Environment and Ecology

Website: www.civilstaphimachal.
com Call @7814622609
Environment & Ecology

1
Website: www.civilstaphimachal.com Call @7814622609
CHAPTER 1: ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM ....................................... 9

Basic Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Major Abiotic Components ................................................................................................................................................... 10
Adaptations ........................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Major Biotic Components ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
Components And Functions Of Ecosystem .......................................................................................................................... 12
Ecological Pyramid ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
Biotic Interactions ................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Bio-Geochemical Cycle ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
Ecological Succession ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Succession In Plants:............................................................................................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 2: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM ................................................................................................ 19
Tundra ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Forest Ecosystem ............................................................................................................................................................ 20
Types Of Forest Ecosystem: ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Deforestation .................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Effects Of Deforestation ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Grassland Ecosystem ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
Desert Ecosystem ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
Types Of Desert Ecosystem ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Adaptations Of Desert Vegetation:.................................................................................................................................. 23
Adaptations Of Desert Animals: ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Desertification - “The Greatest Environmental Challenge Of Our Time”......................................................................... 24
Indian State Of Forest Report, 2019 (16th Report In The Series) ..................................................................................... 24
India State Of Forest Report-2021 .................................................................................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS ........................................................................................................ 27
Aquatic Organisms ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Lake Ecology ................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Eutrophication: ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Harmful Algal Bloom (Hab) ........................................................................................................................................... 29
Wetland Ecosystems & Related Issues ............................................................................................................................ 30
National Plan For Conservation Of Aquatic Ecosystems (Npca): .................................................................................... 30
Ramsar Criteria For Wetland Identification:.................................................................................................................... 31
Ramsar Sites ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Estuary Ecosystems ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
Mangrove Ecosystems .................................................................................................................................................... 33
2
Coral Reefs And Related Issues ...................................................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 4: BIODIVERSITY .......................................................................................................................... 35
Why Tropic Account Greater Biological Diversity? ........................................................................................................ 36
Measurement Of Biodiversity ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Levels Of Biodiversity .................................................................................................................................................... 36
Terminologies Related To Species .................................................................................................................................. 37
Some Important Terms Related To Ecosystem ................................................................................................................ 37
Difference Between Botanical Garden And Zoological Park ........................................................................................... 37
Causes Of Biodiversity Loss ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Biodiversity In India ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
India Represents India Represents................................................................................................................................... 38
Plant Diversity Of India .................................................................................................................................................. 39
Bird’s Migration ............................................................................................................................................................. 40
Wildlife Diversity Of India ............................................................................................................................................. 40
National Parks And Other Habitats In News ................................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER 5: PROTECTED AREAS FOR THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ............................. 44
Why Do We Need To Protect Biodiversity? .................................................................................................................... 45
Wildlife Sanctuary (Ws) ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Wildlife Sanctuary (Ws) ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Institutional Framework For Wildlife Conservation In India ........................................................................................... 46
National Board For Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................... 46
Conservation Reserves And Community Reserves .......................................................................................................... 46
Coastal Protected Areas .................................................................................................................................................. 47
Coastal Regulation Zone (Crz) ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Sacred Groves Of India................................................................................................................................................... 48
National Biosphere Reserve Programme (Nbrp).............................................................................................................. 48
Global Initiative.............................................................................................................................................................. 50
Biosphere Reserve .......................................................................................................................................................... 51
World Network Of Biosphere Reserves (Wnbr) .............................................................................................................. 51
Biodiversity Hot Spots (Covers Only 2.3% Of The Earth’s Land Surface) ...................................................................... 51
Eight Hottest Hot Spots .................................................................................................................................................. 52
World Heritage Sites ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 6: POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS ON HEALTH .................................................................. 54
Air Pollution ................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Acid Rain ....................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Common Air Pollutants And Their Effects...................................................................................................................... 56
Fly Ash........................................................................................................................................................................... 56
3
The Air (Prevention & Control Of Pollution) Act 1981 ................................................................................................... 56

National Air Quality Index (Naqi) .................................................................................................................................. 57
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Naaqs) ............................................................................................................ 57
Air Quality Early Warning System ................................................................................................................................. 57
Graded Response Action Plan (Grap).............................................................................................................................. 57
Central Pollution Control Board (Cpcb) Of India ............................................................................................................ 57
Low-Emission (Green) Crackers ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Environment Pollution Control Authority (Epca) ............................................................................................................ 58
Air Pollution In Delhi ..................................................................................................................................................... 58
Hydrogen- Compressed Natural Gas (Hcng) ................................................................................................................... 58
The Great Green Wall Of Aravalli .................................................................................................................................. 59
Nation Clear Air Programme (Ncap) ............................................................................................................................... 59
Nitrogen Pollution .......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Notable Disasters ............................................................................................................................................................ 59
Water Pollution .............................................................................................................................................................. 59
Eutrophication ................................................................................................................................................................ 60
Bio-Magnification .......................................................................................................................................................... 60
Ocean Acidification ........................................................................................................................................................ 60
Diseases Associated With Water Pollution ...................................................................................................................... 60
Thermal Pollution ........................................................................................................................................................... 61
Soil Pollution .................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Soil Contaminants And Their Effects On Health & Environment .................................................................................... 61
Noise Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................... 61
Radioactive Pollution...................................................................................................................................................... 62
Light Pollution................................................................................................................................................................ 62
Solid Waste Management ............................................................................................................................................... 62
E-Waste:......................................................................................................................................................................... 62
E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 ............................................................................................................................... 63
Plastics Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................ 63
The Global Tourism Plastics Initiative ............................................................................................................................ 63
Ozone Pollution: ............................................................................................................................................................. 63
Gothenburg Protocol, 1999 ............................................................................................................................................. 64
Bioremediation ............................................................................................................................................................... 64
CHAPTER 7: ENVIRONENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES ............................................................................ 66
CHAPTER 8: ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA .............................................................. 72
Animal Welfare Board Of India (Awbi) .......................................................................................................................... 73
Central Zoo Authority (Cza) ........................................................................................................................................... 73
4
Forest Survey Of India (Fsi) ........................................................................................................................................... 73

Botanical Survey Of India (Bsi) ...................................................................................................................................... 73
Zoological Survey Of India (Zsi) .................................................................................................................................... 73
National Biodiversity Authority (Nba) ............................................................................................................................ 73
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (Wccb) .......................................................................................................................... 73
National Plan For Conservation Of Aquatic Eco-Systems (Npca).................................................................................... 74
National Ganga River Basin Authority ............................................................................................................................ 74
National Board For Wildlife (Nbwl) ............................................................................................................................... 74
National Tiger Conservation Authority (Ntca) ................................................................................................................ 74
CHAPTER 9: INDIAN WILDLIFE CONSERVATION EFFORT ................................................................. 75
Project Tiger ................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Project Elephant (1992) .................................................................................................................................................. 76
Vulture Conservation ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision (Irv) 2020 .................................................................................................................... 77
Project Snow Leopard (2009) ......................................................................................................................................... 78
Project Secure Himalaya (2017)...................................................................................................................................... 78
Project Sea Turtle ........................................................................................................................................................... 78
Project Crocodile ............................................................................................................................................................ 78
Project Hangul (Kashmir Stag) ....................................................................................................................................... 79
Conservation Breeding Programme................................................................................................................................. 79
Dolphin Conservation ..................................................................................................................................................... 79
South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (Sawen) ....................................................................................................... 79
CHAPTER 10: CONSERVATION MEASURES .............................................................................................. 80
Modes Of Conservation .................................................................................................................................................. 81
Protected Areas As Provided Under Wpa 1972 ............................................................................................................... 81
National Wild Life Action Plan....................................................................................................................................... 82
National Afforestation & Eco-Development Board (Naeb).............................................................................................. 82
Joint Forest Management (Jfm) ....................................................................................................................................... 82
National Bamboo Mission (Nbm) ................................................................................................................................... 82
Ecomark ......................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Biodiversity Conservation & Rural Livelihood Improvement Projec (Bcrlip) .................................................................. 83
Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (Cepi) .................................................................................................... 83
Lighting A Billion Lives (Labl) ...................................................................................................................................... 83
National Clean Energy Fund ........................................................................................................................................... 83
Mangroves For The Future (Mff) .................................................................................................................................... 83
National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (Nemmp) 2020 ................................................................................................. 84
CHAPTER 11: ENVIRONMENT CONVENTIONS ........................................................................................ 85
5
United Nations Conference On The Human Environment (1972) .................................................................................... 86

Brundtland Commission ................................................................................................................................................. 86
Rio Earth Summit, 1992 ................................................................................................................................................. 86
Global Environment Facility (Gef) ................................................................................................................................. 86
Gef’s Small Grants Programme (Sgp) ............................................................................................................................. 87
The United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change (Unfcc ........................................................................ 87
Kyoto Protocol ............................................................................................................................................................... 87
Kyoto Mechanism .......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Green Climate Fund (Gcf) .............................................................................................................................................. 92
Un-Convention On Biodiversity (Uncbd) ........................................................................................................................ 92
The Cartagena Protocol On Bio-Safety ........................................................................................................................... 93
Nagoya Protocol ............................................................................................................................................................. 93
Aichi Biodiversity Targets .............................................................................................................................................. 93
The United Nations Convention To Combat Desertification (Unccd) .............................................................................. 94
The 14th Conference Of Parties (Cop) To Unccd ............................................................................................................ 94
Important Initiatives Introduced Through Unccd Cops Are: ............................................................................................ 94
The Bonn Challenge ....................................................................................................................................................... 94
Redd And Redd+ (Redd - Reducing Emissions From Deforestation And Forest Degradation) ......................................... 94
Steps Taken By India To Uphold Redd And Redd+ ........................................................................................................ 95
Ramsar Convention ........................................................................................................................................................ 95
The Montreux Record ..................................................................................................................................................... 95
Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flora (Cites) ......................................... 96
The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (Traffic) .......................................................................................................... 96
Convention On The Conservation Of Migratory Species (Cms) Of Wild Animals ........................................................... 96
Global Tiger Forum (Gtf) ............................................................................................................................................... 97
Stockholm Convention ................................................................................................................................................... 97
Basel Convention ........................................................................................................................................................... 97
International Tropical Timber Organization (Itto) ........................................................................................................... 97
United Nations Forum On Forests (Unff) ........................................................................................................................ 97
International Union For Conservation Of Nature (Iucn) ................................................................................................. 98
Rotterdam Convention .................................................................................................................................................... 98
International Whaling Commission (Iwc)........................................................................................................................ 98
Vienna Convention For The Protection Of The Ozone Layer .......................................................................................... 98
Montreal Protocol ........................................................................................................................................................... 98
Kigali Agreement (2016) ................................................................................................................................................ 98
Helsinki Protocol, 1985 .................................................................................................................................................. 99
Minamata Convention On Mercury ................................................................................................................................. 99
6
Green Agriculture Project - India .................................................................................................................................... 99

Global Alliance For Climate-Smart Agriculture (Gacsa) ................................................................................................. 99
CHAPTER 12: CLIMATE CHANGE & MITIGATION STRATEGIES .................................................... 100
Global Warming ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Green-House Effect ...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Green House Gases (Ghg) ............................................................................................................................................ 102
Climate Forcing ............................................................................................................................................................ 103
Receding Glaciers - A Symptom Of Global Climate Change ......................................................................................... 103
Carbon Sequestration .................................................................................................................................................... 103
Carbon Sinks (Green And Blue) ................................................................................................................................... 103
The Blue Carbon Initiative ............................................................................................................................................ 104
Carbon Credit ............................................................................................................................................................... 104
Carbon Offsetting ........................................................................................................................................................ 104
Global Carbon Emissions In Various Sectors ................................................................................................................ 104
2.5 Carbon Tax ............................................................................................................................................................. 105
Geo - Engineering......................................................................................................................................................... 105
CHAPTER 13: CLIMATE CHANGE ORGANISATIONS ........................................................................... 106
Global Environment Facility (Gef) ............................................................................................................................... 107
Climate Smart Agriculture (Csa) ................................................................................................................................... 107
Climate Smart Agriculture (Csa) ................................................................................................................................... 107
Concept Of Green Economy ......................................................................................................................................... 107
Global Climate Finance Architecture ............................................................................................................................ 107
World Meteorological Organisation (Wmo) .................................................................................................................. 108
Undp-United Nations Development Programme ........................................................................................................... 108
Unea-United Nations Environment Assembly ............................................................................................................... 109
Unep-United Nations Environment Programme ............................................................................................................ 109
CHAPTER 14: CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA........................................................................................ 110
India’s Position On Climate Change ................................................................................................................................... 111
Current Actions For Adaptation & Mitigation .................................................................................................................... 111
National Action Plan On Climate Change (Napcc)............................................................................................................. 111
National Communication (Natcom) .................................................................................................................................... 113
Griha - Green Rating For Integrated Habitat Assessment ................................................................................................... 113
National Initiative On Climate Resilient Agriculture (Nicra) ............................................................................................. 113
Bse - Greenex ...................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Fame - India Programme..................................................................................................................................................... 113
Fame India Scheme Phase Ii - 2019-2020 ........................................................................................................................... 114
Long Term Ecological Observatories (Lteo)....................................................................................................................... 114
National Adaptation Fund For Climate Change (Nafcc)..................................................................................................... 114
7
6th Mass Extinction Due To Climate Change .................................................................................................................... 114
8
CHAPTER 1: ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEM AND

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
9
B ASIC DEFINITIONS
• Environment: the natural landscape together with all of its non-human features, characteristics and processes
• Ecology: Subject which studies the interactions among organisms and between the organism and its physical (abiotic)
environment.
• Biosphere: The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of earth which includes the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.
• Habitat: A habitat is a place where an organism makes its home. A habitat meets all the environmental conditions an
organism needs to survive. (All habitats are environments, but all environments are not habitats.)
• Ecosystem: Structural and functional unit of biosphere consisting of community of living beings and the physical
environment, both interacting and exchanging materials between them.
• Ecotone: An '''ecotone''' is a transition area between two biological communities, where two communities meet and
integrate. E.g. Mangroves represents an ecosystem between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
• Niche: Ecological niche is a term for the position of a species within an ecosystem, describing both the range of
conditions necessary for persistence of the species, and its ecological role in the ecosystem. Ecological niche subsumes
all of the interactions between a species and the biotic and abiotic environment, and thus represents a very basic and
fundamental ecological concept.
• No two species have exact identical niche. Different types of niches are - Habitat niche, Food niche, Reproductive niche,
Physical and Chemical niche.
• Biomes: A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the
environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents. Biomes are distinct biological communities that
have formed in response to a shared physical climate. Biome is a broader term than habitat; any biome can comprise a
variety of habitats.
• Well-developed ecotones contain some organisms which are entirely different from adjoining communities. When
number of species is much greater than either community, it is called edge effect. E.g. density of birds is greater in the
mixed habitat of ecotone between the forest and the desert.
MAJOR ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

• An abiotic factor is a non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment. In a terrestrial ecosystem, examples
might include temperature, light, and water. In a marine ecosystem, abiot ic factors would include salinity and ocean
currents.
Temperature • Affects the kinetic of enzymes and through its basal metabolism, activity and other
physiological functions of the organism.
• Level of thermal tolerance determine, geographical distribution of an organism.
• Eurythermal (Organism that can tolerate wide range of temperature) Stenothermal
(Organism that are restricted to narrow range of temperature)
Water • Productivity and distribution of plants is heavily dependent on water.
• Euryhaline- Organism that can tolerate wide range of salinities (Note: Salt concentration
measured in parts per thousand)
• Stenohaline- Organism that are restricted to narrow range of salinities.
• Many freshwater animals can’t live for long in sea water and vice versa due to osmotic
problem.
10
Light For Plants: Photosynthesis + Photoperiodic requirement for flowering.

For Animals: Diurnal and seasonal variation in light, intensity and duration (photoperiod)
determines animal’s foraging, reproductive and migratory activities. UV component of the
spectrum is harmful to many organisms. Not all the colour components of visible spectrum are
available for marine plants living at different depths of the ocean. E.g. red, green, brown
algae inhabit sea at different depths.
Soil Vegetation in any area are determine by- Soil composition, Percolation and Grain size, Water
holding capacity.
Aggregation of soil are determined by: PH, Mineral composition, Topography.
• How do organisms adapt?

• Homeostasis (maintaining constancy of internal body) by physiological (sometimes behavioral
also) like ensuring constant body temperature (Thermoregulation). E.g. in summer outside
temperature is more than our body temperature, we sweat profusely. In winter we shiver, which
Regulate
produces heat and raises body temperature.
• Constant osmotic concentration (Osmoregulation)
• Success of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain a constant body temperature.
• 99% of animals and nearly all plants can’t maintain constant internal environment.
• Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms. For e.g. shrews and humming
birds.
• Heat loss and gain is function of surface area.
Conform
• Small animals have larger surface area relative to their volume so they tend to lose body heat
very fast when it is cold outside.
• They have to expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism - this is the
reason small animals are not found in polar regions.
• In aquatic organisms, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids changes with that of the
ambient water osmotic concentration.
Migrate • The organism moves away temporarily from the stress habitat to more hospitable area and
return when stressful period is over. E.g. Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) Rajasthan, host
thousands of migratory birds from Siberia during winter months.
• Examples of it are important: Siberian Cranes, Amur Falcon, Greater Flamingo
• Thick walled spores’ formation In bacteria, Fungi and lower plants.
Suspend • Dormancy Plants: Reduction of metabolic activity in higher plants in stressful
environment
• Hibernation Hibernation is when an animal slows its heart rate to save energy and
survive the winter without eating much. e.g. bear, bat, rodents etc.
• Aestivation Aestivation is a state of animal dormancy, similar to hibernation, although
taking place in the summer rather than the winter. Aquatic animals: E.g. Snail, Fish.
• Diapause Zooplankton species in lakes and ponds- a stage of suspended development.
ADAPTATIONS
• Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (Morphological, Physiological, Behavioral) that enables organism to survive
and reproduce in its habitat. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live
and reproduce in a given set of habitats
• Example: Kangaroo rat in North American Deserts: in absence of water, has ability to meet its requirement through
internal fat oxidation and has ability to concentrate its urine.
Morphological • Desert plants have thick cuticle on their leaf surface and stomata arranged in deep pits to
Adaptations: minimize water loss through transpiration.
• Some desert plants like Opunita have no leaves and photosynthetic function is taken over
11
by flattened stems.
• Mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to minimize heat loss. This
is called Allen’s Rule.
Physiological E.g. altitude sickness: Our body compensate low Oxygen availability by increasing red blood cell
Adaptations production, decreasing the binding affin ity of hemoglobin and by increasing breathing
rate.
Biochemical Many fish and invertebrates live at great depths in the ocean, where pressure could be >100
Adaptation: times than the normal atmospheric pressure that we experience.
Behavioural E.g .Lizard they bask in the sun when body temperature drops, but moves to shade when ambient
Adaptations temperature starts increasing.
MAJOR BIOTIC COMPONENTS

PRODUCER CONSUMER DECOMPOSER
• Producers are organisms • Consumers have to feed on • An organism that primarily feeds on
that create food from producers or other consumers to dead organisms or the waste from
inorganic matter. survive. living organisms.
• Example: • If they feed on the producers, the • Detritivores: Some organisms
Plants, lichens and algae, plants, they are called primary perform a similar function as
which convert water, consumers, and if the animals eat decomposers, and are sometimes
sunlight and carbon other animals which in turn eat the called detritivores.
dioxide into plants (or their produce) they are • The difference lies in the way
carbohydrates. called secondary consumers. decomposers and detritivores break
• The consumers that feed on down organic material. Detritivores
herbivores are carnivores, or more must digest organic material within
correctly primary carnivores their bodies in order to break it down
(though secondary consumers). and gain nutrients from it.
Those animals that depend on the • Decomposers do not need to digest
primary carnivores for food are organic material internally in order
labelled secondary carnivores. to break it down.
• Example: Deer, Bear, Human • Scavengers: Scavengers are the first
beings, etc. to arrive at a dead organism’s
remains. It includes lions, jackals,
wolves, raccoons, and opossums.
• Example: Bacteria, fungi
• Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. (For example, trees occupy
top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.)
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

• Four basic components of ecosystem- (i) Productivity; (ii) Decomposition; (iii) Energy flow; and (iv) Nutrient cycling.
• (i) Productivity:
• The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
• Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis.
• Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
• A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.
• Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP). GPP - R = NPP.
• Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
12
• (ii) Decomposition:
• Decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and
the process is called decomposition.
• The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralization.
• Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation
• By the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as
unavailable salts.
• Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
• All the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus
• Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil
• Humification is accumulation of a dark colored amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial
action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. It colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
• Humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as
mineralization
• Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic
factors that regulate decomposition. Decomposition - slower- if detritus rich in lignin and chitin; and quicker- if detritus
rich in nitrogen and water.
• (iii) Energy Flow:
• There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic
levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment.
• Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per cent of it is
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
• Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of
energy sustains the entire living world.
• The green plant in the ecosystem-terminology are called producers. e.g.
phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
• All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs.
They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs.
• A trophic level is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem.
FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB
A food chain is a linear flow of energy and nutrients A food web can be termed as the combination of many
from one organism to another. different food chains and the relationship that exists between
each organism.
A food chain represents only one part of the food or It shows all possible transfers of energy and nutrients. Food
energy flow and reflects a simple and isolated web provides more than one alternative for food to most
relationship. organisms in an ecosystem and therefore increases their
chance of survival.
13
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
• Steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as ecological pyramids.
• The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top-level
consumer.
• The three ecological pyramids that are usually studied are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c)
pyramid of energy.
Pyramid of Numbers:
• Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different species (population) at each trophic level, can
be:
• Upright- number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level, can be seen in the grassland
ecosystem and pond ecosystem
• Inverted- number of individuals increased from lower to higher trophic level. e.g. Tree ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass:
• Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately and
measuring their dry weight. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the
standing crop. Pyramid of Biomass can be:
• Upright: For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
trophic level on top.
• Inverted: Many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may assume an inverted form. (In contrast, a pyramid of
numbers for the aquatic ecosystem is upright)
Pyramid of Energy:
• Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to
the next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
• Non degradable pollutants move from different trophic level. Non-degradable (persistent) is which cannot be
metabolized by living organisms. E.g. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.
• Bioaccumulation: There is increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food
chain.
14
• Biomagnification: Increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic levels. This happens because a toxic
substance accumulated by an organism cannot be metabolized or excreted. Ex: Mercury and DDT.
BIOTIC INTERACTIONS
• Organisms are interlinked with each other. The interaction is fundamental for the survival of organism and functioning
of ecosystem.
• Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of populations of two different species.
• They could be beneficial, detrimental or neutral (neither harm nor benefit) to one of the species or both.
Type Sp.1 Sp. 2 Examples

Mutualism + + Mutualism is defined as an interaction between individuals of different species
that results in positive (beneficial) effects on per capita reproduction and/or
survival of the interacting populations.
• Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship between a fungus
and algae or cyanobacteria
• Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants.
• Mutualistic relationship between fig tree and wasp.
Competition - - Competition is the struggle between two organisms for the same resources
within an environment.
• It is generally believed that competition occurs between closely related
species.
• But this is not entirely true. Firstly, totally unrelated species could also
compete for the same resource.
• Resources need not be limiting for competition to occur; in interference
competition, the feeding efficiency of one species might be reduced due to
the interfering and inhibitory presence of the other species.
• E.g. Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within
a decade after goats were introduced on the island
Predation + - Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and
eats another organism, its prey.
• Biological control methods adopted in agricultural pest control are
based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey population.
• Some species of insects and frogs are cryptically-coloured (camouflaged) to
avoid being detected easily by the predator.
• Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a
community
Parasitism + - Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the
parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and
is adapted structurally to this way of life
• Many parasites have evolved to be host-specific (they can parasitize only a
single species of host) in such a way that both host and the parasite tend to
co-evolve.
• Majority of the parasites harm the host; they may reduce the survival, growth
and reproduction of the host and reduce its population density
• Ectoparasites-Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host
organism. E.g. Lice, Cuscata plant.
• Endoparasites are those that live inside the host body at different sites
(liver, kidney, lungs, red blood cells, etc.
• Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism in
which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host
15
incubate them E.g. Koel

Commensalism + 0 Commensalism is a long-term biological interaction in which members of one
species gain benefits while those of the other species neither benefit nor are
harmed.
• An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch, and barnacles
growing on the back of a whale benefit while neither the
mango tree nor the whale derives any apparent benefit.
• The cattle egret and grazing cattle
• Sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that lives
among them.
Amensalism - 0 Amensalism meaning, an ecological interaction between two species, but in
this association among organisms of two different species, one is destroyed or
inhibited, and other remains unaffected.
• The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an antibiotic
substance which inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria.
• A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant.
Neutralism 0 0 • True neutralism is extremely unlikely.
BIO-GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
• The movement of nutrient elements through the various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling.
• Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water). Nutrient cycles
are of two types:
• Gaseous - Reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g. nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere
• Sedimentary- For the sedimentary cycle (e.g. Sulphur and phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust.
• Carbon Cycle:
• 71 per cent carbon is found dissolved in oceans. This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
• Atmosphere only contains about 1 per cent of total global carbon.
• Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
• A considerable amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory activities of the producers and
consumers.
• Decomposers also contribute substantially to CO2 pool by their processing of waste materials and dead organic matter of
land or oceans.
• Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle. Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel
for energy and transport have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many of the vitamins
• Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen that is available in the soil. Thus, nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for
both natural and agricultural ecosystems.
• Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms (N2) joined by a very strong triple covalent bond (N Ξ N).
• In nature, lightning and ultraviolet radiation provide enough energy to convert nitrogen to nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2,
N2O).
• Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and power-generating stations are also sources of atmospheric
nitrogen oxides.
• Step 1: N2 Fixing ➔ Nitrogen → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions
• Step 2: Nitrification ➔ Ammonia or Ammonium Ions (bacteria: Nitrosomonas and/or Nitrococcus) → Nitrite
(Nitrobacter)→ Nitrate
• Step 3: Ammonification ➔ Dead Matter + Animal Waste (Urea, Uric Acid) → Ammonia or Ammonium Ions
• Step 4: Denitrification ➔ Nitrate (bacteria: Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus) → Nitrogen
• Sulphur Cycle:
• In Sulfur cycle, there is a circulation of sulfur in various forms through nature. Sulfur occurs in all living matter as a
component of certain amino acids.
16
• It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial transformations, ends up as sulfates usable by
plants.
• The Sulphur reservoir is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits
(pyrite rock and Sulphur rock) in the form of sulphates, sulphides and organic Sulphur.
• It is released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff and decomposition of organic matter and is carried to terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution.
• The Sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and Sulphur dioxide
(SO2), which add a gaseous component.
• Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels (coal, diesel etc.),
from the surface of the ocean and gases released by decomposition.
• Phosphorus Cycle:
• Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer systems.
• Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth.
• The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates.
• When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of
the plants.
• Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are
decomposed by phosphate-solubilizing bacteria releasing phosphorus.
• Unlike carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• The gradual and fairly predictable change in the
species composition of a given area is called
ecological succession.
• The first plant to colonize an area is called the
pioneer community.
• The final stage of succession is called the climax
community.
• A climax community is the final stage of succession,
remaining relatively unchanged until destroyed by an
event such as fire or human interference. This is a
community that is in near equilibrium with the
environment.
• The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called sere.
Primary • Primary succession takes place an over where no community has existed previously.
succession: E.g. rock outcrops, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and lava
flows, glacial moraines etc.
• In primary succession on a terrestrial site, the new site is first colonized by a few
hardy pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses.
Secondary • Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed
succession: such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded.
• Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
• Note: At any time during primary or secondary succession, natural or human induced disturbances (fire, deforestation,
etc.), can convert a particular seral stage of succession to an earlier stage. Also, such disturbances create new
conditions that encourage some species and discourage or eliminate other species.
SUCCESSION IN PLANTS:
• Succession of plants is called hydrarch or xerarch, respectively.
• Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and the successional series progress from hydric to the mesic conditions.
• As against this, xerarch succession takes place in dry areas and the series progress from xeric to mesic conditions.
• Hence, both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) - neither too dry (xeric) nor too
wet (hydric).
17
Autogenic and • When succession is brought about by living inhabitants of that community itself, the
Allogenic succession: process is called autogenic succession, while change brought about by outside forces is
known as allogenic succession.
• Autogenic succession is driven by the biotic components of an ecosystem.
• Allogenic succession is driven by the abiotic components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem.
Autotrophic and • Succession in which, initially the green plants are much greater in quantity is known as
Heterotrophic autotrophic succession and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater in quantity is
succession known as heterotrophic succession.
18
CHAPTER 2: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
19
• A terrestrial ecosystem (TE) is a land-based community of organisms (biotic) and their interactions with the abiotic
components in a given area. The type of TE found in a particular place is dependent on the following factors:
• Topography- valleys, mountains, plains and plateaus
• Altitudinal and latitudinal variations
• Quality of soil
• Amount of light
• Amount of precipitation received
• Temperature range
• Allen’s rule: Animals living in colder regions have shorter limbs (smaller body surface) as an adaptation to control the
dissipation of heat.
TYPES OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
Forest Grassland
Tundra Desert
ecosystem Ecosystem ecosystem
Alpine Arctic
tundra tundra Coniferous forest Temperate forest Tropical forest
TUNDRA
• Tundra means a “barren land”. Tundra ecosystems are treeless regions where environmental conditions are very severe.
• Characteristics:
• Harsh climatic conditions (cold and windy): Winters are long and very severe; summers are cool and brief.
• Precipitation: Scanty rainfall, precipitation is mainly in the form of snow.
• Soil: Permafrost or soil that remains frozen all year round and is also scarce of nutrients.
• Low biotic diversity
• Types Arctic Tundra and Alpine Tundra
ARCTIC TUNDRA ALPINE TUNDRA
Distribution: It extends as a continuous belt below polar Distribution: It is found at any latitude in a high altitude
ice cap and above tree line in the northern hemisphere. In area.
the southern hemisphere, it is limited
to some parts of Antarctica and Falkland islands
Examples: Alaska, Canada, Russia, Greenland, Examples: The Himalayas, the Alps, Tibetan Plateau,
Iceland, and Scandinavia. The Caucasus Mountains, the American Cordillera etc.
Flora: Mosses, lichens, sedges, cotton grass, sedges, Flora: Mosses, sedges, liverworts, grassy vegetation.
dwarf heath, willows, birches
Fauna: Arctic foxes, polar bears, caribou, musk-ox. Fauna: Pikas, marmots, mountain goat, reindeer,
musk ox, arctic hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• A forest ecosystem is a dynamic complex of different kinds of biotic components and their abiotic environment
interacting as a functional unit, where trees are a key component of this ecosystem.
• The forest ecosystems have been classified into three major categories: coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical
forest.
• All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower altitude.
20
TYPES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM:
• It is sandwiched between the tundra to the north and the temperate forest to the south.
• It stretches in a great continuous belt across North America, Europe and
Distribution Asia.
• Absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of the
Coniferous southern continents in the high latitudes.
Forest/ Taiga/ • Well defined seasons- prolonged bitterly cold winter; short cool summer.
Boreal Forest: Presence of local winds like blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia.
Abiotic • Precipitation: well distributed throughout the year.
components • Soil type: Podzolized soil (acidic, excessively leached and mineral
deficient)
• Natural vegetation/Flora: Consists mostly of conifers- evergreen;

Biotic conical in shape; thick, leathery and needle-shaped leaves.
components • Eg: Pine, Fir, Spruce, Larch
• Fauna: Mink, Silver fox, Lynx, Wolf
• It is characterized by broad-leaved trees, which shed their leaves in autumn and grow new
foliage in autumn.
• It can be further divided into TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS (mainly in northern
hemisphere), TEMPERATE EVERGREEN (found in Mediterranean climatic region) and
TEMPERATE RAINFOREST (found in both the hemispheres, coastal region).
Temperate • Located in the mid-latitude areas, between polar regions (grade into boreal
Forest Distribution forest) and tropics (grade into Tropical rain forest).
• Found in both northern and southern hemisphere.
Abiotic • Moist, warm summer and frosty or rainy winter
components • Presence of distinct seasons
• Soil type: Alfisol or brown forest soil
Biotic • Flora: Broadleaf trees (oaks, maples, beeches), shrubs, perennial herbs, and
components mosses
• Fauna: Squirrels, marsupials, brown bear, bats, rodents
• It is characterized as most luxuriant forest with diverse array of communities and makes
up one of the earth’s largest biome.
Distribution • Found in wet tropical uplands and lowlands around the Equator.
• High humidity and temperature (more or less uniform)
Abiotic • Precipitation: exceeds 200cm, evenly distributed throughout the year
Tropical Rain components • Soil type: Red latosol (high rate of leaching makes it agriculturally
Forest useless, but can rejuvenate with nutrients when left undisturbed)
• Flora: Diverse Angiosperms and relatively few Gymnosperms. Besides,

Biotic liverworts, creepers, ferns, mosses, lichens and algae are also found.
Components • Presence of dense upper canopy and thick undergrowth.
• Fauna: Monkeys, rhinos, large number of insects, birds.
DEFORESTATION
• It is an act of clearing or thinning forest to fulfill varied purpose of humankind. Following are the prominent causes of
deforestation:
21
• Shifting cultivation - It is a practice of clearing a patch of land by burning and left abandoned to recover its fertility.
• Infrastructure expansion: It can be for construction of highways, industries, real estates, communication line, urban
outgrowth.
• Forest fire: It can be of natural cause (high atmospheric pressure and low humidity) or man-made cause (deliberate firing
by local inhabitants, discarded cigarettes, electric spark and mining)
• Logging: It is a process of cutting and processing trees in order to meet the requirements of fuel, fiber, timber, pulp, latex
and rubber etc.
• Large-scale agriculture and overgrazing: Burgeoning population demands for more food (crops and livestock) which in
turn encroaches forest land.
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
• Through the released carbon dioxide.
Aggravation of • Forest is a great carbon sink which sequesters as much as 45% of carbon stored on land.
Global warming: • Some 420 million hectares of world's forest have been lost since 1990 (The State of
the World's Forests-FAO).
Disturbance of • Causes immediate lowering of ground water level and reduction of precipitation (may
hydrological cycle lead to drought).
• Rapid runoff (may lead to flood).
Loss of • Eighty percent of the world's land-based species live in forests.
biodiversity • Land degradation and soil erosion- may lead to food insecurity
• Reduces the ability of forests to provide essential services
Social issues • Loss of livelihood of tribals and other forest dwellers
• 1.6 billion population has been affected due to forest degradation and deforestation (IUCN).
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• Grassland ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by continuous cover of grasses and herbaceous (non-
woody) plants. It accounts between 20 and 40% of world’s land area. The grasslands are found where rainfall is about
25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.
• Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates. In India, they are found
mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of steppes and savannas.
• Major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is provided only during the brief wet
season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the
smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.
• Transitional between the equatorial forests and the trade wind hot deserts.
Savanna/Tro Distribution • E.g: Savanna of Africa, Campos of Brazilian highland, Llanos of Orinoco
pical Grassland: basin.
"Big Game
Abiotic • Characterized by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.
Country”
components: • Local wind: Harmattan in Guinea coast
• Soil type: Alfisols and Ultisols
Biotic • Flora - tall, elephant grass and short trees that has long roots and water storing
components: devices (e.g: baobabs and bottle trees).
• Fauna - Grass-eating Herbivores and flesh-eating Carnivores.
• Found in the interiors of continents, away from maritime influence.
Distribution:
Steppe/Temp erate • E.g. Prairies of North America, Pampas of Argentina, Downs of Australia
Grassland: etc.
22
"Granaries Of The
World"
Abiotic • Continental climate, not severe in the southern hemisphere.
components: • Local wind: Chinook in Canada and America, Fohn in Switzerland.
• Soil type: Chernozem soil
• Flora: Short steppe type of grass, practically treeless (used for extensive wheat
Biotic cultivation)
components: • Fauna: Mainly domesticated animals- cattle, sheep, pigs are found.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Desert ecosystem is a region of scanty rainfall supporting a community of distinctive plants and animals specially
adapted to the harsh environment. Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall.
TYPES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Distribution: • Western coasts of continents between 15 and 30 N and S (lie in the
region of Horse latitudes).
Abiotic • Extreme diurnal range of temperature. Less than 25cm of annual rainfall.
Hot Desert
components: • Soil type: saline, sandy soil with low water holding capacity.
Biotic • Flora- Xerophytic or drought resistant scrub, date palms, acacia etc.
components: • Fauna- Diverse array of reptiles, marsupials, mammals (camels, hedgehog,
hyenas).
Distribution: • Located interior of the continent, sheltered by the high mountains all
Mid-Latitude/ around them.
Cold/Temperate Abiotic • The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot
Desert Components: deserts. Continentality accounts for these extremes in temperature (Severe
winter with cold wind).
Biotic • Flora- Alpine Mesophytic, Grasses, bushes, shrubs and even trees like
components: junipers, birch.
• Fauna- Bactrian camel, Asiatic ibex, snow leopard, Tibetan wolf,
Tibetan wild ass (kiang) etc.
ADAPTATIONS OF DESERT VEGETATION:

23
• Extensive root system to tap underground water

• Thick cuticle or sunken stomata to reduce
transpiration
• Leaves- Absent or reduced in size or modified into
either thorns, leathery, hard and waxy leaves.
• Large fleshy (succulent) stems and leaves for water
storage
• Plants lie dormant for years until rain falls
ADAPTATIONS OF DESERT ANIMALS:

• Nocturnal in habit to avoid the sun’s heat
• Store fat in their humps, thus they can live months without
food
• Excrete concentrated urine to conserve water
• Camel “the ship of the desert” can travel several days without
water (drink gallons of water at one go)
• Body temperature can change to avoid losing water through
sweating. (Remember kharai camel)
DESERTIFICATION - “T HE GREATEST
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE OF OUR TIME ”
• It is the destruction of biological potential of the land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas due to various factors,
including climatic variations and human activities.
• CAUSES
• LAND MANAGEMENT: Deforestation + Overgrazing + Over-cultivation of crops
• + Developmental activities + Inappropriate irrigation.
• CLIMATE RELATED: Natural fluctuations in climate + Global warming as a result of human-
• caused GHGs.
• LAND DEGRADATION NEUTRALITY
• Land degradation neutrality (LDN) is a condition where further land degradation (loss of productivitycaused by
environmental or human factors) is prevented and already degraded land can be restored.
• Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) has been defined by the Parties to the Convention as:
• A state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support ecosystem functionsand services and
enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.
• THE BONN CHALLENGE
• The Bonn Challenge is a global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration
by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030. Launched by the Government of Germany and IUCN in 2011, the Challenge
surpassed the 150-million- hectare milestone for pledges in 2017.
INDIAN STATE OF FOREST REPORT, 2019 (16TH REPORT IN THE SERIES)

• It is a biennial publication of Forest Survey Of India, the first being the report of 1987.
• It is based on the interpretation of LISS III sensor of Resourcesat-2 satellite
• Total forest and tree cover- 24.56% of the geographical area of the country.
• Total forest cover- 21.67%; Total tree cover- 2.89%
• Largest forest cover in India: Madhya Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh > Chhattisgarh > Odisha
• Forest cover as percentage of total geographical area: Mizoram (85.41%) > Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%) > Meghalaya
(76.33%) > Manipur (75.46%) > Nagaland (75.31%).
• States/UTs showing significant gain in forest cover: Karnataka > Andhra Pradesh > Kerala > J&K
• States showing loss in forest cover: Manipur > Arunachal Pradesh > Mizoram.
24
• Degraded Land in India About 29.32% of the Total land is undergoing the process of desertification
I NDIA S TATE OF F OREST R EPORT -2021

• Recently, the Union Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) released the India State of
Forest Report-2021.
• In October, 2021 an amendment was proposed by MoEFCC to the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 to bring significant
changes to forest governance in India.
Key Points
About:
• It is an assessment of India’s forest and tree cover, published every two years by the Forest Survey of India.
• The first survey was published in 1987, and ISFR 2021 is the 17th.
• India is one of the few countries in the worldthat brings out such a survey every two years, and this is widely considered
comprehensive and robust.
• The ISFR is used in planning and formulation of policies in forest management as well as forestry and agroforestry
sectors.
• Three categories of forests are surveyed – very dense forests (canopy density over 70%), moderately dense forests (40-
70%) and open forests (10-40%).
• Scrubs (canopy density less than 10%) are also surveyed but not categorised as forests.
• New Features of ISFR 2021:
• It has for the first time assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir forest which houses the Asiatic
lion.
• The forest cover in tiger corridors has increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32%) between 2011-2021, but decreased by 22.6 sq
km (0.04%) in tiger reserves.
• Forest cover has increased in 20 tiger reserves in these 10 years, and decreased in 32.
• Buxa (West Bengal), Anamalai (Tamil Nadu) and Indravati reserves (Chhattisgarh) have shown an increase in forest
cover while thehighest losses have been found in Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka) and theSunderbans reserves
(West Bengal).
• Pakke Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh has the highest forest cover, at nearly 97%.
• Findings of the Report:
• Increment in Area:
• The forest and tree cover in the country continues to increase with an additional cover of 1,540 square kilometres over
the past two years.
• India’s forest cover is now 7,13,789 square kilometres, 21.71% of the country’s geographical area, an increase from
21.67% in 2019.
• Tree cover has increased by 721 sq km.
• Tree cover is defined as all tree patches of size less than one hectare occurring outside the recorded forest area. This
covers trees in all formations including scattered trees.
25
• Increase/Decrease in Forests:
• The states that have shown the highest increase in forest cover are Telangana (3.07%), Andhra Pradesh (2.22%) and
Odisha (1.04%).
• Five states in the Northeast – Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland have all shown loss in
forest cover.
• States with Highest Forest Area/Cover:
• Area-wise: Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha and Maharashtra.
• In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five States are Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland.
• The term 'forest area' denotes thelegal status of the land as per the government records, whereas the term 'forest cover'
indicates presence of trees over any land.
• Mangroves:
• Mangroves have shown an increase of 17 sq km. India’s total mangrove cover is now 4,992 sq km.
• Forest Prone to Fires:
• 35.46% of the forest cover is prone toforest fires. Out of this, 2.81% is extremely prone, 7.85% is very highly prone and
11.51% is highly prone.
• By 2030, 45-64% of forests in India will experience the effects of climate change and rising temperatures.
• Forests in all states (except Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Nagaland) will be highly vulnerable climate hot spots.
Ladakh (forest cover 0.1-0.2%) is likely to be the most affected.
• Total Carbon Stock:
• The total carbon stock in the country's forests is estimated at 7,204 million tonnes, an increase of 79.4 million tonnes
since 2019.
• Forest carbon stock is the amount of carbon that has been sequestered from the atmosphere and is now stored within the
forest ecosystem, mainly within living biomass and soil, and to a lesser extent also in dead wood and litter.
• Bamboo Forests:
• Bamboo forests have grown from 13,882 million culms (stems) in 2019 to 53,336 million culms in 2021.
• Concerns:
• Decline in Natural Forests:
• There is a 1,582 sq km decline in moderately dense forests, or “natural forests”.
• The decline, in conjunction with an increase of 2,621 sq km in open forest areas – shows a degradation of forests in the
country.
• Also, scrub area has increased by 5,320 sq km – indicating the complete degradation of forests in these areas.
• Very dense forests have increased by 501 sq km.
• Decline in Northeast Forest Cover:
• The forest cover in the region has shown an overall decline of 1,020 sq km in forest cover.
• The Northeast states account for 7.98% of total geographical area but 23.75% of total forest cover.
• The decline in the Northeastern states has been attributed to a spate of natural calamities, particularly landslides and
heavy rains, in the region as well as to anthropogenic activities such as shifting agriculture, pressure of developmental
activities and felling of trees.
26
CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
27
• An ecosystem in a water body is called aquatic ecosystem.

• Classification of aquatic ecosystems based on salt content (parts per thousand - ppt)
Fresh water ecosystems Marine ecosystems Brackish water ecosystems
Less than 5 ppt 35 ppt or above 5 to 35 ppt
Eg. Lakes, ponds, springs, rivers Eg. Seas, oceans Eg. Estuaries, mangroves
AQUATIC ORGANISMS
• Classified on the basis of their zone of occurrence & ability to cross these zones.
Neuston Periphyton Plankton Nekt Benthos

on
Unattached Attached to stems Locomotive power Swimmers Attached to
bottom
Live at air-water Live submerged Live submerged in Live under water. Live at bottom of
interface in water water Large & powerful water mass
Eg. Floating Eg. Sessile algae Eg. Algae, Eg. All sea animals --
plants crustaceans
• Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic Habitats:

• 4 main factors are:
• Sunlight
• Dissolved Oxygen
• Transparency
• Temperature
• Photic zone: Light penetrates Photosysthesis takes place.
• Aphotic zone: Light does not penetrate so plant growth restricted. Only respiratory activity takes place. Known as
Profundal zone
• Escapes water body through air-water interface & respiration of organisms. Oxygen less soluble in warm water. When
dissolved oxygen falls below 3-5 ppm, many organisms die.
• Water temperatures are less subject to change, the aquatic organisms have narrow temperature tolerance limit.
LAKE ECOLOGY
• Lake born from geological or geomorphical process
• Receive surface runoff water or ground discharge
• Chemicals & minerals mix up
• Lake begins to age mix up
• WINTERKILL
• Snow cover of ice on water body can effectively cut off light, plunging the waters into darkness. Hence photosynthesis
stops but respiration continues. Thus, in shallow lakes, the oxygen gets depleted. Fish die, but we won’t know it until the
ice melts and we find floating fish. This condition is known as winterkill.
• LAKES IN INDIA:
• Artificial lakes more than natural lakes.
• Natural lakes - in Himalayan regions, floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Lakes also classified on the basis of salt content.
• On nutrient content basis they are classified as: - Oligotrophic (very low), Mesotrophic (moderate) and Eurotrophic (high
rich).
• CLEANING OF LAKES/REMOVAL OF NUTRIENTS TECHNIQUE: Deep water abstraction + Flushing + Algae
skimming + Plants to suck nutrients + Harvest fish & macrophytes + Sludge removal + Filters for algae removal.
28
• Ameenpur Lake - First Biodiversity Heritage Site: Ameenpur Lake gets the status of the first Biodiversity Heritage Site
in the country under the biodiversity act, 2002. it is an ancient man-made lake in a western part of Telangana.
• Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to 300 BC.
• Note: Majority of lakes in India are Eurotrophic or Mesotrophic.
EUTROPHICATION:
• Water body overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plant life

growth.
• Nitrates and phosphates leached into water bodies from fertilizers,
industrial waste, sewage, etc. resulting in algal bloom.
• The nutrient enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae,
aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural
eutrophication.
POINT SOURCE NON-POINT SOURCE

• Attributable to one • Multiple unknown
influence sources
• Travels directly from • Difficult to regulate
source to water
• Easy to regulate
• EFFECTS - Toxicity, new species invasion, decreased

biodiversity, decrease in species richness and diversity, Toxic Aerosols in micro environment.
• POLICIES & MITIGATION FOR CURBING EUTROPHICATION:
• Restoration and preservation of ecosystems + Create buffer zones for sediments to collect + Nitrogen testing + Industrial
waste treatment and efficiency + Reduce livestock densities + Reduce non-point pollution.
HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM (HAB)

• Algal bloom - Excessive multiplying of algae or phytoplankton due to favourable environmental conditions.
• Harmful algal bloom - When such algal bloom produces toxins, it affects marine organisms thus making it difficult to
breathe. Produces - diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates, filamentous algae.
• Blooms can be due to a number of reasons. Two common causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters.
PRODUCING HIGH BIOMASS/ “GREEN TIDES” PRODUCING TOXINS/ “RED TIDES”
• Mechanical disturbance • Shellfish poisoning
• Shading • Direct lethal toxicity
• Clogging water & overgrowth • Ambush predation
• Mucus & foam formation
• Are HABs dangerous to fish and humans?

• Oxygen levels drop, fish suffocate and die.
• O2 level drops due to decomposition of dead algae.
• Potent neurotoxins that are produced can enter food web thus reaching animals, fish and even humans.
• Some toxins become airborne.
• People tend to breathe aerosolized HAB toxins near the beach.
• Changes in climate can change severity and impact of HAB events.
29
WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS & RELATED ISSUES

• Transition zones between deep-water and terrestrial habitats
• E.g. Lake littorals, marshy or swampy areas.
• World Wetland Day - 2nd February
• Recent alterations in Wetland rules 2017:
• States can alter activities prohibited in wetlands.
• Delineate wetlands, development of integrated plans.
• All wetlands except river channels, paddy fields, human-made waterbodies for drinking water, aquaculture, salt
production etc. can be notified.
• Ramsar Convention defines wetland as - “areas of marsh, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, depth of which at
low tides, does not exceed 6 meters.
NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (NPCA):

• NPCA is a single conservation programme for both wetlands and
lakes.
• Centrally sponsored scheme, currently being implemented by the
Union Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change.
• Formulated in 2015 by merging of the National Lake
Conservation Plan and the National Wetlands Conservation
Programme.
• NPCA seeks to promote better synergy and avoid overlap of
administrative functions.
Functions of Habitat to various species, sediment filtration, water purification, pollution control, disaster
wetlands management, nutrients recycling, ground water recharge, prevents erosion,
species diversity, stabilize local climate, natural heritage.
Reasons for Land use changed for agriculture, sand removal from beds, overgrazing, deforestation,
depletion pollution, domestic waste, climate change, agricultural runoff, hazardous industrial
waste, aqua culture.
Mitigation Eutrophication abatement, environmental awareness, afforestation, soil conservation,
weed control, artificial regeneration, wildlife conservation, heritage management.
LAKES WETLANDS
Acc. to NLCP - minimum depth 3 mts Acc. To NLCP - minimum depth < 3 mts
Origin from multiple sources Origin due to Geomorphic processes
Minor water level changes Major water level changes
Small pelagial ratio Large pelagial ratio
No waste treatment occurs Waste treatment occurs
Low productivity High productivity
Low biodiversity High biodiversity
Oligo trophic status Eutrophic status
Does not manage flood control Very significant in managing floods
Thermal stratification No Thermal stratification
Management objectives - Control of eutrophication and Biodiversity conservation Specific Functions
High-Water quality
30
RAMSAR CRITERIA FOR WETLAND IDENTIFICATION :

• Sites containing rare or unique wetland types.
• Criteria based on species and ecological communities
• Specific criteria based on water birds: If it supports 20,000 or more & if it supports 1% individuals of a single species.
• Specific criteria based on fish.
• Ramsar Convention works with the collaboration of the following organizations: International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) + Birdlife International + International Water Management Institute (IWMI) + Wetlands International +
Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT) + WWF International.
• RAMSAR CONVENTION
• India signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971
• There are 49 Ramsar sites in India as of 2022
• Sole treaty for particular ecosystem.
• Includes: lakes, rivers, estuaries, swamps, mangroves, coral reefs, oasis, peatlands, wetlands, deltas, tidal flats, fish
ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans.
RAMSAR SITES
1 Jammu & Hokera Wetland 2005 13.75
Kashmir
2 Jammu & Surinsar-Mansar Lakes 2005 3.5
Kashmir
3 Jammu & Wular Lake 1990 189
Kashmir
4 Ladakh Tso Kar Wetland Complex 2020 95.77
5 Ladakh Tsomoriri Lake 2002 120
6 Haryana Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary 2021 4.34
7 Haryana Sultanpur National Park 2021 1.42
8 Himachal Chandertal Wetland 2005 0.49
Pradesh
9 Himachal Pong Dam Lake 2002 156.62
Pradesh
10 Himachal Renuka Wetland 2005 0.2
Pradesh
11 Punjab Beas Conservation Reserve 2019 64.289
12 Punjab Harike Lake 1990 41
13 Punjab Kanjli Lake 2002 1.83
14 Punjab Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve 2019 3.439
15 Punjab Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary 2019 1.16
16 Punjab Ropar Lake 2002 13.65
17 Uttar Pradesh Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary 2022 29
18 Uttar Pradesh Haiderpur Wetland 2021 69.08
19 Uttarakhand Asan Conservation Reserve 2020 4.4
20 Uttar Pradesh Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary 2019 2.24
21 Uttar Pradesh Parvati Agra Bird Sanctuary 2019 7.22
22 Uttar Pradesh Saman Bird Sanctuary 2019 52.63
23 Uttar Pradesh Samaspur Bird Sanctuary 2019 79.94
24 Uttar Pradesh Sandi Bird Sanctuary 2019 30.85
25 Uttar Pradesh Sarsai Nawar Jheel 2019 16.13
26 Uttar Pradesh Sur Sarovar 2020 4.31
27 Uttar Pradesh Upper Ganga River 2005 265.9
(Brijghat to Narora Stretch)
28 Rajasthan Keoladeo Ghana NP 1981 28.73
29 Rajasthan Sambhar Lake 1990 240
30 Assam Deepor Beel 2002 40
31
31 Tripura Rudrasagar Lake 2005 2.4

32 Manipur Loktak Lake 1990 266
33 West Bengal East Kolkata Wetlands 2002 125
34 West Bengal Sunderbans Wetland 2019 4230
35 Bihar Kabartal Wetland 2020 26.20
36 Orissa Bhitarkanika Mangroves 2002 650
37 Orissa Chilka Lake 1981 1165
38 Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetlands 2002 32.01
39 Maharashtra Lonar Lake 2020 4.27
40 Maharashtra Nandur Madhameshwar 2019 14.37
41 Gujarat Khijadiya Wildlife Sanctuary 2022 6.05
42 Gujarat Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary 2012 120
43 Gujrat Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary 2021 6.99
44 Gujrat Wadhvana Wetland 2021 huge lake with about 2km
radius
45 Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake 2002 901
46 Tamil Nadu Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary 2002 385
47 Kerala Asthamudi Wetland 2002 614
48 Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake 2002 3.73
49 Kerala Vembanad Kol Wetland 2002 1512.5
• MONTREUX RECORD:
• A register of wetland sites of international importance where changes of ecological character have occurred, are
occurring or likely to occur in future due to pollution or other human interference, etc.
• Established by Recommendation of the Conference of Contracting Parties (1990).
• Sites may be added or removed only with approval of Contracting Parties.
• MONTREUX RECORD SITES IN INDIA:
• Chilika Lake, Orissa: Placed in 1993 due to choking at mouth. Removed in 2002. Won Ramsar Wetland Conservation
Award for 2002.
• Loktak Lake, Manipur: Places in 1993 due to deforestation in area & pollution. Currently in Montreux Record as per
2020.
• Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan: Placed in 1990 due to water shortage and Unbalanced grazing around. Currently in
Montreux Record as per 2020.
ESTUARY ECOSYSTEMS
• Areas where river meets the sea (exhibiting gradient in salinity), resulting in mixture of fresh river water with salty
ocean water, subject to tidal variations.
• Conditions for Estuary Formation: (1) rising sea level; (2) movement of sand and sandbars; (3) glacial processes; and (4)
tectonic processes.
• Characteristics: Filter for river water + Traps mud & sands + Semi-enclosed coastal body + Connection with open sea +
Salinity range - 0 to 35 ppt + Heavily populated + Little wave action.
• Biologically most productive region Receives the high amount of nutrients from fresh and marine water.
• Flora: homes to unique aquatic plants and animals, such as sea turtles and sea lions, sea catfish, saltworts, eelgrass, salt
grasses, cord grasses, sea grass, sedge and bulrush.
• About 60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the coast.
• Benefits of Estuarine ecosystems: Commercial fishing + Ports and harbours + Travel and tourism + Economic and social
benefits + Water purification + Breeding hotspot + Recreational and community benefits + Erosion protection + Stores
and recycles nutrients.
ESTUARIES IN INDIA:
• India has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers. Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal region. West- flowing
rivers are generally fast-moving ones giving rise to formation of estuaries.
• Issues relating to Indian Estuarine Ecosystems:
32
• Modification of catchment areas + Pollution + Recreation & unsustainable tourism + Increased dredging and shipping +
unstainable Land-use pattern + Fishing & aquaculture + Climate change.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
• Mangroves are littoral plants like trees and bushes having exceptional capacity for salt water tolerance (Halophytic
adaptability), growing below high-water level of spring tides.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGROVES:
• Evergreen land plants growing on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and barrier islands.
• High adaptation to salinity (Halophytic adaptability) and water logging.
• Ability to absorb fresh water from saline water and require high solar radiation.
• Produce pneumatophores/blind roots to overcome respiration problem.
• Have lenticulate banks that facilitate water loss.
• Secrete excess salts through leaves or block absorption of salts at their roots.
• Adventitious roots, also called stilt roots.
• Reduce inundation and moderate monsoonal tidal floods. + Prevent coastal soil erosion and enhance nutrient recycling. +
Source of firewood, medicinal plants and edible plants to locals.
• Provides employment opportunities.
THREATS:
• Mangroves are destroyed and converted for the use of agriculture, aquaculture, fuel, industrial purposes and chemical
fertilizers.
MANGROVES IN INDIA:
• India houses the largest mangroves of the world; Sunderbans.
• Sunderbans is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.
• Orissa’s Bhitarkanika mangroves is the 2nd
• largest in the Indian sub-continent.
• Others are found at Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
• In Gujarat they are found in Gulf of Kuchchh and Kori creek.
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands possess diverse undisturbed mangrove flora.
• Condition of mangroves in some parts of India is improving while in some other places is experiencing degradation.
UTILITY OF MANGROVES:
• Protect shorelines from storm, hurricane winds, waves, and floods + Prevent erosion by stabilizing sediments with
tangled root systems + Maintain water quality and clarity, filtering pollutants and trapping sediments + Provide nursery
habitat for many commercial fish.
CORAL REEFS AND RELATED ISSUES

• Corals are living animals, which lives in a Symbiotic relationship with ‘zooxanthellae’. Both have a mutual type of
relation.
• There are 2 types of corals: Hard and soft -- only hard corals build reefs.
• Majority coral reefs are found in tropical and sub-tropical water, however there are exceptions of deep-water corals in
colder regions.
• ASPECTS OF CORAL REEFS:
• Zooxanthellae: Assist coral in nutrient production through photosynthetic activities.
• Provide fixed carbon compounds, enhance calcification, mediate elemental nutrient flux.
• Coloration: Tissues of corals are clear white.
• Corals receive coloration from zooxanthellae living within tissues.
• Coral Polyp: Protects zooxanthellae and supplies carbon-dioxide for photosynthesis.
• LOCATION AND CLASSIFICATION:
FRINGE REEFS PATCH REEFS BARRIER REEFS ATOLL
Most common, Isolated and discontinuous Linear offshore structures. Circular or semi -
contiguous with shore lying shoreward of offshore Run parallel to coastline. circular reefs, arise from
reef Water body between reef & subsiding sea floor
33
shore is called ‘lagoon’ platform

Seen in Andamans Seen in Palk Bay, Gulf of Seen in Nicobar and Seen in Nicobar and
Mannar & Kachchh Lakshadweep Lakshadweep
• ADVANTAGES OF CORAL REEFS:

• Natural protective barriers against storms and soil erosion + Food + Medicine + Tourism + Meteorology + Capture
nutrients and plankton from water + Largest biogenic calcium carbonate producer + Home to variety of animals and
plants + Sources of new medicines being developed to treat cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, Alzheimer's
disease, heart disease, viruses, and other diseases + Tourism & meteorology + More than 1 billion people depend on
food from coral reefs.
• CORAL BLEACHING:
• Without algae, coral loses its major source of food, turns white or pale and is more susceptible to diseases and eventually
starves to death.
• Bleaching of corals occur when densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or concentration of photosynthetic pigments
within zooxanthellae fall.
• Global Warming Induced Threats To Corals: Unsustainable fishing + Water Pollution + Marine Debris + Habitat
Destruction.
• ECOLOGICAL CAUSES OF CORAL BLEACHING:
• TEMPERATURE - Anomalously low and high temperatures induce bleaching
• SOLAR IRRADIANCE - Bleaching during summers occurs on exposed and shallow-living corals
• SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE - Sudden exposure to air during sea level drop/tectonic movements affect corals
• SEDIMENTATION - Few instances of bleaching linked to sediments
• FRESH WATER DILUTION - Though rare, rapid dilution from storm surges and runoffs cause bleaching
• INORGANIC NUTRIENTS - Increase in ambient elemental nutrient content indirectly causes bleaching
• XENOBIOTICS - Exposure to chemicals like Cu, herbicides and oil leads to zooxanthellae loss
• EPIZOOTICS - It is a type of pathogen induced bleaching
34
CHAPTER 4: BIODIVERSITY
35
• Biodiversity is defined as ‘the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems’ - United Nations Earth Summit (1992).
• In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level but at all levels of biological
organization ranging from macromolecules within cells to biomes.
• According to IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described so far is slightly more than 1.5
million.
• More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes,
gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total.
• Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total.
• India accounts for nearly 7% of recorded species.
• Largest biodiversity is found in Amazon rain forest on earth.
• Endemism is the state of a species being native to a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state,
nation, country or other defined zone;
• Patterns of Biodiversity: Latitudinal gradients: Diversity of plants and animal is not uniform throughout the world.
Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the pole.
• Tropic harbour more species than temperature or polar areas
W HY T ROPIC A CCOUNT G REATER B IOLOGICAL D IVERSITY ?

• Speciation: It is function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes
have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years.
• Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant and predictable. Such constant
environments promote niche specialization and lead to a greater species diversity.
• More solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to higher productivity; this in turn might contribute
indirectly to greater diversity.
MEASUREMENT OF BIODIVERSITY
SPECIES EVENNESS SPECIES RICHNESS
Measurement of the relative frequency of each species. The number of species found in said environment.
• Species richness is the number of • Species evenness refers to how close in numbers each
different species represented in an ecological species in an environment is. Mathematically it is
community, landscape or region. Species richness is defined as a diversity index, a measure of biodiversity
simply a count of species, and it does not take into which quantifies how equal the community is
account the abundances of the species or their relative numerically. So if there are 40 foxes and 1000 dogs, the
abundance distributions. community is not very even.
• Note: Species diversity of an environment is essentially a • ALPHA DIVERSITY: Diversity within a particular
combined measurement of richness and evenness. area or ecosystem, expressed by the number of species
Sometimes, it is called the “Shannon” Diversity Index. in that ecosystem.
• BETA DIVERSITY: Comparison of diversity
between ecosystems, calculated as change in amount
of species between the ecosystem.
• GAMA DIVERSITY: Measures overall diversity
for different types of ecosystems within a region.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
• Protection of water resources + Soils formation and protection + Nutrient storage and recycling + Pollution breakdown
and absorption + Contribution to climate stability + Maintenance of ecosystems + Recovery from unpredictable events.
36
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO SPECIES

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPECIES EXAMPLES
FLAGSHIP SPECIES- Species chosen to represent an Indian tiger, the giant panda, the Golden
environmental cause, like an ecosystem might be in need of lion, the African elephant, Asian elephant,
conservation. Chosen for their Vulnerability, attractiveness etc.
or distinctiveness.
KEYSTONE SPECIES: Species whose addition to or All top predators like Lion, Tiger, Crocodile,
subtraction from an ecosystem leads to major changes in Elephant.
abundance or occurrence of at least one other species.
Plays role in structure, functioning or productivity of a
habitat or ecosystem.
INDICATOR SPECIES: It defines trait or characteristics of the Lichens- indicators of air quality (sensitive to
environment. sulfur dioxide), Amphibians (e.g. Frog) indicates
They are chosen as an indicator of, or proxy for, the state of an global warming and air pollution. Fish,
ecosystem or of a certain process within that ecosystem. invertebrates, periphyton, macrophytes, etc.
FOUNDATION SPECIES: Dominant primary producer in an Corals

ecosystem both in terms of abundance and influence.
CHARISMATIC SPECIES: Large animal species with Barasingha (Bhoorsingh from kanha
widespread popular appeal that environmental activists use national park), Giant panda, The Bengal
to achieve conservation goals well beyond those species. tiger, Blue whale.
• UMBRELLA SPECIES: It acts as umbrella. Conservation of Conservation of Tiger, efforts have been made to
save the populations of wild Tigers in order to
umbrella species would extend protection to other species as well.
save other species that are present in the same
ecosystems such as
Leopards, Monkey, Hares, Boars, etc
• INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES OF INDIA: Species that occur Goat weed, Alternanthera paronychioides,
outside their natural range + threaten native plants and animals Prickly poppy, Palmyra, Toddy palm, Calotropis/
or other aspects of biodiversity. Madar, Swallow wort, Water
Hyacinth.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO ECOSYSTEM

Biopiracy: Practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous peoples, is used
by others for profit, without authorization or compensation to the indigenous
people themselves.
Bioprospecting: Systematic and organized search for useful products derived from bioresources including
plants, microorganisms, animals, etc., that can be developed further for
commercialization and overall benefits of the society.
Biomining: Process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest from rock
ores or mine waste. Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that
have been polluted with metals
Bioassay: A test in which organisms are used to detect the presence or the effects of any other physical
factor, chemical factor or any other type of ecological disturbance. It is very common in
pollution studies; the aim is to detect lethal concentration or effective
concentration causing mortality or other effects.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOTANICAL GARDEN AND ZOOLOGICAL PARK
37
BOTANICAL GARDEN ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where
collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other captive animals are kept for exhibition to the public and
plants from various parts of the world includes a circus and rescue centers but does not include an
establishment of a licensed
dealer in captive animals - CZA
• Die-back: Phenomena in which progressive dying of plant happens, usually backwards from the tip of any portion of
plant. This is one of the adaptive mechanisms to avoid adverse conditions.
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

• Habitat loss and Fragmentation: Habitat loss due to pollution, breaking of large habitats into small fragments due to
various human activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories, animals with migratory habitat are badly
affected, leading to population decline.
• Over Exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but whgen 'need' turns to 'greed'. it
leads to over exploitation.
• Alien Species Invasions: Alien species are species that occur outside their natural range. These species when turn
invasive and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. Ex- like water hyacinth, prosopis juliflora, lantana
camara etc.
• Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory way
also become extinct.
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA
• India, a mega diverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area, accounts for 7-8% of all recorded species,
including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals.
• The country’s diverse physical features and climatic conditions have resulted in a variety of ecosystems such as forests,
wetlands, grasslands, desert, coastal and marine ecosystems.
• Four of 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots: The Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the North-East, and the Nicobar
Islands, can be found in India.
• In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles.
INDIA REPRESENTS INDIA REPRESENTS

Two ‘Realms’ Five Biomes Ten Bio- Twenty-five Bio-geographic provinces
geographic
Zones
Large spatial regions Main groups of plants and It deals with Ecosystem or biotic subdivision of realms
within which ecosystems animals living in areas of geographical
share a broadly similar certain climate patterns. distribution of
biota. Unifying features plants and animals.
of geography and fauna
and
flora.
38
1. Himalayan region 1. Tropical humid forests 1. Trans 1A: Himalaya - Ladakh

represented by 2. Tropical Dry or Himalay Mount. 1B: Himalaya-
Palearctic realm Deciduous forests as Tibetan Plateau 1C: Trans-
2. Rest of subcontinent 3. Warm deserts and semi 2. The Himalayas Himalaya Sikkim
represented by deserts 3. Desert 2A: Himalaya-North west
Malayan realm 4. Coniferous forest 4. Semi-arid Himalaya 2B: Himalaya-west
5. Alpine meadows. 5. Western ghats Himalaya
6. The 2C: Himalaya-Central
Deccan Himalaya 2D: Himalaya-
Peninsula East Himalaya 3A: Desert -
7. The Thar
Gangetic 3B: Desert-Kachchh
Plains 4A: Semi-arid-Punjab
8. The Coasts plains 4B: Semi-arid
9. Northeast Punjab plains
India 5A: Western Ghats-Malabar plains.
10. Islands 5B: Western Ghats-Western Ghats
Mountains 6A: Deccan Peninsular-
Central Highlands
6B: Deccan Peninsular Chota Nagpur.
6C: Deccan Peninsular -Eastern
Highlands 6D: Deccan Peninsular-
Central Plateau 6E: Deccan
Peninsular-Deccan south.
7A: Gangetic Plain-Upper Gangetic
plains 7B: Gangetic Plain- Lower
Gangetic Plains 8A: Coasts-West
Coast
8b: Coasts- East Coast
8C: Coasts-
Lakshadweep
9A: North-East Brahmaputra
Valley 9B: North-East-North
East Hills 10A: Islands-
Andamans
10B: Islands-Nicobar
PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

• Insectivorous Plants: Plants are specialized in trapping insects. This is an adaptability mechanism of plant in nutrient
poor soil.
Algae • The green non differentiated plants (non - differentiated into organs like root, stem and
leaf) possessing chlorophyll
Fungi • Non-green non differentiated plants characterized by total absence of chlorophyll are
called Fungi.
Bacteria • Non-chlorophyllous micro-organisms which lead saprophytic or parasitic existence.
Many of them are pathogenic; Saprophytic bacteria are rather beneficial.
Lichens • A lichen is a peculiar combination of an alga and a fungus- the two live deriving
mutual benefit.
39
Bryophytes • The plant body is differentiated into a small stem and simple leaves, but true roots are
absent.
Pteridophytes • The pteridophytes have well-differentiated plant bodies, consisting of roots, stems and
leaves Moreover, they possess vascular bundles.
Gymnosperms • Gymnosperms (Gymnos naked, Sperma seed) are the naked-seeded plants.
Angiosperms • Angiosperms (Angeion a case) are the closed-seeded plants.
Insectivorous • Plants are specialized in trapping insects. This is an adaptability mechanism of plant
Plants in nutrient poor soil.
BIRD’S MIGRATION
• Migration refers to the regular, recurrent and cyclical seasonal
movement of birds from one place to other. The distance of
migration ranged from short distance to thousands of
kilometers. But at the end of period, birds will eventually
return to the original place.
• Reasons for migration: To avoid extreme climatic condition +
To manage food shortage + To manage shortage of water + To
have a better breeding conditions + Less competition for safe
nesting places.
WILDLIFE DIVERSITY OF INDIA

➢ Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; Species like Sal, giant bamboos,
Himalayan silk cotton trees; tall grassy meadow with savannahs in terai are dominant.
foothills: ➢ Fauna: Elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal, hog deer, barking deer, wild boar tiger, panther,
hyena, black bear, sloth bear, Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, wild buffalo, Gangetic
gharial, golden langur
➢ Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; rhododendrons; dwarf hill
Western bamboo and birch forests mixed with alpine pastures.
Himalayas ➢ Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang), wild goats (thar, ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes (Chiru and
(High altitude Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir stag and shou or Sikkim stag, musk deer); golden
region) eagle, snow cocks, snow partridges; snow leopard, black and brown bears; birds like Griffon
vultures.
➢ Flora: The Eastern Himalayas can be divided into the following climatic regions: arctic, sub-
arctic, temperate, subtropical, and warm tropical. The forests are moist, dense, evergreen, semi-
evergreen, or temperate. Precipitation is very high and the forest region is very humid. Sal
forests and evergreen trees are found extensively all along the foothills of the Eastern
Eastern Himalayas. Subtropical forests cover the hills up to an elevation of about 2000 m. Oaks,
Himalayas magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns; coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew
and junipers with an undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos; lichens,
mosses, orchids, and other
epiphytes dominant.
➢ Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest badgers, crestless porcupines, Great one-horned
rhinoceros Asian elephant ,Takin ,Wild water buffalo, Swamp Deer, Tiger Snow leopard,
Clouded
leopard.
40
➢ Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in southern plateau are dominant
trees. Western Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to evergreen rainforests
Peninsula of northeastern of India. In dry areas of Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered, and
India: thorny
scrub species predominate.
➢ Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer swamp deer or barasinga,
sambar, muntjac or barking deer, antelopes (four-horned antelope, Nilgiri, blackbuck, chinkara
gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig, monkey, striped hyena,
jackal,
gaur.
➢ Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves like babool, ber, khejri tree; cactus, other succulents are
Indian desert the main plants.
• Sea cow, Dugong dugon occurs in near shore waters of Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
➢ Fauna: Its diverse fauna includes the great Indian bustard, blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal
fox, wolf, caracal, rodents, Asiatic wild ass, desert cat, red fox; reptiles (snakes, lizards and
tortoise)
well represented. Desert lizards include geckos.
Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and northeast India.
➢ Flora: Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested gorges of evergreen vegetation
known as shoals occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western Ghats). The rain forests of the
Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees with much species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes,
Tropical rain
orchids, lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony Indian rosewood,
forest region
Malabar
Kino, teak and Indian laurel trees predominate in these forests.
➢ Fauna: Wild elephants, gaur and other larger animals. The most prominent are hoolock gibbon
(only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf monkey, Assam macaque and
the pig-tailed macaque, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, slender loris, bats, giant squirrel,
civets,
flying squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny mouse.
Mangrove ➢ Flora: Various species of mangroves.
swamps of ➢ Fauna: In the higher regions of mangroves, there are spotted deer, pigs, monitor lizard,
Sundarbans: monkey, Royal Bengal Tiger.
• WHAT’S IN NEWS ?
Species IUCN status Habita Other information
t
Grey francolin Least Plains and drier parts of the Indian --
Concern subcontinent
Fishing Cat Vulnerable Mangrove forests of the Sundarbans, State Animal of West Bengal,
(Prionailurusvi foothills of the Himalayas along the Chilika Development Authority (CDA)
verrinus) Ganga and Brahmaputra river valleys designated the Fishing Cat as
and in the ambassador of Chilika Lake, Odisha.
Western Ghats
Chinese Pink Vulnerable Coastal waters of the eastern Indian
Dolphins/Indo- and western Pacific Oceans
Pacific humpback
dolphin
Himalayan Critically Highlands of the Himalayas

Brown Bears endangere
41
Dhole/Asian Endangered’ -- India has the highest number of

Wild Dog dholes in the world
Narcondam Endangered Found only on the island of Narcondam in
hornbill the Andaman Sea.
Snow Leopard Vulnerable Himalayas at elevations ranging from
3,000
to 4,500 m across Jammu and Kashmir,
Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh
Indian Tiger or Endangered Native to the Indian subcontinent Tiger species native to India, largest
Royal Bengal Tiger populations of Bengal tigers are in
(Panthera India
tigris)
Bullfrog Least It is native to the Indian subcontinent
(Hoplobatrach Concern
ustigerinus)
Pinanga Critically Endemic to the South Andaman Palm species
Andamanensis endangere Island. naturally occurs only in a
d tiny, evergreen forest pocket in South
Andaman’s Mount
Harriet National Park
Olive Ridley Vulnerable India’s Odisha and Andhra Pradesh coast Performs Arribada (Synchronized,
Turtles are f largescale neting)
amous for their nesting
(Gahirmatha beach, rushikulya river
mouth
etc are some famous sites)
Sal Forest Critically Eastern and northern India and Southeast
Tortoise endangered Asia.
Brackish Water Critically Used to be found in the river mouths of One of the largest turtles to be found
Turtle Endangered Odisha and the Sunderbans. As of now it in
(Batagurbaska) is considered extinct in much of its former Southeast Asia
range.
Gir Endangered Gir National Park,
Lions/Asiatic lio Gir Sanctuary, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala
n/Panthera Leo San ctuary and Girnar Sanctuary
Persica
Indian Gaur Vulnerable Nagarhole, Bandipur, Kabini and
Masinagudi (Mudumalai)
Gee’s Golden Endangered Endemic to the semi-evergreen and mixed-
Langur/Golden deciduous forests straddling India and
Langur Bhutan
(Trachypithecus
geei)
• Other species in News
Species Found in Other information
Trimeresurus Salazar Arunachal Pradesh A new species of green pit
viper
Abortelphusa Namdaphaensis Namdapha Tiger Reserve New freshwater crab species
Spialia zebra Rajasthan Butterfly
Brahma Kamal Flower Himalaya King of Himalayan Flowers,
state flower of Uttarakhand
Golden birdwing Founded in Uttarakhand India’s largest butterfly
42
Tetrastemma Freyae Coast of Tamil Nadu New species of marine

invertebrate i.e. 'TetrastemmaFreyae'
Globbaandersonii Restricted mainly to Teesta River Researchers recently

IUCN status: Critically Valley region “rediscovered” this rare and
Endangered critically endangered plant
species
Kazi 106F India’s only Golden Tiger found in
Kaziranga National Park of Assam
Schizothorax sikusirumensis New species of fish discovered in
Arunachal Pradesh
NATIONAL PARKS AND OTHER HABITATS IN NEWS

• Nanda Devi national park (Uttarakhand) - Status- World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988 (Nanda Devi National Park
+ Valley of Flowers National Park) together makes - Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve and this reserve is recognized as
UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2004. Species - Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, brown bear
and blue sheep etc
• Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve (Assam) - Why in news? National Board for Wild Life (NBWL) has recommended coal
mining in a part of this reserve.
• Panna Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh) = New entry into world network of biosphere reserves (WNBR) under MAB
Programme. Presently, there are 18 notified biosphere reserves in India of which 12 are recognized under MAB
Program.
• Eravikulam National Park (Kerala) It houses the special Neelakurinji flowers Strobilantheskunthianam) that bloom
once every 12 years. The park holds the largest viable population of the endangered NilgiriTahr.
• Gorumara National Park = West Bengal
• Dehing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary (Assam): - Referred as ‘The Amazon of East’
• Melghat Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra)
• India’s 1st Lichen Park (Uttarakhand)
• ‘Animal Discoveries 2019’ and ‘Plant Discoveries 2019’ Annual Publication released by Zoological Survey of
India (ZSI) and the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) respectively.
• Sphaerotheca Magadha: burrowing frog discovered in farm fields of Jharkhand.
• Amomum nagamiense: A wild ginger variety, discovered from the forest behind Kohima Zoo in Nagaland.
• Pteris subiriana: A wild fern, found not just in Kerala but also Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra
• Cnemaspis anandani: A rock-dwelling gecko, endemic to the Western Ghats
• Enoplotrupes tawangensis: a dung beetle from Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh.
43
CHAPTER 5: PROTECTED AREAS FOR

THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
44
• Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. With only 2.4%
of the world’s land area, 16.7% of the world’s human population and 18% livestock, it contributes about 8% of the
known global biodiversity, however, putting enormous demands on our natural resources.
WHY DO WE NEED TO PROTECT BIODIVERSITY?

• Biodiversity is the key indicator of the health of an
ecosystem. Healthy ecosystem, in turn provides
provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting
services
• Greater biodiversity in ecosystem leads to greater
stability.
• Loss of biodiversity has accelerated to an
unprecedented level worldwide.
• WWF Living Planet Report 2020 reveals 68% drops in
wildlife population.
• Every living thing on Earth is involved in the complex
network of interconnected relationship, called the ecosystem.
• To protect biodiversity, Conservation steps have been taken up at both national and international level.
• Protected Area Network of India consists of the following:
• PROTECTED AREA NETWORK
• Wildlife
• National Park
• Sanctuary
• Community And Conservation Reserve
• Coastal Protected Areas
• Sacred Groves
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (WS)

• Wild Protection Act (1972) provided for the declaration of certain areas by the State Government as wildlife sanctuaries
if the area was thought to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural significance.
• It can be any area other than area within reserve forest or the territorial waters.
• There are around 500 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India, constituting 3.64% of the geographical area of the country
(National Wildlife Database, December, 2019).
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (WS)

• NP are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural significance
• The Wild Life Protection Act (1972) provided for the declaration of National Parks by the State Government.
• There are 101 existing national parks in India, constituting 1.23% of the geographical area of the country (National
Wildlife Database, December, 2019).
Parameters National Park Wildlife Sanctuary
Degree of protection Greater Lesser
Statute WPA 1972 WPA 1972
Activities like grazing of livestock, Prohibited Allowed
hunting, forestry etc.
Established for a particular species No (habitat specific conservation) Yes (species specific
conservation)
Protected area management under Category II Category IV
IUCN
Difference in conservation The difference in conservation value of a National Park from that of a sanctuary is not
specified in the WPA 1972.
45
• Both Central and State government can declare any area within or outside any reserve forest as a WL sanctuary or
national park. (under the provisions of Wildlife Protection Act 1972).
• State Government has absolute power on declaration of any area as a sanctuary or national park.
• But it requires prior approval of the Central Government for de-notification, de-reservation, or leasing of forest for non-
activities.
IUCN (Established on 1948)
• International Union for Conservation of Nature
• The first global environmental union- for the protection of nature and biodiversity
• IUCN Red List of Threatened Species was established in 1964.
• Publications:
• World Conservation Strategy (along with UNEP and WWF)Caring for Earth- guided the creations of 3 RIO Conventions
(CBD, UNCCD and UNFCCC)
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA

STATE GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS:
• Forest Minister of the State is in charge of all matters concerning forests and wildlife and is assisted by a
Principal Secretary belonging to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS).
• State Forest Department- Administration and management of forests, enforcement of laws within the forest areas
• Chief Wildlife Warden- A statutory authority under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (WPA)
• Heads Wildlife Wing of Forest Department
• He/She may grant permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary/national park for all or any of the following purposes:
• Investigation or study of wildlife
• Photography
• Scientific research
• Tourism
• Transaction of lawful business
• Residing in the protected areas.
ENTRY INTO THE PROTECTED AREAS
• No person other than:
• A public servant on duty
• A person who has been permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized officer to reside within the limits of
WS/NP
• A person who has any right over immovable property within the limits of WS/NP
• A person passing through the WS/NP along a public highway
• Shall enter or reside in the WS/NP, except under and in accordance with the conditions of a permit granted.
State boards for wildlife at the state level:
• Advice the state governments in selection and management of protected areas and other matters connected with the
protection of wildlife.
• It is headed by Chief Minister, with the Forest Minister of the State as the Vice Chair.
NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE

• Statutory body, constituted under WPA, 1972
• Headed by the Prime Minister
• Advisory in nature
• Serves as an apex body for the review of all wildlife-related matters and for the approval of projects in and around
national parks and sanctuaries.
• The standing committee of NBWL is chaired by the Minister of Environment Forest and Climate Change.
• Alteration of boundaries of WS/NP shall be made only on the recommendation of National board of wildlife.
CONSERVATION RESERVES AND COMMUNITY RESERVES

46
• Conservation and community reserves are those protected areas that act as buffer or connectors or migration corridors
between established NP, WS, other reserved and protected forests.
• Both are the outcome of amendment to the WPA, 1972 in 2003.
CONSERVATION RESERVE COMMUNITY RESERVE
It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to It is a community/private land and members of that
National Parks and sanctuaries for protecting landscape, community agree to offer such areas for protecting fauna
seascape and habitat of fauna and flora. and flora.
Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve near Recently, Gogabeel, an ox-bow lake in Bihar’s Katihar
Thirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu, declared in 2005, is district, has been declared as the state’s first ‘Community
the first Conservation Reserve in the Reserve’
country.
Such area is uninhabited but used for subsistence by Part of this land is inhabited by community.
communities.
• Such area is uninhabited but used for subsistence by communities. Part of this land is inhabited by community.
• TILLARI CONSERVATION RESERVE (29.53 sqkm area of Dodamarg forest range)
• It is located near the border of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka, connecting Mhadei sanctuary in Goa and Bhimgad in
Karnataka.
• 13th such reserve in western ghats
COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS

• Marine Protected Area (MPA) as “any area of intertidal or sub tidal terrain, together with its overlaying water and
associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to
protect part or all of the enclosed environment” - IUCN.
• It aims to protect and conserve the natural marine ecosystems in their pristine condition.
• Notified under Wild Life (Protection), Amendment Act, 2002
• These places are given special protections for natural or historic marine resources by local, state, territorial, native,
regional, or national authorities.
• To achieve National Biodiversity Target 2 and Aichi Biodiversity Target 11, India has identified and prioritized 106
coastal and marine sites as Important Coastal and Marine Areas (ICMBAs) by the Wildlife Institute of India.
• CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
• Category I: covers National Parks and Sanctuaries having entire areas in intertidal/sub-tidal or mangroves, coral reefs,
creeks, seagrass beds, algal beds, estuaries, lagoons.
• Category II: includes Islands, which have major parts in marine ecosystem and some part in terrestrial ecosystem.
• Category IIIA: includes sandy beaches beyond intertidal line but occasionally interacting with the seawater.
• Category IIIB: includes evergreen or semi evergreen forests of islands.
COASTAL REGULATION ZONE (CRZ)

• CRZ notification was first issued in 1991, then
amended in 2011 and again in 2018.
• CRZ notification, 2018 came after considering
the recommendations made by Dr. Shailesh
Nayak Committee (constituted by MOEFCC).
4 ZONES OF COASTAL REGULATION ZONE
(CRZ)
• CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas like
Mangroves, Coral Reefs, Salt Marshes, Turtle
nesting grounds, nesting ground of birds, sea
grass beds, Sand Dunes, NP, Marine Park, WS
etc.
47
• CRZ-II: Areas which are developed upto or close to the shoreline and falling within municipal limits.
• CRZ-III: Areas that fall neither in CRZ I nor CRZ II and also include rural and urban areas that are not substantially
developed. CRZ-IV: Aquatic area from low tide line upto territorial limits.
SALIENT FEATURES OF CRZ NOTIFICATION 2018:
• Allowing Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR) as per current norms in CRZ areas. This will enable
redevelopment in these areas to meet the emerging needs.
• Two separate categories have been stipulated for CRZ III (rural areas)
• CRZ III A - Densely populated rural areas with population density of 2161 per sq km (as per Census 2011). Such areas
shall have a No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) as against 200 meters from the
HTL (stipulated in CRZ notification 2011).
• CRZ III B - Rural areas with population density of below 2161 sq km. Such areas shall continue to have NDZ of 200
meters from the HTL.
• Promotion of tourism infrastructure: Temporary tourism facilities such as toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water
facilities are now permissible in NDZ of CRZ III areas. (A minimum distance of 10 meters from HTL should be
maintained.
• CRZ Clearances: Clearances for projects located in the CRZ I and CRZ IV- MOEFCC
• Clearances for projects located in CRZ II and CRZ III - State level authority
• NDZ of 20 meters has been stipulated for all islands ( islands close to the mainland coast and for all the backwaters in
the mainland)
• All Ecologically Sensitive Areas have been accorded special importance.
• Pollution abatement has been accorded special status.
• Defence and strategic projects have been accorded necessary dispensation.
SACRED GROVES OF INDIA

• Sacred Groves are patches of forests or natural vegetation – few trees or forests of several acres - that are usually
dedicated to local folk deities (protected by local communities).
• Notified under Wild Life (Protection), Amendment Act, 2002
• The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies from one grove to another.
• People believe any kind of disturbances would offend the local deity and thereby causing natural calamities, diseases of
crops.
• For example, the Garo and the Khasi tribes of North-Eastern India completely prohibit any human interference in the
sacred groves.
TYPES OF SACRED GROVES:
• TRADITIONAL GROVE - The grove where village deity resides, who is represented by elementary symbol.
• TEMPLE GROVE - The grove which is created around a temple Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.
Ecological Significance Threats to Sacred Groves
• Conservation of biodiversity • Diminishing traditional belief systems
• Recharge of Aquifers • Rapid urbanization and development
• Soil conservation through vegetation cover • Sanskritisation
• Invasion by exotic weeds such as Lantana camara,
Prosopis julifora
• Increasing livestock and fuelwood collection.
NATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME (NBRP)

• It is a scheme initiated by the Government of India in 1986 to ensure participation of local inhabitants in conservation of
ecosystem without compromising their livelihood.
• CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES:
PRIMARY CRITERIA SECONDARY CRITERIA
Protected and minimally disturbed core area Presence of rare and endangered species
48
Ability to sustain viable populations representingall Presence of micro-climatic conditions, diverse soiland
trophic levels, in core area indigenous varieties of biota
Involvement of local communities to link Preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes ofliving for
biodiversity conservation and socio-economic harmonious use of environment
development
• BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA (18):

Sr. BIOSPHERE YEAR KEY FAUNA LOCATION
RESERVE (BR)
1. Nilgiri - World 1986 Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
Natural Heritage Site Macaque, Malabar Pied Hornbill, Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Elephant, Tiger Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala
and Karnataka).
2. Nanda Devi - 1988 Snow Leopard, Musk deer, Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar
Declared World Himalayan black bear, Brown districts
Natural Heritage Bear (Uttarakhand).
Site
3. Nokrek 1988 Hoolock Gibbons, Clouded Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya)
Leopard, Elephant, Barking Deer
4. Gulf of Mannar - First 1989 Dugong, Whale Shark, Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India
marine Hawsbill sea turtle and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).
Biosphere Reserve in
India. Falls within the
Indo- Malayan realm
5. Sundarbans - World 1989 Royal Bengal Tiger, Ganges and Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra
Natural Heritage site Irawadi Dolphins, Terrapin, river system (West Bengal).
Estuarine
crocodiles
6. Manas - World 1989 Pygmy hog, Golden Langur, Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta,
Natural Heritage site Hispid hare, Bengal Florican Nalbari, Kamprup and
Darang districts (Assam)
7. Great Nicobar 1989 Nicobar tree shrew, Nicobar Southern most islands of Andaman And
crab-eating macaque, Dugong, Nicobar (A&N Islands).
saltwater crocodile
8. Simlipal - The 1994 Royal Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Part of Mayurbhanj district
biosphere reserve has Elephant, Leopard (Orissa).
the largest zone of Sal
in all of
India.
9. Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Tiger, Elephant, Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts
Assamese (Assam)
Macaque, Sambar, Barking Deer,
Water Buffaloes
10. Dehang-Dibang 1998 Leopard- Clouded, Common, Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in
Spotted, Himalayan Black Deer, Arunachal Pradesh.
Indian Wild Dog
49
11. Pachmarhi 1999 Indian Giant Squirrels, Flying Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara
Squirrels, Gaur, tiger, Nilgai districts of Madhya Pradesh.
NOTE: Pachmarhi BR area is
often recognized as “Genetic
Express Highway” linking two
biological hot spots of the
country viz. Eastern Himalayas
and Western Ghats, also as
confluence of northern and
southern type of
vegetation.
12. Khangchendzonga 2000 Himalayan- Tahr, Black Bear, Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.
- India’s first Mixed Blue Sheep, Red panda, Snow
Heritage Site Leopard
13. Agasthyamalai - Part 2001 Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Elephant, Neyyar, Peppara and
of “Hottest Nilgiri Tahr Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their
biodiversity adjoining areas in Kerala.
hotspots” + World
Natural Heritage Site.
14. Achanakmar- 2005 Indian Wild Dog, Saras Crane, Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts
Amarkantak White-backed Vulture, Sacred of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of
grove Bush frog Chhattishgarh State.
15. Great Rann of Kutch 2008 Indian Wild Ass, Great Indian Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and
Bustard Patan Civil Districts of
Gujarat State
16. Cold Desert 2009 Tibetan Gazelle, Snow Leopard, Pin Valley National Park and
Himalayan Ibex, Red fox surroundings; Chandratal and
Sarchu&Kibber Wildlife Sancturary

in Himachal Pradesh
17. Seshachalam Hills 2010 Golden Gecko, Slender Loris Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering
parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of
Andhra Pradesh
18. Panna 2011 Bengal Tiger, Nilgai, Leopard, Part of Panna and Chhattarpur
Chinkara, Chital districts in Madhya Pradesh
• NOTE: Bold marked BRs of India are included in WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVE-UNESCO’S
MAB programme
• There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. 12 of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of
Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
• First Biosphere Reserve: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Est. 1986)
• Largest Biosphere Reserve: Gulf of Mannar
• Smallest Biosphere Reserve: Panna
GLOBAL INITIATIVE
50
• THE MAN AND BIOSPHERE (MAB): Launched in 1971 + Managing entity: UNESCO + MAB is an
intergovernmental scientific programme of UNESCO that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of the
relationships between people and their environments.
• It targets ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity loss.
• It focuses on improving human livelihoods and safeguard natural ecosystems.
• It also focuses on rational, sustainable use and conservation of resources.
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
• Biosphere reserves are legally protected areas (can be terrestrial or coastal ecosystem or a combination thereof) where
human beings and nature can co-exist while respecting each other’s’ needs.
• They are indeed learning areas for sustainable development.
• They are nominated and established by the respective countries and recognised under UNESCO’s MAB programme.
FUNCTIONS OF BIOSPHERE RESERVE:
• Conservation of biodiversity and cultural diversity
• Economic development that is socio-culturally and environmentally sustainable
• Logistic support, underpinning development through research, monitoring, education and training.
• These three functions are pursued through the 3 zones/areas of Biosphere Reserve.
ZONATION OF BR:
• Core Areas: The core areas of biosphere reserves are strictly protected zone which are often public lands with
legal protection, such as a previously designated national park, wilderness area or wildlife refuge. However, the core
area may be privately owned or belong to non- governmental organizations.
• Buffer Zones: Adjoining region around the core area(s), may also accommodate education, training, tourism, and
recreation facilities. In many biospheres reserves the buffer zone is regarded as an area in which human use is less
intensive than what might be found in the transition zone and is used for scientific research.
• Transition Area: Outermost region where community’s foster socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable economic
and human activities.
WORLD NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES (WNBR)

• World network of biosphere reserves of UNESCO’s MAB programme consists of a dynamic and integrated network of
biosphere reserves across the world. It promotes:
• North-South and South-South collaboration and international co-operation through sharing knowledge, exchanging
experiences, building capacity and promoting best practices.
• Harmonious integration of people and nature for sustainable development.
BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS ( COVERS ONLY 2.3% OF THE E ARTH ’ S LAND SURFACE )
• These are Earth’s most biologically rich, yet threatened regions. The concept was first put forth by Norman Myers in
1988. Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’ hotspots as its institutional blueprint in 1989 and gave the
following criteria to qualify a hotspot.
• Species endemism - Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found nowhere else on Earth (endemic species).
• Degree of Threat - Have lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation.
CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL
• USA based nonprofit environmental organization.
• Founded – 1987
• GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS: 36, latest being the North American Coastal Plain
• Mission - empowering societies to responsibly and sustainably care for nature, global biodiversity and well-being of
humanity
• GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS: 36, latest being the North American Coastal Plain
51
EIGHT HOTTEST HOT SPOTS

• Madagascar
• Philippines
• Sundaland
• Brazil’s Atlantic Forest
• Caribbean
• Indo-Burma
• Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
• Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/Kenya
• Five key factors have been considered for defining the above 8 hot spots:
• Endemic plants
• Endemic vertebrates
• Endemic plants/area ratio
• Endemic vertebrates/area ratio
• Remaining primary vegetation as % of original extent
FOUR INDIAN BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
• Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and
Myanmar)
• Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
• Sundaland: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)
• Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)
WORLD HERITAGE SITES

• World Heritage Sites are the places on Earth that are of outstanding universal value to humanity.
• Over 1000 Natural and Cultural places have been inscribed in the World Heritage List to date.
• The Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 1972, provides
framework for protection of Cultural and Natural Heritages across the world.
• There are total 38 World Heritage sites in India -
• 30 Cultural Sites
• 7 Natural Sites
• 1 Mixed Site- Khangchendzonga National Park
• 7 Natural World Heritage Sites
• Kaziranga National Park
• Keoladeo National Park
52
• Manas Wildlife Sanctuary

• Sunderbans National Park
• Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park
• Western Ghats
53
CHAPTER 6: POLLUTION AND ITS

EFFECTS ON HEALTH
54
• Pollution is the deterioration of the environment due to the addition of harmful materials (pollutants) to it.
• Pollutants can be natural ex- volcanic ash OR Anthropogenic such as CO2 emission from the burning of fossil fuels.
• They can also be biodegradable or non-biodegradable based on their disposal and Primary or secondary based on their
formation.Types of Pollution: Air Pollution, Water Pollution, Radioactive pollution, Soil & Plastic pollution, etc.
AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution is the degradation of air quality due to the contamination of pollutants.
• It was the 4th leading risk factor for early death worldwide in 2019 (State of Global Air Report 2020).
• Industries (51%), Vehicles (27%), and Crop burning (17%) are the largest contributor to Air pollution.
Primary pollutants - Enter the atmosphere directly from their source. E.g. - CO2.
Secondary pollutants -Forms from a chemical reaction of primary pollutants. Ex:
Types of air Ozone (O3), Acid rain.
pollutants: Indoor air pollution (IAP) - The poor air quality within and around buildings is called
IAP. It is caused by burning solid fuel such as firewood, dung for cooking.
Outdoor (ambient) air pollution - originates from natural and anthropogenic
sources. EX - bushfires, volcanoes, Automobile emission, etc.
• Fog is a cloud of smoke particles, water droplets, or mixtures of these components

FOG suspended in the air.
• Fog usually appears over a region of high pressure where humidity is greater than 75%.
• It reduces visibility & causes accidents.
• Smoke + Fog = Smog - is a type of intense air pollution.

• Smog is a harmful mixture of fog, dust & air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides,
SMOG VOCs, etc.
• Impacts: cause itchy, burning eyes, damage lung tissues, cardiac and respiratory disorders,
it can kill plants etc.
• Types: Sulfurous smog & Photochemical smog
SULFUROUS SMOG • This occurs in a cool humid climate.
(London smog) • It is a mixture of Smoke, Fog & Sulphur Dioxide.
• Chemically, it is a reducing mixture and so it is also called reducing smog.
• It is also called winter smog or classic smog.
• Produced when sunlight reacts with Nitrogen Oxides & volatile organic compounds in the
atmosphere which results in the formation of Bad ozone.
PHOTOCHEMICAL • It is visible as a brown haze.
SMOG • Contains more oxidizing agents.
• Often referred to as "summer smog" or “Los Angeles smog,” it occurs most
prominently in urban areas.
• It is a component of fine particulate matter formed through the incomplete combustion
BLACK CARBON of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass.
• It is a short-lived pollutant with a lifetime of only days to weeks.
• It is one of the main types of particles in soot.
PARTICULATE • PM is a mixture of solid particles & liquid droplets found in the air.
MATTER (PM) • PM10: are inhalable particles sized 10 micrometers or less in diameter.
• PM2.5: fine inhalable particles, sized 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter. These are
more harmful to health as they move freely with air current & block the tiny pores
in our lungs.
55
ACID RAIN
• Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6 when pH falls below this; it is called Acid rain (pH 4.2 to 4.4).
• Acid rain results when Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) & Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) react with water, oxygen & other chemicals to
form Sulfuric & Nitric acids.
• NOx + SO2 + Moisture + other chemicals Acid Rain (HNO3 + H2SO4)
• Effects: Harms microorganisms in the soil + inhibit the activity of nitrogen fixation bacteria + soil acidification + ocean
acidification + affects the growth of plants + food chain + kill aquatic animals + corrosion of metals & weathering of
stone buildings & statues.
C OMMON A IR P OLLUTANTS AND T HEIR E FFECTS

Pollutant Sources Effects
Particulate matter Vehicles, power plants, construction Cardiovascular diseases, reduces
(PM) activities, oil refinery, visibility (haze)
railway yard, industries, etc.
Nitrogen dioxide Emissions from combustion processes Can aggravate respiratory diseases, acid
(NO2) rain, Hazy weather
Sulfur dioxide Burning of fossil fuels, power plants, metals Affects respiratory system & functions
(SO2) processing and smelting facilities, vehicles of the lungs. causes irritation of the eyes,
chronic bronchitis, Acid rain
Ozone (O3) Results from photochemical reactions b/w Affect the lungs, the respiratory tract,
NOx & VOCs in presence of sunlight. and the eyes, lung cancer
FLY ASH
• Fly ash is a fine powder that is a byproduct of burning pulverized in electric power generating plants.
• Indian coal is of low grade with more ash content (30-45 %) compared to imported coal.
• MAIN COMPOSITION OF FLY ASH: Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) & Calcium oxide (CaO).
• MINOR CONSTITUENTS: Arsenic, Beryllium, Boron, Cadmium, Chromium, Hexavalent Chromium, Cobalt, Lead,
Manganese, Mercury, Molybdenum, Selenium, Strontium, Thallium, Vanadium, & Un-burnt Carbon.
• NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FLY ASH: It contains acidic, toxic, & radioactive matter + Carcinogenic & damages
nervous system + causing cognitive defects, developmental delays, and other respiratory diseases.
• Utilization of Fly Ash:: As a replacement for some of the Portland cement contents.
• GoI has made it mandatory for use of fly ash bricks in construction activities happening 500 km around thermal power
plants.
• As soil conditioner for acidic soils. Also, it improves the porosity & water holding capacity of the soil.
• Maharashtra is the first state in India to adopt the Fly Ash Utilization Policy.
• The Govt has launched the ‘ASHTRACK’ mobile app for fly ash utilization.
THE AIR (P REVENTION & C ONTROL OF P OLLUTION ) ACT 1981

• It was enacted to prevent, control& abate air pollution.
• Under this Act, all industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must obtain a permit from the State
Boards.
• The states are required to prescribe emission standards for industry & automobiles.
• It expanded the authority of the CPCB to include Air Pollution under it.
• The 1987 amendment introduced a citizen’s suit provision into the Air Act & extended the Act to include Noise
pollution.
• BS Norms: These are emission standards to reduce vehicular pollution.
56
• Norms set by CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) under the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate
change.
• India introduced emission norms in 1991 & BS-1 in 2000 based on European standards.
• India skipped BS-V & moved to BS-VI norms directly in 2020.
• BS-VI fuel is estimated to bring around 80% reductions in Sulphur content.
• BS-VI will cut down the harmful NOx (nitrogen oxides) from diesel cars by nearly 70% and 25% in the petrol cars.
• BS-VI will bring down the cancer-causing Particulate Matter in diesel cars by a phenomenal 80%.
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INDEX (NAQI)

• CPCB launched AQI in 2014 under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to
disseminate information on air quality in an easily understandable form for
the general public.
• It transforms complex air quality data of 8 pollutants into a single number,
nomenclature, and color.
• AQI has six categories of air quality:
• Eight pollutants : Particulate Matter (PM10), Particulate Matter (PM2.5),
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Ozone (O3), Ammonia (NH3), and Lead (Pb).
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS)

• Notified by CPCB (under powers given to it by Air Act, 1981) in 2009.
• It covers 12 pollutants: Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, PM10, PM2.5, Ozone, Lead, Carbon Monoxide, Ammonia,
Benzene, Benzo Pyrene, Arsenic, Nickel.
AIR QUALITY EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

• An initiative of the Ministry of Earth Sciences and Environment (MoES).
• Objective: To predict extreme air pollution events over the Delhi region & give alerts to take necessary steps as per the
Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP).
• It uses data of stubble burning incidents from the past 15 years to predict and help authorities to act in advance.
• It is developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune.
GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN (GRAP)

• It is a set of stratified actions to enforce in the NCR if the pollution level reaches a certain specified limit.
• It was formulated by Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority (EPCA) on the advice of the Supreme
Court in 2016.
• Objective: To specify actions required to control air pollution, when the air quality moves from ‘Poor’ to ‘Very Poor’ on
AQI.
• GRAP works only as an emergency measure, not throughout the year.
• These measures were earlier implemented in Delhi only. However recently GRAP has been extended to the NCR towns
also.
CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB) OF INDIA

• The CPCB is a statutory organization established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
• It is also entrusted with the powers & functions under the Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981.
• It works under the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
• Important functions: To prevent, control & abate water & air pollution in the country + To provide technical services to
the MoEF&CC under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 + Collect, compile & publish technical
and statistical data relating to water and air pollution.
LOW-EMISSION (GREEN) CRACKERS
57
• These are produced using less harmful raw materials & have additives which reduce emissions by suppressing dust.
• Developed by CSIR-NEERI
• Names of these crackers are: "Safe Water Releaser (SWAS)", "Safe Minimal Aluminum (SAFAL)" & "SAFE
THERMITE CRACKER (STAR)".
• Firecrackers are regulated by PESO.
• PESO (Petroleum & Explosives Safety Organisation) is an office under the Department for Promotion of Industry &
Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industries.
ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION CONTROL AUTHORITY (EPCA)

• EPCA is Supreme Court mandated statutory body.
• Notified by Environment Ministry in 1998 under Environment Protection Act, 1986.
• Objective: to protect and improve the environmental quality & pollution control in the NCR-National Capital Region
(Delhi).
• Enforces Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) in NCR as per the pollution levels.
• EPCA has the power to take action suo-moto.
AIR POLLUTION IN DELHI

• Air quality in Delhi is the worst of any major city in the world - WHO
• It is a yearly problem and seasonal.
• Geography: change in wind direction during winter (northwesterly), dip in wind speed,
Causes of air & dust storms (from the Gulf) make the landlocked Delhi region more prone to
pollution: pollution.
• Vehicular Pollution& firecrackers
• Emissions from nearby industries & thermal power plants.
• Stubble burning in surrounding states.
• The introduction of BS-VI vehicles, push for electric vehicles (EVs), Odd-Even
scheme to reduce vehicular pollution.
• Delhi is the 1st city in India running with BS-VI fuels & scheduled to use Hydrogen-
Measures taken to
CNG
tackle:
• Implementation of the GRAP
• Subsidy to farmers for buying Turbo Happy Seeder to reduce stubble burning.
• Torrefaction.
• Development of the National AQI for public information.
• The initiative of ‘The Great Green Wall of Aravalli’ green ecological corridor along
with Aravalli range from Gujarat to Delhi.
• TORREFACTION: is a thermal process to convert biomass into a coal-like material, which has better fuel
characteristics than the original biomass. Torrefied biomass is more brittle, making grinding easier & less energy-
intensive.
• HAPPY SEEDER: is a tractor-mounted machine that cuts & lifts rice straw, sows wheat into the bare soil, and deposits
the straw over the sown area as mulch.
H YDROGEN - C OMPRESSED N ATURAL G AS (HCNG)

• HCNG is a hydrogen-enriched Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
• Benefits: Cleaner, safer & more economical than CNG
• It reduces the engine's unburned hydrocarbon emissions and speeds up the process of combustion.
• Ensures 70% more Carbon Monoxide reductions compared to CNG.
• Concerns: It requires new infrastructure to prepare HCNG
• Determining the most optimized H2/ NG (Natural Gas) ratio
• Costlier than CNG
58
THE GREAT GREEN WALL OF ARAVALLI

• It will be a 1,400km long & 5km wide green belt from Gujarat to the Delhi-Haryana border.
• The ‘Green wall’ idea mooted in the COP14 of UNCCD, India in 2019.
• It intends to restrict land degradation & the eastward march of the Thar Desert.
• Also, it will act as a barrier for dust coming from the deserts in western India and Pakistan.
NATION CLEAR AIR PROGRAMME (NCAP)

• It was launched by the MoEF&CC in 2019
• It is the first-ever effort by India to frame a national framework for air quality management with a time- bound reduction
target.
• Objective: to reduce particulate matter (PM) pollution by 20-30% in at least 102 non-attainment cities by2024 with 2017
as the base year.
• Non-attainment cities: These are those that have fallen short of the NAAQS for over five years.
NITROGEN POLLUTION
• Nitrogen becomes a pollutant when it escapes into the environment & reacts with other organic compounds.
• Sources: Agriculture, fossil fuel burning sewage etc.,
• Impacts: global warming, acid rain and eutrophication etc.,
• UNEP’s Colombo Declaration: Aims to halve Nitrogen waste by 2030
• Joint initiative of UNEP, the International Nitrogen Initiative & Global Environmental Facility
NOTABLE DISASTERS
• CHEMICAL DISASTERS: Bhopal gas tragedy, 1984
• Caused by Methyl Iso Cyanide (MIC) gas leak from the Union Carbide Factory, Bhopal.
• MIC is used in the manufacture of polyurethane foam, pesticides, & plastics.
• Visakhapatnam Gas leak, 2020
• Caused by Styrene gas leak at the LG Polymers chemical plant, Vizag.
• Styrene (C6H5CH=CH2)is a flammable liquid (can evaporates easily) used in the manufacturing of polystyrene plastics,
fiberglass, rubber, & latex.
• Exposure to Styrene can cause Irritation to the eyes, skin, nose & damages Central nervous system and kidney.
• NUCLEAR DISASTERS: The Chernobyl disaster, 1986, Ukraine (the then USSR).
• Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan, 2011.
WATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities.
• Point pollution sources, where the source is a well-defined location.
• Non-point pollution sources, which are spread over larger areas.
• Causes: Agricultural sources, Sewage water, Industrial effluents, Thermal Pollution, Oil-spills, ships & other economic
activities.
• Effects: Decline on Dissolved oxygen, Increase in BOD, Death of Aquatic species, Eutrophication etc.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO) BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
DEMAND (COD)
(BOD)
59
• DO is the amount of oxygen that is • BOD is the amount of oxygen • COD measures the amount of
present in water. required by microorganisms for oxygen in ppm required to oxidize
• Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. the aerobic decomposition of organic and oxidizable inorganic
Its solubility is related to Pressure & organic matter in the water compounds in the water sample.
Temperature. body. • Breakdown of organic matter is done
• The higher the temperature, the • It is a measure of the amount of by chemical reagents.
lower is the DO levels in the water. oxygen required to remove • CoD is a slightly better mode used to
• During summer due to increased waste organic matter from measure pollution load in the water
biological oxidation, the DO level water. than BoD.
reduces. • It is used as an indicator of the
degree of pollution.
• The greater BOD indicates the
lower amount of DO
available
in the water.
EUTROPHICATION
• Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plentiful growth
of simple plant life. The excessive growth (or bloom) of algae and plankton in a water body are indicators of this
process. Eutrophication is considered to be a serious environmental concern since it often results in the deterioration of
water quality and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Eutrophic waters can
• Consequences
• Algal blooms limit light penetration, reducing growth and causing the death of plants and marine species
• Dead Zones (Biological Deserts): When algal blooms die, microbial decomposition severely depletes dissolved oxygen
& creates a hypoxic or ‘dead zone. Most of the animal life either dies or migrates from the zone.
• Water pollution
• Affects biodiversity & productivity of the ecosystem.
• New species invasion & loss of native species.
• Tubifex worms or sludge worm: These pose a significant risk for trophic transfer & Bio-magnification of micro-
plastics up the aquatic food chain. They can survive in heavily polluted areas where almost no other species can endure.
It is an indicator species for polluted water.
BIO-MAGNIFICATION
• It is the process where toxic substances move up the food chain and become more concentrated at each level. Ex: DDT
• It adversely affects human and marine life. It can also destroy Coral Reefs.
• It can disrupt the food chain.
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
• Ocean acidification is the reduction in the pH of seawater due to excessive absorption of CO2 by the oceans.
• Effects: Loss of Coral reefs, marine biodiversity, disruption in food chain etc.
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH WATER POLLUTION

Disease Potential sources / cause& their effects
Minamata Neurological disease caused by severe mercury poisoning.
Blue Baby It is a bluish discoloration of infants' skin because of poorly oxygenated blood due to Nitrate
Syndrome contamination in water.
Itai-Itai Cadmium pollution causing lung and liver cancer.
Skeletal Fluorosis Fluoride contamination causing teeth deformity, hardening of bones and joint pains.
Trachoma An infectious eye disease caused by unclean water
60
THERMAL POLLUTION
• Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature.
• CAUSES / SOURCES OF THERMAL POLLUTION: Industries & Nuclear power plants + Deforestation + Soil erosion
+ Urban runoff + Natural causes like volcanoes + Hot springs + Bio-medical wastes + Domestic sewage
• EFFECTS NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON HUMAN, WILDLIFE & MARINE LIFE: Increase in toxin levels in water +
Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels + Disrupts the stability of the food chain + Affects reproductive process +
Species migration & Loss of biodiversity.
• CONTROL MEASURES: Could be reused for Biological applications such as soil warming, Fish culture etc.
SOIL POLLUTION
• Soil pollution is the deterioration in quality & fertility of soil due to the presence of toxic pollutants.
CAUSES: Natural + Anthropogenic EFFECTS
• Poor Agricultural & Livestock practices. • Naturally contributes to air pollution
• Improver solid waste management • may alter plant metabolism & reduce crop yields
• Unsafe storage of hazardous chemicals & nuclear • Bio-magnification
waste • leads to soil erosion & eutrophication
• Urban and transport infrastructure • Reduced nitrogen fixation & loss of soil nutrients
• Natural calamities • Carcinogenic
S OIL C ONTAMINANTS AND T HEIR E FFECTS O N H EALTH & E NVIRONMENT

SUBSTANCE POTENTIAL SOURCES & THEIR EFFECTS
Lead (Pb) • Lead paint, mining, foundry activities, vehicle exhaust, construction-activities, agriculture
activities, and batteries etc.,
• May leads to Learning difficulties, abdominal cramps & vomiting, Fatigue, Neurological
problems, Headache, Growth reduction etc.
Mercury (Hg) • From mining, incineration of coal, alkali and metal processing, medical waste, volcanoes &
geologic deposits.
• A tingling sensation in one’s limbs, Speech impairment, Loss of balance & coordination,
Tremors, Depression, mood changes, Severe neurological damage, Itching, burning, pain,
Damage to brain, kidneys, and lungs, Pink disease (acrodynia) - a skin discoloration, High
BP & Hyper-salivation
Arsenic (As) • From mining, coal-fired power plants, lumber facilities, electronics industry, foundry
activities, agriculture, natural accumulation.
• Leads to Neurotoxicity, abdominal pain, muscle cramps, blood in urine, pregnancy
complications, infant mortality, cognitive problems in infants, bladder or lung cancer
Herbicides • From agricultural activities, gardening etc.

/Insecticide • Birth defects, Endocrine disruption, Reproductive problems, Leukemia and other cancers.
Nickel • Mining; foundry activities; construction activities

• Lung cancer, Neurological problems, Childhood developmental issues, Kidney and liver
failure, Cardiovascular disease.
NOISE POLLUTION
• It is an unwanted or excessive sound that can have adverse effects on human health, wildlife, and the environment.
• Effects of Noise Pollution:
61
• Affects both the health & behavior, of people and wildlife.

• Cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, high-stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbance
• Cognitive Issues & Behavioral Change
• Control measures: Control at receiver’s end
• Suppression of Noise at Source
• Acoustic Zoning
• Sound Insulation at Construction Stages
• Planting trees
• Strict legislative measures
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
• Radioactive pollution is the result of the release of radioactive substances into the environment.
• Radioactive substances are those which can emit high energy particles like alpha, beta & gamma rays.
• These substances are highly unstable & are continuously emitting these particles to gain some stability.
• It is not a constant or regular phenomenon & hence the duration and frequency of pollution vary with time & conditions.
• Causes / Sources of Radioactive Pollution: Uranium mining& processing
• Nuclear power reactors, & use of radionuclides in industries
• Nuclear tests carried out by the defence personnel, wars; and
• Disposal of nuclear waste.
• Natural sources like; radiation from space & earth crust.
• Effects: Genetic Mutations
• Causes cancer, leukemia, anemia, hemorrhage, premature aging etc.,
• Soil infertility
• Radioactive material can enter the food chain, remains in the environment for hundreds of years causing somatic damage
ie damage to organs of the body.
LIGHT POLLUTION
• Light pollution is excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial (usually outdoor) light.
Consequences: it washes out starlight in the night sky, interferes with astronomical research, disrupts ecosystems, has
adverse health effects and wastes energy.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Solid waste consists of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), e-waste & Biomedical wastes.
• Solid Waste Management involves a collective activity involving segregation, collection, transportation, re- processing,
recycling & disposal of various types of wastes.
E-WASTE:
• E-waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that's been discarded.
• India’s first e-waste clinic - at Bhopal.
E-waste sources Constituents Health effects
PCBs, glass panels, and Computer Lead Damage nervous systems, & kidney
monitors Impair child’s brain development
Resistors & Semiconductors Cadmium Accumulates in kidney&liver
Causes neural damage
Relays and switches, &PCBs Mercury Damages brain
Respiratory & skin disorders
Galvanized steel plates & decorator Chromium Causes Bronchitis
or hardener
Cabling, Computer& housing Plastics &PVC Burning produces Dioxin that causes
reproductive& developmental problems
62
Electronic equipments & circuit Brominated flame- Disrupt endocrine systems

boards retardants
Front panels of CRTs Barium, Phosphorus Muscle weakness & damages heart, liver
& Heavy metals
Copper wires, PCB tracks. Copper Stomach cramps, nausea, liver damage
NickelCadmium batteries Nickel Skin Allergy
asthma
Lithium-ion battery Lithium Li can pass into breast milk& may harm a nursing baby
may cause lung edema
Motherboards Beryllium Carcinogenic

Beryllium
E-W ASTE (M ANAGEMENT ) R ULES , 2016

• Notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
• The new e-waste rules included CFL & other Mercury-containing lamps, as well as other such equipment.
• For the first time, the rules brought the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), along with targets.
• Producers can have a separate Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) & ensure the collection & disposal of E-
waste in an environmentally sound manner.
• Deposit Refund Scheme has been introduced, wherein the producer charges an additional amount as a deposit at the time
of sale and returns it to the consumer along with interest when equipment is returned.
• The role of State Governments has been also introduced to ensure the safety, health & skill development of the workers
involved in dismantling & recycling operations.
• Bulk consumers have to file annual returns it prescribes a waste collection target of 30% waste generated for the first 2
years and progressively going up to 70% in the 7th year from rule notified.
• Provision of penalty for violation of rules.
• Urban Local Bodies has been assigned the duty to collect & channelize the orphan products to authorized dismantlers or
recyclers.
PLASTICS POLLUTION
• It is the harmful accumulation of synthetic plastic products in the environment.
• India aims to eliminate single-use plastic by 2022.
• UNEP’s 2018-World Environment Day’s theme: ‘Beat Plastic Pollution’.
• Causes / Sources of Plastic Pollution: Households + Industrial use + Bio-medical wastes + Agriculture + Fishing and
marine economic activities.
• Effects: Upsets the food chain + Contributes to Air, Soil as well as Water pollution.
MICRO-PLASTICS
• Microplastics are any type of plastic fragment that is less than 5 mm in length. Ex: Microbeads, microfibers.
• They enter natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, & industrial processes.
• Concerns: toxins, can block the gastrointestinal tracts of organisms.
THE GLOBAL TOURISM PLASTICS INITIATIVE

• The Initiative is led by UNEP & the World Tourism Organization, in collaboration with the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation.
• Aims to address the root causes of plastic pollution.
• Developed within the framework of the ‘One Planet Sustainable Tourism Programme’.
• It enables businesses, governments, & other tourism stakeholders to make a set of concrete & actionable commitments
by 2025.
OZONE POLLUTION:
63
• Ozone can be good or bad, depending on where it is found. It is a secondary pollutant.

• Stratospheric ozone is good ozone that protects the earth from UV radiation.
• Ground-level ozone, which is bad ozone, is a colourless & highly irritating gas that forms just above the earth’s surface
(lower troposphere).
• Harmful effects:
• Health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, reduced lung function, can worsen bronchitis,
emphysema, & asthma
• It inhibits photosynthesis thus, slows down plant growth & reduces CO2 absorbing ability.
• Decreased photosynthesis increases CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
GOTHENBURG PROTOCOL, 1999

• Aims to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication & Ground-level Ozone.
• Also known as the Multi-effect protocol, was adopted by the countries of UNECE (United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe).
• The protocol sets national emission ceilings for 2010 up to 2020 for four pollutants: Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxides
(Nox), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) & Ammonia (NH3).
• The protocol also is a part of the convention on long Range Transboundary Air Pollution.
BIOREMEDIATION
• Bioremediation is the process of using organisms to neutralize or remove contamination from waste.
TYPES OF BIOREMEDIATION
• Here contaminated waste is treated right at its point of origin.
• In-situ bioremediation techniques:
• Biosparging: air & nutrients (if needed) are injected into the saturated zone to increase
the biological activity of the indigenous microorganisms.
In-situ • Phytoremediation: use of plants to remove contaminants.
Bioremediation • Bioventing: blowing air through the soil to increase the oxygen level in the waste
to neutralize certain oxygen-sensitive metals or chemicals.
• Bioleaching: removing metals from soil using living organisms. For example, fish bones
to attract & hold heavy metals such as Lead and Cadmium.
• Composting: containing waste so a natural decay and remediation process occurs.
• Bio-augmentation: adding microbes & organisms to strengthen the same in waste to allow
them to take over and decontaminate the area.
• Bio-stimulation: the use of microbes designed to remove contamination applied in a medium
to the waste.
• Oilzapper & Oilivorous-S: oil spill treatment bacteria, feed on hydrocarbon
• compounds present in crude oil & oily sludge.
• Contaminated waste is removed & transported to a processing site for treatment.

• Ex situ bioremediation techniques:
• Land-farming: turning contaminated soil for aeration & sifting to remove contaminants, or
Ex-situ- deliberately depleting soil of nitrogen to remove nitrogen-based organisms.
Bioremediation: • Bioreactor: the use of specially designed containers to hold the waste while bioremediation
occurs
• Windrows: rely on the periodic turning of piled polluted soil to enhance bioremediation by
increasing degradation activities of indigenous and/or transient hydrocarbonoclastic
bacteria present in polluted soil.
• Biolpiling - It is a hybrid of composting & land farming.
64
Advantages Of • Useful for destruction of a wide variety of contaminants + Can be carried out on-site,
Bioremediation: without disturbing normal activities + Less expensive & effective treatment.
Disadvantages • Limited to only biodegradable compounds + Biological processes are often highly
Of Bioremediation: specific + Takes a longer time & consumes more area as well as water.
65
CHAPTER 7: ENVIRONENTAL LAWS AND

POLICIES
66
ACTS OBJECTIVES and PROVISIONS

Wildlife ProtectionAct Objective - To protect wild animals, birds, plants & matter connected with them.
1972 • Appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, Wildlife Warden.
• Central Zoo Authority and National Board for Wildlife.
• Establishment of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation reserve,
community reserves, & Tiger reserves.
• License for Trade & commerce in some wildlife species & Ban trade or commerce in
scheduled animals.
• In-situ & ex-situ conservation of wildlife. Regulations for hunting wild animals &
birds.
There are 6 Schedules which gives varying degree of protection:
1. Schedule I & II provides absolute protection with highest penalties for violation.
2. Schedule III & IV species are also protected, but the penalties are lower.
3. Schedule V includes “vermin” animals, which can be hunted.
4. Schedule VI includes endemic plants that are prohibited from cultivation &
planting.
WPA (Amendment) 2006: Created the National Tiger Conservation Authority &
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).
Environment Objective - To protect, improve environment & reduce pollution. Enacted aftermath of
(Protection) Act, 1986 Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984).
• Authorizes the central government to control & reduce pollution from all sources.
• Provides procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants.
Indian Forest Act, 1927 Objective - To protect & conserve forests.
• It categorized forest into Reserve forest, Protected forest & Village forest.
• Act defines forest offence, Specifies the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and
penalties for the violation.
Forest (Conservation) Objective - To protect the forest and control its deterioration.
Act, 1980 • Mandatory Central Government’s prior approval for diversion of forest land for
non-forestry purposes.
• Checks deforestation & encourage afforestation.
National Forest Policy, Objective - To-ensure environmental stability & ecological balance.
1988 • Conservation of existing Natural Heritage.
• Checking Soil Erosion & Denudation in catchment areas.
• Checking extension of dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan & along coastal tracts.
• Substantially increasing Forest or Tree Cover through Afforestation & Social Forestry.
• Increasing the productivity of Forests to meet National Needs.
• Encourage efficient utilization of Forest Produce & Optimum Use of Wood (Timber).
• Generation of Work Opportunities, the involvement of Women.
Note - Forest policy, 1952 recommends 33% forest cover (60% in mountainous region
& 25% in plain area) of the total area.
The Scheduled Tribes Objective - To restore the deprived forest rights of the Scheduled Tribes & other
and Other Traditional traditional forest dwellers across India.
Forest Dwellers • Grants legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest-dwelling
communities.
67
(Recognition of Forest • National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forest & Protected Forests are included for the
Rights) Act, 2006 recognition of Rights.
• Act defines ‘Critical wildlife habitats’ as areas of national parks & wildlife
sanctuaries that are kept aloof for wildlife conservation.
Rights recognized:
1. Title Rights: To legally hold forest lands (up to 4 acres). Applies for land that is being
cultivated by the concerned family, no new lands are granted.
2. Use Rights: Forest produce including non-timber forest produce of plants by the
community.
3. Community forest resource rights: To protect, regenerate, conserve or manage forest
resources for sustainable use, providing for community governance of forests.
Eligibility criteria:
1. Must be a Scheduled Tribe in the area where the right is claimed.
2. Primarily resided in forest or forests land for three generations (75 years)
before 13-12-2005; and
3. Depend on the forest or forest land for livelihood needs.
Process of recognition of rights:
1. Gram Sabha - Pass a resolution recommending whose rights to which resources
should be recognized.
2. Screening committees - Resolution is screened & approved at the level of the sub-
division (or taluka) and the district level.
The screening committees consist of three government officials (Forest, Revenue &
Tribal Welfare departments) and three elected members of the local body at that
level. These committees also hear appeals.
Biological Diversity Act Objective - To conserve, promote sustainable use of biological diversity & ensure fair &
2002 equitable sharing of its benefits.
• The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD).
• Prohibits the transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country, without
specific approval.
• Prior permission is mandatory to claim IPR over Biodiversity & its derivatives.
• Regulation of the use of GM organisms.
• Establishes National, State, & Local Biodiversity Funds.
• Set up Biodiversity Management Committees at the local village level, State
Biodiversity Boards at the state level, & a National Biodiversity Authority at
the national level.
Coastal Regulation Zone Objective - To promote sustainable development and conserve coastal environments.
(CRZ) Rules, 2019 • It governs human and industrial activity close to the coastline.
• The Rules, mandated under Environment Protection Act, 1986, were first framed in
1991.
• Shailesh Nayak Committee was set up on CRZ.
For CRZ-III (Rural) areas, two separate categories:
• CRZ-III(A) with a population density of more than 2161, the No Development Zone
(NDZ) is reduced to 50 meters from 200 meters from High Tide Line (HTL)
• CRZ-III(B) with less than 2161 the NDZ is 200 meters from High Tide Line(HTL)
• A NDZ of 20 meters specified for all Islands.
• Temporary tourism facilities are permitted in Beaches in the NDZ of the CRZ-III
areas.
• Involvement of coastal communities for management of Critically Vulnerable
Coastal Areas (CVCA) identified under the EPA, 1986.
68
• The treatment facilities are permitted in CRZ-I B area to address pollution.
Bio-Medical WasteRules, Objective - To manage bio-medical waste (2016 rules are an improvement to BMW- 1998
2016 rules)
• The ambit of the rules has been expanded to include vaccination camps, blood
donation camps, surgical camps, or any other healthcare activity.
• The use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves & blood bags to be phased out within two
years.
• Pre-treatment of the laboratory waste, microbiological waste, blood samples & blood
bags through disinfection on-site in the manner prescribed by the WHO or by the
NACO.
• Regular training & immunization for all health care workers.
• A Bar-Code System for bags or containers containing bio-medical waste for
disposal.
• Categorization: 4 categories of waste instead of the earlier 10 to improve the
segregation of waste at source.
• The State Govt has to provide the land for common bio-medical waste treatment and
disposal facilities.
Note: these rules shall not apply to:
• Radioactive wastes + Wastes covered under the MSW Rules,2000, + E-waste
• Hazardous microorganisms
E-Waste Management • Notified under EPA, 1986
Rules2016 • Included CFL & other Mercury-containing lamps as e-waste.
(amendment to 2011 rules) • Brought the producers under Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), along with
targets.
• State Governments have to ensure safety, health & skill development of the
workers involved in dismantling & recycling operations.
• Penalty for violation of rules.
• Urban Local Bodies - the right to charge user fees and levy spot fines for
littering and non-segregation.
E-waste (Management) Objective - To channelize the E-waste generated in the country towards
Amendment Rules, 2018 authorized dismantlers & recyclers to formalize the e-waste recycling sector.
• E-waste collection targets under EPR have been revised - 10% (for 2017-18) of the
quantity of waste generated with a 10% increase every year until 2023. (Target set at
70% after 2023 onwards).
• Separate E-waste collection targets for new producers.
• PROs (Producer Responsibility Organizations) must register with CPCB to undertake
activities prescribed.
Hazardous and Other Objective - To strengthen the implementation of environmentally sound management
Wastes (Management and of hazardous waste.
Trans-boundary • Prohibition on the import of solid plastic waste even in SEZ & EOU (Export
Movement) Amendment Oriented Units). Silk waste exports are exempted.
Rules, 2019. • Electrical & electronic assemblies and components manufactured in & exported
(amended the 2016 rules) from India if found defective can be imported back into the country, within a year of
export, without obtaining permission.
• Industries that do not require consent under Water Act 1974 & Air Act 1981, are
exempted under the ‘Hazardous & Other Wastes Rules, 2016’, provided that
wastes generated by such industries are handed over to the authorized actual
users, waste collectors, or disposal facilities.
69
National-Green Objective - For effective & expeditious disposal (within 6 months of appeal) of the
Tribunal (NGT) Act, environmental cases + To help reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts.
2010 • Establishes NGT & it has jurisdiction over all civil cases involving substantial
questions relating to the environment.
• Provides for Enforcement of legal environmental rights, relief &
compensation for damages caused.
• Tribunal is guided by principles of natural justice & its order is executable as a
decree of a civil court.
• NGT orders are binding but can be challenged in the SC within 90 days.
• NGT - Principal Bench at New Delhi & 4 regional benches in Pune, Bhopal,
Chennai & Kolkata. There is also a mechanism for circuit benches.
• The chairperson of the NGT is a retired judge of The Supreme Court.
• Each bench of the NGT comprises at least one judicial member and one expert
member.
NGT deals with:
1. The water act, 1974
2. The water cess act, 1977
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
4. The Air Act, 1981
5. The EPA, 1986
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
It does not deal with:
1. Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972
2. Indian Forest Act, 1927
3. Forest Rights Act, 2006.
Note: NGT Act, draws inspiration from India's constitutional provision of Article 48A
(DPSP)
The Ozone Depleting Objective - To regulate production, consumption & phasing out the ODSs following the
Substances (ODS) Rules, Montreal Protocol.
2000. Rules notified under EPA,1986:
• Prohibit the use of CFCs except for medical purposes.
• Since HCFCs are used as interim substitutes to replace CFCs, these are allowed up to 1st
January 2040.
• Mandatory registration of ODS producers, sellers, importers, and stockiest.
ODS-Amendment Rules, 2019:
• India achieved the complete phase-out of HCFC (Hydrochlorofluorocarbon)-
141b.
• The issuance of an import license for HCFC-141b is prohibited under this
amendment.
The Protection of Plant Objective - To protect plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to
Variety and Farmers encourage the development of new varieties of plants + Recognizes rights of Farmers,
Right Act, 2001 Breeders & researchers.
Farmers Rights:
• Recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic Resources.
• A farmer who has developed a new variety is entitled to registration and
protection.
• Compensation to the farmers for non-performance of variety.
• Farmers are not liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the
70
Authority/Registrar/Tribunal/High Court under the Act.

• Breeders’ Rights:
• Breeders will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute, import, or
export the protected variety.
• Researchers’ Rights:
• Researcher can use any of the registered variety under the Act for conducting
experiments or research.
• Investment in R&D for the development new of plant varieties.
• Facilitate the growth of the seed industry, ensure the availability of high-quality seeds
& planting material.
Compensatory Objective - To provide an appropriate institutional mechanism to utilize

Afforestation Fund Act afforestation funds.
(CAMPA Act), 2016. • Set up Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management & Planning Authority
(CAMPA) at central & state level.
• Establishes a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account
of India, & a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of
each state.
• The National Fund receives 10% & State Fund gets 90% of funds collected.
• The funds are utilized for afforestation, regeneration of forest ecosystem, wildlife
protection & infrastructure development.
• The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 provides that non-forest land, equal to the
size of the forest being “diverted”, is afforested or money deposited for the same.
71
CHAPTER 8: ENVIRONMENTAL
ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA
72
ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD OF INDIA (AWBI)

• Established in 1962 + HQ: Ballabhgarh in Haryana (earlier based at Chennai).
• Key person: Smt. Rukmini Devi Arundale (also the 1st Chairperson of AWBI).
• AWBI is a statutory advisory body under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 under the Ministry of
Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.
• Functions: Its advices governments on the matters related to Animal welfare + Provides grants to Animal Welfare
Organizations.
CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY (CZA)

• Established in 1992 (HQ: New Delhi)
• CZA is a statuary body + under 1991 Amendment to Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 + under MoEF&CC.
• Objectives: To complement the national effort in conservation of wild life + To maintain Indian Zoos on par with
International standards + Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos.
• The Authority consists: Chairman: Minister of Environment + 10 members & a member Secretary.
FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA (FSI)

• Established in 1981 + HQ: Dehradun in Uttarakhand + under MoEF&CC.
• It started as ‘Pre-Investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR)’ in 1965 before re-organized as FSI in 1981.
• Objective: to conduct survey and assessment of forest resources.
• Forest Survey Report: Released by FSI since 1987, biennially (once in two years).
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (BSI)

• Established in 1890 (under the direction of Sir George King) + HQ: Kolkata + under MoEF&CC.
• BSI is the apex taxonomic research organization of the country.
• Mandate: biosystematics research, floristic studies, documentation of flora, digitization of herbarium specimens, &
advisory services etc.,
• BSI publishes ‘Red Data Book of Indian Plants’.
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (ZSI)

• Established in 1916 + HQ: Kolkata + under MoEF&CC
• Objective: to promote the survey, exploration and research of the fauna.
• The history of ZSI goes back to Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones in 1784.
NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY (NBA)

• Established in 2003 + HQ: Chennai + under MoEF&CC
• NBA is a statutory body under Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• The act was enacted to give effect-to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (India signed it in 1992)
• Mandate: to perform regulatory & advisory functions for the GoI on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological
resources.
• NBA supports creation of State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs).
• Biodiversity Heritage Sites: Notified by State Governments in consultation with local bodies.
WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU (WCCB)

• Established in 2006 + HQ: New Delhi + under MoEF&CC
• WCCB is a statutory body constituted under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (WPA 2006, Amendment).
• Have five regional offices at Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai & Jabalpur.
• Objective: to combat organized wildlife crime
• Additional Director General (Wild Life) is the ex-officio director of the WCCB.
• WCCB is the nodal point for SAWEN (South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network) in India.
73
• WCCB has conducted: Operation Save Kurma, Thunder Bird, Wild-Net, Lesknow, Birbil, Clean Art etc.
• It also assists & advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of flora & fauna as per the provisions
of WPA, CITES & EXIM Policy.
• UNEP has awarded WCCB with ‘Asia Environment Enforcement Awards’ in 2018.
NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECO-SYSTEMS (NPCA)

• NPCA was launched in 2013 by merging National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) and National Wetlands Conservation
Programme (NWCP)
• Objective: Holistic conservation & restoration of lakes, wetlands to enhance water quality besides improving
biodiversity and the ecosystem.
• NPCA is presently operational on cost sharing between Central and respective state governments.
NATIONAL GANGA RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY

• Established in 2009 + HQ: New Delhi + under Ministry of Jal Shakti
• Mandate: Abatement of pollution & conservation of the river Ganga.
• The NGRBA is chaired by the Prime Minister
• Members include: Union Ministers concerned, the Chief Ministers of the States through which Ganga flows.
NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE (NBWL)

• It replaced the ‘Indian Board for Wildlife’, which was formed in 1952 as an advisory board.
• NBWL is a statutory body constituted under the WPA, 1972.
• NBWL Composition: Chair Person: the Prime Minister | Vice-Chair: Minister of Environment | 45 other members
including 19 ex-officio members, 3 MPs (2 from LS & 1 from RS), 5 NGOs.
• Objective: To promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
• It has power to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and sanctuaries.
• No alternation of boundaries in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries can be done without approval of the NBWL
NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION AUTHORITY (NTCA)

• NTCA is a statutory body constituted under the WPA, 1972 (Amendment Act, 2006).
• Chairperson: Minister of Environment.
• It provides statutory authority to Project Tiger.
• Addresses the livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.
• State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under the Chairmanship of respective Chief Minister.
74
CHAPTER 9: INDIAN WILDLIFE

CONSERVATION EFFORT
75
PROJECT TIGER
• Launched in 1973 (from Jim Corbett National Park of Uttarakhand) + Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• Objective: to protect ‘Endangered’ Tiger population from extinction by ensuring a viable population in their natural
habitats.
• Tiger is an Umbrella species.
• The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘Core-Buffer Strategy’.
• Tiger census: conducted once in every 4 years since, 1972.
• Tiger census uses: Pugmark technique, Camera trapping, M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers - Intensive
Protection & Ecological Status) etc.
• India achieved its ‘St. Petersburg declaration’ target by doubling Tiger population (in 2019) ahead of 2022 target
• India it currently houses around 70% of the World’s Tiger population.
• UMBRELLA SPECIES: Protection of these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the
ecological community of its habitat.
• The total count of Tigers has risen to 2,967 in 2018 with an increase of 741
individuals or 33% compared to 2014 census.
TIGER CENSUS 2018 • Top 3 States: Madhya Pradesh - 526 Karnataka -524 & Uttarakhand - 442 Tigers.
• The Census did not record any Tigers in Buxa (West-Bengal), Palamau
(Jharkhand) & Dampa (Mizoram) TRs.
The Global Tiger Initiative • An initiative of the World Bank to bring global partners together to
(GTI) 2008 strengthen Tiger conservation.
The Petersburg Tiger • Leaders of 13 tiger range countries resolved to double Tiger numbers in
Summit in 2010 the wild, with a popular slogan ‘Tx2’.
The 13 Tiger Range • India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,
Countries Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand & Vietnam [all are in Asia]
• CA|TS is a conservation tool that sets best practice & standards to manage
Tigers.
CONSERVATION ASSURED | • Started in 2013 + Implemented by WWF
TIGER STANDARDS [CA|TS] • At present, only 2 sites are CA|TS compliant:
Asia 1. Chitwan National Park in Nepal &
2. Sikhote - Alin Nature Reserve in Russia.
Note: India became the 1st among the 13 tiger range countries to nationally adopt
CA|TS.
• GTF is an inter-governmental international body established in 1993 + HQ: New
GLOBAL TIGER FORUM Delhi
(GTF) • Objective: to protect the Tigers in their habitats.
PROJECT ELEPHANT (1992)

• Launch: 1992 + Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• IUCN status: Asian elephant: Endangered & African elephant: Vulnerable.
• Objectives: to protect elephants, their habitat & corridors + to prevent man-animal conflict + Welfare of captive
elephants.
• It provides financial & technical support to wildlife management efforts by states.
• The Project is being mainly implemented in 16 States: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal.
• Elephants are described as Ecological Engineers" because they create & maintain ecosystems by physically changing
habitats. Elephant society is matriarchal.
76
• EC are narrow strips of land that allow elephants to move from one
habitat patch to another.
ELEPHANT CORRIDORS: • Meghalaya has maximum Intra-state elephant corridors.
• Jharkhand and Odisha share maximum inter-state corridors.
• Maximum International corridors India shares with Bangladesh.
GAJ YATRA • Aims at securing 100 elephant corridors across India.
• It is an initiative of MoEF&CC and the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI).
MONITORING OF • Started in 2003 by CITES.
ILLEGAL KILLING OF • Objective: to measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants.
ELEPHANTS (MIKE)
• Launched by the MoEF&CC and the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) at the
‘HAATHI MERE SAATHI’ Elephant-8 Ministerial meeting Delhi, in 2011.
Campaign • E-8 countries: India, Botswana, Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Sri Lanka,
Tanzania, and Thailand.
VULTURE CONSERVATION
• A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion + live predominantly in the tropics and subtropics.
• Vultures, also known as nature’s cleanup crew.
• Vultures in south Asia, mainly in India and Nepal, have declined dramatically since the early 1990s
• Drug Diclofenac implicated as the main cause of vulture decline. Replaced by Meloxicam.
• Vultures die of kidney (Renal) failure caused by Diclofenac poisoning.
• Approved by National Board for Wildlife (NBWL).
Action Plan for Vulture • To set up Vulture conservation & breeding centers at: Uttar Pradesh, Tripura,
Conservation 2020 -2025: Maharashtra, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu.
• Establishment of at least one Vulture Safe zone in each state.
• Establishment of four rescue centres, in Pinjore (Haryana), Bhopal (Madhya
Pradesh), Guwahati (Assam) and Hyderabad (Telangana).
Vultures found in Out of 23 species of vultures in the world, 9 are found in India. These include:
India 1. White Rumped vulture (CR- Critically Endangered)
2. Slender billed vulture (CR)
3. Long billed vulture (CR)
4. Red headed vulture (CR)
5. Egyptian vulture (Endangered)
6. Himalayan Griffon (NT-Near Threatened)
7. Cinereous vulture (NT)
8. Bearded vulture (NT)
9. Griffon Vulture (Least Concern).
The Vulture • VCBC is a joint project of the Haryana Forest Department & the Bombay Natural
Conservation History Society (BNHS).
• Aims to save the three species of vultures from extinction:
Breeding Centre 1. The White-backed vulture,
(VCBC) 2. Long-billed vulture &
3. Slender-billed vulture.
• VCBC was established in 2001 with the UK Government's 'Darwin Initiative for the
Survival of Species' fund.
INDIAN (ONE HORN) RHINO VISION (IRV) 2020

• Launched in 2005 + supported by WWF India, the International Rhino Foundation (IRF).
77
• Implemented by Assam State Government with the Bodo autonomous council as an active partner
• Aim: to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 one-horned rhinos the Indian state of Assam.
• IUCN: Vulnerable + Schedule -I WPA, 1972.
• NEW DELHI DECLARATION on Asian Rhinos 2019: •
• It was signed on 2nd meeting of Asian Rhino Range Countries
• Objective: to conserve & review the population of the Greater one horned, Javan and Sumatran rhinos every 4 years to
reassess the need for joint actions to secure their future.
• The 5 Asian Rhino range countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
• Note: 3 species of Rhino: Black, Javan, & Sumatran are Critically endangered
PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD (2009)

• Launched in 2009 + IUCN: Vulnerable
• Objective: to safeguard & conserve India’s unique natural heritage of high-altitude wildlife populations.
• Most of the Snow leopards are found in China followed by Mongolia and India.
• The Snow leopard range states / UTs of India: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal
Pradesh and Sikkim.
PROJECT SECURE HIMALAYA (2017)

• Launched in 2017 + By Govt. of India in association with UNDP, the GEF -Global Environment Facility.
• Project duration: 6 years.
• Objective: to secure livelihoods, conserve, restore & sustainably use Himalayan ecosystems.
• Project Implemented in Specific Landscapes:
• Changthang: Jammu and Kasmir
• Lahaul: Pangi and Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh)
• Gangotri: Govind & Darma Byans Valley (Uttarakhand)
• Kanchenjunga: Upper Teesta Valley (Sikkim).
• Also, focused on the protection of snow leopard & other endangered species and their habitats in Himalayas.
PROJECT SEA TURTLE

• Launched in 2005 + by MoEF&CC in association with UNDP.
• Implemented by Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
• Operation Kachhapa:
• Launched in 1998 by WPSI - The Wildlife Protection Society of India.
• Objective: to reduce turtle mortality and try to safeguard the future of the Olive Ridley Sea Turtle.
• The Arribada: Mass nesting of Olive Ridley Sea Turtle.
• Operation save kurma: The operation was conducted to combat the proliferating illegal trade of live turtles and its parts
from the country to destinations abroad.
• FAST FACTS:
• Leatherback sea turtles can travel more than 10,000 miles every year.
• Female turtles lay their eggs at the same beach on which they were born.
• Green turtles can hold their breath for up to 5 hours.
PROJECT CROCODILE
• Launched in 1975 + by GoI in association with UNDP, FAO.
• There are three crocodilians species found in India.
• Objectives:
• To protect the remaining population of crocodilians.
• To enhance their population through ‘rear & release’ technique.
• To promote captive breeding.
• Note: Central Crocodile Breeding & Management Training Institute is located at Hyderabad, Telangana.
78
PROJECT HANGUL (KASHMIR STAG)

• Launched in 1970s + by Govt. of Jammu & IUCN & WWF.
• IUCN status: Critically Endangered.
• It is found in dense riverine forests in the high valleys & mountains of the Kashmir and northern Chamba district in
Himachal Pradesh.
• In Kashmir, it's found in the Dachigam National Park, Rajparian Wildlife Sanctuary, Overa Aru, Sind Valley, Kishtwar
& Bhaderwah.
• Note: Hangul is the only surviving species of the Asiatic member of the red deer family + Hangul society is matriarchal
& only male member has antlers.
CONSERVATION BREEDING PROGRAMME

• This involves the captive propagation of endangered species.
• To help maintain genetic diversity, produce viable individuals to mitigate species' extinction.
• Important ongoing Conservation Breeding Programme in India:
Name of the Species Name of the Zoo
Red panda & Snow leopard Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling
Hoolock gibbon Biological Park, Itanagar
Clouded leopard Sepahijala Zoological Park, Agartala
Indian pangolin Nandankanan Biological Park, Bhubaneswa
Lion-tailed macaque Ariganr Anna Zoological Park, Chennai
Grey jungle fow Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park, Tirupati
Dolphin Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur.
Crocodile Madras Crocodile Bank, Chennai
DOLPHIN CONSERVATION
• National Aquatic Animal: Ganges River Dolphin.
• IUCN status - Endangered + included in Schedule-I of the WPA 1972 + Appendix I of CITES + Appendix II of the
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
• The Ganges River Dolphins can only live in freshwater, are blind and catch their prey using ultrasonic sound waves.
• It makes sound while breathing called the Su-Su.
• Need for conservation: They once lived in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna & Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of
Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, but are now mostly extinct from many of its early distribution ranges.
• In India they are distributes across 7 states: Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and
West Bengal.
SOUTH ASIA WILDLIFE ENFORCEMENT NETWORK (SAWEN)

• Launched in 2011 in Paro Bhutan + Secretariat: Kathmandu, Nepal.
• SAWEN is an inter-government wildlife law enforcement support body of South Asian countries.
• Objective: to promote & co-ordinate regional co-operation for curbing illegal wildlife trade in wild flora and fauna of
South Asia.
• Member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.
• Wildlife Crime Control Bureau is the nodal point for SAWEN in India.
79
CHAPTER 10: CONSERVATION

MEASURES
80
MODES OF CONSERVATION
Ex situ Conservation In-situ Conservation
Conserving biodiversity out from their natural habitat Conserving biodiversity in their natural habitats.
and in special setting.
Example: Zoological park or botanical garden, wildlife Example: National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, reserved
safari parks, Seed banks, horticultural and forests, protected forests, Nature reserves.
recreational gardens.
With the help of advanced techniques threatened species Sacred grooves are also considered as a part of in situ
can be preserved in viable and fertile condition like conservation.
cryopreservation techniques, some other example
includes tissue culture, in vitro
fertilization.
• Natural Extinction of Species: Continent drifting + climate change + tectonic activity + increased volcanic activity +
The late Ordovician global glaciations (439 Mya) + The late Cretaceous extinction assumed to be associated with an
extra-terrestrial impact.
PROTECTED AREAS AS PROVIDED UNDER WPA 1972

PARAMETER WILDLIFE NATIONAL CONSERVATI COMMUNI TIGER
SANCTUARY PARK ON TY RESERVE
RESERVE RESERVE
Year of Wildlife Wildlife Amendment to the Amendment Amendment to the
formation protection Act protection wildlife protection to the wildlife protection act in
(1972) Act (1972) act in 2003 wildlife 2006 provides for
protection statutory authority
act in 2003 known as National tiger
conservation
authority (NTCA)
Declared by State State State State State government on
government by government by government government recommendation of
notification notification after having after having National tiger
consultations consultations conservation authority
with local with local (NTCA)
communities communities
Area Areas that are Areas that are These are areas Any Area if critical tiger
considered to be considered to owned by state community or habitat and peripheral
of adequate be of adequate government private land area for the purpose of
ecological, ecological, adjacent to provided tiger conservation without
geomorphological geomorphologi national parks and members are affecting the rights of
and natural cal and natural sanctuaries for agreeable to STs or other forest
significance significance protecting the offer the land, dwellers.
landscape, it aims to
seascape and improve socio
habitats. economic
conditions of
the people
living in
such areas.
81
Boundary No alternation of No alternation No alternation of

Alteration boundaries in of boundaries boundaries in Tiger
wildlife in National reserve can be done
sanctuaries can be park can be without approval of
done without done without the NTCA.
approval of the approval of the
NBWL (National NBWL
Board of Wildlife)
(National
Board of
Wildlife)
Management Chief wild life Chief wild Conservation Conservati NTCA

warden life warden reserve on reserve
management manageme
committee nt
committee
• Note: National park enjoy greater degree of protection than sanctuaries. Grazing of livestock etc. are prohibited in
national park but they are regulated in sanctuaries. Wildlife sanctuaries can be created for particular species but NP is
not focused on particular species.
NATIONAL WILD LIFE ACTION PLAN

• By Environment Ministry.
• Objective: preservation genetic diversity & sustainable development.
• Plan periods:
• 1983 to 2001 (1st Plan)
• 2002 to 2016 (2nd Plan)
• 2017-2031 (3rd Plan)
• The Third Wildlife Action Plan was drafted by JC Kala committee.
• Salient features:
• This plan recognized the impact of climate change on wildlife for the 1st time.
• Integrates climate change mitigation actions into the wildlife management.
• Special focus on habitat conservation in coastal, marine, & inland aquatic ecosystems and also the recovery of threatened
species.
NATIONAL AFFORESTATION & ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD (NAEB)

• NAEB was set up in 1992 + under the MoEF&CC.
• Purpose: to promote afforestation, ecological restoration and eco-development activities in the country.
• Special attention given to the degraded forest areas and lands adjoining the protected areas as well as the ecologically
fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis, Western Ghats, etc.
JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT (JFM)

• JFM recognizes the importance of local community in managing forest resources.
• It draws its powers from National Forest Policy of 1988 & the Joint Forest Management Guidelines, 1990 of the GoI.
• Under JFM, village communities are entrusted with the protection and management of nearby forests.
• Case study: Joint conservation effort with the nomadic tribe of Maldharis, (in the vicinity of Gir National Park, Gujrat)
has contributed to the improvement of Lion population.
NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION (NBM)
82
• NBM, launched in 2006-07 + under Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), Ministry of
Agriculture.
• It is a centrally Sponsored scheme
• The Mission envisages promoting holistic growth of Bamboo sector.
• Objective: To increase the area under Bamboo plantation in non-forest Government and private lands + To harness the
potential of the Bamboo crop & livelihood development.
ECOMARK
• Launched in 1991 + by the MoEF&&CC.
• It is a voluntary labeling scheme for the identification of environment friendly products.
• Eco mark is administered by BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
• Objective: to create awareness among the consumers towards reducing environment impact.
• It is one of India’s earliest efforts in environmental standards (even before the 1992 Rio Summit)
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & RURAL LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJEC

(BCRLIP)
• Assisted by the World Bank.
• Implemented by State governments + at national level the ‘Conservation and Survey Division’ of MoEF&CC oversees
the project.
• Objective: to conserve Biodiversity in selected landscapes (including wildlife protected areas) & improve rural
livelihood through people participation.
• The BCRLIP is the first national level attempt at linking conservation & local livelihoods on landscape scale.
COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION INDEX (CEPI)

• Developed by the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) in collaboration with IIT Delhi in 2009.
• CEPI is a rational number to characterize the environmental quality at a given location.
• Industrial clusters with:
• CEPI score of 70 & above are identified as Critically Polluted Areas (CPAs).
• CEPI score of above 60 & below 70 are identified as Severely Polluted Areas (SPAs).
LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (L A BL)

• Launched in 2007 by, TERI - The Energy and Resources Institute.
• Aims: to replace kerosene-based lighting with cleaner, more efficient and reliable solar lighting devices in rural areas.
• LaBL works on PPP model.
• Implementing approach includes:
• Fee-for-service model: poor users pay only nominal daily rent.
• Loan finance model: finances to create solar entrepreneurs.
• Apart from India the initiative extended to countries like Afghanistan, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Myanmar
etc.
NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND

• Created in 2010-11 using the Carbon Tax / Clean Energy Cess
• It is a Non lapsable fund + under Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
• Usage of Fund: for funding research and innovative projects (both Public & private sector) in clean energy technologies.
MANGROVES FOR THE FUTURE (MFF)

• Established in 2006 + MFF is a collaborative project developed by IUCN & UNDP.
• It was based on the vision of former US's President Bill Clinton to rebuild the 2004 tsunami-hit areas.
• Objective: to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation for sustainable development.
83
• Member countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, and Viet Nam.
NATIONAL ELECTRIC MOBILITY MISSION PLAN (NEMMP) 2020

• NEMMP is the vision document / roadmap for the faster adoption of Electric Vehicles (EV) & their manufacturing in the
country.
• Government aims to provide fiscal and monetary incentives to kick start this nascent technology.
• As part of the NEMMP 2020, Ministry of Heavy Industries formulated a Scheme viz. Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India) Scheme in the year 2015.
84
CHAPTER 11: ENVIRONMENT

CONVENTIONS
85
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (1972)

• It marked the emergence of international environmental law.
• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created as a result of this conference.
• First conference was held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972.
• Stockholm Declaration
• It set out the principles for various international environmental issues, & the relationship between the environment and
development.
• It is also known as ‘The Declaration on the Human Environment’.
BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION
• Formerly known as the World Commission on Environment & Development (WCED)
• Mission: to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together.
• The Commission was officially dissolved in December 1987 after releasing “Our Common Future”, also known as the
Brundtland Report, in October 1987.
• The document popularized (and defined) the term "Sustainable Development".
RIO EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

• Also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, June
1992.
• Earth Summit was held as a platform for Member States to collaborate in conservation efforts.
• Major Outcomes:
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
• Agenda 21
• Forest Principles
• Outcomes of Earth Summit 1992
• Non legally binding documents
• Rio declaration on environment and development
• Agenda 21
• Forest principles
• Legally binding agreements
• (United nations framework convention on climate change) UNFCCC
• (Convention on biological diversity) CBD
• (United nations conventions to combat desertification) UNCCD
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration):
• The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable development. It was
signed by over 175 countries.
AGENDA 21
• It is a non-binding action plan sourced from Rio Earth Summit, 1992.
• The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
• Objective: to achieve Global sustainable development.
• Since 2015, Sustainable Development Goals are included in the Agenda 2030
FOREST PRINCIPLES
• Also known as Rio Forest Principles, 1992.
• It is a Non-legally binding document on Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forest.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (GEF)

• GEF was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle environmental issues.
• Located in Washington D.C., United States + Parties: 184.
• The GEF is jointly managed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Bank, & United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
86
• As an independent financial organization, GEF provides grants for projects related to:
• Biodiversity,
• Climate change,
• International waters,
• Land degradation,
• Ozone layer,
• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Mercury
• Sustainable Forest management
• Food security,
• Sustainable cities.
• The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following Conventions:
• Stockholm
• UN-FCC
• UN-CBD
• UN-CCD
• Montreal Protocol
• Minamata Convention
• GEF
• Note: Although GEF not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, it
supports implementation of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition.
GEF’ S SMALL GRANTS PROGRAMME (SGP)

• It was launched in 1992 with 33 participating countries.
• It provides financial & technical support to communities and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)
• SGP is specifically designed to mobilize community-led bottom-up approach for Sustainable Development.
• It is currently implemented by UNDP on behalf of GEF.
THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(UNFCC
• UNFCC is an international environmental treaty addressing climate change
• Negotiated & signed at the UN (CED) - Conference on Environment & Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de
Janeiro, June 1992.
• Headquartered: Bonn + into force on 21 March 1994 + Parties: 197
• Objective: To stabilize Greenhouse Gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
• Originally it sets no binding limits on GHG emissions for individual countries & contained no enforcement provisions.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997) was negotiated under this framework.
• COP is the supreme governing body of the UNFCCC
• Climate-Tech Centre Network: is the operational arm of UNFCCC. It promotes transfer of tech for low Carbon &
Carbon resilient development.
KYOTO PROTOCOL
• Was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 at CoP3 of UNFCCC + Came into force by Feb-2005
• Parties: 192 + Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, & the United States are NOT members.
• India ratified the protocol in 2002.
• Protocol aimed to cut emissions of GHGs across the developed world by about 5% by 2012 compared with 1990 levels,
in the 1st commitment period, 2008 to 2012.
• The Kyoto Protocol applies to the 6 GHG listed in Annex A:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
87
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
• Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6).
• It is based on the ‘Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities’.
• Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
• CBDR was formalized in United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro, 1992. The CBDR principle is mentioned in UNFCCC.
• It was the first international legal instrument to address climate change and the most comprehensive international
attempt to address negative impacts to global environment.
• CBDR principle acknowledges all states have shared obligation to address environmental destruction but denies equal
responsibility of all states with regard to environmental protection.
• CBDR is based on relationship between industrialization and climate change.
• The more industrialized a country is, more likely that it has contributed to climate change.
• Classification of Parties:
Annex-I • List of industrialized countries and economies in transition
countries • Compulsory binding targets to reduce GHG emissions
Annex II • A sub-group of Annex 1,
• These countries are required to give financial assistance & technology to Non-annex
countries
Non-Annex • Developing countries like India, Brazil, China.
• No binding targets to reduce GHG emissions
LDCs • Least-developed countries
• No binding targets
• Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two commitment periods:

• 2008 - 2012 and
• 2013 - 2020 (Doha Amendment to the protocol, 2012)
• The second commitment period is a failure, due to non-acceptance of required (144) number of parties.
KYOTO MECHANISM
• Joint Implementation
• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and
• Emissions Trading
• Note: Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with binding limits on GHG emissions.
CoP DESCRIPTION
88
Bali Summit Introduction of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA), to engage developing
COP13 countries in voluntary mitigation effort
Copenhagen • This was the first Climate Agreement which endorsed the 2ºC warming limit as the
Summit COP15 benchmark for global progress on climate change.
• The Copenhagen Accord (2009) abandoned the spirit of the Rio principles & wanted voluntary
GHG reduction targets.
• However, developing countries revolted & Paris Agreement was born out of Copenhagen
and adopted in 2015.
Cancun Summit • Cancun Agreement - all parties to the convention have agreed to report their voluntary
COP16 mitigation goals for implementation.
• Outcome of COP16:
1. Technology Mechanism
2. Green Climate Fund
3. Adaptation Fund
Durban Summit • Second phase of Kyoto Protocol secured
COP17 • Launching the Green Climate Fund
• Adaptation and Transparency mechanism
• Review of Adaptation Fund
Doha Summit Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol to start second commitment period (2013-2020)
COP18
Warsaw • Two important things emerged:
Summit COP19 1. INDC: Intended Nationally determined Contribution
2. REDD+: Reduction in Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
Lima Summit • Both developed and developing countries pledged for Green Climate Fund
COP20 • NAPs- National Adaptation Plans Global Network was launched.
• India communicated its INDC with UNFCCC.
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) are (intended) reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). All countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish their INDCs at the 2013
United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Warsaw, Poland, in November 2013. The term
was intended as a compromise between "quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective"
(QUELROs) and "nationally appropriate mitigation actions" (NAMAs) that the Kyoto Protocol used
to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries. Under the Paris
Agreement, adopted in December 2015, the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC) when a country ratifies the agreement unless it decides to submit a new NDC at
the same time. Once the Paris Agreement is ratified, the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas
targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries
• India’s INDC:
1. Reduce intensity of GDP emission by 33-35% by 2030 below 2005 level.
2. Increase the share of non-fossil fuels-based electricity to 40 per cent by 2030.
3. Total Renewable Energy of 175GW by 2022
4. Increase additional carbon sink of 2.5 - 3 billion tonnes by 2030
Paris Summit • Legally binding International Treaty on Climate Change.
COP21 • It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 & entered into force
on 4 November 2016.
• Goal: to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to
pre-industrial levels.
• It requires all parties to put forward their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) which is
voluntary in nature.
• The agreement talks about 20/20/20 targets, i.e.
89
• CO2 emissions reductions by 20%

• To increase the Renewable energy market share by 20%
• To increase energy efficiency by 20%
• USA announced to withdraw from the deal in 2017.
• Review mechanism - A review every 5 years - first world review will be done by 2023.
Marrakech • Discussed on how to tackle Global Stock take.
Summit COP22 • Parties conducted the first review of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Damage
• Contentious issues:
1. “Orphan” issues on establishing common timeframe for NDCs
2. Whether the Adaptation Fund would continue or not.
Bonn
Summit
COP23
Katowice Summit • UNFCCC’s COP-24, held in Katowice, Poland.

COP24 • Outcome: “Katowice Rulebook” to implement Paris Agreement.
• Parties’ commitment to NDCs was revised and enhanced
• Guidelines for the “global stocktake” pledge-and-review cycle
• Developed countries commitment of $100 billion annually from 2020 to fund climate action
in developing countries
Katowice Rulebook includes:

• The steps that each member nation is required to take to fight global climate change
• It operationalizes the provisions of the Paris Agreement.
• Extends support to developing nations to implement their NDCs.
• The Global Stock Take (GST) to assess the effectiveness of climate action in 2023.
• To assess progress on the development and transfer of technology
• Significance: ensure that each ‘tonne of GHG emissions’ is accounted.
• Issues: Failure to agree common rules on carbon markets and emissions trading.
• Non agreement on general commitment to limit global warming to below 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels.
COP25 • It was originally planned in Brazil but, took place under the Presidency of Chile & held with
Madrid logistical support from the Spain.
• Adopted the “Chile Madrid Time for Action” document.
• Santiago Network was established, as part of the Warsaw International
• Catalyze the technical assistance needed for most vulnerable countries.
• However, No clear timeline was set for nations to enhance their NDCs in 2020.
• Discussion and talks on various issues remain unresolved and have been pushed to COP26 (to be
held in November 2021 at Glasgow). Discussions were held on the following:
• UNEP Annual Report on Emission Gap
90
• Global Carbon Project Report

• IPCC special report on Lands, Oceans and the Cryosphere
• Reiteration of Paris Rachet Mechanism
• Corporate Climate Movement
39 countries committed to include oceans in their NDCs
SANTIAGO Call for Action on Forests:
• Chile as the President of COP 25 of UNFCCC initiated the Santiago Call for Action on forests.
• It states that forests & trees combined with improved land management could provide up to
30% of GHG mitigation needed by 2030 to limit the global average temperature rise below
20C.
• Paris Ratchet Mechanism, also known as the Paris Ambition Mechanism that ensures that member nations reflect and
progress their NDCs by raising ambitions to fight climate change over time.
COP 26 – Achievements and Goals
• The recently held COP26 was widely hyped as the last chance to save the planet. The meeting began with a bang, but
ended on a more modest note. Notwithstanding, it did make some progress even if much less than was needed.
• The summit had to deal with the disturbing prospect that the world was set to reach nearly +3°C by the end of the
century, above the 2015 Paris Agreement target of “well below 2°C" and ideally 1.5°Cabove pre-industrial levels.
• In this global problem of climate change, a much larger role is yet to be fulfilled by the world’s three largest emitters, the
developed nations and undoubtedly India.
Minutes of the Meeting: Achievements & Setbacks
• New Global and Country Targets: The Glasgow Summit has urged countries to consider strengthening their 2030
targets by COP27 to be held in Egypt in 2022.
• The summit targeted global warming not to exceed +1.5°C and got about 140 countries to announce target dates for
bringing emissions down to net zero.
• The achievement is significant as in the Paris Agreement, the developing countries did not agree to reduce emissions but
just the “emissions-intensity" of GDP.
• India has also joined the consensus and announced its net-zero target of 2070.
• This is a step ahead from India’s past position where it never accepted the need to reduce emissions.
• Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda: A potentially important development which emerged out of COP26 (but outside the
COP process) is the Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda endorsed by 42 countries (including India).
• This is a cooperative effort to accelerate the development and deployment of clean technologies and sustainable
solutions in areas such as clean power, road transport, steel and hydrogen.
• Phasing-Down Coal Consumption: Coal is the dirtiest of fossil fuels and an early phasing out of coal is clearly
desirable. European countries have pushed hard for its phase out; however, developing countries have resisted this.
• A middle path, as suggested by India, was referred to at the COP26 calling for a “phase-down" of coal-based power.
• Best Case Scenario: An early assessment by Climate Action Tracker (CAT), an independent organisation, suggests that
the targets declared, if fully achieved, could limit global warming to around +1.8°C.
• However, it also warns that the targets for 2030 are insufficiently ambitious. Unless significantly tightened, the world is
more likely to end up seeing global temperatures rise by 2.1°C to 2.4°C.
• Setbacks of the Meeting:
• Voluntary Targets: The targets set at the meeting are voluntary with no mechanism for enforcement or penalties for
non-compliance. Many targets are conditional on availability of adequate financial support.
• Lack of Specific Details and Actions: Many countries have not provided details on specific actions to be taken which
would determine the actual trajectory to net zero which creates uncertainty about what will be achieved.
• Failure in Securing Climate Finance: The summit’s mild admonition only urges the developed country parties to
scale up their provision of climate finance. It failed to firmly secure funding commitments from developed nations.
• Unequal Distribution of Carbon Budget: The world’s top three largest emitters (China, USA, Europe) which account
for about 30% of the world’s population, would take up 78% of the carbon budget.
• China intends to hit peak emissions only by 2030, before going down to net zero in 2060; it would take up 54% of the
global carbon budget against a global population share of only 18.7%.
91
• The US, with 4.2% of the total population, would take up 14.2% of the budget and Europe, with 6.8%, would take up
9.5%.
• This problem reflects the fact that focusing on net-zero dates does not ensure a fair apportioning of the available
carbon space if the initial position in terms of emissions varies so greatly.
Way Forward
• Suggestions for Largest Emitters: China, instead of increasing emissions up to 2030, as currently declared, may need
to keep them at their current level for a few years and then go down to net zero by 2050.
• The US should achieve a sharper reduction in emissions by 2030, and also advance its net-zero date to 2040.
• Europe as a whole should follow the German/Swedish example and aim at net-zero by 2045.
• With this recalibration, the carbon emissions of this group would fall to 32% of the carbon budget, much closer to their
population share.
• Suggestions for India: India’s 2070 target would take up 18.1% of the carbon space, which is a little higher than
our population share of 17.7%.
• It should be willing to consider a modification in its trajectory as part of an agreed global package, in which other
countries also take appropriate action.
• Coal-Based Power and India: India has made no commitments regarding phasing-down of coal-based power;
however, its renewable energy goals 2030 are likely to reduce the share of the same from current 72% to about 50% by
2030.
• Also, the government shall consider ordering against establishment of any new coal-based plants apart from those
currently under construction.
• What more is needed is a policy of accelerated retirement of older, inefficient and polluting plants, provided suitable
financing can be obtained.
• Encouraging Electric Vehicles (EVs): India’s net-zero by 2070 also requires phasing out petrol and diesel in transport
and shifting to Electric Vehicles (EVs) that use electricity from renewables.
• In order to make the country’s entire fleet emissions-free by 2050, the government may consider announcing against
the sale of fossil fuel based vehicles after 2035.
• This would give the automotive sector about 15 years to restructure its production.
• Need of Policy Changes: Expanding renewable capacity requires policy action aimed at resolving problems such
as stabilizing intermittent supply from renewables, building transmission infrastructure, creating efficient electricity
markets and fixing the financial weakness of India’s discoms.
• These actions are not specified in the Nationally Determined Contributions but will have to be built into the domestic
policy agenda in the years ahead.
Conclusion
• The COP26 of Glasgow is a promising start on emissions reduction, however, on the part of global largest emitters,
much more is expected to be done.
• In India’s context, it needs to work out a detailed plan of action with reference to phasing-down coal-based power
generation and encouraging electric vehicles.
GREEN CLIMATE FUND (GCF)

• It was established under the Cancun Agreement in 2010 by UNFCCC to reduce Green House Gas emission.
• GCF is the dedicated financing vehicle for developing countries
• GCF also finances to Paris Agreement.
• The Fund pays particular attention to Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and
African States.
• GCF launched its initial resource mobilization in 2014.
UN-CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY (UNCBD)

• A legally binding multilateral treaty. Adopted at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, 1992.
• Came into force in 1993 | ratified by 196 nations | Secretariat at Montreal, Canada.
• The USA has signed but not ratified the convention
• It recognized for the first time that conservation of biological diversity is a common concern of humankind.
92
• Objectives:
• Conservation of biological diversity;
• Sustainable use of biological resources ( or its components)
• Fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
• The UN declared 2011 to 2020 as the ‘United Nations Decade on Biodiversity’ in December 2010.
• India enacted ‘Biological Diversity Act’ in 2002, to give effects to the provisions of the CBD.
• The Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM)
• Under CBD, to ensure that all governments have access to the information & technologies they need for their work on
biodiversity.
• CHM serves to:
• Promote & facilitate technical and scientific cooperation within & between countries;
• Develop a global mechanism for exchange & integration of information on biodiversity;
• Develop a Human and Technological network.
• Protocols Related to CBD:
• The Cartagena Protocol on Bio- Safety, 2000
• Nagoya Protocol, 2010
• Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011- 2020)
• Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability & Redress
THE CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIO-SAFETY

• Signed in 2000 at Montreal as supplementary agreement to CBD. It was originally scheduled for 1999, at Cartagena.
• Effective since 2003 | as on 173 parties, India ratified it in 2003.
• Objective: To ensure safe handling, transport and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMO) resulting from modern
Biotechnology.
• Two major components of Cartagena Protocol:
• Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA): ensures that the countries are provided with the information necessary to
make informed decisions before importing LMOs.
• Procedure & Biosafety Clearing House: facilitates the exchange of information on LMOs & to assist countries in the
implementation of the Protocol.
• Note: Protocol's AIA procedure does not apply to:
• LMOs in transit;
• LMOs destined for contained use; LMOs intended for direct use as food or feed or for processing.
NAGOYA PROTOCOL
• Also known as Biodiversity Accord
• It’s a Protocol on access to Genetic Resources and the Fair & Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their utilization
to CBD.
• It was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, & entered into force in 2014.
• The protocol is legally binding & open to only CBD ratified countries (excludes USA, Andorra).
• It does not apply to Human Genetic Material.
• Nagoya protocol’s strategic plan with 20 targets is called “Aichi Target”.
• ‘The Access & Benefit Sharing (ABS) Clearing House’ is a key tool which facilitates the smooth implementation of the
Nagoya Protocol.
AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS

• Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government
and society
• Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
• Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
• Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services
93
• Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity
building
THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION (UNCCD)

• Established under the Rio Conference’s Agenda 21 in 1994 + 197 Parties.
• COP every two year & India hosted the UNCCD’s CoP-14 in 2019.
• UNCCD is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through National Action Programs
(NAP).
• 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts & Desertification”.
• The new UNCCD Strategic Framework 2018-2030, is a comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land Degradation
Neutrality (LDN) aiming at:
• The restoration of productivity of degraded land.
• Enhancing the livelihoods of people dependent on them.
• Mitigating the impact of droughts on vulnerable populations
• It collaborates closely with the other two Rio Conventions: the CBD & the UNFCCC to meet these complex challenges.
• The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in
combating desertification and land degradation.
• In India, the MOEF&CC is the nodal Ministry for this Convention.
• The Holy See is the only state that is not a party to the convention.
• Note: UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable
land management.
T HE 14 TH C ONFERENCE OF P ARTIES (COP) TO UNCCD

• Place: New Delhi, India.
• Theme: “Restore land, Sustain Future”.
• India is the COP president for 2019- 2021 + Took over the COP Presidency from China.
• This adopted the Delhi Declaration in which parties expressed commitment for a range of issues including gender &
health, ecosystem restoration, private sector engagement, Peace Forest Initiative.
I MPORTANT I NITIATIVES I NTRODUCED T HROUGH UNCCD C OPS A RE :

• At COP14, India pledged to restore an additional 5 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, raising the land to be
restored in India to 26 million hectares.
• Ankara Initiative of Turkey: It was introduced through UNCCD COP 12 that reiterated the very purpose of UNCCD &
its objectives.
• Changwon Initiative of the Republic of Korea: It was introduced in COP10 that aims to enhance the scientific process of
UNCCD.
THE BONN CHALLENGE

• The Bonn Challenge is a global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded & deforested landscapes into restoration
by 2020 & 350 million hectares by 2030.
• Launched by the Government of Germany & IUCN in 2011 & later endorsed & extended by the ‘New York Declaration
on Forests’ in UN Climate Summit, 2014.
• It is based on the Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) approach, which aims to restore ecological integrity along with
improving human wellbeing through multifunctional landscapes.
• At UNFCC’s CoP-2015 Paris, India also joined the voluntary Bonn Challenge pledge to bring into restoration 13 million
hectares of degraded & deforested land by the year 2020, and additional 8 million hectares by 2030.
• During the pilot phase of project (initial 3.5 years), it will be implemented in 5 states: Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Nagaland & Karnataka.
REDD AND REDD+ (REDD - R EDUCING E MISSIONS FROM D EFORESTATION AND F OREST
D EGRADATION )
94
REDD REDD+
UN REDD is a flagship partnership of UN between FAO, REDD+ is a political framework under UNFCCC.
UNEP and UNDP.
To protect, manage and save their forest resources, Goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation. Includes
delivering Paris Agreement and SDGs. Conservation, sustainable management of
forests and enhancements of carbon stocks.
It assists the countries to develop the capacities needed to It supports countries that reduce emissions and undertake
develop commitments to meet UNFCCC- sustainable management of forests by
REDD+ commitments giving funds and resources as incentives.
STEPS TAKEN BY INDIA TO UPHOLD REDD AND REDD+

• INDCs under Paris Agreement- to capture 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Carbon dioxide through additional forest and tree
cover by 2030.
• India’s first biennial update report to UNFCCC has revealed that forests in India capture about 12% of India’s total GHG
emissions.
• National REDD+ strategy (complying with the UNFCCC REDD+ decisions)
• ICFRE-ICIMOD’s REDD+ Himalaya: Developing and using experience in implementing REDD+ in the Himalaya
programme
• ICFRE - Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
• ICIMOD - International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
• National Action Plan on Climate Change
• National Afforestation Programme (NAP) scheme
• National Mission for a Green India (GIM)
• Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme (FFPM)
• Hosted COP14 of UNCCD, committed to restore 26 Mha of degraded land (a part of Delhi Declaration)
RAMSAR CONVENTION
• It is an intergovernmental treaty for the conservation & wise-use of wetlands.
• Signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 + into force -1975.
• It is the only global environment treaty dealing with a particular ecosystem.
• It is not affiliated with UNs system of multilateral environmental agreement.
• A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally.
• Wise use is the maintenance of ecological character within the context of sustainable development.
• As of December 2020 there are 42 recognized Ramsar sites in India -the highest in South Asia.
• Chilika Lake (Odissa) is the largest & the Renuka wetland (HP) are the smallest Ramsar Site of India
• Uttar Pradesh has the greatest number of Ramsar Sites in India.
• Most recent additions: Asan Barrage (Uttrakhand), Kabar / Kanwar Taal Lake (Bihar), Sur Sarovar (Agra, UP) & Lonar
Lake (Buldhana, MH).
• The highest number of Ramsar sites is in the United Kingdom & the country with the largest area of listed wetlands is
Bolivia.
THE MONTREUX RECORD

• It is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of international importance where changes in ecological character
have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of human interference.
• It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List, which needs at most priority conservation.
• There are two sites of India listed in Montreux record:
• Loktak Lake (Manipur)
95
• Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan)
CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD

FAUNA AND FLORA (CITES)
• Also known as the Washington Convention
• Objective: to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals & plants does not threaten their survival.
• Drafted in 1963, at IUCN members meet + Came into force by July 1975, currently has 183 Parties. Location: Geneva.
• 1976: India joined the CITES.
• CITES, legally binding but does not take the place of national laws.
• Amendments to the Convention must be supported by a two-thirds majority who are "present and voting".
THE WILDLIFE TRADE MONITORING NETWORK (TRAFFIC)

• TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization working globally on trade in wild animals & plants in the context of both
biodiversity conservation & sustainable development.
• A joint programme of WWF & IUCN + estb. in 1976.
• TRAFFIC is complementary to CITES.
• Objective: is to ensure that trade in wild plants & animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
• It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts & drivers to provide the leading knowledge base on
trade in wild animals & plants.
• Initiatives of TRAFFIC
“Don’t Buy Trouble” • An initiative of TRAFFIC in India.
campaign: • Aim: to send warning message against buying illegal wildlife products.
• Targeted at tourists & other potential buyers of wildlife products.
• Under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 not only the Poacher or Trader of
endangered wildlife, but also the Buyers are also liable for punishment.
"Wanted Alive” campaign: • It is an advertisement campaign designed to remind Asia's Big Cats
conservation. (2012)
• Campaign posters feature the 4 Asian big cats: Tiger, Leopard, Snow
Leopard and Clouded Leopard, all of them threatened by illegal trade in
their body parts.
CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES (CMS) OF WILD

ANIMALS
• It is an international treaty, concluded under the aegis of UNEP, signed in 1979. Also known as The Bonn Convention
• Objective: is to conserve terrestrial, marine & avian migratory species throughout their range.
• It is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats & migration routes.
• Appendix-I: Includes, the threatened migratory species
• Appendix-II: Includes, the migratory species requiring international cooperation.
• CMS: 13th CoP Feb-2020
• Held in Gandhinagar, India + India will host presidency for next 3 years.
• CoP-13 Theme: “Migratory species connect the planet & together we welcome them home”
• Logo: was inspired by the traditional ‘KOLAM’ from Southern India, which has a profound significance in the context
of living in harmony with nature.
• Mascot: The GIBI - Great Indian Bustard (IUCN-Critically Endangered).
• 13th CoP has adopted the Gandhinagar Declaration, which calls for migratory species & the concept of ‘Ecological
Connectivity’ to be integrated & prioritized in the new framework.
• Critically endangered species listed in Pink pages.
• Green pages are used for those species that were formerly endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they are
no longer threatened.
96
• IUCN has observer & consultative status at the United Nations.
GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF)

• Founded in 1993, HQ: New Delhi, India.
• Objective: to address the international issues related to tiger conservation in tiger range countries (TRC).
• The TRC countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malayasia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia,
Thailand, Vietnam and North-Korea.
• GTF is the only intergovernmental organization related to tigers in the World.
• GTF general assembly meets on every three years.
STOCKHOLM CONVENTION
• It is an International treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from 2004.
• Objective: To eliminate or restrict the production & use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (PoPs).
• It is a legally binding on member countries.
• India is a party to this treaty + USA is not a signatory.
• Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) & the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS)
prepared a list, known as the Dirty Dozen:
• There is provision that developed countries provide new & additional financial resources & measures to minimize /
regulate POPs to developing nations.
BASEL CONVENTION
• Aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes.
• Signed in 1989 + entered into force on 5 May 1992 + Parties-187.
• The USA & Haiti have signed the Convention but NOT ratified.
• Its objective was to stop dumping of hazardous waste from developed countries in developing nations.
• It does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
• BASEL CoP-14 (Geneva, 2019) Theme: "Clean Planet, Healthy People: Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste".
• The technical guidelines on e-waste & inclusion of plastic waste in the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure were
decided in CoP-14.
• The Conference kicked off “Super Year for Environment”, and culminates in the UN Biodiversity Conference at the end
of 2020.
• Ten new species were added to CMS Appendices at COP13
• Seven species were added to Appendix-I: Asian Elephant, Jaguar, Great Indian Bustard, Bengal Florican, Little Bustard,
Antipodean Albatross and the Oceanic White-tip Shark.
• Three species were added to Appendix-II: Urial, Smooth Hammerhead Shark & the Tope Shark.
• BASEL BAN AMENDMENT
• It was adopted by the parties to the Basel Convention in 1995.
• This prohibits the export of Hazardous wastes from member states of the European Union, OECD, & Liechtenstein to all
other countries.
• Amendment became international law on the 5th of December 2019.
• Croatia became the 97th country to ratify the ban.
INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITTO)

• ITTO is an intergovernmental organization under the UN.
• Objective: To promote the sustainable management & conservation of tropical forests.
• India is also a member.
UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF)

• It is an Intergovernmental organization, established by the United Nations Economic & Social Council (ECOSOC) in
2000 + HQ: New York, USA.
97
• Objective: to strengthen political commitment to the management, conservation & sustainable development of all types
of forests.
• UNFF is built on the “Forest Principles” together with the Agenda-21 of Rio Earth summit (1992)
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

• IUCN is an international organization works in the field of Conservation &
Sustainable use of Nature & Natural resources.
• Formed in: 1948 + Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland.
• Governments as well as private groups can be members of IUCN.
• It publishes (since 1964) the ‘IUCN Red List of Threatened Species’, which
assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.
ROTTERDAM CONVENTION
• It is a multilateral environmental treaty under UN to promote shared
responsibilities in relation to importation of Hazardous Chemicals + effective
from 2004.
• To achieve its objectives the Convention includes two key provisions:
• Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure &
• Information Exchange Mechanism.
• Creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
• Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure:
• PIC is a mechanism to formally obtain approval & disseminate information on imports of those chemicals listed in
Annex III of the Convention. It also, ensures export compliance with guidelines.
• Information Exchange Mechanism:
• The Convention requires each Party to notify the Secretariat when taking a domestic regulatory action to ban or severely
restrict a Chemical.
INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (IWC)

• International body set up under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICWR)
• Objective: To conserve whale stocks + For orderly development of the whaling industry.
• Signed in Washington DC on 2nd December 1946 + Indi joined in 1981.
• It governs the commercial, scientific, & aboriginal subsistence whaling practices of 59 member nations
• In 1982 the IWC adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling.
• In 2018: Japan pulled out of the IWC to resume commercial whaling.
VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE OZONE LAYER

• It is one of the most successful treaties of all time + ratified by 197 states.
• It is a multilateral environmental agreement that was agreed upon by 1985 & entered into force in 1988 + not legally
binding
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the Ozone layer.
• These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
• It is a protocol to Vienna Convention and it deals with the substances that deplete the Ozone Layer. (ozone depleting
substance-ODS)
• It was first treaty to achieve universal ratification.
• The protocol recognizes that all nations should not be treated equally.
KIGALI AGREEMENT (2016)

• On 1st January 2019, the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol came into force.
98
• This amends 1987 Montreal Protocol to reduce the use of HFCs (a family of potent GHG) by more than 80% by late
2040s.
• It is a legally binding international agreement
• Note: Though HFCs are not ODS they are included in Montreal Protocol through Kigali agreement due to their Global
Warming potential.
• India recently achieved complete phase out of ozone depleting HydroChloroFluoro Carbons (HCFC- 141b). Also, India
proactively phased out production & consumption of CFCs in 2008 before the timeline.
HELSINKI PROTOCOL, 1985

• Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions.
MINAMATA CONVENTION ON MERCURY

• The Convention was signed at Minamata, Japan in 2013 & entered into force in 2017.
• It is an UNEP led international treaty designed to protect Human health and the Environment from anthropogenic
emissions & releases of Mercury and Mercury compounds.
• India ratified it in 2018.
• Mercury is recognized as a substance producing significant adverse neurological & other health effects, with particular
concerns expressed about its harmful effects on infants and unborn children.
• Purpose of GIAHS is to create public awareness, safeguard world agricultural heritage sites.
• It was started in 2002 by UN-FAO (Food & agricultural organization).
• GIAHS are outstanding landscapes of aesthetic beauty that combine agricultural biodiversity, resilient ecosystems & a
valuable cultural heritage.
• They sustainably provide multiple goods & services, food & livelihood security for millions of small-scale farmers.
• GIAHS constitute the foundation for contemporary and future agricultural innovations and technologies.
• Three regions of India which has been recognized as the GIAHS:
• Koraput Traditional Agriculture, Odisha State
• Saffron heritage of Kashmir Valley, Pampore region
• Kuttanad below Sea level farming system.
GREEN AGRICULTURE PROJECT - I NDIA

• Joint project of Ministry of Agriculture & the UN-Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), funded by the Global
Environment Facility (GEF).
• Aims to integrate Biodiversity, Climate Change & Sustainable Land Management objectives and practices into Indian
Agriculture.
• Implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture, MoEF&CC & the FAO,
• Pilot phase of the project conducted in Mizoram, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Uttarakhand.
GLOBAL ALLIANCE FOR CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE (GACSA)

• GACSA is an inclusive, voluntary & action-oriented multi-stakeholder platform on Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA).
• CSA was developed by ‘Food and Agriculture Organization’ of the UN (FAO).
• GACSA was launched in September 2014 in the margins of the UN Climate Summit.
• The GACSA alliance is made up of a diverse set of members that includes governments, NGOs, intergovernmental
organizations.
99
CHAPTER 12: CLIMATE CHANGE &

MITIGATION STRATEGIES
100
• Climate - condition of temperature, humidity, pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements on the Earth's
surface for a long time.
• Climate change is an old phenomenon. But currently considered as alteration in climatic conditions due to anthropogenic
processes resulting in change of the global atmosphere.
GLOBAL WARMING
• Global warming – “Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse
effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
• Reasons: Greenhouse gases released + Fossil fuels combustion + Deforestation + Agriculture & livestock.
GREEN-HOUSE EFFECT
• A naturally occurring phenomenon that blankets earth’s lower atmosphere and warms it, maintaining temperature
suitable for living things to survive.
• They balance cooling and warming of the earth.
• In the absence of this, earth surface temperature would be -19 degrees Celsius instead of current 15 degrees Celsius.
• Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions upset the natural balance & lead to increased warmth.
GAS NATURAL HUMAN- REMOVAL GLOBAL ATM. LIFETIME

SOURCE INDUCED WARMING (YRS)
SOURCE POTENTIAL
WATER Evaporation from Humans not --- --- ---
VAPOUR oceans etc. directly
Biggest responsible
contributor Amount of vapour
in air related to
CO2 and other
amount of other
GHGs present
greenhouse gases increase
present wate
r vapour in air
CARBON Ocean exchange, Combustion of Reduce fossil fuel 1 50 - 200
DIOXIDE Animal/human fossil fuels, usage
(CO2) respiration, Soil Industrial
Primary GHG respiration, emissions, Carbon
Volcanic Chemical & sequestration
eruptions
and mineral reactions
Wildfires
101
METHANE Wetlands, Agriculture, Reduce waste 21 10-15

(CH4) (largest) Oceans, Industries,
Volcanic Landfills,
eruptions and Waste water
Wildfires
NITROUS Earth’s nitrogen Agriculture, Absorbed by certain 310 120
OXIDE (N2O) cycle Transportation, bacteria
Fossil fuel,
Bacteria combustion Destroyed by UV
breaking it down During production rays or chemical
in soils and of nitric acid reactions
oceans
FLUORINATE D --- Aluminium & Destroyed by ● HFC - HFC - 1.5 to
GASES: semi-conductor sunlight in far upper 150 to 209
1)Hydrofluoroc manufacturing atmosphere 11,70 PFC - 2,600 to
Refrigerants, 0
Aerosol, ● PFC -
propellants, 6,500 to
arbons-HFCs. Fire retardants, 9,200 50,000
2)Perfluorocar Magnesium ● SF6 - SF6 - 3,200
processing, 23,900
bons-PFCs Circuit breakers
3)Sulphur
Hexafluoride -
SF6
GREEN HOUSE GASES (GHG)

• Natural as well as anthropogenic gaseous constituents of the atmosphere which absorb and re-emit infrared radiations.
• 2 important characteristics of GHGs are:
• How well the gas absorbs energy
• How long the gas stays in the atmosphere.
• Global Warming Potential (GWP) for gases is the total energy that the gas absorbs for a certain period of time, mostly
100 years. GWP always compared to CO2 as its GWP is ‘1’ and is baseline.
• CFCs, HFCs, HCFCs and SF6 are called high-GWP gases because they trap more heat that CO2.
• BLACK CARBON: Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels + Inorganic + Contains soot (jet black colour) + Cause
respiratory disorders + Absorbs visible sunlight + Found in vehicular emissions.
• BROWN CARBON: Combustion of biomass + Organic + Brown colour + Causes respiratory diseases + Absorbs
Ultraviolet part of sun’s rays + Ground level ozone, found in smog.
Radiative • Change in earth's energy balance due to alterations in climate
Forcings • Positive forcing - increases temperature
• Negative forcing - reduces temperature
Natural Forcings • Changes in amount of energy emitted by sun.
• Very slow variations in earth orbit
• Slight increase in solar energy since industrial revolution
Human-Induced • Due to greenhouse gases and aerosol emissions from fossil fuels
Forcings • Modification of land surface due to deforestation, agricultural use, etc.
Human-Generated • Have warming effect, i.e. Positive climate forcing
Greenhouse Gases • Largest climate forcing agent is co2 emitted from combustion of fossil fuels
Human-Generated • Burning fossil fuels adds aerosols to atmosphere
Aerosols • Aerosols include water, ice, mineral dust, ash or acidic droplets
• Aerosols have cooling effect
• Aerosols deflect sun's energy & affect formation & life of clouds
102
CLIMATE FORCING
• Climate forcing is the physical process of affecting the climate on the Earth through a number of forcing factors.
• Positive forcing: GHGs warm the earth
• Negative forcing: Aerosols & volcanic eruptions cool the earth.
TYPES:
• Natural forcing - do not harm climate or cause drastic global temperature variations.
• Human-made forcing - GHGs, aerosols, etc.
RECEDING GLACIERS - A SYMPTOM OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

• Arctic Pole - Black line indicates spread of ice-sheet in the 20th century. It is evident that the glaciers have been
receding ever since and melted ice is the result of the rising ocean levels.
• Scientists predict that by 2030, more glaciers will have melted resulting in potential threat to aquatic as well as
terrestrial ecosystems.
• Climate change
• Temperature fluctuations
• Impact on water supply
• Droughts/ Agricultural losses
• Loss of biodiversity
• Include impact on agriculture, reduced food security, health, pests and disease burden increase such as dengue, Malaria,
atmospheric circulation (cyclones in Arabian sea), monsoon patterns, changing ecosystems (forest fires etc), impact on
oceans, economic losses etc.
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
• Carbon sequestration is a process to capture and store CO2 to curb global warming. It is captured from the air, industries
or power stations and stored permanently underground. This promotes:
• Long-term reserve of CO2 or forms of carbon to control temperatures.
• Lowering of amount of GHGs present in air due to combustion of fossil fuels.
• 3 main steps to Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
• Trapping & separating CO2 from other gases Transporting captured CO2 to storage location Storing CO2 far from
atmosphere, either in deep ocean or underground.
• Types of CO2 Sequestration
Ocean sequestration ● Through direct injection or fertilization
Geological sequestration ● Natural pore spaces in geological foundation
● Has largest potential
Terrestrial sequestration ● Stored in soils and vegetation through decomposed matter &
photosynthesis respectively.
• Geological sequestration trapping mechanism
Hydrodynamic ● Trapped as gas under low-permeability cap rock
trapping ● Combines with solubility trapping
Solubility Trapping ● Dissolved in oil, water, etc.
● Combines with hydrodynamic trapping
Mineral carbonation ● Forms stable compounds like iron, calcium by reacting with minerals/organic
matter
• Sinks
• Carbon sequestration is carried out by pumping carbon into ‘carbon sinks’
• This is an age-old process. Only recently, these sinks are also being used for capturing carbon for environmental reasons.
• NATURAL SINKS: Oceans, forests, soil, mangroves etc.
• ARTIFICIAL SINKS: Depleted oil reserves, un-mineable mines etc.
C ARBON SINKS (G REEN AND B LUE )

GREEN CARBON BLUE CARBON
103
Removed by photosynthesis Removed by tidal marshes, mangroves, seagrass

Stored in plants & soil Stored in marine organisms, plants & sediments
Forests accumulate large amounts of carbon Coastal ecosystems accumulate large amounts of
carbon, 5 times more than forests
Afforestation and reforestation can enhance it Found in all continents except Antarctica
T HE B LUE C ARBON I NITIATIVE

• Conservation International (CI), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the
Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO has collaborated with governments and organisations across
the world to develop mechanisms for ensuring coastal Blue Carbon ecosystems.
• It also comprises:
• Engagement of local, national and international organisations
• Comprehensive methods for carbon accounting
• Incentive mechanism
• Scientific research for climate mitigation
CARBON CREDIT
• A Carbon Credit is a tradable permit that certifies the right to
emit 1 ton of CO2 or its equivalent.
• How does this help?
• As per gas emissions norms laid down by signatories of the
Kyoto Protocol under UNFCCC, companies have two ways
to reduce emissions:
• Reduce GHGs by adopting new technologies.
• Connect with developing countries to set up eco- friendly
technology to earn credits. This credit becomes permit for
company to emit GHGs in its own country.’
• Status of developing nations
• India and China are biggest sellers. Europe biggest buyer.
• China is leading with 73% of market share, whereas India is second at 6%.
• India’s Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX) has become 1st exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits.
CARBON OFFSETTING
• Credits for reductions in greenhouse gases made at another
location.
• Sold in metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.
• Fastest way to achieve deepest reductions in business dealings.
• Provide employment opportunities, community development
programmes, training, education.
• Must meet essential quality criteria.
• Cannot be double-counted.
GLOBAL CARBON EMISSIONS IN VARIOUS SECTORS

SECTOR % OF EMISSIONS
Agriculture & land use 24
Power 25
Buildings 6
Industry 21
Transport 14
104
Other 10
2.5 CARBON TAX

• A carbon tax - levied on carbon content of fuels, generally in transport and energy sector. Carbon taxes intend to:
• Reduce CO2 by increasing price of fossil fuels.
• Decreasing the demand of CO2
• Promote a form of carbon pricing
GEO - ENGINEERING
• Geo-engineering is a technology that strives to modify, improve and cool the earth’s environment. The concept is still in
its nascent stage.
• Ideas under this technique and how it works
Copy a volcano • By infusing atmosphere with sulphur-dioxide gas through volcanic eruption,
scientist believe it will block solar radiation and cool the planet
• Sulphur doesn't heat stratosphere and has cooling effect
Shoot mirrors into space • To deflect sunlight and bring earth's temperature back to pre-industrial levels
• Mirrors (size of Greenland) to be positioned between the planet and the sun
Seed the sea with iron • Phytoplankton prefer iron

• Iron pulls carbon out of atmosphere during photosynthesis
• Scientists believe stimulating phytoplankton growth will reduce global
warming potential
Whiten clouds with wind- • Cloud tops reflect solar radiation
powered ships • Spraying sea-water into the sky through wind-powered ships will whiten clouds
thus increasing reflection of solar radiation.
Build fake trees • 'Artificial tree' is capable of capturing 1 ton of carbon in atmosphere per day
• Panels of absorbent resin on tree surface react with CO2 to form a solid
• Can compare this to a furnace filter.
105
CHAPTER 13: CLIMATE CHANGE

ORGANISATIONS
106
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (GEF)

• It is a unique partnership of multi agencies including UN agencies, multilateral development banks, national entities and
international NGOs. The GEF Trust fund (World Bank as Trustee) is available to developing countries and countries
with economies in transition.
• It was established on the eve of 1992 Rio Earth Summit to tackle the planet’s biggest environmental issues.
• It is a financial mechanism for five major international environmental conventions:
• Minamata Convention on Mercury
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
• UN Convention on Biological Diversity
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA)

• CSA is an approach for developing agricultural strategies to secure sustainable food security in changing climate.
• To balance near term food security livelihood needs a climate change mitigation and adaptation.
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA)

• IPCC is the UN body, established by the UNEP and WMO in 1988, for assessing science related to climate change.
• OBJECTIVE: To provide governments at all levels with scientific information that can be used to develop climate
policies
• It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate related data.
• Reports published by IPCC: Assessment Report (AR) about the state of scientific, technical and socio-economic
knowledge on climate change. Assessment report consists of:
• Contributions from each working group
• Synthesis report
• Any Special reports prepared in that assessment years
• IPCC has so far published 5 Assessment Reports, currently preparing its 6th Assessment Cycle.
• The three Special Reports and Methodology Report (of 6th assessment cycle) have already been produced.
• Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5ºC
• Special Report: Climate Change and Land (SRCCL)
• Special Report: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC)
• Methodology Report: 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
CONCEPT OF GREEN ECONOMY

• Green Economy is defined as low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive. In a green economy, growth in
employment and income are driven by public and private investment into such economic activities, infrastructure and
assets that allow:
• Reduced carbon emissions and pollution
• Enhanced energy and resource efficiency
• Prevention of the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• Green Economy focuses on:
• Economy and Investment + Positive social and environmental outcomes + Sustainable consumption and production +
Employment and skills + Capital and Infrastructure
GLOBAL CLIMATE FINANCE ARCHITECTURE

• SCCF was established in response to guidance from the COP7 to finance projects relating to –
• Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF):
• Adaptation, Technology transfer and Capacity building
• Energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry, waste management and economic diversification.
• Operating entity: Global Environment Facility (GEF)
107
• It is open to all vulnerable developing countries

• Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF):
• It was designed to address the special needs of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) under the UNFCCC.
• It helps LDCs in preparing and implementing National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPAs)
• NAPAs - They are country-driven strategies that identify the most immediate needs (such as water, agriculture, food
security, health etc.) to adapt to climate change.
• Operating entity: GEF
• Strategic Priority on Adaptation Program (SPA)”
• SPA sought to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience to the adverse effects of climate change by targeting each of
the GEF focal areas.
• Besides, it also encouraged cross-sectoral approaches - Biodiversity + Climate change + Ozone layer depletion +
International waters + Land degradation.
CLIMATE INVESTMENT FUND (World Bank as Trustee):
• It is implemented with the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) to bridge the financing and learning gap.
• It is additional to existing Official Development Assistance and aims to enable countries to meet their multi-lateral
development goals.
• 2 types: Clean Technology Fund and Strategic Climate Fund
GREEN CLIMATE FUND:
• It is a financial instrument under UNFCCC, discussed in Cancun Summit 2010 and finally adopted in Durban Summit
2011.
• GCF’s activities are aligned with the priorities of developing countries through the principle of country ownership.
• It aims to make an ambitious contribution to attaining the mitigation and adaptation goals of the international
community.
ADAPTATION FUND (AF):
• It was established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are vulnerable to
adverse effects of climate change.
• AF-funded projects are implemented around the world through accredited implementing entities.
• Established under the Kyoto Protocol of UNFCCC.
• Capacity Building Initiative for Transparency(CBIT):
• It was created at the request of Parties to help strengthen the institutional and technical capacities of non-Annex I
countries to meet the enhanced transparency requirements defined in Article 13 of the Paris Agreement.
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION (WMO)

• It is a specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology (weather and climate), hydrology and related
geophysical sciences.
• Established by: the ratification of the WMO Convention on 23rd March 1950 + Secretariat: Geneva, headed by the
Secretary-General + Supreme Body: World Meteorological Congress (WMC).
• WMO REPORT: State of Global Climate Report 2020.
• Hottest Year: 2020 will be one of the three hottest years just behind 2016 and 2019.
• Rise in Global Temperature: The global mean surface temperature for January-October 2020 was 1.2 degree Celsius
higher than the pre-industrial baseline (1850-1900). For that period, 2020 is the second- warmest year on record.
• High Temperature over Ocean Surfaces: 80% of ocean areas have experienced at least one marine heat wave (MHW) so
far in 2020.
• Global sea-level rise was also similar to 2019 value. This was mainly due to the increased melting of the ice sheets in
Greenland and Antarctica.
• Consequences: Extreme weather events such as tropical cyclones, floods, heavy rainfall and droughts were the
consequence of global warming that impacted many parts of the world.
UNDP-UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

• It is a UN’s global development network which promotes technical and investment cooperation among nations to help
people build a better life for themselves.
108
• Parent organisation: United Nations Economic and Social Council + Headquarter: New York + Founded: 1965
• Sector: Development and Poverty Reduction
• Report: Human Development Report
UNEA-UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT ASSEMBLY

• UNEA is the governing body of UN Environment Program + Headquarter - Nairobi, Kenya + Founded - Junen 2012,
during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also referred to as RIO+20.
• It is the world’s highest-level decision-making body on the environment.
• It addresses the critical environmental challenges facing the world today.
• The Environment Assembly meets biennially to set priorities for global environmental policies and develop international
environmental law.
UNEP-UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

• It is the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system.
• Founded - 5th June 1972 (Environment Day) + Founder - Maurice Strong + Headquarter - Nairobi, Kenya + Initiative -
Faith for Earth Initiative
• Mission - “To encourage, empower and engage with faith-based organizations as partners, at all levels, toward achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals and fulfilling the 2030 Agenda.”
• Report - Emission Gap Report, Global Environment Outlook.
109
CHAPTER 14: CLIMATE CHANGE AND

INDIA
110
INDIA’S POSITION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• India is world’s third largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHGs), after China and the US.
• Major sources of emissions - Coal power plants, rice paddies, cattle.
• Per-capita emissions remain below global average.
• Displacement and extinction of animal population due to habitat loss adds more species to ‘threatened’ and ‘extinct’ list.
• Spread of diseases like malaria, etc. puts stress on health sector.
• The country has pledged a 33-35% reduction in the “emissions intensity” of its economy by 2030, compared to 2005
levels.
• Increase tree cover to create an additional cumulative carbon sink of 2,500-3,000Mt CO2 by 2030.
• India also aims to install 5GW of offshore wind by 2022 and 30GW by 2030. None has yet been installed.
• The country could integrate 390GW of low-cost wind and solar generation into its grid by 2030, according to the
Climate Policy Initiative (CPI).
• India’s climate pledge notes that around 70% of its population depends on traditional biomass energy, which is
inefficient and causes high levels of indoor air pollution.
• India is targeting 10GW of such bioenergy by 2022.
• India has around 4.5GW of small hydro plants (below 25MW), against a 5GW target for 2022.
CURRENT ACTIONS FOR ADAPTATION & MITIGATION

• Adaptation:
• Actions taken to reduce negative consequences of climate changes.
• E.g. Switching to drought-resistant crops, creating coastal buffer zone, early warning system, etc.
• Mitigation:
• Actions taken to lower Greenhouse Gas (GHG) concentrations.
• Eliminate emissions at source.
• E.g. Wind farms, afforestation, energy-efficient vehicles, sequestering GHGs etc.
NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE (NAPCC)

• Launched in 2008. Outlines existing and future policies and programs addressing climate change. Plan identifies 8 core
national missions. 9th mission recently added.
• National Solar Mission:
• To promote development & use of solar energy for power generation & other uses.
• Inaugurated in 2010 with a target of 20GW by 2022. Later increased to 100 GW in 2015.
• MNRE has proposed to achieve 60 GW from large and medium scale solar projects, and 40 GW through rooftop solar
projects.
• Committed to Nationally Determined Contributions (Paris Accord), India made a pledge that by 2030, 40% of installed
power generation capacity shall be based on clean sources.
• It was determined that 175 GW of renewable energy capacity will be installed by 2022.
• This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5 GW from small hydro power.
• India is at 5th global position for overall installed renewable energy capacity.
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE):
• NAPCC recognizes energy efficiency as an important lever to address the issue of climate change. The
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is aimed to promote the market for energy efficiency by
fostering innovative policies and effective market instruments. The Energy Conservation Act led to the creation of a
statutory body, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) with dedicated powers and responsibilities to promote energy
efficiency and conservation in different sectors of the economy. The Ministry of Power, Government of India through
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), looks over the progress of the NMEEE mission.
• Mandating energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries with trade of energy-saving certificates.
• Energy incentives, including taxes on energy efficient appliances.
• 4 new initiatives under this:
111
Perform Achieve & Market Transformation Energy Efficiency Framework for Energy
Trade (PAT) for Energy Efficiency Financing Platform Efficient Economic
(MTEE) (EEP) Development (FEEED)
Assigning energy Promoting adoption of Catalyzing the finances for To protect the confidence of
reduction targets to large energy efficient equipment energy efficiency sector by banks and investors in energy
energy intensive industries and appliances through addressing the barriers and efficiency projects and to
and distributing innovative business models. challenges in market avoid the stalling of projects
EnergySaving Certificates development and project due to lack of funds.
(ESCerts) on achievement of implementation.
the targets.
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat:
• To promote energy efficiency as core component of urban planning. Extending existing Energy Conservation Building
Code
• Waste management, recycling, including power production from waste. Incentives to use public transport.
• Use of automotive fuel economy standards & pricing measures.
• National Water Mission
• To ensure integrated water resource management helping to conserve water, minimize wastage and ensure more
equitable distribution both across and within states.
• Ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling.
• Ensure that the water requirements of coastal cities are met through modern desalination technologies.
• Increase storage both above and below ground, rainwater harvesting.
• National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystems
• To conserve biodiversity, forest cover & study traditional societies where global warming has resulted in receding of
glaciers. Building human & institutional capacities.
• Network knowledge systems & develop coherent database.
• Detect & decouple natural & anthropogenic global environment changes.
• National Mission for a Green India:
• Aims at protecting; The mission has a cumulative target of increasing forest cover on 5 million hectares of land while
improving the forest cover on additional 5 hectares The scheme also has an important goal of fulfilling India's Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC) target of sequestrating 2.5 Billion tonnes of "Carbon emissions" by 2020-30, which it
submitted to UNFCCC
• Goals include afforestation of 10 million hectares of land, expanding forest cover from 23% to 33%.
• Increase forest-based livelihood income of about 3 million households.
• Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tons in the year 2020.
• Eco-restoration of shifting cultivation areas, cold deserts, mangroves, ravines and abandoned mining areas.
• Increase wage labour opportunities during the lean agriculture season, especially communities living in remote forest
areas.
• A sub-mission on Cold Dessert Ecosystems under this mission is ‘National Sea buckthorn Initiative’ launched by MoEF
& DRDO to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• Sea buckthorn, popularly known as Leh berries, called the “Wonder plant” and “Ladakh gold” has medicina properties &
prevents desertification.
• National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
• Aim: to develop climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance & agricultural practices especially in rain-fed
areas.
• 60% of the country’s net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.
• Promote ‘laboratory to land’ research through model village & farm units.
• Link panchayat-level Automatic Weather Station Networks to existing insurance mechanisms.
• Key dimensions by NMSA: Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures + Water Use Efficiency + Pest
Management + Improved Farm Practices + Nutrient Management + Agricultural insurance + Credit support + Markets +
Access to Information + Livelihood diversification + Soil Health Management (SHM) - Soil Health Card Scheme.
• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
112
• Formation of knowledge networks among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in research and development
relating to climate science.
• Research networks in the areas of climate change impacts on important socio-economic sectors like agriculture, health,
natural ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.
• Data sharing & exchange through policy framework & institutional support.
• Strengthen indigenous capacity build partnerships through global collaboration.
NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM)

• In partnership with MoEFCC, funded by Global Environment Facility, the project aims to enable India undertake
activities to prepare its Third National Communication to the UNFCCC according to the guidelines provided by the
Conference of Parties (COP).
• Practice of creating structures & using processes that are environmentally responsible & resource-efficient throughout a
building’s life-cycle from design to construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, deconstruction.
• Designed to reduce overall impact of built environment on human & environmental health.
GRIHA - GREEN RATING FOR INTEGRATED HABITAT ASSESSMENT

• Conceived by TERI (The Energy & Resources Institute), developed by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy.
• Rating tool that helps assess ecological impact of building against nationally acceptable benchmarks.
• Objective - to help evaluate ‘greenness’ of buildings.
• Benefits of GRIHA buildings: Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the comfort levels + Reduced
destruction of natural areas, habitats, and biodiversity, and reduced soil loss from erosion etc. + Reduced air and water
pollution (with direct health benefits) + Reduced water consumption + Limited waste generation due to recycling and
reuse + Reduced pollution loads + Increased user productivity + Enhanced image and marketability.
NATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (NICRA)

• Launched by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 2010-2011.
• Objective - To primarily enhance resilience of crops, livestock & fisheries through development of production & risk
management.
• Project components: Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation + Technology demonstration on farmers’ fields to
cope with current climate variability + Sponsored and competitive research grants to fill critical research gaps +
Capacity building of different stake holders.
BSE - GREENEX
• 25th dynamic index hosted on the Bombay Stock Exchange; it is India’s first carbon-efficient live index developed by
BSE in collaboration with IIM Ahmedabad in 2012.
• India’s first objective green equity index to employ index constituent weight capping.
• G-Trade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited has co-developed with BSE.
• The index seeks to assess and quantify the energy efficiency of firms, based on energy and financial data.
• It follows a sector-specific algorithm whereby a firm’s performance is measured in comparison to others in the same
sector.
• The index carries weight for two major criteria that together indicate long-term sustainability of businesses
• Energy efficiency measured by gauging reduction in the amount of energy consumed, reduced wastage, renewable
energy adoption and costs incurred on energy.
• Profitability
FAME - INDIA PROGRAMME

• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 is a National Mission document providing the vision and the
roadmap for the faster adoption of electric vehicles and their manufacturing.
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India), 2015
• By Department of Heavy Industry to promote manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle technology under NEMMP
2020.
113
• 1st Phase of FAME India Scheme was implemented in 2015 through four focus areas: Demand Creation + Technology
Platform + Pilot Project + Charging Infrastructure
FAME INDIA SCHEME PHASE II - 2019-2020

• Aims to generate demand by way of supporting 7000 e-Buses, 5 lakh e-3 Wheelers, 55000 e-4 Wheeler Passenger Cars
(including Strong Hybrid) and 10 lakh e-2 Wheelers
• Applicable mainly to vehicles used for public transport or those registered for commercial purposes in e-3W, e-4W and
e-bus segments
• Privately owned registered e-2Ws also covered under the scheme
• Construction of electric charging stations to be carried out.
LONG TERM ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES (LTEO)

• Under ‘Climate Change Action Programme’.
• A science plan of LTEO was released during 21st COP to the UNFCCC at Paris in December 2015.
• 1st phase includes health assessment of: Western Himalaya + Eastern Himalaya + North-Western Arid Zone + Central
Indian Forests + Western Ghats + Andaman & Nicobar Islands + Jammu & Kashmir +Sundarbans
• Aims to understand biophysical & anthropogenic drivers in select biomes & effects on socio-ecological responses.
• Activities include assessment of change of structure & function in natural ecosystems, monitoring population of species,
animal movements, soil processes, biophysical variables, etc.
N ATIONAL A DAPTATION F UND F OR C LIMATE C HANGE (N AFCC )

• Introduced in 2015-16. Was to be revised in 2020.
• Fund meant to assist national & state level activities for areas vulnerable to climate change.
• Central Sector Scheme with NABARD as National Implementing Entity.
• Aim - Support adaptative activities which are not covered under ongoing government schemes.
6 TH M ASS E XTINCTION D UE T O C LIMATE C HANGE

• The Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction, is an ongoing
extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch.
• Human beings are causing this event on the planet.
• It’s irreversible - the researchers have found that populations on the brink go extinct 94% of the time.
• Ways to control mass extinction: Scientists propose classifying all species with less than 5000 individuals as critically
endangered on the IUCN list + Implement a global comprehensive binding agreement requiring parties to address the
extinction crisis + Tackling the illegal and legal wildlife trade + Stop the land-grabbing and devastating deforestation.
• Causes of extinction: Increasing population and consumption rates + Meat consumption, overhunting, overfishing, and
ocean acidification and the decline in amphibian populations + Breakage of food web/species links + Population boom
of urchins on kelp forests in the Bering sea, leading to the extinction of the kelp-eating steller’s sea cow + Massive
volcanic eruptions, depletion of ocean oxygen or collision with an asteroid.
114

Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environment and Ecology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Website: www.civilstaphimachal.

com Call @7814622609

Environment & Ecology

CHAPTER 1: ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM ....................................... 9

Coral Reefs And Related Issues ...................................................................................................................................... 33

The Air (Prevention & Control Of Pollution) Act 1981 ................................................................................................... 56

Forest Survey Of India (Fsi) ........................................................................................................................................... 73

United Nations Conference On The Human Environment (1972) .................................................................................... 86

Green Agriculture Project - India .................................................................................................................................... 99

6th Mass Extinction Due To Climate Change .................................................................................................................... 114

CHAPTER 1: ECOLOGY, ECOSYSTEM AND

MAJOR ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Light For Plants: Photosynthesis + Photoperiodic requirement for flowering.

• How do organisms adapt?

MAJOR BIOTIC COMPONENTS

COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

Type Sp.1 Sp. 2 Examples

incubate them E.g. Koel

CHAPTER 2: TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

TYPES OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

TYPES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM:

• Natural vegetation/Flora: Consists mostly of conifers- evergreen;

• Flora: Diverse Angiosperms and relatively few Gymnosperms. Besides,

TYPES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM

ADAPTATIONS OF DESERT VEGETATION:

• Extensive root system to tap underground water

ADAPTATIONS OF DESERT ANIMALS:

INDIAN STATE OF FOREST REPORT, 2019 (16TH REPORT IN THE SERIES)

I NDIA S TATE OF F OREST R EPORT -2021

CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

• An ecosystem in a water body is called aquatic ecosystem.

Neuston Periphyton Plankton Nekt Benthos

• Factors limiting productivity of Aquatic Habitats:

• Water body overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plant life

POINT SOURCE NON-POINT SOURCE

• EFFECTS - Toxicity, new species invasion, decreased

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM (HAB)

• Are HABs dangerous to fish and humans?

WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS & RELATED ISSUES

NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (NPCA):

RAMSAR CRITERIA FOR WETLAND IDENTIFICATION :

31 Tripura Rudrasagar Lake 2005 2.4

CORAL REEFS AND RELATED ISSUES

shore is called ‘lagoon’ platform

• ADVANTAGES OF CORAL REEFS:

W HY T ROPIC A CCOUNT G REATER B IOLOGICAL D IVERSITY ?

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO SPECIES

FOUNDATION SPECIES: Dominant primary producer in an Corals

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO ECOSYSTEM

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOTANICAL GARDEN AND ZOOLOGICAL PARK

BOTANICAL GARDEN ZOOLOGICAL PARK

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

INDIA REPRESENTS INDIA REPRESENTS

1. Himalayan region 1. Tropical humid forests 1. Trans 1A: Himalaya - Ladakh

PLANT DIVERSITY OF INDIA

WILDLIFE DIVERSITY OF INDIA

Himalayan Critically Highlands of the Himalayas

Dhole/Asian Endangered’ -- India has the highest number of

Tetrastemma Freyae Coast of Tamil Nadu New species of marine

Globbaandersonii Restricted mainly to Teesta River Researchers recently