became the dominant mode of communication,
connecting millions of users. Given the increasing importance of computers and the advent of
time shared systems, it was natural to consider linking the computers on the telephone networks
so that information could be shared among geographically distributed networks. Since telephones
were analog and computers were digital, modem (modulator and demodulator) devices were
used to connect computers over the telephone network. Connecting computers and sharing

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information was of major interest during the early days of network computing and the security of
the information became weak. Since people already knew how to break and tap into the phone
systems, it became a game for them to break into the computer system, which was connected
over the telephone networks.

With the creation of Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), a limited form
of a system break-in to the network began. ARPANET was originally designed to allow
scientists to share data and access remote systems. E-mail applications became the most popular
application to allow scientists to collaborate on research projects and discuss various topics over
the network. Soon, a bulletin message board was created where people could post a topic and
discuss various research topics together. Bulletin boards became the venue of choice for
discussing a wide range of topics, including passwords, credit card numbers, and trade tips,
which encouraged the bad guys to hack into the system. Some famous bulletin boards include
Sherwood Forest and Catch-22.

10.4. WHAT IS ARPANET?

The predecessor of the Internet, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
was a large wide-area network created by the United States Defense Advanced Research Project
Agency (ARPA). Established in 1969, ARPANET served as a testing ground for new networking
technologies, linking many universities and research centers. The first two nodes that formed the
ARPANET were UCLA and the Stanford Research Institute, followed shortly thereafter by the
University of Utah. Some of the reasons for creating ARPANET include making it easier for
people to access computers, to improve computer equipment, and to have a more effective
communication method for the military.

In the 1980s, the TCP/IP network protocol Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
Protocol (IP), and Personal Computers (PC) brought computing to homes where more and more
people connected to the Internet. The 1983 fictional movie, “War Games,” was watched by
millions of people and popularized hacking and made it glamorous. In 1981, Ian Murphy broke
into AT&T’s computers and changed billing rates of meters. He was later convicted.1 Kevin
Mitnick stole computer manuals of Pacific Bells’ switching center in Los Angeles, California,

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and was prosecuted for this crime.1 Bill Landreth was convicted for breaking into NASA’s
Department of Defense computers through GTE’s e-mail network. In 1988, Kevin Mitnick was
held for stealing software that was worth $1 million, and also caused damages of around $4
million.

10.5. Introduction to Cybersecurity Fundamentals

For a few years, the growth of the internet has increased exponentially. A decade back, most of
the things were handled offline while these days one can internet for almost of the purpose.
Together with the growth of the internet, security has become a point of concern. The attackers
are sitting all across the world to breach the system for their personal benefits. Several AI-based
complex applications have also been developed these days that make hacking easier. In contrast
to that, the cybersecurity auditors have also reinforced their court by using the same complex
applications to protect the system. Here in this article, we are going to learn about cybersecurity
fundamentals. Cybersecurity is comprised of various components.

10.6. Understanding the Fundamentals of Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity refers to the term which means protecting the system on the internet. It can also be
considered as fortifying the systems in order to stay protected against breaches online.
Cybersecurity compromise is several modules where every module has is responsible for
protecting the system in a particular manner. Eventually, what all the modules take care of is to
prevent the system from malicious attacks that could lead to harm to the system. Below are some
of the modules of cybersecurity that helps in protecting the system, especially to the systems that
are having a public interface.

As the digital era has gifted us a massive technological innovation, organizations and
companies have spent the past several decades aggressively increasing their online presence to
reach new customers and grow their digital presence. It is not surprising, then, that cybercrime
also escalated simultaneously. The omnipresence of the internet and growing access to it have

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made it easier than ever before for cybercriminals to target businesses and gain access to
personal information about their customers or employees.

The concept of computer security is no longer limited to only safeguarding electronic devices
against external threats. To prevent unauthorized credentials of an organization's network, it
must also ensure the security of its network. No matter what field you operate in or how
secure your data is, there will always be online threats that can put your company’s
information at risk.

In addition, physical security is also crucial, such as protecting hardware data from events or
actions that can cause serious damage to an organization, such as natural disasters, burglaries,
floods, theft, fires, vandalism, and many others.

Learning about basic concepts of cybersecurity helps equip individuals with the knowledge
they need to safeguard their networks from potential attacks and safely maintain privileged
user access. In addition, it is highly beneficial to learn the best online Cybersecurity
certificate programs.

History of Cyberthreats Explained

There has been a turbulent history of cyber threats. It was challenging to carry out a
cyberattack in an era when technology was limited. Only a few people knew how to operate
the giant electronic machines, which weren't networked, therefore, it was virtually not
hackable.

John von Neumann proposed storing the program instructions in the same memory as the data
in 1945. Stored programs made it easier for computers to reprogram and complete the fetch -
decode-execute cycle (FDE). This idea is often called ‘Von Neumann’ architecture.

In the late 1950s, phone phreaking—hijacking the phone protocols that enabled the ‘phreaks’
to work remotely on the network without contacting the telecom engineering to make free
calls and avoid paying for long-distance calls got popular. Unfortunately, the phone

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companies could not control the phreaks due to limited sources and eventually, phone
phreaking faded in the 1980s.

In 1979, Kevin Mitnick made copies of the operating systems developed by the Digital
Equipment Corporation using the Ark computer. In the following decades, he committed
several cyberattacks that led to his arrest and imprisonment. Currently, he serves as the CEO
and founder of Mitnick Security Consulting. Since this field has such a rich history, it's not
surprising that people are concerned about the recent developments since hackers can easily
penetrate increasingly robust security software.

Why is Cybersecurity Critical?

Cybersecurity is a fast-evolving field that continually poses new challenges for companies,
government agencies, and individuals. While some may assume that cybersecurity means
protecting computers from viruses and other types of malware using anti-virus software or
other security programs, this is only one aspect of the subject.

It is more common than ever for data breaches and cyberattacks to occur. They’re no longer
limited to large corporations with vast resources and sophisticated information security
practices. Today, smaller businesses and those operating online marketplace sites or other e -
commerce services are also at risk.

It takes one mischievous user with access to a computer or mobile device to break into an
organization’s network, steal confidential information, cause damage and result in lost
revenue and penalties for failing to safeguard assets. They can also expose companies to
liability risks. Thus, every organization must understand the basics of information security
and why it’s essential for their business.

The excellent accessibility of cloud computing also makes it a popular choice for many
companies, which can access information anywhere, anytime, and from any location.

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There are, however, some risks associated with cloud computing, such as the fact that few
services are available in the public domain, and third parties can access these services.
Therefore, hackers may be able to hack these services easily. In addition, cloud computing
also poses a severe security risk of account hijacking. When information in cloud accounts
such as email, bank, social media, etc., is not password protected, it becomes vulnerable, and
hackers can access it to perform unauthorized activities.

Important Cybersecurity Fundamentals

The IT Security Fundamentals skill path includes an understanding of computer hardware,

software, and network security. The cybersecurity fundamentals course trains you in
developing and implementing security solutions for small and large organizations, protecting
systems and network infrastructures.

Four Fundamentals of Cybersecurity

1. Device Protection

With the rise in cyber threats, individuals and companies should prioritize device protection.
It is crucial to protect devices that connect to the internet using anti-virus software, enables
the lock-and-erase options, activate two-factor authentication, and perform a regular
automatic update of the system software, whether they are laptops, PCs, mobile phones, AI-
based devices (Alexa, smart watches, etc.), iPads, tables, or any device that connects to the
internet. Device protection will significantly reduce the risk of attacks on individuals and their
devices regardless of their location.

2. Securing Online Connection

Once an individual device is connected online, information transmitted over the Internet
requires more defenses. Furthermore, one should use VPNs: Virtual Private Networks as they
automatically encrypt internet traffic. By using a VPN, all online transactions are secured,
including the user’s identity, location, browsing details, and any sensitive information such as
passwords and bank details.

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3. Securing Email Communication

Cybercriminals often use email to gather sensitive information about individuals or

companies. It is highly recommended to encrypt emails to prevent sensitive data from being
accessed by anyone other than the intended recipient since they mask the original information.
In addition, email encryption often includes one-time password authentication.

4. Protecting and Performing Timely Backups of Files and Documents

Backups fall into two categories: Remote backups (offline) and cloud storage (online).
Solutions differ in their advantages and disadvantages.

Remote backup services are convenient and inexpensive, but it is not easily accessible from
anywhere. Alternatively, cloud solutions can be accessed from anywhere and are suitable for
an organization that operates from different locations.

However, one must ensure that critical documents should have their own digital vault with
encryption codes, as anything connected to the internet has a cyber threat risk.

Cyber threats can, however, affect anything connected to the internet. With a database and
infrastructure security management system, the cloud computing solution is highly secure,
with strong network security, application security, and cloud security. Additionally, strong
mobile security enhances cloud computing security.

By implementing a BCDR plan, an organization can recover quickly from unforeseen cloud
security situations such as natural disasters, power outages, team member negligence,
hardware failure, and cyberattacks, allowing routine operations to resume in less time.
Moreover, identity management frameworks provide endpoint security and data security at the
highest level.

Key Concept of Cybersecurity

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Cybersecurity refers to protecting systems, networks, programs, devices, and data from cyber-
attacks using technologies, processes, and controls. The basic cybersecurity concepts involve
reducing cyber-attack risks and preventing unauthorized access to systems, networks, and
technologies.

Five Primary Key Concepts of Cybersecurity

 Threat identification
 Keeping information safe
 Detecting intrusions and attacks
 Respond to intrusions and attacks
 Rebuild intrusion defenses and recover database security
Basic Terminologies of Cyber Security

Cybersecurity basics for beginners should include these terminologies. Knowing the
cybersecurity basics terminology will help you better understand the high-tech world.
However, technological advances in cybersecurity are accompanied by the emergence of new
jargon.

1. Internet Protocol (IP) Address

Hardware devices on a network are identified by IP addresses (Internet Protocol addresses).

On a local network or over the internet, these devices can communicate with each other and
transfer data. Numbers are separated by periods in each address. It comprises four digits with
a range of 0 to 255. An IP address might look like this: 192.159.1.98

Internet computers, routers, and websites need billions of unique IP addresses to be identified
as one cannot repeat them. IPv6 is a new protocol designed to meet the day's needs when the
system runs out of unique addresses in the future.

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2. VPN - Virtual Private Network

Virtual Private Network, popularly known as VPN, allows users to maintain their privacy and
anonymity while browsing the internet. VPNs make online activities virtually untraceable by
masking the internet protocol (IP) address.

In addition to providing greater privacy than secured Wi-Fi hotspots, VPN services establish
secure and highly encrypted connections. With a VPN, online activity is hidden from
cybercriminals, businesses, governments, and other snoopers who tend to lure users into
clicking on anonymous links.

3. Firewall

A firewall monitors and filters the system's incoming and outgoing network traffic as per a
company’s security policies. Firewalls are a barrier between a private internal network and the
Internet at its primary level. A firewall blocks virtual traffic, which looks destructive, and
allows secure and non-threatening traffic to flow uninterrupted.

4. Domain Name Server (DNS)

DNS - Domain Name Server operates as the internet’s virtual phone book. As every browser
on the internet is known by its IP address which allows users to locate the device, the DNS
converts the domain name into an IP address. For instance, the DNS converts the URL of
www.mycompany123.com to a numerical IP address 204.0.6.42. Browsers send data to the
origin servers on the content delivery network (CDN) using the IP address found by DNS
servers.

5. Encryption and Decryption

Encryption is a process of converting plain text (readable message) into codes using an
encryption algorithm known as ciphertext. While, Decryption is a process of converting the
ciphertext into plain text.

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6. Encryption Key

Data that is encrypted is decrypted and unscrambled using an encryption key. Keys are unique
and complex to replicate since they are associated with specific encryption codes.

In addition, here are the top 50 cybersecurity terms you should learn to become a pro in
cybersecurity.

Common Types of Cyber Attacks

The world today is plagued by a variety of cyberattacks. However, our networks and systems
are better protected if we know the types of cyberattacks. Here are the five most common
types of cyberattacks:

1. Malware Attack

 Virus: A virus is a type of malware that can infect all the files on the network, which
is one of the most challenging types to eliminate. A computer virus can replicate
itself by inserting its malicious code into other programs.
 Worm: Have the power to infect the entire network quickly and require no end-user
involvement as the worms can self-replicate.
 Trojan: One of the most challenging types of malware to detect is Trojan malware,
as it disguises itself as a legitimate program. As soon as the victim executes the
malicious code and instructions, the malware can function independently. It is often
used as an entry point for other forms of malware.
 Adware: End-users are served unwanted advertising (for instance, contact pop-
ups) by adware.
 Spyware: This type of malware collects sensitive data like user ids and passwords
without suspecting the end-user.
 Ransomware: Known as one of the most dangerous types of malware attack that
infects the system, encrypting files and holding onto the encryption key until the
victim pays a ransom. The ransom is mainly in the form of cryptocurrency with a

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 P2P network. Increasingly, organizations are being attacked by ransomware that
costs them millions to restore vital systems as they pay off the attackers to recover
them. There are several ransomware families, but Crypto Locker, Petya, and Locky
are the most recognized ones.
2. Password Attack

Password attacks most commonly cause data breaches. To gain access to user accounts, the
hacker tries to bypass the authentication.

3. Phishing Attack

The hacker can steal user data through phishing attacks, including login credentials, bank
account details, and credit card numbers. Attackers use disguises to trick victims into opening
emails, instant messages, or text messages that appear to come from trusted entities. After the
recipient clicks a malicious link, sensitive information is revealed, and malware is installed.

4. Clickjacking

In clickjacking, the attacker usually uses some sort of ad online to lure the user. They are
tricking a user into clicking on buttons or links that open to another page that installs malware
into the user's system.

The Adobe Flash plugin settings page is one of the most scandalous examples of clickjacking.
This page could be loaded into an invisible iframe and enable an attacker to manipulate the
security settings in Flash, allowing the computer’s microphone and camera to be used
remotely by Flash animations.

5. Cryptocurrency Hijacking

Cryptocurrency hijacking is a new cyber-attack that grew rigorously after the cryptocurrency
was introduced widely. Attackers use crypto jacking to mine cryptocurrency on someone
else’s computer.

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During the attack, the attacker gains access to the user's computer by infecting their system or
manipulating them to click on malicious links. In most cases, the users are unaware of this
since the Crypto Mining code works in the background, and the only indication that
something is wrong is a delay in the execution.

Cyber Security Job Roles

1. Network Security Engineer

Every organization needs a network security engineer to ensure security systems are in place
to stop and counter threats. In addition, Network Security engineers are also responsible for
systems maintenance, vulnerability identification, and automation of the system. The
engineers also oversee the maintenance of routers, firewalls, switches, and VPNs (virtual
private networks).

2. Cybersecurity Analyst

Security measures and controls are planned, implemented, and upgraded by a cybersecurity
analyst. Security audits are conducted internally and externally to ensure no loopholes or
security lapses. In addition to conducting vulnerability testing, risk analyses, and security
assessments, a cybersecurity analyst is also responsible for managing the network. The analyst
also trains colleagues in security awareness and procedures to prevent security breaches.

3. Chief Information Security Officer (CISO)

In an organization, the Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) ensures that cybersecurity
plans are aligned with the business’s vision, operations, and technologies. Security-related
processes are also developed, implemented, and maintained by CISOs in collaboration with
their staff.

4. Ethical Hackers

Due to the intuitive knowledge and skills they possess, ethical hackers are a valuable resource
for organizations. They tested and picked apart to reveal vulnerabilities. Additionally, ethical

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hackers provide high-level cyberattack prevention information that is gaining momentum in
the market.

5. Cloud Security Engineer

An organization’s cloud-based networks and systems are built and maintained by a cloud
security engineer. They manage the organization’s cloud computing environments, core
infrastructure, and software platforms. In addition to providing security recommendations,
they also offer advice on designing and developing secure applications.

Cybersecurity Best Practices

Cyberattacks can be challenging, and keeping up with cybercriminals who constantly seek out
innovative methods of exposing security risks is tough. However, one can still prevent
cyberattacks in some ways:

1. Updating the Software Regularly

A typical software update includes updated features, bug fixes, and security updates. It is
always a good idea to update your software to the latest version to ensure your safety.

2. Making Sure the Computer is Protected from Viruses and Malware

You can’t be entirely protected from malware as long as you’re connected to the internet. The
vulnerability of your computer will be significantly reduced if you install an anti -virus
program and at least one anti-malware program.

3. Set up 2-factor Authentication

In addition, web security is strengthened by two-factor authentication because it eliminates

the risk of a compromised password immediately. Two-factor authentication is now available
on several platforms to keep your accounts safer.

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4. Protect your Connections with a VPN

Use a virtual private network (VPN) for a more secure web. Even your internet service
provider won’t be able to have a glimpse of your confidential information because VPN will
encrypt the connection.

5. Being Careful While Clicking on Links

Whenever you click on random hyperlink messages, make sure you double-check their
legitimacy since links can easily be masked as something they are not.

6. Make Sure Bluetooth is Disabled When Not in Use

Hackers can steal your private information via Bluetooth if your devices are on. If you aren't
using Bluetooth, please do turn it off.

7. Delete Adware on your Computer

You will receive more targeted ads via adware as it collects information about you. To
maintain your privacy, keep your computer free of adware and install an ad blocker.

8. Upgrade your Security System

Make sure to invest in a good security system and upgrades when they are available. Investing
in high-grade security is better than paying a huge amount for security breaches.

9. Virus Scan External Storage Devices

In addition to internal storage devices, external storage devices can also be exposed to
malware. Infected external devices can spread malware to your computer if you connect them.
Therefore, before accessing external devices, scan the device to ensure they are malware -free.

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10. Ensure Critical Data is Backed Up

Sensitive information can be lost as a result of security breaches. Highly advisable to take
back up of your critical data to the cloud or a local storage device frequently to ensure you are
prepared to restore it in the event of a loss. In addition, ensure you store the sensitive files
with password protected system.

Some of the cybersecurity fundamentals are given below:

10.7. Network Security

Network security can be defined as protecting the internal network from being attacked by
malicious users. The organizations use internal servers that have to stay protected in order to
protect the system and business operations. The server has to be configured with the security
aspects so that it has the capability to oppose the attack. Network security is also about
protecting all the devices connected to the network like computers, printers, routers, switches,
etc. The server should have a strong mechanism implemented to detect malicious activity to stop
before it harms the network. The main purpose of this network security is to ensure that the
network is secure so that the entire system could stay protected. Below are some of the
technologies and tools used in network security.

 IPS & IDS – These are the tools that are used to detect malicious activity and stop it
from being executed. IPS stands for intrusion prevention system, and IDS stands for
the intrusion detection system.
 Firewall – Firewall works are the checking point for all of the requests that hit the ports
of the server to get inside the network. It ensures that the ports not in use should be
closed or filtered based on the business need.

10.8. Security Compliances

Compliances are the policies that have to be implemented in the organization to protect its
system. The compliances comprise a set of rules that define the security measures that the
organization must have to take care of to stay protected. All the policies that restrict the users or
the employees of the organization from performing particular activities are the outcome of

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security compliances. ISO 27001 is one of the most popular compliance is usually practiced by
large, mid, and some of the small organizations. Below are some of the compliance that vary
industry-wise.

 PCI DSS: The compliance is applicable for all of the organizations that accept online
payment. It stands for Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard. It is mandatory for
all organizations to adopt this compliance before they can bring the functionality of
accepting online payment into their system.
 HIPPA: It stands for Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. This is the
compliance that has to be followed by all of the organization that works with patients
data. The purpose of this complaint is to ensure that the sensitive data of the patients are
protected.

10.9.Web Application Security

Web Application Security may be defined as the term that defines the protection of the web
application that the users of that system use in order to interact with them. The web application
must be developed by keeping security in mind as attackers can leverage the vulnerability in
order to breach the system. Compromising any vulnerability can also make a path for the attacker
to attack the organization’s network. To make sure that the application is protected from
vulnerabilities, there is a mechanism to perform manual and automated checks. There are several
tools available that allow cybersecurity analysts to run the scan and check if the web application
is vulnerable to any attack. The OWASP Top 10 is the list of commonly found vulnerabilities in
any application and are very severe in nature.

Following Top 5 Key Elements of an Information Security

10.8.1. Confidentiality
Data and information assets should be confine to individuals license to access and not be disclose
to others; I Confidentiality assurance that the information is accessible those who are authorize to
have access. Confidentiality breaches may occur due to improper data handling or
a hacking attempt. It controls include data classification, data encryption, and proper equipment
disposal (i.e. of DVDs, CDs, etc.), Confidentiality is roughly adore privacy. Measures
undertaken to confirm confidentiality are design to prevent sensitive data from reaching the

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incorrect people. Whereas ensuring the correct people will really get it: Access should be
restricted those licensed looks at information in question. It’s common for information to be
categorize consistent with quantity and kind of injury might be done. It makes up unintended
hands. A lot of or less rigorous measures will then be implemented according to those classes.
10.8.2. Integrity
Keeping the information intact, complete and correct, and IT systems operational; Integrity is the
trustworthiness of data or resources in the prevention of improper and unauthorize changes the
assurance that information is sufficiently accurate for its purpose. Measures to maintain data
integrity may include a checksum (a number produced by a mathematical function to verify that
a given block of data is not changed) and access control (which ensures that only the authorized
people can update, add, and delete data to protect its integrity). Integrity involves maintaining the
consistency, accuracy, and trustworthiness of information over its entire life cycle.
What is Ethical Hacking? & Types of Hacking
Information should not be modified in transit, and steps should be taken to confirm that
information can’t be altered by unauthorized people (for example, in a breach of confidentiality).
These measures include file permissions and user access controls. Version management maybe
won’t be able to prevent incorrect changes or accidental deletion by licensed users becoming a
problem. Additionally, some means that should be in place to discover any changes in
information that may occur as a result of non-human-caused events like an electromagnetic pulse
(EMP) or server crash. Some information would possibly include checksum, even cryptographic
checksum, for verification of integrity. Backups or redundancies should be offer to revive the
affected information to its correct state.
10.8.3. Availability
An objective indicating that data or system is at disposal of license users once require.
Availability is the assurance that the systems responsible for delivering, storing, and processing
information are accessible when required by authorized users. Availability means data is
accessible by licensed users.
If AN attacker isn’t able to compromise the primary components of data security (see above)
they’ll try and execute attacks like denial of service that will bring down the server, creating the
web site unavailable to legitimate users because of lack of availability. Measures to maintain
data availability can include redundant systems’ disk arrays and clustered Machines, anti-virus

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software to stop malware from destroying networks, and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
prevention systems.
10.8.4. Authenticity
A security policy includes a hierarchical pattern. It means inferior workers is typically certain to
not share the small quantity of data they need unless explicitly approved. Conversely, a senior
manager might have enough authority to create a choice what information is shared and with
whom, which implies that they’re not tied down by an equivalent data security policy terms. That
the logic demands that ISP ought to address each basic position within the organization with
specifications which will clarify their authoritative standing. Authenticity refers to the
characteristic of a communication, document, or any data that ensures the quality of being
genuine or corrupted. The major role of authentication is to confirm that a user is genuine, one
who he / she claims to be. Controls such as bio metrics, smart cards, and digital certificates
ensure the authenticity of data, transactions, communications, or documents.
The user should prove access rights and identity. Commonly, usernames and passwords are used
for this method. However, this kind of authentication may be circumvented by hackers. a much
better form of authentication is bio metrics, as a result of it depends on the user’s presence and
biological features (retina or fingerprints). The PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) authentication
methodology uses digital certificates to prove a user’s identity. Different authentication tools will
be key cards or USB tokens. The best authentication threat occurs with unsecured emails that
seem legitimate.
10.8.5. Non-Repudiation
It is the assurance that somebody cannot deny the validity of one thing. It may be a legal thought
that’s widely used in data security and refers to a service that provides proof of the origin of
information and also the integrity of the information. In different words, non-repudiation makes
it very difficult to successfully deny who/where a message came from also as the authenticity of
that message.Non-repudiation is a way to guarantee that the sender of a message cannot later
deny having sent the message, and that the recipient cannot deny having received the message.
Individuals and organization use digital signatures to ensure non-repudiation.
10.8.6. Questions related to this topic
1. What is confidentiality availability and integrity?
2. What does confidentiality integrity and availability have to do with security?
3. What is confidentiality in information security?
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 4. What are the 3 principles of information security?
5. What are Top 5 Key Elements of an Information Security?
Information System Security or INFOSEC refers to the process of providing protection to
the computers, networks and the associated data. With the advent of technology, the more the
information is stored over wide networks, the more crucial it gets to protect it from the
unauthorized which might misuse the same. Every organisation has the data sets that contain
confidential information about its activities.
The major reason of providing security to the information systems is not just one fold but 3
fold:

1. Confidentiality
2. Integrity
3. Availability

An information security policy (ISP) is a set of rules, policies and procedures designed to ensure
all end users and networks within an organization meet minimum IT security and data protection
security requirements.

ISPs should address all data, programs, systems, facilities, infrastructure, authorized users, third
parties and fourth parties of an organization.

Vulnerabilities are weaknesses in a system that gives threats the opportunity to compromise
assets. All systems have vulnerabilities. Even though the technologies are improving but the
number of vulnerabilities are increasing such as tens of millions of lines of code, many
developers, human weaknesses, etc. Vulnerabilities mostly happened because of Hardware,
Software, Network and Procedural vulnerabilities.
1. Hardware Vulnerability:
A hardware vulnerability is a weakness which can used to attack the system hardware through
physically or remotely.
For examples:
1. Old version of systems or devices
2. Unprotected storage
3. Unencrypted devices, etc.

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2. Software Vulnerability:
A software error happen in development or configuration such as the execution of it can violate
the security policy. For examples:
1. Lack of input validation
2. Unverified uploads
3. Cross-site scripting
4. Unencrypted data, etc.
3. Network Vulnerability:
A weakness happen in network which can be hardware or software.
For examples:
1. Unprotected communication
2. Malware or malicious software (e.g.:Viruses, Keyloggers, Worms, etc)
3. Social engineering attacks
4. Misconfigured firewalls
4. Procedural Vulnerability:
A weakness happen in an organization operational method.
For examples:
1. Password procedure – Password should follow the standard password policy.
2. Training procedure – Employees must know which actions should be taken and what to do
to handle the security. Employees must never be asked for user credentials online. Make
the employees know social engineering and phishing threats.
Malicious Security Threats
viruses
worms
Trojan horses
Spyware

Basic Information security controls fall into three groups:

Preventive controls, which address weaknesses in your information systems identified by your
risk management team before you experience a cybersecurity incident.

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 Detective controls, which alert you to cybersecurity breach attempts and also warn you when a
data breach is in progress, so your cybersecurity staff can begin to limit the damage.

 Corrective controls, such as backups used after a cybersecurity incident, to minimize data loss
and damage to information systems; and to restore your information systems as quickly as
possible.

10.9.6. Social engineering defined

For a social engineering definition, it’s the art of manipulating someone to divulge sensitive
or confidential information, usually through digital communication, that can be used for
fraudulent purposes.

Unlike traditional cyberattacks that rely on security vulnerabilities to gain access to unauthorized
devices or networks, social engineering techniques target human vulnerabilities. For this reason,
it’s also considered human hacking.

Cybercriminals who conduct social engineering attacks are called social engineers, and they’re
usually operating with two goals in mind: to wreak havoc and/or obtain valuables like important
information or money.

Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications through use of codes

so that only those person for whom the information is intended can understand it and process
it. Thus preventing unauthorized access to information. The prefix “crypt” means “hidden” and
suffix graphy means “writing”. In Cryptography the techniques which are use to protect
information are obtained from mathematical concepts and a set of rule based calculations
known as algorithms to convert messages in ways that make it hard to decode it. These
algorithms are used for cryptographic key generation, digital signing, verification to protect
data privacy, web browsing on internet and to protect confidential transactions such as credit
card and debit card transactions.
Techniques used For Cryptography: In today’s age of computers cryptography is often
associated with the process where an ordinary plain text is converted to cipher text which is the
text made such that intended receiver of the text can only decode it and hence this process is

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known as encryption. The process of conversion of cipher text to plain text this is known as
decryption.
Features Of Cryptography are as follows:
1. Confidentiality: Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it is intended
and no other person except him can access it.
2. Integrity: Information cannot be modified in storage or transition between sender and
intended receiver without any addition to information being detected.
3. Non-repudiation: The creator/sender of information cannot deny his intention to send
information at later stage.
4. Authentication: The identities of sender and receiver are confirmed. As well as
destination/origin of information is confirmed.
Types Of Cryptography: In general there are three types Of cryptography:
1. Symmetric Key Cryptography: It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver
of message use a single common key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Symmetric Key
Systems are faster and simpler but the problem is that sender and receiver have to somehow
exchange key in a secure manner. The most popular symmetric key cryptography system is
Data Encryption System(DES).
2. Hash Functions: There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with fixed
length is calculated as per the plain text which makes it impossible for contents of plain
text to be recovered. Many operating systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.
3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and
decrypt information. A public key is used for encryption and a private key is used for
decryption. Public key and Private Key are different. Even if the public key is known by
everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he alone knows the private key.
Physical security is the protection of personnel, hardware, software, networks and data from
physical actions and events that could cause serious loss or damage to an enterprise, agency or
institution. This includes protection from fire, flood, natural disasters, burglary, theft, vandalism
and terrorism. While most of these are covered by insurance, physical security's prioritization of
damage prevention avoids the time, money and resources lost because of these events.

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Software security is an idea implemented to protect software against malicious attack and other
hacker risks so that the software continues to function correctly under such potential risks.
Security is necessary to provide integrity, authentication and availability.

Network security combines multiple layers of defenses at the edge and in the network. Each
network security layer implements policies and controls. Authorized users gain access to
network resources, but malicious actors are blocked from carrying out exploits and threats.

In general, web security refers to the protective measures and protocols that organizations adopt
to protect the organization from cyber criminals and threats that use the web channel. Web
security is critical to business continuity and to protecting data, users and companies from risk.

References

[1] M. Burgess, Principles of Network and System Administration, Oslo University College,
Norway: john wiley & sons, LTD, 2004.

[2] M. Burgess, HANDBOOK OF NETWORK AND SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION,

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 Amsterdam : Elsevier, 2007.

[3] D. T. Sreenivasulu, DATA COMMUNICATIONS & COMPUTER NETWORKS, Delhi: A

Division of Visual Soft (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2018.

[4] B.A.Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 2003.

[5] J.Kurose, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach to the Internet, 2005.

[6] D. Kim, Fundamentals of Information Systems Security, Burlington: Printed in the United
States of America, 2023.

[7] B. A., DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING, New york: Alan R, 2007.

[8] Y. N. ASAFE, DATA COMMUNICATION & NETWORKING, Abuja: ResearchGate,

2015.

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