AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS
SINUSOIDS
Review basic facts about sinusoidal signals

SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Behavior of circuits with sinusoidal independent sources
and modeling of sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials

PHASORS
Representation of complex exponentials as vectors. It facilitates
steady-state analysis of circuits.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITANCE

Generalization of the familiar concepts of resistance and
conductance to describe AC steady state circuit operation

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Representation of AC voltages and currents as complex vectors

BASIC AC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF LAWS

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Extension of node, loop, Thevenin and other techniques
 Introduction
AC Voltage Generation
 An alternating Voltage (AC) is an electrical ω
Voltage whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically, as opposed to DC whose direction
remains constant. The usual waveform of an
N s
AC is a sine wave
 Faraday’s law: A voltage is generated between
the ends of an electrical conductor that moves
in a magnetic field. This voltage equals to the
rate of change of the flux. e
 Consider a single turn coil free to rotate at
angular velocity ω between two magnets
 An EMF generates in the coil according to
Faraday’s law. dφ
e=
dt
2
AC Voltage Generation

3
 SINUSOIDS

x (t ) = X M sin ω t

X M = amplitude or maximum value

ω = angular frequency (rads/sec) " leads by θ "
ω t = argument (radians)
2π
T= = Period ⇒ x (t ) = x (t + T ), ∀t
ω
1 ω
f = = = frequency in Hertz (cycle/sec )
T 2π
ω = 2π f " lags by θ "
LEARNING EXAMPLE

cos(ω t )

Leads by 45 degrees
cos(ω t + 45°)

− cos(ω t + 45°)
lags by 135
cos(ω t + 45 ± 180)
cos(ω t − 135°)
LEARNING EXAMPLE

v1 (t ) = 12 sin(1000t + 60°), v2 (t ) = −6 cos(1000t + 30°)

FIND FREQUENCY AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGES
Frequency in radians per second is the factor of the time variable ω = 1000 rad / sec
ω
f ( Hz ) = = 159.2 Hz
2π
To find phase angle we must express both sinusoids using the same
trigonometric function; either sine or cosine with positive amplitude

take care of minus sign with cos(α ) = − cos(α ± 180°)

− 6 cos(1000t + 30°) = 6 cos(1000t + 30° + 180°)

Change sine into cosine with cos(α ) = sin(α + 90°)

6 cos(1000t + 210°) = 6 sin(1000t + 210° + 90°)
We like to have the phase shifts less than 180 in absolute value
6 sin(1000t + 300°) = 6 sin(1000t − 60°)
v1 (t ) = 12 sin(1000t + 60°) (1000t + 60°) − (1000t − 60°) = 120°
v1 leads v2 by 120°
v2 (t ) = 6 sin(1000t − 60°) (1000t − 60°) − (1000t + 60°) = −120°
v2 lags v1 by 120°
LEARNING EXTENSION

i1 (t ) = 2 sin(377 t + 45°)
i2 (t ) = 0.5 cos(377 t + 10°)
i3 (t ) = −0.25 sin(377 t + 60°)
i1 leads i2 by_____?
i1 leads i3 by_____?

cosα = sin(α + 90°)

0.5 cos(377 t + 10°) = 0.5 sin(377 t + 10° + 90°)
(377t + 45°) − (377t + 100°) = −55°
i1 leads i2 by − 55°
sin α = − sin(α ± 180°)
− 0.25 sin(377 t + 60°) = 0.25 sin(377 t + 60° − 180°)
(377 t + 45°) − (377 t − 120°) = 165°
i1 leads i3 by 165°
SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

If the independent sources are sinusoids

of the same frequency then for any
variable in the linear circuit the steady
state response will be sinusoidal and of
the same frequency

v(t ) = VM sin(ω t + θ ) ⇒ i (t ) = I M sin(ω t + φ )

To determine the steady state solution
we only need to determine the parameters
I M ,φ
Learning Example di
KVL : L (t ) + Ri (t ) = v (t )
dt

In steady state i (t ) = I M cos(ω t + φ ), or

i (t ) = A1 cos ω t + A2 sin ω t *R

di
(t ) = − A1ω sin ω t + A2ω cos ω t *L
dt
(− LωA1 + RA2 ) sin ω t + ( LωA2 + RA1 ) cos ω t =
= VM cos ω t
− LωA1 + RA2 = 0 algebraic problem

LωA2 + RA1 = VM

RVM ωLVM
A1 = 2 , A2 = 2
R + (ωL) 2
R + (ωL) 2
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION
The solution is i (t ) = A1 cos ω t + A2 sin ω t
The applied voltage is v(t ) = VM cos ω t
For comparison purposes one can write i (t ) = I m cos(ω t + φ )
A2
A1 = I M cos φ , A2 = − I M sin φ I M = A + A , tan φ = −
1
2 2
2
A1
RVM ωLVM
A1 = , A =
R 2 + (ωL) 2 R 2 + (ωL) 2
2

VM ωL
IM = , φ = − tan −1
R 2 + (ωL) 2 R

VM
i (t ) = cos(ω t + φ )
R + (ωL)
2 2

For L ≠ 0 the current ALWAYS lags the voltage

If R = 0 (pure inductor) the current lags the voltage by 90°
SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS
IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS

TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...

… WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES

ESSENTIAL IDENTITY : e jθ = cosθ + j sin θ (Euler identity)

v(t ) = VM cos ω t → i (t ) = I M cos(ω t + φ )

v(t ) = VM sin ω t → i (t ) = I M sin(ω t + φ ) * j (and add)

i (t ) VM e jω t → I M e j (ωt +φ ) = I M e jφ e jω t
If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid
then one can skip the term exp(jwt)

VM → I M e jφ
 Learning Example ωL
− tan −1
R − jωL = R + (ωL ) e
2 2 R

ωL
VM − tan −1
jφ
IMe = e R
R 2 + (ωL ) 2
v ( t ) = V M e jω t
VM ωL
IM = , φ = − tan −1
Assume i (t ) = I M e ( jω t +φ ) R 2 + (ωL ) 2 R
di
KVL : L (t ) + Ri (t ) = v (t ) v (t ) = V cos ω t = Re{ V e jω t
}
dt M M
( jω t +φ )
di
( t ) = j ωI M e ( jω t +φ ) ⇒ i (t ) = Re{ I M e } = I M cos(ω t + φ )
dt
di
L (t ) + Ri (t ) = jωLI M e ( jω t +φ ) + RI M e ( jω t +φ )
dt R↔ P
( jω t +φ )
= ( j ωL + R ) I M e jθ
jφ j ωt
x + jy = r∠θ = re
= ( j ωL + R ) I M e e
y
( j ωL + R ) I M e e jφ jω t
= VM e jω t r = x 2 + y 2 , θ = tan −1
x
VM R − j ωL
I M e jφ = * x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
j ωL + R R − j ωL
V M ( R − j ω L)
I M e jφ =
R 2 + (ωL) 2
 PHASORS
ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY

CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE v(t ) = VM cos(ω t + θ )

THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM

i (t ) = I M cos(ω t + φ )
New idea:
VM e j (ωt +θ ) = VM e jθ e j (ωt ) = V e j (ωt )
i.e. V = VM e jθ
SHORTCUT IN NOTATION
INSTEAD OF WRITING V = VM e jθ WE WRITE V = VM ∠θ
... AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
VM ∠θ IS THE PHASOR REPRESENTATION FOR VM cos(ω t + θ )

v(t ) = VM cos(ω t + θ ) → V = VM ∠θ ⇒ I = I M ∠φ → i (t ) = I M cos(ω t + φ )

Learning Example

di
L (t ) + Ri (t ) = v
dt
L( jωI e jωt ) + RI e jωt = V e jωt
V = VM ∠0
j ωt In terms of phasors one has
v = Ve
jωLI + RI = V
I = I M ∠φ
V V∠0
i = Ie j ωt I= =
R + j ωL ωL
R 2 + (ωL) 2 ∠ tan −1 ( )
R
V ωL
I = I M ∠φ = ∠ − tan −1 ( )
R 2 + (ωL) 2 R
The phasor can be obtained using
only complex algebra

We will develop a phasor representation

for the circuit that will eliminate the need
of writing the differential equation
 Learning Extensions

It is essential to be able to move from

sinusoids to phasor representation
A cos(ωt ± θ ) ↔ A∠ ± θ
A sin(ωt ± θ ) ↔ A∠ ± θ − 90°
v (t ) = 12 cos(377 t − 425°) ↔ 12∠ − 425°
y (t ) = 18 sin( 2513t + 4.2°) ↔ 18∠ − 85.8°
Given f = 400 Hz
V1 = 10∠20° ↔ v1 ( t ) = 10 cos(800π t + 20°)
V2 = 12∠ − 60° ↔ v 2 ( t ) = 12 cos(800π t − 60°)
Phasors can be combined using the
rules of complex algebra
(V1∠θ1 )(V2∠θ 2 ) = V1V2∠(θ1 + θ 2 )
V1∠θ1 V1
= ∠(θ1 − θ 2 )
V2∠θ 2 V2
PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

RESISTORS v(t ) = Ri (t )
VM e ( jω t +θ v ) = RI M e ( jω t +θi )
VM e jθ v = RI M e jθ i
∴ θv = θi = θ
V = RI Phasor representation for a resistor

The voltage and current

phasors are colineal

In terms of the sinusoidal signals this

geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are “in phase”
INDUCTORS
d
VM e ( jω t +θ v ) = L ( I M e ( jω t +θi ) )
dt

= jωLI M e ( jω t +θi )
VM e jθ v = jωLI M e jθ i
The relationship between
V = j ωL I phasors is algebraic

For the geometric view

use the result
j = 1∠90° = e j 90°
Relationship between sinusoids

V = ωLI ∠90°

The voltage leads the current by 90 deg

The current lags the voltage by 90 deg
Learning Example

L = 20mH , v (t ) = 12 cos(377 t + 20°). Find i (t )

v(t)
ω = 377
V = 12∠20°
V
I=
j ωL
12∠20°
I=
ωL∠90°
12
I= −3
∠ − 70°
377 × 20 ×10
12
i (t ) = −3
cos(377 t − 70°)
377 × 20 × 10
CAPACITORS
d
I M e ( jω t +θi ) = C (VM e ( jω t +θ v ) )
dt
I M e jθi = jωCVM e jθ v
I = ω CV ∠90°
I = j ωC V
1 The relationship between
V = I phasors is algebraic
j ωC
In a capacitor the
current leads the Relationship between sinusoids
voltage by 90 deg

The voltage lags

the current by 90 deg
 Learning Example

C = 100 µ F , v (t ) = 100 cos(314t + 15°). Find i (t )

ω = 314
V = 100∠15°
I = jω C V

I = ω C ×1∠90° ×100∠15°
I = 314 ×100 ×10 −6 ×100∠105°
i (t ) = 3.14 cos(314t + 105°)
 LEARNING EXTENSIONS 2 − C = 150 µ F , I = 3.6∠ − 145°, f = 60 Hz
1 − L = 0.05 H , I = 4∠ − 30°, f = 60 Hz Find the voltage across the capacitor

Find the voltage across the inductor ω = 2π f = 120π

I
I = jω C V ⇒ V =
ω = 2π f = 120π jω C

V = j ωL I 3.6∠ − 145°
V =
120π ×150 ×10 −6 ×1∠90°
V = 120π × 0.05 ×1∠90° × 4∠ − 30°
200
V = ∠ − 235°
V = 24π∠60° π

v (t ) = 24π cos(120π + 60°) v (t ) =

200
cos(120π t − 235°)
π
Now an example with capacitors
 IMPEDANCE

For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
element
Z = R + jX
R = Resistive component
X = Reactive component
| Z |= R 2 + X 2
X
θ z = tan −1
R

(INPUT) IMPEDANCE Element Phasor Eq. Impedance

V V ∠θ V R V = RI Z =R
Z = = M v = M ∠(θ v − θ i ) =| Z | ∠θ z V = jω L I Z = jωL
I I M ∠θ i I M L
1 1
C V = I Z=
The units of impedance are OHMS j ωC j ωC

Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex X L = ω L = Inductive reactance

number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends 1
XC = = Capacitive reactance
on the frequency ωC
KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

+ v2 (t ) −
+ + i0 (t )
i1 (t ) i2 ( t ) i3 (t )
v1 ( t ) v3 ( t )
− −
KVL: v1(t ) + v2 (t ) + v3 (t ) = 0 KCL : − i0 (t ) + i1 (t ) + i2 (t ) + i3 (t ) = 0

V1 + V2 + V3 = 0 Phasors! − I 0 + I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0
+ V2 −
+ + I0
I1 I2 I3
V1 V3
− −

The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships

will be entirely algebraic!!
 SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED
FOR RESISTORS
I I
+ V1 − + V2 − + +
I I Z1Z 2
Z1 Z2 V V Zp =
Z1 Z2 Zs = Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z 2
− −
Zs = ∑ k Zk 1 1
=∑k
Zp Zk
f = 60 Hz , v (t ) = 50 cos(ω t + 30°)
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Compute equivalent impedance and current
ω = 120π , V = 50∠30°, Z R = 25Ω
−j
Z L = j120π × 20 × 10 −3 Ω , Z C =
ZR = R 120π × 50 × 10 −6
Z L = j 7.54Ω, Z C = − j 53.05Ω
Z s = Z R + Z L + Z C = 25 − j 45.51Ω
Z L = jX L = jωL
V 50∠30° 50∠30°
I= = = ( A)
Z C = − jX C = − j
1 Z s 25 − j 45.51 51.93∠ − 61.22°
ωC
I = 0.96∠91.22°( A) ⇒ i (t ) = 0.96 cos(120π t + 91.22°)( A)
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND i (t )

ω = 377
Z R = 20Ω

Z L = j 377 × 40 ×10 −3 = j15.08Ω

V = 120∠(60 − 90)° j
ZC = = − j 53.05
377 × 50 ×10 −6

Z eq = Z C || ( Z R + Z L )

Z eq = − j 53.05 (20 + j15.08)

(− j 53.05) * (20 + j15.08)
=
(− j 53.05) + (20 + j15.08)
Z eq = 30.5616 + j 4.9714 = 30.963∠9.239°
V 120∠ − 30°
I= = = 3.876∠ − 39.924°
Z eq 30.963∠9.239°
i (t ) = 3.876 cos(277t − 39.924 )
(COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE

1 Parallel Combination of Admittances

Y = = G + jB (Siemens) Y p = ∑ Yk
Z
k
G = conductance
B = Suceptance YR = 0.1S
1 1 R − jX R − jX
= × = 2
Z R + jX R − jX R + X 2 1
YC = = j1( S )
R − j1
G=
R2 + X 2
−X
B= 2
Yp = 0.1 + j1 ( S )
R + X2
1 1
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance Admittance Zp = =
1 Y p 0.1 + j1
R V = RI Z =R Y = =G
R
1
V = jωL I Z = j ωL Y =
L
1 j ωL
C V = I 1
j ωC Z= Y = j ωC
j ωC
LEARNING EXTENSION

Yp = 0.5 − j 0.5 + j1 + 0.25 ( S )

Yp = 0.9014∠33.69°( S )

I = Y pV = 0.9014∠33.69° ×10∠20°
I = 9.014∠53.79°( A)
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1 = 4 + j 6 − j 4
Z1 = 4 + j 2

Z1 Z 2
Z12 = Z2 = 2 + j2
Z1 + Z 2

(4 + j 2)(2 + j 2) 4 + j12
Z12 = =
6 + j4 6 + j4
= 1.384 + j1.077

Z T = 2 + (1.384 + j1077) = 3.383 + j1.077

LEARNING EXAMPLE SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS

Z3 = 4 + j2

1 × ( − j 2)
Z1 = j 4 × ( − j 2) 8
1− j2 Z4 = = = − j4
j4 − j2 j2
2∠ − 90°
Z1 =
2.236∠ − 63.43°

Z1 = 0.894∠ − 26.57°
Z 2 = 2 + j6 − j 2 = 2 + j 4
Z1 = 0.8 − j 0.4(Ω)
Z 34 = 4 − j 2

Z 2 Z 34
Z 234 = = 3 + j1
Z 2 + Z 34

Z eq = Z1 + Z 234 = 3.8 + j 0.6Ω = 3.847∠8.973°

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame

LEARNING EXAMPLE
SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT
f = 60 Hz
ω = 377 rad / s

VR = RI = 4 I
VL = jωLI = j 6 I | VL − VC |=| VR |= 4 I M
It is convenient to select
1 the current as reference
VC = I = − j 2I
j ωC Vs = 4 2 I M ∠45
 I = I M ∠0 

VS = VR + VL + VC
LEARNING EXAMPLE SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

Any one variable can be chosen as reference.

For this case select the voltage V

V V
KCL : I S = + + j ωC V
R j ωL

| I L |>| I C | | I L |<| I C |

I C = jωCV

V
IL =
j ωl
INDUCTIVE CASE CAPACITIVE CASE
LEARNING EXTENSION Draw a phasor diagram illustrating all voltages and currents

− j4 4∠ − 90° Current
I1 = I= 4∠45°
2 − j4 4.472∠ − 63.435° divider

I1 = 3.578∠18.435°
1 2∠0°
I2 = I= 4∠45°
2 − j4 4.472∠ − 63.435°
I 2 = 1.789∠108.435°
V = 2 I1 = 7.156∠18.435°
DRAW PHASORS. ALL ARE
KNOWN. NO NEED TO SELECT
A REFERENCE
BASIC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For relatively simple circuits use

Ohm' s law for AC analysis; i.e., V = I Z

The rules for combining Z and Y
KCL AND KVL
Current and voltage divider
For more complex circuits use

Node analysis
Loop analysis
Superposition
Source transformation
Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorems
 LEARNING EXAMPLE COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

V1 = 6∠90° I 2 V2 = 4∠ − 90° I 3
Z eq = 4 + ( j 6 || 8 − j 4)

Z eq = 4 +
24 + j 48 32 + j8 + 24 + j 48
=
V1 = 16.26∠78.42°
8 + j2 8 + j2
V2 = 7.28∠15°
56 + j 56 79.196∠45°
Z eq = = = 9.604∠30.964°(Ω)
8 + j2 8.246∠14.036°
VS 24∠60°
I1 = = = 2.498∠29.036°( A)
Z eq 9.604∠30.964°
j6 6∠90°
I3 = I1 = 2.498∠29.036( A)
8 + j2 8.246∠14.036
8 − j4 8.944∠ − 26.565°
I2 = I1 = 2.498∠29.036°( A)
8 + j2 8.246∠14.036°
I1 = 2.5∠29.06° I 2 = 2.71∠ − 11.58° I 3 = 1.82∠105°
LEARNING EXTENSION IF VO = 8∠45°, COMPUTE VS
THE PLAN...

COMPUTE I3
COMPUTE V1
COMPUTE I 2 , I1
V COMPUTE VS
I 3 = O = 4∠45°( A)
2
V1 = (2 − j 2) I 3 = 8∠ − 45° × 4∠45°
V1 = 11.314∠0° VS = 2 I1 + V1 = 2(2.828 − j 2.829) + 11.314∠0°
V1 11.314∠0°
I2 = = = 5.657∠ − 90° VS = 16.97 − j 5.658 = 17.89∠ − 18.44
j2 2∠90°

I1 = I 2 + I 3 = 5.657∠ − 90° + 4∠45°

I1 = − j 5.657 + (2.828 + j 2.828) = 2.828 − j 2.829

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE: TO REVIEW ALL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS DEVELOPED FOR
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS; I.E., NODE AND LOOP ANALYSIS, SOURCE SUPERPOSITION,
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION, THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS.

COMPUTE I0 V2 − 6∠0° V
− 2∠0° + V2 + 2 = 0
1 + j1 1 − j1

 1 1  6
V2  +1+ = +
1 − j1
2
1 + j1 1 + j1
(1 − j1) + (1 + j1)(1 − j1) + (1 + j1) 2(1 + j1) + 6
V2 =
(1 + j1)(1 − j1) 1 + j1
4
V2 = 8 + j2
1. NODE ANALYSIS 1− j
V1 V V
− 2∠0° + 2 + 2 = 0 (4 + j )(1 − j ) 5 3
V2 = = ( − j ) (V)
1 + j1 1 1 − j1 2 2 2
V1 − V2 = −6∠0° 5 3
I 0 =  − j ( A) I 0 = 2.92∠ − 30.96°
2 2
V2
I0 =
1
 2. LOOP ANALYSIS For the circuit shown find I 0

ONE COULD ALSO USE THE SUPERMESH

TECHNIQUE

I0 = −I3 I2
LOOP 1 : I1 = −2∠0°
LOOP 2 : (1 + j )( I1 + I 2 ) − 6∠0° + (1 − j )( I 2 + I 3 ) = 0

LOOP 3 : (1 − j )( I 2 + I 3 ) + I 3 = 0 CONSTRAINT : I1 − I 2 = −2∠0°

MUST FIND I3 SUPERMESH : (1 + j ) I1 + 6∠0° + ( I 2 − I 3 ) = 0
2 I 2 + (1 − j ) I 3 = 6 − (1 + j )(−2) MESH 3 : ( I 3 − I 2 ) + (1 − j ) I 3 = 0
/* (1 − j )
(1 − j ) I 2 + (2 − j ) I 3 = 0 /* (−2) I0 = I 2 − I3
( )
(1 − j ) 2 − 2(2 − j ) I 3 = (1 − j )(8 + 2 j )

10 − 6 j
I3 = I 0 = −2.5 + j1.5 ( A)
−4
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine Vo using LOOP ANALYSIS

MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES

I 2 = −4∠0°
I3 = 2I x ⇒ I 3 = 2( I 4 + 4)
MESH 1 :
− jI1 + 12∠0° + 1( I1 − I 3 ) = 0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4 − I 2 ) + 1× I 4 + j ( I 4 − I 3 ) = 0
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE
CONTROLLING VARIABLE : I x = I 4 − I 2

VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0 = 1× I 4 (V )
I 4 + 4 + I 4 + j ( I 4 − 2( I 4 + 4)) = 0
− (4 − 8 j )
( 2 − j ) I 4 = −( 4 − 8 j ) ⇒ I 4 =
2− j
8.944∠(−63.4 + 180)
I4 = = 4∠143.17 
2.236∠ − 26.57
V0 = I 4 = 4∠143.17 
3. SOURCE SUPERPOSITION
Determine the current Io

(1 + j )(1 − j )
Z ' = (1 + j ) || (1 − j ) = =1
(1 + j ) − (1 − j )

Z' I 0' = 1∠0°( A)

 1− j
Z " = 1 || (1 − j ) =
2− j

Z" 1− j
V1 = "
"
6∠0°(V ) I =
"
6
(1 − j ) + 3 + j
0
Z +1+ j
V ′′ Z "
6 6
I 0" = 1 = " 6∠0°( A) I = − j ( A)
"
0
1 Z +1+ j 4 4

1− j 5 3 
Z" I 0 = I 0' + I 0" =  − j ( A)
2− j 2 2 
I 0" = 6 ( A)
1− j
+1+ j
2− j
Source transformation

Source transformation is a good tool to reduce complexity in a circuit ...

ZV
a a
RV RI
+ ZI
- VS
IS
b b
Improved model Improved model
for voltage source for current source

THE MODELS ARE EQUIVALENTS WHEN

RV = RI = R Zv = Zi = Z
VS = RI S Vs = Z I s
4. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

8+ 2 j
IS =
1+ j

Z = (1 + j ) || (1 − j ) = 1Ω

V '= 8 + 2 j

Now a voltage to current transformation

I S 4 + j 4.123∠14.04
I0 = = = = 2.915∠ − 30.96
2 1+ j 1.414∠45 
 THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain + May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

ZTH RTH i a
+
+ LINEAR CIRCUIT
vTH vO
− PART B
_ b
PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Phasor
for PART A
vTH Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RTH Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
5. THEVENIN ANALYSIS Voltage Divider
1− j 10 − 6 j
VOC = (8 + 2 j ) =
(1 + j ) + (1 − j ) 2

Z TH = (1 + j ) || (1 − j ) = 1Ω

5−3j
8+2j I0 = = 2.915∠ − 30.96 ( A)
2
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain + May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

Phasors

i a
+
ZN LINEAR CIRCUIT
iN RN vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
iN Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RNZ N Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
6. NORTON ANALYSIS

Z TH = (1 + j ) || (1 − j ) = 1Ω

I SC

I SC 5.83∠ − 30.96
I0 = = = 2.915∠ − 30.96
2 2
BY SUPERPOSTION
6∠0° 8 + 2 j 8.246∠14.04
I SC = 2∠0° + = = = 5.83∠ − 30.96
1+ j 1+ j 1.414∠45 
AC PSPICE ANALYSIS
Circuit ready to be simulated

Select and place components

R L

Ground set, meters specified

C
VAC

Wire and set correct attributes

**** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C

************************************************************************
******
Results in output file

FREQ VM($N_0003) VP($N_0003)

6.000E+01 2.651E+00 -3.854E+01

**** 05/20/01 09:03:41 *********** Evaluation PSpice (Nov 1999)

**************

* C:\ECEWork\IrwinPPT\ACSteadyStateAnalysis\Sec7p9Demo.sch

**** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C

************************************************************************
******

FREQ IM(V_PRINT2)IP(V_PRINT2)

6.000E+01 2.998E-03 5.146E+01