UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

1.1: What is psychological test?

Test is defined as a series of questions on the basis of which information is sought.

A test is a measurement device or technique which helps in understanding and
prediction of behaviour. E.g. - A spelling test measure how well someone spells or
the extent to which someone has learned to spell a specific list of words.

Q What is a Psychological Test?

• A Psychological test is a standardized measure of a sample of a person’s

behaviour that is used to measure the individual differences that exist among
people.
• Psychological test are standardized measure of behavior - used to predict
behavior.
• According to Freeman: “a psychological test is a standardised instrument
designed to measure objectively one or more aspects of a total personality by
means of samples of verbal or non-verbal responses, or by means of other
behaviours.
• A psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an
individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics.
• Mostly tests are used as a way of measuring differences between people or
differences in the same person over time. Psychological tests are written,
visual, or verbal evaluations administered to assess the cognitive and
emotional functioning of children and adults
• Psychologists and other qualified mental health professionals use
psychological tests to measure specific psychological constructs in
individuals. The main purpose of the tests is to evaluate individual difference
or variation among individuals.
• A psychological test is a set of items that are designed to measure
characteristics of human beings that relate to behaviour. A psychological test
is "an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior". The term
sample of behavior refers to an individual's performance on tasks that have
usually been prescribed beforehand.
• Psychological tests can include a series of tasks or problems that the
respondent has to solve. Psychological tests can
include questionnaires and interviews, which are also designed to measure
unobserved constructs. Varying levels of skill, knowledge is required to
administer different tests.
• A useful psychological test/scale must be both valid (i.e., there is evidence to
support the idea that the test or scale measures what it is purported to
measure and "how well it does so") and reliable (i.e., give consistent results
over time).

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

PURPOSE OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST:

In psychology and education, the purpose of a test is two-fold.

• First, it attempts to compare the same individual on two or more than two aspects
of traits.
• Second two or more than two persons may be compared on the same trait. Such
a measurement may be either quantitative or qualitative.

Major Uses of Tests: -

The basic use of tests is to provide information for decision makers. Test is used to
measure skill, knowledge, intelligence, capacities or aptitudes and to make
predictions about performance. The IQ tests and other achievement tests are
designed to evaluate a student’s marks or performances level. Personality tests are
used by clinical psychologist and psychiatrists to help diagnose mental disorder.
Experimental psychologists devise tests to obtain data on perception, learning, and
motivation. Clinical neuropsychologists often use tests to assess cognitive
functioning of people with brain injuries.

Psychological Tests are mainly used to analyse the mental abilities and attributes of
an individual, including personality, achievement, ability and neurological functioning.
Here are the central and most important uses of Psychological Testing:
• Detection of Specific Behavior
• Psychological Diagnosis
• Tools in Academic Placements(Selection or placement )
• Screening Job Candidates
• Individual Differences
• Research
• To Promote Self-awareness and Understanding(Self‐ discovery)
• Psychometrics/Career Assessment Tests
• Organizational Development

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

➢ 2200 B.C.: Chinese emperor examined his officials every third year to
determine their fitness for office.
➢ 1862 A.D.: Wilhelm Wundt uses a calibrated pendulum to measure the
“speed of thought”.
➢ 1869: Scientific study of individual differences begins with the publication of
Francis Galton’s Classification of Men. According to Their Natural Gifts. Sir
Francis Galton publishes a study of heredity and genius which pioneered a
statistical technique that Karl Pearson would later call correlation.
➢ 1879: Wundt establishes the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany. Wundt’s structuralism relies heavily on a tool of assessment called
introspection whereby subjects try to describe their conscious experience of a
stimulus.
➢ 1884: Galton administers the first test battery to thousands of citizens at the
International Health Exhibit.
➢ 1888: J.M. Cattell opens a testing laboratory at the University of
Pennsylvania.

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

➢ 1890: Cattell uses the term "mental test" in announcing the agenda for his
Galtonian test battery.
➢ 1895 A.D. American psychologist James McKeen Cattell helped launch the
beginning of mental testing. Cattell eventually founds Psychological
Corporation, a company with the goal of “useful applications of psychology.”
➢ 1900 A.D. Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams which goes
on to influence approaches to understanding personality for the next 50
years.
➢ 1901: Clark Wissler discovers that Cattellian “brass instruments” tests have
no correlation with college grades.
➢ 1904: Charles Spearman describes his two-factor theory of mental abilities.
First major textbook on education measurement, E. L. Thorndike’s
Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurement, is published.
➢ 1905: Binet and Simon invented the first modern intelligence scale. The
development of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale is largely recognized as
launching a new era in measurement.
Carl Jung uses word-association test for analysis of mental complexes. Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon publish a 30-item scale of intelligence designed to
help classify schoolchildren in Paris schools.
➢ 1908 A.D. Frank Parsons opens the Vocational Bureau of Boston begins
offering career guidance to young adults.
➢ 1914: Stern introduces the intelligence quotient (IQ): the mental age divided
by chronological age. World War I brings about a boom in psychological
testing as thousands of American recruits are screened for intellectual and
emotional functioning.
➢ 1916: Lewis Terman revises the Binet-Simon scales, publishes the Standford-
Binet. Revisions appear in 1937, 1960, and 1986.
➢ 1917: Army Alpha and Army Beta, the first group intelligence tests, are
constructed and administered to U.S. Army recruits. Robert Woodworth
develops the Personal Data Sheet, the first personality test.
➢ 1919 A.D. Robert Woodworth publishes the Personal Data Sheet to help
identify Army recruits susceptible to ‘shell shock.’
➢ 1920: Rorschach Inkblot test is published.
➢ 1921: Psychological Corporation – the first major test publisher – is founded
by Cattell, Thorndike, and Woodworth. Swiss psychiatrist Hermann
Rorschach publishes his famous monograph, Psychodiagnostics, which
would lead to the development of the Rorschach Inkblot Test.
➢ 1926 A.D. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is developed and administered
for the first time.
➢ 1927: First edition of Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Men is published.
Carl Spearman publishes a two-factor theory of intelligence in which he
postulates the existence of a general intellectual ability factor and specific
components of that general ability.
➢ 1938: First Mental Measurements Yearbook is published. Mental tests have
reached the status of big business. According to the 1938 Mental
Measurements Yearbook, at least 4,000 psychological tests are in print.
➢ 1939: Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale is published. Revisions are
published in 1955, 1981, and 1997. David Wechsler introduces the Wechsler-
Bellevue Intelligence Scale which was designed to measure adult intelligence.

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

 Today, multiple versions of these tests are in publication and are the most
popular instruments used to measure the intelligence of children and adults.
➢ 1942: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is published.
➢ 1943 A.D. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was published.
➢ 1949:. The first version to the Wechsler Intelligence Tests for children was
published.The 16PF Questionnaire, 1st Edition is released for public use.
➢ Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is published. Revisions are published
in 1974 and 1991.
➢ 1955 A.D. The first version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Tests was
published.
➢ 1962 A.D. Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Meyers publish the Meyers
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Warren T. Norman publishes his first article
over the Big Five Personality Factors.
➢ 1970 A.D. John L. Holland publishes the first version of the Self Directed
Search (SDS) for consumer use. The inventory was intended to help
individuals identify careers that are congruent with their personalities.

1.2: Classification, Characteristics

Classification of tests: Just as there are many types of behaviour, so there are
many types of tests

Individual tests: those tests that can be given to only one person at a time are
known as individual tests.

A group test: A group test can be administrated to more than one person at a time
by a single examiner. For e.g., when a teacher gives a test to everyone in the class
at the same time.

The psychological tests can be classified into two categories:

1. On the basis of the nature of testing:

All behaviour cannot be tested or experienced. People may have language
difficulties or may be too young or may not be used for testing situation. Hence,
psychologists have developed different testing methods. These are divided into
standardised tests and non-testing methods.

Standardised tests, as the name suggests, are standardised which can be used by
different people by following the instructions given in the manual. These are the valid
tests which give objective results, without giving room for subjective influences.

Non-testing method of testing: This is a type of testing without using any

standardised tests. These methods include: (a) observation (b) interview (c)
sociometry (d) case study (e) rating scales (f) behavioural analysis (g) anecdotal
method (h) cumulative records study.

2. On the basis of functions of tests:

Many numbers of tests have been developed by psychologists, because human
psyche consists of many factors. The behaviour of an individual is influenced by so

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

many factors. Hence, different tests are necessary to measure all these factors. The
important among them are:

1. Intelligence tests
2. Personality tests
3. Interest inventories
4. Aptitude tests
5. Attitude tests
6. Tests of educational achievement
7. Value tests

Different Types of Test: - Psychological tests can be various types; designed to

measure different elements of human brain development. In each category there are
so many tests to suit the age, sex, need of the tester, purpose of testing, etc.

We can also categorize tests according to the types of behavior they measure.

Intelligence tests – These of course measure the level of intelligence present in the
individual. These are used to measure intelligence, or your ability to understand your
environment, interact with it and learn from it. Some of the well-known and widely
used tests of this category are
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB)

Ability test- contains items that can be scored in terms of speed accuracy or both.
On a ability test, the faster or the more accurate your response, the better your score
on a particular characteristics.

Attitude tests- The individual’s attitude towards the environment, other people or
places is judged in this kind of test. Some common examples are,
• Likert Scale
• Thurstone Scale.
Such scales are used to measure how an individual feels about a particular event,
place, person or object.

Achievement tests are used to measure how well you understand a particular topic
(i.e., mathematics achievement tests). Achievement tests include:
• Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT)
• Peabody Individual Achievement Test ( PIAT)

Aptitude tests- These were some of the different types of psychological tests that
are commonly used for measurement of mental abilities and cognitive abilities. The
aptitude tests measure the potential of performance in a person. They are used to
measure specific abilities, such as mechanical or clerical skills. Sometimes these
tests must be specially designed for a particular job, but there are also tests
available that measure general clerical and mechanical aptitudes. They can either be
used as assessments for screening at corporate or educational institutes, or they can
be used for clinical purposes to diagnose the issue and then to prescribe the best
possible treatment for the psychological problem.

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

An example of an aptitude test is the
• Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
• Bloomberg Aptitude Test
• Minnesota Clerical Test,
• Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT),

Minnesota Clerical Test measures the perceptual speed and accuracy required to
perform various clerical duties.
The Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), assess verbal reasoning, numerical ability,
abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space
relations, spelling and language usage.

These aptitudes are believed to be related to specific occupations and are used for
career guidance as well as selection and recruitment.

Personality tests- Personality tests are used to measure personality style and traits.
Personality tests are commonly used in research or to assist with clinical diagnoses.
They are related to the overt and covert disposition (character/ nature) of the
individual.

Examples of personality tests include:

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
• Rorschach, also known as the 'inkblot test'

Psychological measures of personality are often described as either objective

tests or projective tests.

Objective test (Rating scale or self-report measure)-Objective tests have a

restricted response format, such as allowing for true or false answers or rating using
an ordinal scale. Example of objective personality tests includes the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Child behavior checklist or Beck Depression
Inventory.
Objective personality tests can be designed for use in business for potential
employees, such as the NEO-PI, the 16PF, and the OPQ (Occupational Personality
Questionnaire), all of which are based on the Big Five.

Projective tests (Free response measures) - Projective tests allow for a freer type
of response. An example of this would be the Rorschach test, in which a person
states what each of ten ink blots might be. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) is
another example; Projective tests assume that a person’s interpretation of the
ambiguous stimulus will reflect his or her unique characteristics.

Neuropsychological tests: The Neuro-psychological tests are usually conducted

when an individual has suffered a traumatic stress or injury. They are used to check
the proper cognitive functioning of the brain. Neuropsychological tests can be used
in a clinical context to assess impairment after an injury or illness known to affect
neurocognitive functioning. For example, if you were to have a stroke, you might
have a neuropsychological test to see if there is any resulting cognitive damage (i.e.,
decreased ability to think due to damage in a brain pathway).

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

Examples of a neuropsychological test are:
• Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery.
• Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)
• Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT)

Interest tests: are psychological tests to assess a person’s interests and

preferences. These tests are used primarily for career counseling. Interest tests
include items about daily activities from among which applicants select their
preferences. A widely used interest test is the strong Interest Inventory, which is
used in career assessment, career counseling, and educational guidance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST:

Psychological test help to understand characteristics of human beings from a sample

of their behavior. For a test to be scientifically sound, it must possess the following
characteristics;

Five main characteristics of a good psychological test are as follows:

1. Objectivity: The test should be free from subjective—judgement regarding the

ability, skill, knowledge, trait or potentiality to be measured and evaluated. It refers
primarily to the scoring of the test result. The scoring process must be free of
subjective judgment or bias on the part of the scores.

2. Reliability: This refers to the extent to which they obtained results are consistent
or reliable. When the test is administered on the same sample for more than once
with a reasonable gap of time, a reliable test will yield same scores. It means the test
is trustworthy. There are many methods of testing reliability of a test. It refers to the
consistency of a person’s score. For example a boy takes a cognitive ability test and
achieves a mean score of 100 and after one week if we repeat the test and he
achieve a mean score of 72, we would describe the test as unreliable because it
yields inconsistent measurements.

3. Validity: It refers to extent to which the test measures what it intends to measure.
For example, when an intelligent test is developed to assess the level of intelligence,
it should assess the intelligence of the person, not other factors. Validity explains us
whether the test fulfils the objective of its development. There are many methods to
assess validity of a test. It refers to the test’s accuracy in measuring, what it is
supposed to measure. For example, people’s scores on that test should be strongly
correlated with their grades in school.

4. Norms: Norms refer to the average performance of a representative sample on a

given test. It gives a picture of average standard of a particular sample in a particular
aspect. Norms are the standard scores, developed by the person who develops test.
The future users of the test can compare their scores with norms to know the level of
their sample. To interpret the result of a psychological test, a frame of reference or
point of comparison must be established, so that the performance of one person can

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

be compared with the performance of others. This is accomplished by means of test
norms

5. Practicability: The test must be practicable in- time required for completion, the
length, number of items or questions, scoring, etc. The test should not be too lengthy
and difficult to answer as well as scoring

1.3: Steps in test construction

The development of a good psychological test requires thoughtful and sound

application of established principles of test construction. Before the real work of test
construction, the test constructor takes some broad decisions about the major
objectives of the test in general terms and population for whom the test is intended
and also indicates the possible conditions under which the test can be used and its
important uses.

These preliminary decisions have far-reaching consequences. For example, a test

constructor may decide to construct an intelligence test meant for students of tenth
grade broadly aiming at diagnosing the manipulative and organizational ability of the
pupils. Having decided the above preliminary things, the test constructor goes ahead
with the following steps:

1. Planning
2. Writing items for the test.
3. Preliminary administration of the test.
4. Reliability of the final test.
5. The validity of the final test.
6. Preparation of norms for the final test.
7. Preparation of manual and reproduction of the test.

Psychological tests are often subject centered measurements and follow certain
strict guidelines for construction, administration, scoring and interpretation.
Following steps are followed during construction of a test:-

• Identification of primary purpose for which the test scores will be used.
• Identifying behaviour that represent the construct or define the domain
• Prepare a set of test specific specification, delineating the proportion of items
that should focus on each type of behaviour.
• Construct an initial pool of items.
• Review of items
• Pilot test of the revised items
• Modification of Items
• Field test has items on a large sample representative of the examinee population
of whom test is indented
• Determine statistical properties of items score
• Design and conduct reliability and validity studies for the final form of the test
• Develop Guidelines for administration, scoring and interpretation of test scores

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

1.4: Ethical issues in test construction
Test construction is an important part of research ethics. The American
Psychological Association (APA) (2010) published the manual Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct.

“Psychologists who develop tests and other assessment techniques use appropriate
psychometric procedures and current scientific or professional knowledge for test
design, standardization, validation, reduction or elimination of bias, and
recommendations for use”.

Test construction in ethics refers to psychometrics and professional knowledge of

research methods.

“The psychometric characteristics of the instrument itself are of primary importance

in test use”.
These incorporate issues of validity and reliability, measurement bias, and
recommendations for applying the research in different settings, as well as
knowledge of the research study and misuses of the research.

In measurement bias, the test shows unintentional preference towards people of a

certain background.

Ethical Issues in Testing

• Selection and Use of Tests.
• Informed Consent Regarding Testing.
• The Test Itself.
• Qualifications of the Evaluator.
• Scoring and Interpretation.
• Use of Test Results.
• Test Security.

One of the major ethical issues associated with psychological testing is the
privacy issue. Any psychological test is carried out with the implicit
understanding that the findings of the test will not be disclose to any other third
parties

Another ethical issue relating to psychological testing is the purpose for which
the findings of the psychological tests are used.

Ethical principles require that the purpose of the test be made known to the
client. This is not so and usually many of these results are used for purposes
other than those specified. This is unethical, for the reasons for which an
individual agreed to take a psychological test may be different from those that
the findings are actually used for.

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

Social and Ethical issues in psychological Testing

Social Issue: Some social issues of concern in psychological testing are

Dehumanization:
• Usefulness of tests: One social issue in the testing field concerns the
dehumanization tendencies in the testing process. For e.g. some companies
have computerized analyses of MMPI (personality test) and other test results.
Such technology tends to minimize the individual freedom and uniqueness.
With high speed computers and centralized data banks the risk, that
machines will someday make important decisions about our lives is
increasing. Another important social issue is whether tests are useful to
society. The misuse of test, may negatively affect an individual’s life or
discriminate against a specific cultural group.
• Access to psychological testing service: psychological testing services can
be expensive. Therefore very few people who require testing can afford
psychological testing services. Hence availability of testing is limited.

There are many ethical (moral) Issues in the field of Psychological Testing:

Human Right: The subject has many kinds of human rights during psychological
testing, including the right not to be tested. Individual cannot be forced to become
subjects unless testing is required by law or government and when ‘informed
consent is obtained (the subject has voluntarily agreed to the test) The subject has
the right to know his test score and interpretation as well as the bases of any
decisions that affect their lives.

Other human right is the right to know how the test data will be used and maintain
confidently of the test result.
• Labeling: As a result of psychological testing people are sometimes labeled
as having some psychological problem. This not only shame the subject, but
also increase stress and make treatment difficult.
• Invasion of privacy: when people respond to a psychological test, they have
little idea what is being revealed, but they often feel that their privacy has
been invaded in some way.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

• Ethical standards- Researchers follow the standards identified in the APA

Ethics Code to protect the rights and welfare of research participants.
• Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)- Before research can begin, an IRB
reviews the ethics of a research project.
• Risk/benefit ratio- Investigators may conduct a research project if the
benefits are greater than the risks.
• Minimal risk- Minimal risk means that the harm or discomfort in a research
project is not greater than what may be experienced in everyday life.
• Confidentiality-Participants’ risk of social injury (e.g., personal information
becoming public)is protected by making their responses confidential (i.e., by
using no identifying information).

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS

• Informed consent- Before agreeing to participate in research, individuals
learn about the nature of the research task, any risks, and the ways in which
their rights will be protected.
• Privacy- Research participants have the right to decide how their personal
information is communicated to others.
• Deception- Some projects may require investigators to withhold information
or misinform participants about aspects of the research.
• Debriefing-After completing the study, researchers inform participants about
the research, remove any harmful effects or misconceptions, and explain any
deception.
• Use of Animals- Researchers must treat animal subjects humanely and
protect their welfare.
• Publication credit- Individuals who have made significant contributions to a
research project are identified as authors when the findings are
communicated.
• Plagiarism-Plagiarism occurs when individuals present substantial elements
of another’s work or ideas as their own.

Dr. Tanu Sharma, Head- Dept. of Psychology, SSR ACS