SG - 1 Language Research (Student's Copy)

Study Guide in EL 110 – Language Research FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.
0 03-June-2020
(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research
Module 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
MODULE OVERVIEW
Some of you might have experienced writing a research paper in your senior high
school as one of the requirements of a subject. Others may have done research but have
not done it scientifically or systematically. No matter how much you know about scientific
or scholarly research, one thing remains absolute, that is, research is part of our lives; a
way of living. It is likewise worthy to note that as future teachers, your job does not end in
delivering lectures and evaluating students’ performance. You will be confronted with
problems, or bizarre phenomena, that require you to understand and provide answers to.
In the language classroom, these problems may include differing language learning
styles, students’ deteriorating English performance, their attitudes towards the language,
speech anxieties, and more. Other times, problems may arise from you, the teacher, e.g.,
your teaching styles mismatched students’ learning styles, your attitudes toward teaching
English, educational background is irrelevant, etc. These cannot be properly addressed
without scientific research. Thus, you need to be both a teacher and a researcher to give
answers to these problems. As a matter of fact, doing research helps improve the
school’s services by providing the administration valid information, empirical evidences
that will guide them in their decision- or policy-making.
Module 1 aims to provide you with the basics of research writing: definition and
importance of research, choosing a research topic, the structure of a research paper (the
APA style), and ethical considerations in doing research.
Enumerated below are activities that you need to complete in this module with their
corresponding time as a guide. These time guidelines are only approximate: you may find
that you spend longer or shorter on some tasks, depending on your experience with and
interest in the topic.
Activities Time Allotment
 Answer the Learning Activities at the 1 hour

end of the module
 Complete online quiz 30 minutes
 Complete research writing timeline with 30 minutes
group mates.
 Participate in brainstorming, 2 hours
discussion, and evaluation activities
with groupmates through ICT resources
available.
 Fill out the research proposal form. 30 minutes
 Read APA sample paper 30 minutes
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

Study Guide in EL 110 – Language Research FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 03-June-2020
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this module, you should be able to:
a. Define and discuss importance of research.

b. Discuss some views of authors about research.
c. Differentiate the three kinds of research.
d. Identify parts of a research paper in APA style.
e. Recall basic concepts/principles in research writing.
f. Demonstrate awareness on ethical issues and concerns governing the conduct
of research.
LEARNING CONTENTS
Definition and Importance of a Research
Nature of Research
Research, in general, is our way of finding answers to problems using the most
logical and valid methods. Research has been a part of our lives. When we buy a book,
car or appliances, we read customer reviews, search for information, read articles in
magazines and journals, check encyclopedias and even explore the Internet and go to the
libraries (Magsajo-Sarno, 2010). Same is done when applying for a job. We search for
information about our prospective companies and employers that will help us decide on
which organization or company to finally work for and which can satisfy our needs as
employees.
Basically, research can be defined in two words, re and search which give new
implications to the concept of research (Adanza, Bermudo & Rasonabe, 2009). It implies
that the object of research has been done before, and the function of the present
researcher is to concur or improve, or negate the findings of the previous work, while
other definitions liken research to a farmer plowing a virgin field, an activity one finds hard
and difficult to handle.
Research is of three types, to wit: basic, applied, and action. Basic research,
also known as pure research or fundamental research, aims to discover the basic truths
or principles which is driven by a researcher’s curiosity or interest, that which expands
man’s knowledge and not to create or invent something (Magsajo-Sarno, 2010). It deals
with the process of objects and things, or information about different topics with no
concern for a direct pay-off like the studies on relationships, comparative analyses, trends
and projections (Adanza et al., 2009). Researchers engaged in basic research studies are
not particularly interested in examining the effectiveness of specific educational practices
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2011). Some examples of this type of research are the following:
 relationship between emotional quotient and leadership skills;

 relationship between College GPA and board exam (LET) performance of BSE
English students; and
 motivation factors of students to enroll in the BSE English program.
Applied research examines the effectiveness of particular educational practices

(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2011), processes, policies and other activities that require specific
courses of action that will lead to the development of a new system, device, or method to
provide solutions to problems (Magsajo-Sarno, 2010). Applied research is designed to
help solve particular, existing problems so there is much larger audience eager to support
research that is likely to be profitable or solve problems of immediate concern. Studies on
COVID 19 vaccine, modern method for speech therapy, use of native plants to serve as
gasoline belong to this type.
The last type, the action research, focuses on concrete and practical issues of
immediate concern to particular social groups or communities (Burns, 1999). It is
conducted in naturally-occurring settings, primarily using methods common to qualitative
research (Nunan, 1992) such as observing and recording events and behaviors. Its
approaches are “participatory”, in that they are conducted by and with members of the
actual community under study (Bailey, 1998; as cited in Burns, 1999). Because of its
principal nature and focus on immediate concerns, it holds particular appeal for classroom
teachers and a promising direction for the building of theories related to teaching and
learning.
Writers’ Views on Research
For easier reading and better understanding of what a research is, I presented
below definitions and views from several authors.
Author Definition
Sevilla (1990) a
searching a theory, testing a theory, or solving a problem
Kerlinger systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of

(1973)a prepositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena
Fraenkel and careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of
Wallen (1993)a knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts and principles.
in scientific research, however, the emphasis is on obtaining
evidence to support or refute proposed facts or principles.
Rekha Koul the nature of educational research is analogous to the nature of

(2008)b research itself, which is a careful, systematic, reliable, and valid
method of investigating knowledge and solving problems
UNESCO the orderly investigation of a subject matter for the purpose of adding
(1962)b to knowledge
Seliger and the formalization of natural processes we all carry from birth in

Shohamy dealing with the environment – begins with curiosity about a certain
(1989)c phenomenon and it attempts to seek the truth or facts about the
relationships of the variables that influence the observed
phenomenon.
Adanza, must give new knowledge for what is known in the past may not be
Bermudo, and applicable to situations that are current at the times or what is
Rasonabe contemporary. But past researches do not become passé or lose
(2009) importance. They become part of a view of related literature, and
therefore, still hold an important function and a place in a research
activity.
(as cited in Magsajo-Sarno, 2010a; Bueno, 2016b; and Posecion, Go, & Albano, 2011c).
Language Research
Language research for Posecion, Go, and Albano (2011) is a complex process just
like researches in other disciplines. Undertaking this kind of research requires
consideration of many factors such as language use, type of users, acquisition
process, setting, research methodology, and related disciplines. Their explanations
of each of these factors are presented in the following paragraphs.
Language use determines primarily whether the language is first, second, or

foreign to the speaker. A research on the acquisition of either one of these three uses of
language will greatly vary from one another. Within each use, there are many sub-
functions of language. For instance, a second language may be regarded as a medium of
personal enhancements, social prestige, professional growth, or political and economic
alliance. Each function can be a rich source of research.
On the other hand, the type of users takes into accounts the age and
characteristics of the learners. These are closely tied up with the language acquisition
process. It is a common belief that the young learner acquires language faster than the
adult. However, a strongly motivated learner can acquire language also fast.
Language setting identifies the environment within which language is acquired. A

native speaker acquires it in a natural environment- at home, with family members, with
playmates; a second or foreign language learner acquires it in the classroom under the
supervision of a teacher.
Research methodology is determined by the researcher’s philosophy, motivation

for conducting the research, and conditions under which the research is conducted. If a
teacher-researcher believes that attitude very much influences acquisition of a foreign
language (philosophy), and wants to find out if it affects his/her students’ learning of the
language (motivation) required in their curriculum (conditions), he/she might want to
conduct a study on the students’ attitude towards the foreign language and its effect on
their learning of the language. A study like this will use tools such as survey
questionnaire, and interview.

The last factor, related disciplines, pertains to areas that influence language
study like education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and others. A language
acquisition research may consider pedagogy (education), students’ motivation
(psychology), the role of language ins society (sociology), or the origin and development
of the language (anthropology).
Importance of Research
First let us take a look at why you, students, need to study research. Bueno (2016)
offers some reasons, to wit:
1. to orient students to the nature of educational research: its purposes, forms and
importance;
2. to provide information which helps students become more intelligent consumers
of educational research: where to locate it, how to understand it, and critique it.
3. To provide information on the fundamentals of doing educational research such
as selecting a problem, using available tools, organizing a project, etc.
4. To generate new theories, confirm existing ones or disapprove them, for
example, the role of punishment and discipline.
Madan and Teitge (2013) cited that exposure to undergraduate research is

beneficial to students because of the following reasons:
1. To better understand published works. When investigating any phenomenon

in class, it is useful to know how the original study was performed. By engaging
in research firsthand, students find it easier to understand the rationale
underlying others’ research. For example, only after forming one’s own
hypotheses does one truly understand the nuances of research designs and
better conceptualize course material. Additionally, undergraduate research can
provide students with an ongoing source of one-on-one mentorship that is
otherwise unheard of in the undergraduate curriculum.
2. To learning to balance collaborative and individual work. Research is often

performed in teams, and one must learn to balance a collaborative effort in the
laboratory with what one is capable of accomplishing independently.
Interdisciplinary work is difficult to teach in the classroom, and on-the-job
experience with teams is a bonus for any workplace environment. The nature of
research today is such that interdisciplinary teams are becoming the norm, and
gaining firsthand experience in teamwork should be promoted in the
undergraduate education.
3. To determine an area of interest. Exposure to an area of research

undoubtedly also helps students explore career fields. If one is considering
research as a career path, experience in a research setting is invaluable.
Exposure to research guides some students toward research after graduation,
as well as allows other students to make informed decisions not to pursue
careers in research. Additionally, the earlier students become involved, the
more experience they attain, which enhances their career choice.

4. To jump start their careers as researchers. Exposure to research as

undergraduates can also increase the likelihood of becoming successful
researchers in the future. Some undergraduates, unsure what to do upon
degree completion, proceed to graduate school with the ill-fated idea that it is
the next logical step after undergraduate studies. If they have undergraduate
experience in research, they are more likely to know if they actually enjoy
research. Usually, however, undergraduate students discover a passion for
research they did not know existed. Institutions of higher education have a way
of attracting the most curious minds, but asking questions and finding answers
is a calling that many discover only after they first test the research waters.
Research is an integral part of our daily living. The national government or any
other institutions rely on research outputs when formulating any policy, program, activity
in response to a pressing problem. Without solid data from a thorough and careful
investigation, any program or activity implemented is likely to fail. Bueno (2016)
enumerates benefits of conducting a research, these are as follows:
1. To determine the accuracy or otherwise and validity of popular beliefs, and

religious practices by submitting them to systematic scrutiny;
2. To enhance, modify or refine our knowledge of phenomenon or various theories
surrounding our environment and society;
3. To generate new concepts and explanations of existing rules and policies,
beliefs and practices, economics, political or social system;
4. To find answers to particular existing questions through investigation;
5. To evaluate the findings of other researches or build on where they stopped;
6. To bring the legacy left behind by early scholars as well as the contributions of
modern scholars to the limelight;
7. To seek validation or improvement for religious doctrines and practices, social
interactions, economic improvement, politics, ideology etc., to enhance quality
of ordinary and spiritual life of man; and
8. To collect and analyze data which will enable us to provide information and
advice to policy/decision-makers.
Structure of a Research Paper: APA Style
Every journal, be it local, national or international, has its own established format or
structure for research outputs. Thus, it is imperative that you check the guidelines and
templates first of the journal where you want your paper to be published before submitting
it to ensure that your paper complies with the set standards. This also increases the
chances of your paper to be accepted for publication. What I mentioned in the succeeding
paragraphs are general format and guidelines in writing manuscript elements/sections of
a research paper ready for publication in research journals (from Grifee, 2012; Cherry,
2020; Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association [APA] 7 th Ed., 2019;
as cited in Purdue University Online Writing Lab; and APA 6 th Ed., 2010). Only those

which are applicable to you are included in this module. These are the very same
elements required by many journals worldwide.
You will be following the APA style in your research paper for the course, Language
Research. Why do I have special preference to the APA? As stated in Purdue University
Online Writing Lab (2020), APA Style provides fairly comprehensive guidelines for writing
academic papers regardless of subject or discipline. However, traditionally, APA is most
frequently used by writers and students in:
 Social Sciences, such as Psychology, Linguistics, Sociology, Economics, and

Criminology
 Business
 Nursing
The APA style of research paper is different from an undergraduate and graduate
thesis and dissertation format which consists of four or five chapters depending on the
school one is enrolled. At Pangasinan State University (PSU), undergraduate or graduate
thesis/dissertation is divided into five chapters:
Chapter 1 The Problem

Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Research Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies

Related Literature
Related Studies
Synthesis of the Reviewed Studies and Literature
Research Paradigm
Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Locale of the Study
Respondents
Data-Gathering Procedure
Data-Gathering Instrument
Statistical Treatment of Data
Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
This format is followed by students across all programs which require

thesis/dissertation as a major requirement to earn a particular degree. Whichever format
you will use, the research writing process is just the same. You will follow the same
research protocols and guidelines. What makes your research output different from others
is that yours is ready for publication in any journal you which your paper to be accepted
and published. For the others, they will have to convert their paper to a journal-type
research if they want it to be published.
General Format
Your research paper should be typed and double-spaced on standard-sized paper

(8.5" x 11"), with 1" margins on all sides. Include a page header (also known as the
“running head”) at the top of every page. For a professional paper, this includes your
paper title and the page number. For a student paper, this only includes the page number.
To create a page header/running head, insert page numbers flush right. Then type
"TITLE OF YOUR PAPER" in the header flush left using all capital letters. The running
head is a shortened version of your paper's title and cannot exceed 50 characters
including spacing and punctuation.
The 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual requires that the chosen font be
accessible (i.e., legible) to all readers and that it be used consistently throughout the
paper. It acknowledges that many font choices are legitimate, and it advises writers to
check with their publishers, instructors, or institutions for guidance in cases of uncertainty.
While the APA Manual does not specify a single font or set of fonts for professional
writing, it does recommend a few fonts that are widely available. These include sans serif
fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, and 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode as well
as serif fonts such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10-point Computer
Modern.
Levels of Heading
Grifee (2012) recommended a three-level heading (Table 1) which is usually

sufficient for most research papers but APA (2019) has five levels (Table 2). Regardless
of the number of levels, always use the headings in order, beginning with level 1. The
format of each level is illustrated below:
Thus, if the article has four sections, some of which have subsections and some of
which don’t, use headings depending on the level of subordination. Section headings
receive level one format. Subsections receive level two format. Subsections of
subsections receive level three format. For example:

Method (Level 1)
Site of Study (Level 2)
Participant Population (Level 2)
Teachers (Level 3)
Students (Level 3)
Results (Level 1)
Spatial Ability (Level 2)
Test One (Level 3)
Teachers with Experience. (Level 4)
Teachers in Training. (Level 4)
Teaching Assistants. (Level 5)
Test Two (Level 3)
Kinesthetic Ability (Level 2)
In APA Style, the Introduction section never gets a heading and headings are not
indicated by letters or numbers. For subsections in the beginning of a paper (introduction
section), the first level of subsection will use Level 2 headings — the title of the paper
counts as the Level 1 heading. Levels of headings will depend upon the length and
organization of your paper. Regardless, always begin with level one headings and
proceed to level two, etc.
Special headings called section labels are used for certain sections of a paper
which always start on a new page.
 Abstract
 Paper title
 References
 Footnotes
 Appendix A (and so on for subsequent appendices)
These labels should be positioned on their own line at the top of the page where
the section starts, in bold and centered.

Table 1 Three levels of headings in a typical research paper format
Title
Abstract
Method
Participants (begin on next line, indent and begin with a capital letter)
All students were …. (if you need subcategories, see next line)
First year students. First year students consisted of ...

(if two subcategories are needed, indent and begin the next line)
Second year students. Five second year students were from China
….
Materials
Procedures
Analysis (A proposal stops here, but includes references and appendixes.)
Results
Discussion
References
Appendixes
Table 2 Five Levels of Headings in APA Journals

Level Format
Centered, Boldface, Title Case Heading
1
Text starts a new paragraph.
Flush Left, Boldface, Title Case Heading
2
Flush Left, Boldface Italic, Title Case Heading
3

Indented, Boldface Title Case Heading Ending with

4 a Period. Paragraph text continues on the same line as
the same paragraph.
Indented, Boldface Italic, Title Case Heading
5 Ending with a Period. Paragraph text continues on the
same line as the same paragraph.
Major Paper Sections
Your research paper should include four major sections: the Title

Page, Abstract, Main Body, and References.
Title
A title should summarize the main idea of the manuscript simply and, if possible,
with style. It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them. An
example of a good title is "Effect of Transformed Letters on Reading Speed."
As for Griffee (2012), creating a good title for a research paper does not usually
receive attention, but for many researchers it can be a challenge. The title of a research
paper is important because it creates the first impression of a paper. People may decide
to read or not read a paper simply by the title. If you send your manuscript to a journal,
your title may determine to whom the journal editor assigns it for review. A major
consideration is that the title will be catalogued in various databases. Remembering that,
create a title that describes your topic using keywords that can be used by others in a
search. For example, if you write a paper on basic writing, you would want others
interested in basic writing to be able to locate your paper. Using a title which captures
your feelings such as “The good, the bad, and the ugly,” but which does not contain key
search words can result in momentary satisfaction because this poetic title captures your
feelings, but long-term loss may result because readers may not recognize what your
topic is. This title could be changed to “Basic writing for ESL students: The good, the bad,
and the ugly.”
Further, Griffee (2010) suggests some strategies in creating your title: (a) insert the
term “working title” in front of your title in order to hold your initial thoughts and also to
remind you that it can be changed; (b) list keywords from the paper, and using those key
words, arrange them in multiple ways to create several possible titles; then, (c) describe
your research to your colleagues while asking them to vote on the most appropriate title.
A majority vote by your colleagues may point to the most appropriate title.
Philippine Normal University [PNU] Publication Office (2020) encouraged

researchers to use the matrix, shown below, in crafting their research titles.
Research Interest
Probable Source of Research based on interest (DepEd
Research Agenda, School-based Research Agenda, ASEAN,
UNESCO etc.
-Please specify the major and specific agenda

Your observation/actual situation in the field, in the classroom

etc. that may have caught your attention in relation to your
research interest and identified source of research
Tentative Research Topic
Tentative Research Focus and Initial Questions
Working Title
For your title page, you should include all parts as indicated in APA 7. Title pages
of professional papers (e.g., those intended for scholarly publication) are slightly different
from student papers (e.g., those turned in for credit in a high school or college course).
Study the samples below.
The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author
affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor
name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in the example.
1
Page Number
Paper Title
Speech Anxieties of English Language Learners
Author Jose Aguinaldo
Affiliation Department of Linguistics, Pangasinan State University
EL 110: Language Research Course
Dr. Jenylyn V. Oboza Instructor
December 2020 Instructor

Title page for a student paper in APA 7 style
Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or
institution.
The guidelines to format each element of the student title page are shown below.
Student
title page Format Example
element
Place the title three to four lines down from the top
of the title page. Center it and type it in bold font.
Capitalize major words of the title. Place the main Impact of COVID 19 Pandemic
Paper title title and any subtitle on separate double-spaced on Students’ Academic
lines if desired. There is no maximum length for Performance
titles; however, keep titles focused and include key
terms.
Place one double-spaced blank line between the

paper title and the author names. Center author
names on their own line. If there are two authors,
Author Cecil V. Larioza and
use the word “and” between authors; if there are
names Michelle A. Lazo
three or more authors, place a comma between
author names and use the word “and” before the
final author name.
For a student paper, the affiliation is the institution

where the student attends school. Include both the
Author name of any department and the name of the Department of Linguistics,
affiliation college, university, or other institution, separated Pangasinan State University
by a comma. Center the affiliation on the next
double-spaced line after the author name(s).
Provide the course number as shown on

Course instructional materials, followed by a colon and the
number and course name. Center the course number and name EL 101: Language Research
name on the next double-spaced line after the author
affiliation.
Provide the name of the instructor for the course

Instructor using the format shown on instructional materials.
Dr. Jenylyn V. Oboza
name Center the instructor name on the next double-
spaced line after the course number and name.
Assignment Provide the due date for the assignment. Center December 20, 2020
due date the due date on the next double-spaced line after 20 December 2020

the instructor name. Use the date format

commonly used in your country.
Use the page number 1 on the title page. Use the

Page automatic page-numbering function of your word
1
number processing program to insert page numbers in the
top right corner of the page header.
The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline),
author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the
following example.
SPEECH ANXIETIES Running Head 1
Page Number
Paper Title Speech Anxieties of English Language Learners
Authors Andrea Bustria and Jackie Palma
Department of Linguistics, Pangasinan State University

Affiliation
Author Note Author Note
Andrea Bustria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-2345-6789
Jackie Palma https://orcid.org/0000-0004-3231-5890
Jackie Palma is now at the University of Philippines, Diliman
This research was supported in part by grants from the
National Psychological Association of the Philippines.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Andrea Bustria, Department of Linguistics, Pangasinan State

Title page for a professional paper in APA 7 style
Here are the guidelines in formatting a professional title page.
Professional
title page Format Example
element
Place the title three to four lines down from the

top of the title page. Center it and type it in bold
font. Capitalize major words of the title. Place Understanding the persona of
Paper title the main title and any subtitle on separate Elementary Teachers
double-spaced lines if desired. There is no from the Pupils’ Doodles
maximum length for titles; however, keep titles
focused and include key terms.
Place one double-spaced blank line between the

paper title and the author names. Center author
names on their own line. If there are two
authors, use the word “and” between authors; if Allan C. Lacson
there are three or more authors, place a comma
Author names between author names and use the word “and”
before the final author name.
When different authors have different affiliations,

use superscript numerals after author names to
Trisha Reyes1, Ariel Basto2, and
connect the names to the appropriate
William Santos1
affiliation(s). If all authors have the same
affiliation, superscript numerals are not used.
For a professional paper, the affiliation is the

institution at which the research was conducted.
Include both the name of any department and
the name of the college, university, or other
Communication Arts Department,
institution, separated by a comma. Center the
Western Visayas University
affiliation on the next double-spaced line after
Author the author names; when there are multiple
affiliation affiliations, center each affiliation on its own line.
When different authors have different affiliations, 1

Department of Psychology,
use superscript numerals before affiliations to
University of Pangasinan
connect the affiliations to the appropriate 2
Department of Liberal Arts,
author(s). Do not use superscript numerals if all
Philippine Science College
authors share the same affiliations.

A professional paper should include the author

note beneath the institutional affiliation, in the
bottom half of the title page. Center and bold the Delilah C. Nacar
label “Author Note.” Align the paragraphs of the https://orcid.org/0000-0005-
author note to the left. 4645-6349
Jane G. Guzman
This should be divided up into several https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
paragraphs, with any paragraphs that are not 3231-5890
relevant omitted. The first paragraph should This research was
include the author’s name, the symbol for the supported by Department of
ORCID iD, and the URL for the ORCID iD. Any Science and technology and
Author note
authors who do not have an ORCID iD should Food Development Authority.
be omitted. The second paragraph should show Correspondence
any change in affiliation or any deaths of the concerning this article should
authors. The third paragraph should include any be addressed to Jane De
disclosures or acknowledgements, such as Guzman, College of Medicine,
study registration, open practices and data University of Holy Angels
sharing, disclosure of related reports and Academy, España, Manila
conflicts of interest, and acknowledgement of 1008 Philippines. E-mail:
financial support and other assistance. The jdeguzman@hac.edu.ph
fourth paragraph should include contact
information for the corresponding author.
The running head appears in all-capital letters in

the page header of all pages, including the title
PREDICTION ERRORS SUPPORT
Running head page. Align the running head to the left margin.
CHILDREN’S WORD LEARNING
Do not use the label “Running head:” before the
running head.
Use the page number 1 on the title page. Use

the automatic page-numbering function of your
Page number word processing program to insert page 1
numbers in the top right corner of the page
header.
Abstract
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it

allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly and, like a title, it enables
persons interested in the document to retrieve it from abstracting and indexing databases.
Most scholarly journals require an abstract. Consult the instructions to authors or web
page of the journal to which you plan to submit your article for any journal-specific
instructions.
A well-prepared abstract can be the most important single paragraph in an article.

Most people have their first contact with an article by seeing just the abstract, usually in
comparison with several other abstracts, as they are doing a literature search. Readers
frequently decide on the basis of the abstract whether to read the entire article. The
abstract needs to be dense with information. By embedding key words in your abstract,
you enhance the user's ability to find it. A good abstract is.
 accurate: Ensure that the abstract correctly reflects the purpose and content of
the manuscript. Do not include information that does not appear in the body of

the manuscript. If the study extends or replicates previous research, note this in
the abstract and cite the author's last name and the year of the relevant report.
Comparing an abstract with an outline of the manuscript's headings is a useful
way to verify its accuracy.
 nonevaluative: Report rather than evaluate; do not add to or comment on what

is in the body of the manuscript.
 coherent and readable: Write in clear and concise language. Use verbs rather
than their noun equivalents and the active rather than the passive voice (e.g.,
investigated rather than an investigation on. The authors presented the results
instead of Results were presented). Use the present tense to describe
conclusions drawn or results with continuing applicability; use the past tense to
describe specific variables manipulated or outcomes measured.
 concise: Be brief, and make each sentence maximally informative, especially

the lead sentence. Begin the abstract with the most important points. Do not
waste space by repeating the title. Include in the abstract only the four or five
most important concepts, findings, or implications. Use the specific words in
your abstract that you think your audience will use in their electronic searches.
When preparing your manuscript, begin a new page. Your abstract page
should already include the page header (described above). On the first line of the
abstract page, center and bold the word “Abstract” (no italics, underlining, or
quotation marks).
Beginning with the next line, write a concise summary of the key points of your
research. (Do not indent.) Your abstract should contain at least your research topic,
research questions, participants, methods, results, data analysis, and conclusions.
You may also include possible implications of your research and future work you see
connected with your findings. Your abstract should be a single paragraph, double-
spaced. Do not exceed the abstract word limit of the journal to which you are
submitting your research paper. Word limits vary from journal to journal and typically
range from 150 to 250 words.
You may also want to list keywords from your paper in your abstract. To do
this, indent as you would if you were starting a new paragraph,
type Keywords: (italicized), and then list your keywords. Listing your keywords will
help researchers find your work in databases.
Main Body
Introduction
The introduction is different from most other sections of a paper in that generally,
the word “Introduction” is not used. One just begins. Introductions to academic papers
come in many sizes; there is no “one size fits all,” but they must make sense to the
reader. One way to grasp the structure of an introduction would be to read articles in one
or two of your favorite journals to see how they do it. Here are some guidelines from the
APA (2010).

Introduce the problem. The body of a manuscript opens with an introduction that
presents the specific problem under study and describes the research strategy.
Because the introduction is clearly identified by its position in the manuscript, it
does not carry a heading labeling it the introduction.
Before writing the introduction, consider the following questions:
Why is this problem important?

How does the study relate to previous work in the area? If other aspects of
this study have been reported previously, how does this report differ from,
and build on, the earlier report?
 What are the primary and secondary hypotheses and objectives of the
study, and what, if any, are the links to theory?
 How do the hypotheses and research design relate to one another?
 What are the theoretical and practical implications of the study?
A good introduction answers these questions in just a few pages and, by
summarizing the relevant arguments and the past evidence, gives the reader a firm
sense of what was done and why.
Explore importance of the problem. State why the problem deserves new
research. For basic research, the statement about importance might involve the
need to resolve any inconsistency in results of past work and/or extend the reach
of a theoretical formulation. For applied research, this might involve the need to
solve a social problem or treat a psychological disorder. When research is driven
by the desire to resolve controversial issues, all sides in the debate should be
represented in balanced measure in the introduction. Avoid animosity and ad
hominem arguments in presenting the controversy. Conclude the statement of the
problem in the introduction with a brief but formal statement of the purpose of the
research that summarizes the material preceding it. For literature reviews as well
as theoretical and methodological articles, also clearly state the reasons that the
reported content is important and how the article fits into, the cumulative
understanding of the field.
Describe relevant scholarship. Discuss the relevant related literature, but do not
feel compelled to include an exhaustive historical account. Assume that the reader
is knowledgeable about the basic problem and does not require a complete
accounting of its history. A scholarly description of earlier work in the introduction
provides a summary of the most recent directly related work and recognizes the
priority of the work of others. Citation of and specific credit to relevant earlier works
are signs of scientific and scholarly responsibility and are essential for the growth
of a cumulative science. In the description of relevant scholarship, also inform
readers whether other aspects of this study have been reported on previously and
how the current use of the evidence differs from earlier uses. At the same time, cite
and reference only works pertinent to the specific issue and not those that are of
only tangential or general significance. When summarizing earlier works, avoid
nonessential details; instead, emphasize pertinent findings, relevant
methodological issues, and major conclusions. Refer the reader to general surveys
or research syntheses of the topic if they are available.

Demonstrate the logical continuity between previous and present work.

Develop the problem with enough breadth and clarity to make it generally
understood by as wide a professional audience as possible. Do not let the goal of
brevity lead you to write a statement intelligible only to the specialist.
State hypotheses and their correspondence to research design. After you

have introduced 'the problem and have developed the background material,
explain your approach to solving the problem. In empirical studies, this usually
involves stating your hypotheses or specific question and describing how these
were derived from theory or are logically connected to previous data and
argumentation. Clearly develop the rationale for each. Also, if you have some
hypotheses or questions that are central to your purpose and others that are
secondary or exploratory, state this prioritization. Explain how the research design
permits the inferences needed to examine the hypothesis or provide estimates in
answer to the question.
Table 3 shows a possible structure of an introduction (from Griffee, 2012).
First, state why this problem It is generally acknowledged that textbooks play an
is interesting to your field. important role in language classes. For example,
Author (19xx) states that textbooks provide significant
language input.
Second, state a problem, Nevertheless, some researchers (Author, 19xx;

contradiction, gap, or Author, 20xx) have shown that many text authors
question using words such employ artificial dialogues that lack normal language
as: however, nevertheless, features.
yet, but.
Third, state the purpose of The purpose of this paper is to investigate current
the paper. textbooks comparing their dialogues with those of
native speakers.
Table 3 Possible Structure of an Introduction
In preparing your manuscript, begin the introduction on a new page,

identifying it with the running head and the page number 3. Type the title of the
manuscript in uppercase and lowercase letters centered at the top of the page, and
then type the text. The remaining sections of the article follow each other without a
break; do not start a new page when a new heading occurs. Each remaining
manuscript page should also carry the running head and a page number.
Method
The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted, including

conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study. Different types of
studies will rely on different methodologies; however, a complete description of the
methods used enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your methods and
the reliability and the validity of your results. It also permits experienced investigators to
replicate the study. If your manuscript is an update of an ongoing or earlier study and the
method has been published in detail elsewhere, you may refer the reader to that source
and simply give a brief synopsis of the method in this section. The following is an example
of such a synopsis:
We present cross-sectional and 3-year longitudinal data from a study of

adults aged 55 to 84…. The memory tasks were those used in our
previous research (Zelinski et al., 1990; Zelinski, Gilewski, & Thompson,
1980).
The following are points to consider when writing a research abstract:
1. Identify subsections. It is both conventional and expedient to divide the

Method section into labeled subsections. These usually include a section with
descriptions of the participants or subjects and a section describing the
procedures used in the study. The e latter section often includes description of
(a) any experimental manipulations or inventions used and how they were
delivered—for example, any mechanical apparatus used to deliver them; (b)
sampling procedures and sample size and precision; (c) measurement
approaches (including the psychometric properties of the instruments used);
and (d) the research design. If the design of the study is complex or the stimuli
require if detailed description, additional subsections or subheadings to divide
the subsections may be warranted to help readers find specific information.
Include these subsections the information essential to comprehend and

replicate the study. Insufficient detail leaves the reader with questions; too
much detail burdens the reader with irrelevant information. Consider using
appendices and/or a supplemental website for more detailed information.
2. Participant (subject) characteristics. Appropriate identification of research

participants is critical to the science and practice of psychology, particularly for
generalizing the findings, making comparisons across replications, and using
the evidence in research syntheses and secondary data analyses. If humans
participated in the study, report the eligibility and exclusion criteria, including
any restrictions based on demographic characteristics.
Describe the sample adequately. Detail the sample's major demographic

characteristics, such as age; sex; ethnic and/or racial group; level of education;
socioeconomic, generational, or immigrant status; disability status; sexual
orientation; gender identity; and language preference as well as important topic-
specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of educational
interventions). As a rule, describe the groups as specifically as possible, with
particular emphasis on characteristics that may have bearing on the
interpretation of results. Often, participant characteristics can be important for
understanding the nature of the sample and the degree to which results can be
generalized. For example, the following is a useful characterization of a sample:

The second group included 40 women between the ages of 20

and 30 years (M = 24.2, SD = 2.1), all of whom had emigrated
from El Salvador; had at least 12 years of education; had been
permanent residents of the United States for at least 10 years;
and lived in Washington, DC.
To determine how far the data can be generalized, you may find it useful
to identify subgroups:
The Asian sample included 30 Chinese and 45 Vietnamese

persons.
or
Among the Latino and Hispanic American men, 20 were Mexican

American and 20 were Puerto Rican.
Even when a characteristic is not used in analysis of the data, reporting it

may give readers a more complete understanding of the sample and the
generalizability of results and may prove useful in meta-analytic studies that
incorporate the article's results.
3. Sampling procedures. Describe the procedures for selecting participants,

including (a) the sampling method, if a systematic sampling plan was used; (b)
the percentage of the sample approached that participated; and (c) the number
of participants who selected themselves into the sample. Describe the settings
and locations in which the data were collected as well as any agreements and
payments made to participants, agreements with the institutional review board,
ethical standards met, and safety monitoring procedures.
4. Sample size, power, and precision. Along with the description of subjects,
give the intended size of the sample and number of individuals meant to be in
each condition, if separate conditions were used. State whether the achieved
sample differed in known ways from the target population. Conclusions and
interpretations should not go beyond what the sample would warrant.
State how this intended sample size was determined (e.g., analysis of
power or precision). If interim analysis and stopping rules were used to modify
the desired sample size, describe the methodology and results. When applying
inferential statistics, take seriously the statistical power considerations
associated with the tests of hypotheses. Such considerations relate to the
likelihood of correctly rejecting the tested hypotheses, given a particular alpha
level, effect size, and sample size. In that regard, routinely provide evidence
that the study has sufficient power to detect effects of substantive interest. Be
similarly careful in discussing the role played by sample size in cases in which
not rejecting the null hypothesis is desirable (i.e., when one wishes to argue
that there are no differences), when testing various assumptions underlying the
statistical model adopted (e.g., normality, homogeneity of variance,
homogeneity of regression), and in model fitting.

Alternatively, use calculations based on a chosen target precision

(confidence interval width) to determine sample sizes. Use the resulting
confidence intervals to justify conclusions concerning effect sizes (e.g., that
some effect is negligibly small).
5. Measures (also called Materials). Include in the Method section information

that provides definitions of all primary and secondary outcome measures and
covariates, including measures collected but not included in this report.
Describe the methods used to collect data as well as methods used to enhance
the quality of the measurements (e.g., the training and reliability of assessors or
the use of multiple observations). Instruments or materials used by most
teachers are questionnaires, tests, observation schemes, compositions, diaries,
homework, interviews, audio recorders, or video cameras (Griffee, 2012).
In this section, as mentioned by Griffee (2012), data collection

instruments should be described in detail, including how they were prepared
and piloted; how reliability was calculated; and how they were validated. If an
instrument was a test or questionnaire, what was the scoring method? At this
point, don’t explain how materials were used--this belongs under Procedures.
Similarly, don’t give actual scores--these belong under Results. To summarize:
a. List each material and piece of equipment in the order it was used, or
list materials by research question.
b. Tell how it was prepared.
c. What was its purpose? For example, which research question did it
answer?
d. How was it piloted?
e. Give reliability estimates derived from the pilot. Later, in the Results
section, provide the reliability for the actual results in your study.
Each time an instrument is administered, reliability should be
calculated since it is not a universal, but a characteristic of a set of
particular scores (Thompson, 2003).
f. Provide scoring or rating scales.
g. Tell us how the instrument was validated.
6. Research design. Specify the research design in the Method section. Were
subjects placed into conditions that were manipulated, or were they observed
naturalistically? If multiple conditions were created, how were participants
assigned to conditions, through random assignment or some other selection
mechanism? Was the study conducted as a between-subjects or a within-
subject design? Different research designs have different reporting needs
associated with them (How to select a research design is discussed in detail in
Module 2.)
7. Experimental manipulations or interventions. If interventions or

experimental manipulations were used in the study, describe their specific
content. Include the details of the interventions or manipulations intended for
each study condition, including control groups (if any), and describe how and

when interventions (experimental manipulations) were actually administered.
The description of manipulations or interventions should include several

elements. Carefully describe the content of the intervention or specific
experimental manipulations. Often, this will involve presenting a brief summary
of instructions given to participants. If the instructions are unusual or compose
the experimental manipulation, you may present them verbatim in an appendix
or in an online supplemental archive. If the text is brief, you may present it in
the body of the paper if it does not interfere with the readability of the report.
Describe the methods of manipulation and data acquisition. If a

mechanical apparatus was used to present stimulus materials or collect data,
include in the description of procedures the apparatus model number and
manufacturer (when important, as in neuroimaging studies), its key settings or
parameters (e.g., pulse settings), and its resolution (e.g., regarding stimulus
delivery, recording precision). As with the description of the intervention or
experimental manipulation, this material may be presented in the body of the
paper, in an appendix, in an online supplemental archive, or as appropriate.
When relevant—such as, for example, in the delivery of clinical and educational
interventions—the procedures should also contain a description of who
delivered the intervention, including their level of professional training and their
level of training in the specific intervention. Present the number of deliverers
along with the mean, standard deviation, and range of number of individuals or
units treated by each deliverer.
Provide information about (a) the setting where the intervention or

manipulation was delivered, (b) the quantity and duration of exposure to the
intervention or manipulation (i.e., how many sessions, episodes, or events were
intended to be delivered and how long they were intended to last), (c) the time
span taken for the delivery of the intervention or manipulation to each unit (e.g.,
would the manipulation delivery be complete in one session, or if participants
returned for multiple sessions, how much time passed between the first and last
session?), and (d) activities or incentives used to increase compliance.
When an instrument is translated into a language other than the

language in which it was developed, describe the specific method of translation
(e.g., back-translation, in which a text is translated into another language and
then back into the first to ensure that it is equivalent enough that results can be
compared).
Provide a description of how participants were grouped during data

acquisition (i.e., was the manipulation or intervention administered individual by
individual, in small groups, or in intact groupings such as classrooms?).
Describe the smallest unit (e.g., individuals, work groups, classes) that was
analyzed to assess effects. If the unit used for statistical analysis differed from
the unit used to deliver the intervention or manipulation (i.e., was different from
the unit of randomization), describe the analytic method used to account for this
(e.g., adjusting the standard error estimates or using multilevel analysis).

Results
In the Results section, summarize the collected data and the analysis performed
on those data relevant to the discourse that is to follow. Report the data in sufficient detail
to justify your conclusions. Mention all relevant results, including those that run counter to
expectation; be sure to include small effect sizes (or statistically nonsignificant findings)
when theory predicts large (or statistically significant) ones. Do not hide uncomfortable
results by omission. Do not include individual scores or raw data, with the exception, for
example, of single-case designs or illustrative examples. Discussing the implications of
the results should be reserved for presentation in the Discussion section.
Discussion
After presenting the results, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret their
implications, especially with respect to your original hypotheses. Here you will examine,
interpret, and qualify the results and draw inferences and conclusions from them.
Emphasize any theoretical or practical consequences of the results. (When the discussion
is relatively brief and straightforward, some authors prefer to combine it with the Results
section, creating a section called Results and Discussion.)
Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport
for your original hypotheses, distinguished by primary and secondary hypotheses. If e
hypotheses were not supported, offer post hoc explanations. Similarities and differences
between your results and the work of others should be used to contextualize, confirm, and
clarify your conclusions. Do not simply reformulate and repeat points already made; each
new statement should contribute to your interpretation and to the reader's understanding
of the problem.
Your interpretation of the results should take into account the following:
(a) sources of potential bias and other threats to internal validity,

(b) the imprecision of measures,
(c) the overall number of tests or overlap among tests,
(d) the effect sizes observed, and
(e) other limitations or weaknesses of the study.
If an intervention is involved, discuss whether it was successful and the

mechanism by which it was intended to work (causal pathways) and/or alternative
mechanisms. Also, discuss barriers to implementing the intervention or manipulation as
well as the fidelity with which the intervention or manipulation was implemented in the
study, that is, any differences between the manipulation as planned and as implemented.
Acknowledge the limitations of your research, and address alternative explanations

of the results. Discuss the generalizability, or external validity, of the findings. This critical
analysis should take into account differences between the target population and the
accessed sample. For interventions, discuss characteristics that make them more or less
applicable to circumstances not included in the study, how and what outcomes were
measured (relative to other measures that might have been used), the length of time to

measurement (between the end of the intervention and the measurement of outcomes),
incentives, compliance rates, and specific settings involved in the study as well as other
contextual issues.
End the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable commentary on the
importance of your findings. This concluding section may be brief or extensive provided
that it is tightly reasoned, self-contained, and not overstated. In this section, you might
briefly return to a discussion of why the problem is important (as stated in the
introduction); what larger issues, those that transcend the particulars of the subfield, might
hinge on the findings; and what propositions are confirmed or disconfirmed by the
extrapolation of these findings to such overarching issues.
You may also consider the following issues:
 What is the theoretical, clinical, or practical significance of the outcomes,

and what is the basis for these interpretations? If the findings are valid and
replicable, what real-life psychological phenomena might be explained or
modeled by the results? Are applications warranted on the basis of this
research?
 What problems remain unresolved or arise anew because of these findings?
The responses to these questions are the core of the contribution of your study and
justify why readers both inside and outside your own specialty should attend to the
findings. Your readers should receive clear, unambiguous, and direct answers.
References
References acknowledge the work of previous scholars and provide a reliable way
to the locate it. References are used to document statements made about the literature,
just as data in the manuscript support interpretations and conclusions. The references
cited in the manuscript do not need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support
the need for your research and to ensure that readers can place it in the context of
previous research and theorizing. The standard procedures for citation ensure that
references are accurate, complete, and useful to investigators and readers. Guidelines in
writing reference list are presented in a separate module.
Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the
information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the
body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list;
likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.
Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the
essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT
underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like
the rest of your essay.

Footnotes
APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright. When using
either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following any punctuation
mark apart from a dash (—). A footnote callout should precede the dash. A footnote
callout should only be placed inside of a set of parentheses if it directly pertains to the
material inside. There should not be a space before a footnote callout, and a footnote
callout should never occur in a heading. For example:
Caxton’s printing of the Morte Darthur—dated 14851—changes several

aspects of the Pentecostal Oath. 2 (The Winchester Manuscript’s version of
the Oath will be discussed later in this chapter.3)
When using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft

Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may
also appear on their own page after the References page in your document. Center and
bold the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent one tab (or five spaces) on the
first line of each footnote. Put a space between the footnote number and the footnote
itself. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double space throughout.
APA recommends the use of the default formatting footnote settings in word-
processing programs when using footnotes in the page footers (e.g. 10-point font and
single spacing).
1
For more information on this dating, see chapter 2 of this book.
Content Notes. Content notes provide supplemental information to your

readers. When providing content notes, be brief and focus on only one
subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph. APA
recommends that you only include this type of note if the information
strengthens your discussion.
Content notes can also point readers to information that is available online
or in more detail elsewhere.
1
See Field (1993), for more information on Malory’s life.
Copyright Permission Notes. If you quote more than 500 words of published
material or think you may be in violation of fair use copyright laws, you must get the
formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference
list.
Follow the same formatting rules as with content notes for noting copyright
permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.
If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source,
you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright
information. You should also submit written permission along with your work.
The information included in a copyright note includes the same information

as in the reference list, but with some additional information. You must state if the

material was reprinted or just adapted—use “From” if it is a reprint and “Adapted

from” for adaptations. For example:
1
From “Title of Article,” by A. Author and B. Author, year, Journal
Title, Volume(Issue), p. ## (DOI or URL). Copyright year by
Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.
1
From “Standing Up for the Stanzaic-poet: Artistry, Characterization,
and Narration in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Malory’s Morte
Darthur,” by F. Tolhurst and K. S. Whetter, 2018, Arthuriana 28(3), p.
51. Copyright 2018 by Scriptorum Press. Reprinted with permission.
Appendices and Supplemental Materials
Sometimes, material that supplements article content would be distracting or

inappropriate in the body of the manuscript. Material of this type can often be included in
an appendix or in a supplemental materials section—the former being an element of the
print version of the article, the latter being an online supplemental archive that the
publisher of the archival source maintains.
Some examples of information you might include in an appendix include:
 Raw data (presented in an organized, readable format)

 Extended or detailed descriptions
 Demographic details about participants or groups
 Lists of supporting research and articles that are not directly referenced in-
text
 Lists that are too lengthy to include in the main text
 Large amounts of raw data
 Questionnaires that were used as part of your research
 Research surveys
 Examples of participant responses
 Correspondence (if it pertains directly to your research)
 Materials and instruments (if your research relied on special materials or
instruments, you might want to include images and further information about
how these items work or were used)
While the content found in the appendix is too cumbersome to include in the main
text of your paper, it should still be easily presented in print format.
The appendices should always act as a supplement to your paper. The body of
your paper should be able to stand alone and fully describe your research or your
arguments.
The body of your paper should not be dependent upon what is in the appendices.
Instead, each appendix should act to supplement what is in the primary text, adding
additional (but not essential) information that provides extra insight or information for the
reader.

Basic Rules in Writing the Appendix
 Your paper may have more than one appendix

 Each item usually gets its own appendix section
 Begin each appendix on a separate page
 Each appendix must have a title
 Use title case for your title and labels (the first letter of each word should be
capitalized, while remaining letters should be lower-case)
 If your paper only has one appendix, simply title it Appendix
 If you have more than one appendix, each one should be labeled Appendix
A, Appendix B, Appendix C, and so on
 Put the appendix label centered at the top of the page
 On the next line under the appendix label, place the centered title of the
appendix
 If you refer to a source in your appendix, include an in-text citation just as
you would in the main body of your paper and then include the source in
your main reference section
 Each appendix may contain headings, subheadings, figures, and tables
 Each figure or table in your appendix should include a brief but explanatory
title, which should be italicized
 If you want to reference your appendix within the text of your paper, include
a parenthetical note in the text. For example, you would write (See Appendix
A).
When presenting information in an appendix, use a logical layout for any data
displays such as tables or figures. All tables and figures should be labeled with the words
“Table” or “Figure” (sans quotation marks) and the letter of the appendix and then
numbered. For example, Table A1 would be the first table in an Appendix A. Data
displays should be presented in the appendix following the same order that they first
appear in the text of your paper.
Some questions to ask about whether you should put information in the body of the
paper or in an appendix:
 Is the material necessary for the reader to understand the research? If the
answer is yes, it should be in your paper and not in an appendix.
 Would including the information interrupt the flow of the paper? If the answer
is yes, then it should likely appear in the appendix.
 Would the information supplement what already appears in your paper? If
yes, then it is a good candidate for including in an appendix.
Your appendix is not meant to become an information dump. While the information
in your appendices is supplementary to your paper and research, it should still be useful
and relevant. Only include what will help readers gain insight and understanding, not
clutter or unnecessary confusion.
Check out Annotated Student Sample Paper posted by the American

Psychological Association at https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-
format/student-annotated.pdf
This will give you a clear picture on what are discussed in the preceding
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
paragraphs. Each of the sections in a research paragraph is labeled and discussed. 28
Ethical Considerations
Mackey and Gass (2005) mentioned that second language researchers often have
questions about why approval from institutions and informed consent from individuals is
necessary to collect data from human subjects, given that second language research
usually poses minimal to no risks and often provides added benefits, such as language
production practice.
Second language research or any research for that matter does involve collecting
data from people, about people (Punch, 2005; as cited in Creswell, 2009). Researchers
need to protect their research participants: develop a trust with them; promote the
integrity of research; guard against misconduct and impropriety that might reflect on their
organizations or institutions: and cope with new, challenging problems (Isreal & Hay,
2006). Ethical questions are apparent today in such issues as personal disclosure,
authenticity and credibility of the research report, the role of researchers in cross-cultural
contexts, and issues of personal privacy through forms of Internet data collection (Isreal &
Hay, 2006). In the literature, ethical issues arise in discussions about codes of
professional conduct for researchers and in commentaries about ethical dilemmas and
their potential solutions (Punch, 2005). Many national associations have published
standards or codes of ethics on their Web sites for professionals in their fields. For
example, see
 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, effective date

June 1, 2003 with amendments effective June 1, 2010 and January 1,
2017; available at https://www.apa.org/ethics/code
 The American Sociological Association Code of Ethics, June 2018,

available at https://www.asanet.org/code-ethics
 The American Anthropological Association's Code of Ethics, posted in

November 2012, available at
http://ethics.americananthro.org/category/statement/
 The American Educational Research Association’s Code of Ethics

https://cdn.ymaws.com/wera.site-ym.com/resource/resmgr/a_general/ae
ra.pdf
 The Linguistic Society of America, final version approved July 2019,

available at https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/lsa-revised-ethics-
statement-approved-july-2019
Ethical practices involve much more than merely following a set of static

guidelines, such as those provided by professional associations. Writers need to

anticipate and address any ethical dilemmas that may arise in their research. These
issues apply to qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research and to all stages of
research. Proposal writers need to anticipate them and actively address them in their
research plans. In the succeeding sections of this module, ethical issues in many stages
of research are mentioned. By mentioning them at this point, it is hoped to encourage the
proposal writer to actively design them into sections of a proposal. Although these
discussions will not comprehensively cover all ethical issues, they address major ones.
These issues arise primarily in specifying the research problem; identifying a purpose
statement and research questions; and collecting, analyzing, and writing up the results of
data.
Ethical Issues in the Research Problem
Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2006) ask, "How do ethical issues enter into your
selection of a research problem?" (p.86). In writing an introduction to a study, the
researcher identifies a significant problem or issue to study and presents a rationale for its
importance. During the identification of the research problem, it is important to identify a
problem that will benefit individuals being studied, one that will be meaningful for others
besides the researcher (Punch, 2005). A core idea of action/participatory research is that
the inquirer will not further marginalize or disempower the study participants. To guard
against this, proposal developers can conduct pilot projects to establish trust and respect
with the participants so that inquirers can detect any marginalization before the proposal
is developed and the study begun.
Ethical Issues in the Purpose and Questions
In developing the purpose statement or the central intent and questions for a study,
proposal developers need to convey the purpose of the study that will be described to the
participants (Sarantakos, 2005). Deception occurs when participants understand one
purpose but the researcher has a different purpose in mind. It is also important for
researchers to specify the sponsorship of their study. For example, in designing cover
letters for survey research, sponsorship is an important element in establishing trust and
credibility for a mailed survey instrument.
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
As researchers anticipate data collection, they need to respect the participants and
the sites for research. Many ethical issues arise during this stage of the research.
Do not put participants at risk, and respect vulnerable populations. Researchers

need to have their research plans reviewed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) on
their college and university campuses. IRB committees exist on campuses because of
federal regulations that provide protection against human rights violations. For a
researcher, the IRB process requires assessing the potential for risk, such as physical,
psychological, social, economic, or legal harm (Sieber, 1998), to participants in a study.
Also, the researcher needs to consider the special needs of vulnerable populations, such

as minors (under the age of 19), mentally incompetent participants, victims, persons with
neurological impairments, pregnant women or fetuses, prisoners, and individuals with
AIDS. Investigators file research proposals containing the procedures and information
about the participants with the IRB campus committee so that the board can review the
extent to which the research being proposed subjects individuals to risk. In addition to this
proposal, the researcher develops an informed consent form for participants to sign
before they engage in the research. This form acknowledges that participants' rights will
be protected during data collection. Elements of this consent form include the following
(Sarantakos, 2005):
 Identification of the researcher
 Identification of the sponsoring institution
 Indication of how the participants were selected
 Identification of the purpose of the research
 Identification of the benefits for participating
 Identification of the level and type of participant involvement
 Notation of risks to the participant
 Guarantee of confidentiality to the participant
 Assurance that the participant can withdraw at any time
 Provision of names of persons to contact if questions arise
One issue to anticipate about confidentiality is that some participants may not want
to have their identity remain confidential. By permitting this, the researcher allows the
participants to retain ownership of their voices and exert their independence in making
decisions. They do, however, need to be well informed about the possible risks of non-
confidentiality, such as the inclusion of data in the final report that they may not have
expected, information that infringes on the rights of others that should remain concealed,
and so forth (Giordano, O'Reilly, Taylor, & Dogra, 2007).
Some considerations to address ethical issues are as follows:

 Other ethical procedures during data collection involve gaining the
agreement of individuals in authority (e.g., gatekeepers) to provide access
to study participants at research sites. This often involves writing a letter
that identifies the extent of time, the potential impact, and the outcomes of
the research. Use of Internet responses gained through electronic
interviews or surveys needs permission from participants. This might be
gained through first obtaining permission and then sending out the interview
or survey.
 Researchers need to respect research sites so that they are left undisturbed
after a research study. This requires that inquirers, especially in qualitative
studies involving prolonged observation or interviewing at a site, be
cognizant of their impact and minimize their disruption of the physical
setting. For example, they might time visits so that they intrude little on the
flow of activities of participants. Also, organizations often have guidelines
that provide guidance for conducting research without disturbing their
settings.

 In experimental studies, investigators need to collect data so that all

participants, not only an experimental group, benefit from the treatments.
This may require providing some treatment to all groups or staging the
treatment so that ultimately all groups receive the beneficial treatment.
 An ethical issue arises when there is not reciprocity between the researcher
and the participants. Both the researcher and the participants should benefit
from the research. In some situations, power can easily be abused and
participants can be coerced into a project. Involving individuals
collaboratively in the research may provide reciprocity. Highly collaborative
studies, popular in qualitative research, may engage participants as co-
researchers throughout the research process, such as the design, data
collection and analysis, report writing, and dissemination of the findings
(Patton, 2002).
 Interviewing in qualitative research is increasingly being seen as a moral

inquiry (Kvale, 2007). As such, interviewers need to consider how the
interview will improve the human situation (as well as enhance scientific
knowledge), how a sensitive interview interaction may be stressful for the
participants, whether participants have a say in how their statements are
interpreted, how critically the interviewees might be questioned, and what
the consequences of the interview for the interviewees and the groups to
which they belong might be.
 Researchers also need to anticipate the possibility of harmful, intimate

information being disclosed during the data collection process. It is difficult
to anticipate and try to plan for the impact of this information during or after
an interview (Patton, 2002). For example, a student may discuss parental
abuse or prisoners may talk about an escape. Typically in these situations,
the ethical code for researchers (which may be different for schools and
prisons) is to protect the privacy of the participants and to convey this
protection to all individuals involved in a study.
Ethical Issues in Data Analysis and Interpretation
When the researcher analyzes and interprets both quantitative and qualitative
data, issues emerge that call for good ethical decisions. In anticipating a research study,
consider the following:
 How will the study protect the anonymity of individuals, roles, and incidents in
the project? For example, in survey research, investigators disassociate names
from responses during the coding and recording process. In qualitative
research, inquirers use aliases or pseudonyms for individuals and places, to
protect identities.
 Data, once analyzed, need to be kept for a reasonable period of time (e.g.,
Sieber, 1998, recommends 5-10 years). Investigators should then discard the
data so that it does not fall into the hands of other researchers who might
misappropriate it.

 The question of who owns the data once it is collected and analyzed also can
be an issue that splits research teams and divides individuals against each
other. A proposal might mention this issue of ownership and discuss how it will
be resolved, such as through the development of a clear understanding
between the researcher, the participants, and possibly the faculty advisers
(Punch, 2005). Berg (2001) recommends the use of personal agreements to
designate ownership of research data. An extension of this idea is to guard
against sharing the data with individuals not involved in the project.
 In the interpretation of data, researchers need to provide an accurate account

of the information. This accuracy may require debriefing between the
researcher and participants in quantitative research (Berg, 2001). It may
include, in qualitative research, using one or more of the strategies to check the
accuracy of the data with participants or across different data sources.
Ethical Issues in Writing and Disseminating the Research
The ethical issues do not stop with data collection and analysis; issues apply as
well to the actual writing and dissemination of the final research report. For example,
 Discuss how the research will not use language or words that are biased
against persons because of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group,
disability, or age. The APA (2001) Publication Manual suggests three
guidelines. First, present unbiased language at an appropriate level of
specificity (e.g., rather than say, "The client's behavior was typically male,"
state, "the client's behavior was ________ [specify]"). Second, use language
that is sensitive to labels (e.g., rather than "400 Hispanics", indicate "400
Mexicans, Spaniards, and Puerto Ricans"). Third, acknowledge participants in
a study (e.g., rather than "subject," use the word "participant," and rather than
"woman doctor" use "doctor" or "physician").
 Other ethical issues in writing the research will involve the potential of
suppressing, falsifying, or inventing findings to meet a researcher's or an
audience's needs. These fraudulent practices are not accepted in professional
research communities, and they constitute scientific misconduct (Neuman,
2000). A proposal might contain a proactive stance by the researcher to not
engage in these practices.
 ln planning a study, it is important to anticipate the repercussions of conducting

the research on certain audiences and not to misuse the results to the
advantage of one group or another. The researcher needs to provide those at
the research site with a preliminary copy of any publications from the research
(Creswell, 2007).
 An important issue in writing a scholarly manuscript is to not exploit the labor of

colleagues and to provide authorship to individuals who substantially contribute
to publications. Isreal and Hay (2006) discuss the unethical practice of so-
called gift authorship to individuals who do not contribute to a manuscript and

ghost authorship, in which junior staff who made significant contributions have
been omitted from the list of authors.
 Finally, it is important to release the details of the research with the study
design so that readers can determine for themselves the credibility of the study
(Neuman, 2000). Detailed procedures for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods research will be emphasized in the chapters to follow. Also,
researchers should not engage in duplicate or redundant publication in which
authors publish papers that present exactly the same data, discussions, and
conclusions and do not offer new material. Some biomedical journals now
require authors to declare whether they have published or are preparing to
publish papers that are closely related to the manuscript that has been
submitted (Isreal & Hay, 2006).
LEARNING POINTS
Listed below are the key learning points you have to remember from Module 1:
 Research can be defined in two words, re and search which give new implications
to the concept of research
 Varied views about research are posited by authors but they are similar on the idea
that research aims to provide solutions to problems using careful, systematic,
patient, valid, and reliable method/s of investigation.
 There are three types of research, these are: basic research aims to discover the
basic truths or principles which is driven by a researcher’s curiosity or interest, that
which expands man’s knowledge and not to create or invent something; applied
research, on the other hand, designed to help solve particular, existing problems
so there is much larger audience eager to support research that is likely to be
profitable or solve problems of immediate concern, while an action research
focuses on concrete and practical issues of immediate concern to particular social
groups or communities.
 Language research involves understanding of language use, type of users,
acquisition process, setting, research methodology, and related disciplines.
 A research problem, question, or topic be sufficiently narrow and constrained. More
importantly, it should be relevant, i.e., it addresses current issues.
 A research paper ready for publication in a journal has four major sections:
the Title Page, Abstract, Main Body, and References.
 A repertory grid helps organize notes taken during a literature review.
 Sources of information used in research study be properly acknowledged and
cited.
 Conducting a research study involves collecting data from people, about people.
Their environment is temporarily disturbed by the presence of a researcher; their
day-to-day routine is halted upon agreement to participate in a research study.
Thus, it is strongly suggested that researchers consider ethical issues that may
arise during their studies.
 Researchers need to protect their research participants: develop a trust with them;
promote the integrity of research; guard against misconduct and impropriety that

might reflect on their organizations or institutions: and cope with new, challenging
problems.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
IMPORTANT REMINDERS:
 Quizzes will be administered during face-to-face classes.

 Writing activities may be done during asynchronous sessions.
 Announcements will be posted in the official Messenger Group Chat and/or be
given during face-to-face classes.
REFERENCES
Adanza, E.G., Bermudo, P.J.U., Rasonabe, M.B. (2009). Methods of Research: A Primer.
Quezon City: Rex Book Store, Inc.
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association (6th Ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative Action Research for English Language Teachers. UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Cherry, K. (2020). How to Write an APA Format Appendix.

https://www.verywellmind.com/appendix-in-apa-format-4706981
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods

Approaches (3rd Ed.). California, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Engle, M. (2012). The Seven Steps of the Research Process. Cornell University Library.
https://olinuris.library.cornell.edu/content/seven-steps-research-process
Mackey, A. and Gass, S. M. (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and

Design. Lawrence USA: Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Madan, C.R. & Teitge, B.D. (2013). The Benefits of Undergraduate Research: The
Student's Perspective.
https://journals.psu.edu/mentor/article/view/61274/60907#:~:text=Research
%20experience%20allows%20undergraduate%20students,start%20their
%20careers%20as%20researchers.
Magsano-Sarno, E.G. (2010). Tips and Techniques in Writing Research. Quezon City:
Rex Book Store, Inc.

Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. New York, USA: Cambridge
University Press.
Posecion, O.T., Go, M.B., & Albano, H.P. (2011). Language Research: Principles amd
Application. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). General Format // Purdue Writing Lab.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_sty
le_guide/general_format.html
Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). APA Sample Paper // Purdue Writing Lab.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_sty
le_guide/apa_sample_paper.html

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Study Guide in EL 110 – Language Research FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Activities Time Allotment

 Answer the Learning Activities at the 1 hour

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

After going through this module, you should be able to:

a. Define and discuss importance of research.

Definition and Importance of a Research

 relationship between emotional quotient and leadership skills;

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Applied research examines the effectiveness of particular educational practices

Writers’ Views on Research

Kerlinger systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of

Rekha Koul the nature of educational research is analogous to the nature of

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Language use determines primarily whether the language is first, second, or

Language setting identifies the environment within which language is acquired. A

Research methodology is determined by the researcher’s philosophy, motivation

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Madan and Teitge (2013) cited that exposure to undergraduate research is

1. To better understand published works. When investigating any phenomenon

2. To learning to balance collaborative and individual work. Research is often

3. To determine an area of interest. Exposure to an area of research

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

4. To jump start their careers as researchers. Exposure to research as

1. To determine the accuracy or otherwise and validity of popular beliefs, and

Structure of a Research Paper: APA Style

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

 Social Sciences, such as Psychology, Linguistics, Sociology, Economics, and

Chapter 1 The Problem

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies

Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

This format is followed by students across all programs which require

Your research paper should be typed and double-spaced on standard-sized paper

Grifee (2012) recommended a three-level heading (Table 1) which is usually

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Table 1 Three levels of headings in a typical research paper format

First year students. First year students consisted of ...

Analysis (A proposal stops here, but includes references and appendixes.)

Table 2 Five Levels of Headings in APA Journals

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10

(Course Code & Title) Module 1 – Fundamentals of Research

Indented, Boldface Title Case Heading Ending with

Major Paper Sections

Your research paper should include four major sections: the Title

Philippine Normal University [PNU] Publication Office (2020) encouraged

-Please specify the major and specific agenda

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11