Ccs C Manual PDF

C Compiler Reference Manual
February 2005
Table Of Contents
Overview ................................................................................................................1
PCB, PCM and PCH Overview ..........................................................................1
Technical Support...............................................................................................1
Installation ..........................................................................................................2
Invoking the Command Line Compiler ...............................................................2
MPLAB Integration .............................................................................................4
Directories ..........................................................................................................4
File Formats........................................................................................................5
Direct Device Programming ...............................................................................5
Device Calibration Data......................................................................................5
Utility Programs ..................................................................................................6
PCW IDE ................................................................................................................7
File Menu............................................................................................................7
Project Menu ......................................................................................................8
Edit Menu ...........................................................................................................9
Options Menu ...................................................................................................10
Compile.............................................................................................................13
View Menu........................................................................................................13
Tools Menu.......................................................................................................16
Help Menu ........................................................................................................18
PCW Editor Keys..............................................................................................19
Project Wizard ..................................................................................................21
CCS Debugger.....................................................................................................23
Debugger - Overview........................................................................................23
Debugger - Menu..............................................................................................23
Debugger - Configure .......................................................................................23
Debugger - Control ...........................................................................................24
Debugger- Enable/Disable ...............................................................................24
Debugger - Watches.........................................................................................24
Debugger - Breaks ...........................................................................................25
Debugger - RAM...............................................................................................25
Debugger - ROM ..............................................................................................25
Debugger -Data EEPROM ...............................................................................25
Debugger - Stack..............................................................................................26
Debugger - Eval................................................................................................26
Debugger - Log.................................................................................................26
Debugger - Monitor...........................................................................................26
Debugger - Peripherals ....................................................................................27
Debugger - Snapshot .......................................................................................27
Pre-Processor ......................................................................................................29
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Table Of Contents
PRE-PROCESSOR ..........................................................................................29
Pre-Processor Directives..................................................................................30
#ASM ................................................................................................................30
#ENDASM ........................................................................................................30
#BIT ..................................................................................................................34
#BUILD .............................................................................................................34
#BYTE ..............................................................................................................35
#CASE ..............................................................................................................36
__DATE__ ........................................................................................................37
#DEFINE ..........................................................................................................37
#DEVICE ..........................................................................................................38
__DEVICE__ ....................................................................................................39
#ERROR...........................................................................................................39
__FILE__ ..........................................................................................................40
#FILL_ROM ......................................................................................................40
#FUSES............................................................................................................41
#ID ....................................................................................................................42
#IF expr.............................................................................................................43
#ELSE...............................................................................................................43
#ELIF ................................................................................................................43
#ENDIF .............................................................................................................43
#IGNORE_WARNINGS....................................................................................44
#IFDEF .............................................................................................................44
#IFNDEF...........................................................................................................44
#ELSE...............................................................................................................44
#ELIF ................................................................................................................44
#ENDIF .............................................................................................................44
#INCLUDE........................................................................................................45
#INLINE ............................................................................................................46
#INT_xxxx.........................................................................................................46
#INT_DEFAULT ...............................................................................................48
#INT_GLOBAL .................................................................................................49
__LINE__..........................................................................................................49
#LIST ................................................................................................................50
#LOCATE .........................................................................................................50
#NOLIST...........................................................................................................51
#OPT ................................................................................................................51
#ORG................................................................................................................52
__PCB__ ..........................................................................................................53
__PCM__..........................................................................................................54
__PCH __ .........................................................................................................54
#PRAGMA ........................................................................................................55
#PRIORITY.......................................................................................................55
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#RESERVE ......................................................................................................56
#ROM ...............................................................................................................56
#SERIALIZE .....................................................................................................57
#SEPARATE ....................................................................................................59
__TIME __ ........................................................................................................59
#TYPE ..............................................................................................................60
#UNDEF ...........................................................................................................60
#USE DELAY ...................................................................................................61
#USE FAST_IO ................................................................................................61
#USE FIXED_IO...............................................................................................62
#USE I2C..........................................................................................................63
#USE RS232 ...................................................................................................64
#USE STANDARD_IO......................................................................................67
#ZERO_RAM....................................................................................................67
Data Definitions....................................................................................................69
Data Types .......................................................................................................69
Function Definition ...............................................................................................71
Function Definition............................................................................................71
Reference Parameters .....................................................................................72
C Statements And Expressions ...........................................................................73
Program Syntax................................................................................................73
Comment ..........................................................................................................73
STATEMENTS .................................................................................................74
Expressions ......................................................................................................75
Operators..........................................................................................................76
Operator Precedence .......................................................................................77
Trigraph Sequences .........................................................................................77
Built-In Functions .................................................................................................79
ABS() ................................................................................................................82
ACOS() .............................................................................................................82
ASIN() ...............................................................................................................82
ASSERT().........................................................................................................82
ATOF()..............................................................................................................83
ATOI() ...............................................................................................................84
ATOL() ..............................................................................................................84
ATOI32() ...........................................................................................................84
BIT_CLEAR()....................................................................................................85
BIT_SET().........................................................................................................86
BIT_TEST() ......................................................................................................86
CALLOC().........................................................................................................87
CEIL() ...............................................................................................................88
COS()................................................................................................................88
COSH() .............................................................................................................89
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Table Of Contents
CLEAR_INTERRUPT().....................................................................................89
DELAY_CYCLES() ...........................................................................................89
DELAY_MS() ....................................................................................................90
DELAY_US() ....................................................................................................91
DISABLE_INTERRUPTS() ...............................................................................92
DIV() .................................................................................................................93
LDIV() ...............................................................................................................93
ENABLE_INTERRUPTS() ................................................................................94
ERASE_PROGRAM_EEPROM().....................................................................94
EXP() ................................................................................................................95
EXT_INT_EDGE() ............................................................................................96
FABS() ..............................................................................................................97
FLOOR() ...........................................................................................................97
FMOD().............................................................................................................98
FREE()..............................................................................................................98
FREXP() ...........................................................................................................99
GET_TIMERx()...............................................................................................100
GETC() ...........................................................................................................101
GETCH().........................................................................................................101
GETCHAR()....................................................................................................101
FGETC() .........................................................................................................101
GETENV() ......................................................................................................102
GETS()............................................................................................................105
FGETS() .........................................................................................................105
GOTO_ADDRESS() .......................................................................................105
I2C_POLL() ....................................................................................................106
I2C_READ()....................................................................................................107
I2C_START()..................................................................................................108
I2C_STOP()....................................................................................................108
I2C_WRITE() ..................................................................................................109
INPUT()...........................................................................................................110
INPUT_STATE().............................................................................................111
INPUT_x().......................................................................................................111
ISALNUM(char) ..............................................................................................112
ISALPHA(char) ...............................................................................................112
ISDIGIT(char) .................................................................................................112
ISLOWER(char)..............................................................................................112
ISSPACE(char)...............................................................................................112
ISUPPER(char) ..............................................................................................112
ISXDIGIT(char)...............................................................................................112
ISCNTRL(x) ....................................................................................................112
ISGRAPH(x) ...................................................................................................112
ISPRINT(x) .....................................................................................................112
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Table Of Contents
ISPUNCT(x)....................................................................................................112
ISAMOUNG()..................................................................................................113
KBHIT()...........................................................................................................114
LABEL_ADDRESS().......................................................................................115
LABS() ............................................................................................................116
LCD_LOAD() ..................................................................................................116
LCD_SYMBOL() .............................................................................................117
LDEXP() .........................................................................................................118
LOG()..............................................................................................................119
LOG10()..........................................................................................................120
MAKE8() .........................................................................................................121
MAKE16() .......................................................................................................121
MAKE32() .......................................................................................................122
MALLOC() ......................................................................................................123
MEMCPY() .....................................................................................................123
MEMMOVE() ..................................................................................................123
MEMSET()......................................................................................................124
MODF()...........................................................................................................125
OFFSETOF() ..................................................................................................126
OFFSETOFBIT() ............................................................................................126
OUTPUT_A() ..................................................................................................127
OUTPUT_B() ..................................................................................................127
OUTPUT_C()..................................................................................................127
OUTPUT_D()..................................................................................................127
OUTPUT_E() ..................................................................................................127
OUTPUT_BIT()...............................................................................................127
OUTPUT_FLOAT().........................................................................................128
OUTPUT_HIGH() ...........................................................................................129
OUTPUT_LOW() ............................................................................................130
OUTPUT_TOGGLE() .....................................................................................130
PERROR()......................................................................................................131
PORT_A_PULLUPS() ....................................................................................132
PORT_B_PULLUPS() ....................................................................................132
POW().............................................................................................................133
POWER CONTROL PWM..............................................................................134
PRINTF() ........................................................................................................135
FPRINTF() ......................................................................................................135
PSP_OUTPUT_FULL() ..................................................................................137
PSP_INPUT_FULL() ......................................................................................137
PSP_OVERFLOW() .......................................................................................137
PUTC()............................................................................................................138
PUTCHAR()....................................................................................................138
FPUTC() .........................................................................................................138
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Table Of Contents
PUTS()............................................................................................................139
FPUTS()..........................................................................................................139
RAND() ...........................................................................................................139
READ_ADC()..................................................................................................140
READ_BANK() ...............................................................................................141
READ_CALIBRATION() .................................................................................142
READ_EEPROM()..........................................................................................143
READ_PROGRAM_EEPROM().....................................................................144
READ_PROGRAM_MEMORY() ....................................................................144
READ_EXTERNAL_MEMORY()....................................................................144
REALLOC() ....................................................................................................145
RESET_CPU()................................................................................................146
RESTART_CAUSE() ......................................................................................147
RESTART_WDT() ..........................................................................................147
ROTATE_LEFT()............................................................................................148
ROTATE_RIGHT() .........................................................................................149
SET_ADC_CHANNEL() .................................................................................150
SET_PWM1_DUTY()......................................................................................151
SET_PWM2_DUTY()......................................................................................151
SET_PWM3_DUTY()......................................................................................151
SET_PWM4_DUTY()......................................................................................151
SET_PWM5_DUTY()......................................................................................151
SET_POWER_PWMX_DUTY() .....................................................................152
SET_POWER_PWM_OVERRIDE()...............................................................152
SET_RTCC() ..................................................................................................153
SET_TIMER0() ...............................................................................................153
SET_TIMER1() ...............................................................................................153
SET_TIMER2() ...............................................................................................153
SET_TIMER3() ...............................................................................................153
SET_TIMER4() ...............................................................................................153
SET_TRIS_A()................................................................................................154
SET_TRIS_B()................................................................................................154
SET_TRIS_C() ...............................................................................................154
SET_TRIS_D() ...............................................................................................154
SET_TRIS_E()................................................................................................154
SET_UART_SPEED() ....................................................................................155
SETUP_ADC(mode).......................................................................................156
SETUP_ADC_PORTS() .................................................................................157
SETUP_CCP1()..............................................................................................158
SETUP_CCP2()..............................................................................................158
SETUP_CCP3()..............................................................................................158
SETUP_CCP4()..............................................................................................158
SETUP_CCP5()..............................................................................................158
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Table Of Contents
SETUP_COMPARATOR() .............................................................................159
SETUP_COUNTERS() ...................................................................................160
SETUP_EXTERNAL_MEMORY()..................................................................161
SETUP_LCD() ................................................................................................162
SETUP_OSCILLATOR() ................................................................................162
SETUP_POWER_PWM()...............................................................................164
SETUP_POWER_PWM_PINS() ....................................................................165
SETUP_PSP() ................................................................................................166
SETUP_SPI() .................................................................................................167
SETUP_TIMER_0() ........................................................................................167
SETUP_TIMER_1() ........................................................................................168
SETUP_TIMER_2() ........................................................................................169
SETUP_TIMER_3() ........................................................................................170
SETUP_TIMER_5() ........................................................................................172
SETUP_UART() .............................................................................................172
SETUP_VREF()..............................................................................................173
SETUP_WDT() ...............................................................................................174
SHIFT_LEFT() ................................................................................................175
SHIFT_RIGHT()..............................................................................................176
SIN() ...............................................................................................................177
COS()..............................................................................................................177
TAN() ..............................................................................................................177
ASIN() .............................................................................................................177
ACOS() ...........................................................................................................177
ATAN()............................................................................................................177
SINH().............................................................................................................177
COSH() ...........................................................................................................177
TANH()............................................................................................................177
ATAN2()..........................................................................................................177
SINH().............................................................................................................179
SLEEP()..........................................................................................................179
SPI_DATA_IS_IN().........................................................................................180
SPI_READ() ...................................................................................................180
SPI_WRITE()..................................................................................................181
SPRINTF()......................................................................................................182
SQRT() ...........................................................................................................183
SRAND().........................................................................................................184
STANDARD STRING FUNCTIONS ...............................................................184
MEMCHR() .....................................................................................................184
MEMCMP().....................................................................................................184
STRCAT().......................................................................................................184
STRCHR() ......................................................................................................184
STRCMP() ......................................................................................................184
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Table Of Contents
STRCOLL().....................................................................................................184
STRCSPN() ....................................................................................................184
STRICMP() .....................................................................................................184
STRLEN() .......................................................................................................184
STRLWR() ......................................................................................................185
STRNCAT() ....................................................................................................185
STRNCMP() ...................................................................................................185
STRNCPY() ....................................................................................................185
STRPBRK() ....................................................................................................185
STRRCHR()....................................................................................................185
STRSPN().......................................................................................................185
STRSTR().......................................................................................................185
STRXFRM()....................................................................................................185
STRCPY().......................................................................................................187
STRTOD() ......................................................................................................187
STRTOK().......................................................................................................188
STRTOL() .......................................................................................................189
STRTOUL() ....................................................................................................190
SWAP()...........................................................................................................191
TAN() ..............................................................................................................192
TANH()............................................................................................................192
TOLOWER() ...................................................................................................192
TOUPPER()....................................................................................................192
WRITE_BANK()..............................................................................................193
WRITE_EEPROM() ........................................................................................194
WRITE_EXTERNAL_MEMORY() ..................................................................196
WRITE_PROGRAM_EEPROM() ...................................................................197
WRITE_PROGRAM_MEMORY()...................................................................197
Standard C Definitions .......................................................................................199
errno.h ............................................................................................................199
float.h ..............................................................................................................199
limits.h.............................................................................................................201
locale.h ...........................................................................................................201
setjmp.h ..........................................................................................................201
stddef.h ...........................................................................................................202
stdio.h .............................................................................................................202
stdlib.h ............................................................................................................203
Compiler Error Messages ..................................................................................205
Compiler Warning Messages .........................................................................216
Common Questions And Answers .....................................................................219
How does one map a variable to an I/O port?................................................219
Why is the RS-232 not working right? ............................................................221
How can I use two or more RS-232 ports on one PIC®?...............................223
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Table Of Contents
How does the PIC® connect to a PC? ...........................................................224

What can be done about an OUT OF RAM error?.........................................225
Why does the .LST file look out of order? ......................................................226
How does the compiler determine TRUE and FALSE on expressions? ........227
Why does the compiler use the obsolete TRIS? ............................................228
How does the PIC® connect to an I2C device? .............................................229
Instead of 800, the compiler calls 0. Why?....................................................229
Instead of A0, the compiler is using register 20. Why? .................................230
How do I directly read/write to internal registers? ..........................................231
How can a constant data table be placed in ROM? .......................................232
How can the RB interrupt be used to detect a button press?.........................233
What is the format of floating point numbers?................................................234
Why does the compiler show less RAM than there really is? ........................235
What is an easy way for two or more PICs® to communicate? .....................236
How do I write variables to EEPROM that are not a byte? ............................237
How do I get getc() to timeout after a specified time?....................................238
How can I pass a variable to functions like OUTPUT_HIGH()? .....................239
How do I put a NOP at location 0 for the ICD? ..............................................240
How do I do a printf to a string? .....................................................................240
How do I make a pointer to a function?..........................................................241
How much time do math operations take? .....................................................242
How are type conversions handled? ..............................................................243
Example Programs.............................................................................................245
EXAMPLE PROGRAMS.................................................................................245
SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT ..............................................................261
ix
Overview
PCB, PCM and PCH Overview
The PCB, PCM and PCH are separate compilers. PCB is for 12 bit opcodes,
PCM is for 14 bit opcodes and PCH is for the 16 and 18 bit PICmicro® MCU.
Since much is in common among the compilers, all three are covered in this
reference manual. Features and limitations that apply to only specific controllers
are indicated within. These compilers are specially designed to meet the unique
needs of the PICmicro® MCU controllers. These tools allow developers to
quickly design application software for these controllers in a highly readable,
high-level language.
The compilers have some limitations when compared to a more traditional C

compiler. The hardware limitations make many traditional C compilers
ineffective. As an example of the limitations, the compilers will not permit
pointers to constant arrays. This is due to the separate code/data segments in
the PICmicro® MCU hardware and the inability to treat ROM areas as data. On
the other hand, the compilers have knowledge about the hardware limitations
and do the work of deciding how to best implement your algorithms. The
compilers can efficiently implement normal C constructs, input/output operations
and bit twiddling operations.
Technical Support
The latest software can be downloaded via the Internet at:
http://www.ccsinfo.com/download.shtml
for 30 days after the initial purchase. For one year’s worth of updates, you can
purchase a Maintenance Plan directly from CCS. Also found on our web page
are known bugs, the latest version of the software, and other news about the
compiler.
We strive to ensure that each upgrade provides greater ease of use along with
minimal, if any, problems. However, this is not always possible. To ensure that
all problems that you encounter are corrected in a diligent manner, we suggest
that you email us at support@ccsinfo.com outlining your specific problem along
with an attachment of your file. This will ensure that solutions can be suggested
to correct any problem(s) that may arise. We try to respond in a timely manner
and take pride in our technical support.
1
Overview
Secondly, if we are unable to solve your problem by email, feel free to telephone
us at (262) 797-0455 x 32. Please have all your supporting documentation on-
hand so that your questions can be answered in an efficient manner. Again, we
will make every attempt to solve any problem(s) that you may have. Suggestions
for improving our software are always welcome and appreciated.
Installation
PCB, PCM, and PCH Installation:

Insert the disk in drive A and from Windows Start|Run type:
A:SETUP
PCW Installation:
Insert CD ROM, select each of the programs you wish to install and follow the
on-screen instructions.
Invoking the Command Line Compiler
The command line compiler is invoked with the following command:

CCSC options cfilename
Valid options:
+FB Select PCB (12 bit) -D Do not create debug file
+FM Select PCM (14 bit) +DS Standard .COD format debug file
+FH Select PCH +DM .MAP format debug file
(PIC18XXX)
+FS Select SXC (SX) +DC Expanded .COD format debug
file
+ES Standard error file +EO Old error file format
+T Create call tree (.TRE) -T Do not generate a tree file
+A Create stats file (.STA) -A Do not generate a statistics file
+EW Show warning -EW Suppress warnings (use with
messages +EA)
+EA Show all error -E Only show first error
messages and all
warnings
+Yx Optimization level x (0-9) +DF Enables the ouput of a COFF
debug file.
The xxx in the following are optional. If included it sets the file extension:
2
Overview
+LNxxx Normal list file +O8xxx 8 bit Intel HEX output file
+LSxxx MPASM format +OWxxx 16 bit Intel HEX output file
+LOxxx Old MPASM list file +OBxxx Binary output file
+LYxxx Symbolic list file -O Do not create object file
-L Do not create list file
+P Keep compile status window up after compile

+Pxx Keep status window up for xx seconds after compile
+PN Keep status window up only if there are no errors
+PE Keep status window up only if there are errors
+Z Keep scratch files on disk after compile

-Z Do not keep compiler scratch files
+DF COFF Debug file
I+="..." Same as I="..." Except the path list is appended to the current
list
I="..." Set include directory search path, for example:
I="c:\picc\examples;c:\picc\myincludes"
If no I= appears on the command line the .PJT file will be used
to supply the include file paths.
-P Close compile window after compile is complete
+M Generate a symbol file (.SYM)
-M Do not create symbol file
+J Create a project file (.PJT)
-J Do not create PJT file
+ICD Compile for use with an ICD
+? Brings up a help file
-? Same as +?
#xxx="yyy" Set a global #define for id xxx with a value of yyy, example:
#debug="true"
+Gxxx="yyy" Same as #xxx="yyy"
+STDOUT Outputs errors to STDOUT (for use with third party editors)
+SETUP Install CCSC into MPLAB (no compile is done)
+V Show compiler version (no compile is done)
+Q Show all valid devices in database (no compile is done)
A / character may be used in place of a + character. The default options are as

follows:
+FM +ES +J +DC +Y9 -T -A +M +LNlst +O8hex -P -Z
3
Overview
If @filename appears on the CCSC command line, command line options will be
read from the specified file. Parameters may appear on multiple lines in the file.
If the file CCSC.INI exists in the same directory as CCSC.EXE, then command
line parameters are read from that file before they are processed on the
command line.
Examples:
CCSC +FM C:\PICSTUFF\TEST.C
CCSC +FM +P +T TEST.C
MPLAB Integration
MPLAB 5:
If MPLAB is installed before the compiler, then integration with MPLAB is
automatic. Otherwise use the following command:
CCSC +SETUP
MPLAB 6:
A plug-in program must be executed on the computer with MPLAB 6 before
MPLAB 6 can use the CCS C compiler. If this plug-in did not come with your
version of MPLAB you should download it from the download page of the CCS
web site.
The specific instructions for compiling and running from MPLAB will vary
depending on the version. In general when creating a project be sure to select
the CCS C Compiler as the tool suite, then follow the normal MPLAB instructions.
To download the latest version of MPLAB to go Microchip's web page at:

http://www.microchip.com
Directories
The compiler will search the following directories for Include files.
• Directories listed on the command line
• Directories specified in the .PJT file
• The same directory as the source file
By default, the compiler files are put in C:\Program Files\PICC and the example
programs and all Include files are in C:\Program Files\PICC\EXAMPLES.
4
Overview
The compiler itself is a DLL file. The DLL files are in a DLL directory by default in
C:\Program Files\PICC\DLL. Old compiler versions may be kept by renaming
this directory.
File Formats
The compiler can output 8 bit hex, 16 bit hex, and binary files. Two listing formats
are available. Standard format resembles the Microchip tools and may be
required by some third-party tools. The simple format is easier to read. The
debug file may either be a Microchip .COD file or Advanced Transdata .MAP file.
All file formats and extensions are selected via the Options|File Formats menu
option in the Windows IDE.
Direct Device Programming
The IDE has a program option in the main menu bar. When invoked, the IDE will
issue a command to start the user's device programmer. The commands are
specified in the Options|Debugger/Programer window. The %H is replaced
with the HEX filename and %D is replaced with the device number. Put a ! at the
end of the command line if you would like a pause before returning to IDE. Only
programs that can be invoked by a command will work with this option.
Device Calibration Data
Some devices from Microchip have calibration data programmed into the
program area when shipped from the factory. Each part has its own unique data.
This poses some special problems during development. When an UV erasable
(windowed) part is erased, the calibration data is erased as well. Calibration data
can be forced into the chip during programming by using a #ROM directive with
the appropriate data.
The PCW package includes a utility program to help streamline this process.
When a new chip is purchased, the chip should be read into a hex file. Execute
the Tools|Extract Cal Data Utility and select a name (.C) for this part. The
utility will create an Include File with specified name that will have the correct
#ROM directives for the part. During prototype development add a #Include
directive and change the name before each build to the part # that is about to be
programmed. For production (OTP parts) simply comment out the #Include.
5
Overview
Utility Programs
SIOW SIOW is a Windows utility (PCW only). SIOW is a

simple "dumb terminal" program that may be run on a
PC to perform input and output over a serial port. SIOW
is handy since it will show all incoming characters. If
the character is not a normally displayable character, it
will show the hex code.
DEVEDIT DEVEDIT is a Windows utility (PCW only) that will edit

the device database. The compiler uses the device
database to determine specific device characteristics at
compile time. This utility will allow devices to be added,
modified or removed. To add a device, highlight the
closest equivalent chip and click on COPY. To edit or
delete, highlight the device and click on the appropriate
button.
PCONVERT PCONVERT is a Windows utility (PCW only) that will

perform conversions from various data types to other
types. For example, Floating Point decimal to 4 BYTE
Hex. The utility opens a small window to perform the
conversions. This window can remain active during a
PCW or MPLAB session. This can be useful during
debugging.
CCSC +Q This will list all devices in the compiler database.
CCSC +FM +V This will show the current compiler version. Replace
+FM with +FB or +FH for the other compilers.
6
PCW IDE
File Menu
New Creates a new file
Open Opens a file into the editor. If there are no other files
open then the project name is set to this files name.
Ctrl-O is the shortcut.
Reopen Lists all the recently used files and allows the user to
open them by selecting the appropriate file.
Save Saves the file currently selected for editing. Ctrl-S is the
shortcut.
Save As Prompts for a filename to save the currently selected

file.
Save All All open files are saved to disk.
7
PCW IDE
Close Closes the file currently open for editing. Note that while
a file is open in PCW for editing no other program may
access the file. Shift F11 is the shortcut.
Close All Closes all files.
Print Prints the currently selected file.
Printer Setup Allows the selection of a printer and the printer settings.
Exit Terminates PCW
Project Menu
New Creates a new project. A project may be created manually or

via a wizard. If created manually only a .PJT file is created to
hold basic project information. An existing .C main file may be
specified or an empty one may be created. The wizard will
allow the user to specify project parameters and when complete
a .C, .H and .PJT file are created. Standard source code and
constants are generated based on the specified project
parameters.
New| This command will bring up a number of fill-in-the-blank forms

PICWIZARD about your new project. RS232 I/O and i2C characteristics,
timer options, interrupts used, A/D options, drivers needed and
pin names all may be specified in the forms. When drivers are
selected, the tool selects pins required and pins that can be
combined will be. The user may edit the final pins selections.
After all selections are made the initial .c and .h files are
created with #defines, #includes and initialization commands
required for your project. This is a fast way to start a new
project. Once the files are created you cannot return to the
menus to make further changes.
Open A .PJT file is specified and the main source file is loaded.
8
PCW IDE
Open A .PJT file is specified and all files used in the project are
All Files opened. In order for this function to work the program must
have been compiled in order for the include files to become
known.
Reopen Lists all the recently used project files and allows the user to
open them by selecting the appropriate file.
Find Text In Searches all files in a project for a given text string.
Project
Print All Files All files in the project are printed. For this function to work the
program must have been compiled in order for the include files
to become known.
Include Dirs Allows the specification of each directory to be used to search

for include files for just this project. This information is saved
in the .PJT file.
Close Project Closes all files associated with the current project.
Edit Menu
Undo Undoes the last deletion.
Cut Moves the selected text from the file to the clipboard.
Copy Copies the selected text to the clipboard.
Paste Copies the clipboard contents to the cursor location.
Select All Highlight all text within the file.
Copy Copies the contents of a file to the cursor location.

from File
Paste Pastes the selected text to a file.

to File
Find Searches for a specified string in the file.
Replace Replaces a specified string with a new string.
Next Performs another Find or Replace.
9
PCW IDE
Match Brace Highlights the matching { or ). The editor will start counting the
open and closed braces and highlight the closing or opening
item when they match. Simply place the cursor on one of the
items and the matching one will be highlighted.
Match Brace The text will be highlighted up to the corresponding } or ).

Extended
Indent Indents the highlighted text

Selection
Toggle Sets a bookmark (0-9) at the cursor location.

Bookmark
Goto Move the cursor to the specified bookmark (0-9).

Bookmark
Next Window Selects the next open file as the current file for editing.
Previous Selects the previous open file as the current file for editing.
Window
Indent The selected area of code will be properly indented.

Selection
Options Menu
Recall When selected PCW will always start with the same files open
Open Files as were open when it last shut down. When not selected PCW
always starts with no files open.
Editor When clicked the editor brings up a new Editor Properties

Properties Window which gives the user a number of options for setting
up the editor properties. Editor Properties window have three
tabs which are explained below:
General Window Settings:

Tab: The window Settings option allows the user to select the
scrollbars for the editor (horizontal and vertical)
10
PCW IDE
Editor Options:
Syntax Highlighting
When checked the editor highlights in color C keywords and
comments.
Auto Highlight brackets

When checked the editor highlights the matching brackets
automatically when the cursor is placed on one.
Auto Indent
When selected and the ENTER is pressed the cursor moves to
the next line under the first character in the previous line.
When not selected the ENTER always moves to the beginning
of the next line.
WordStar keys
When selected the editing keys are WordStar style. WordStar
commands will enable additional keystrokes recognized by the
editors. See EDITOR for more information.
TABS:
Tab size
Determines the number of characters between tab positions.
Tabs allow you to set the number of spaces equated by a tab
and whether or not the tabs are converted to spaces or left as
tabs.
Keep Tabs
When selected the editor inserts a tab character (ASCII 9)
when the TAB key is pressed.
Insert Spaces
When selected and the TAB key is pressed, spaces are
inserted up to the next tab position.
Display Margin
Tab: Visible left Margin
When selected the left margin of the editor becomes visible.
Visible Right Margin

When selected the right margin of the editor becomes visible.
11
PCW IDE
Left Margin Width

Width of the left margin.
Right Margin
Position of the right margin.
Editor Font
Selects the font of the editor.
Font Size:
Size of the editor font.
Font Style
Style of the editor font (Italic/Bold/Underline).
Color Tab: This tab allows the user to select the color for syntax
highlighting.
Customize This option gives a list of icons that can be added to the tool
bar for speedy access of functionalities of the debugger.
File Allows selection of the output file formats.

Formats Debug File Options
Microchip COD Standard PICmicro® MCU
debug file
RICE16 MAP Used only be older RICE16 S/W
To Extended COD COD file with advanced debug info
List Format Options

Simple A basic format with C code
and ASM
Standard The MPASM standard format with
machine code
Old Older MPASM format
Object file extension The file extension for a HEX file
List file extension The file extension for a list file
Symbolic Includes C symbols within the

assembly
12
PCW IDE
Object File Options

8 bit HEX 8 Bit Intel HEX file
16 bit HEX 16 bit Intel HEX file
Binary Straight binary (No fuse info)
Error File Options

Standard Current Microchip standard
Original Older Microchip standard
Include Allows the specification of each directory to be used to search

Dirs for include files by default for newly created projects. This has
no effect on projects already created (use Project|Include Dirs
to change those).
Debugger/ Allows the specification of the device programmer to be used

Programmer when the PROGRAM CHIP tool is selected.
Global Allows the setting of #defines to be used in compiling. This is

Definitions the same as having some #defines at the top of your program.
This may be used for example to set debugging defines without
changing the code.
Compile
PCW Compile
Compiles the current project (name is in lower right) using the current compiler
(name is on the toolbar).
View Menu
C/ASM Opens the listing file in read only mode. The file must
have been compiled to view the list file. If open, this file
will be updated after each compile. The listing file
shows each C source line and the associated assembly
code generated for the line.
For Example:
……………delay_ms(3);
0F2: MOVLW 05
0F3: MOVWF 08
13
PCW IDE
0F4: DESCZ 08,F

0F5: GOTO 0F4
…………….while input(pin_0));
0F6: BSF 0B,3
Symbol Map Opens the symbol file in read only mode. The file must
have been compiled to view the symbol file. If open,
this file will be updated after each compile. The symbol
map shows each register location and what program
variables are saved in each location.
Displays the RAM memory map for the program last

compiled. The map indicates the usage of each RAM
location. Some locations have multiple definitions
since RAM is reused depending on the current
procedure being executed.
For Example:
08 @SCRATCH
09 @SCRATCH
0A TRIS_A
0B TRIS_B
0C MAIN.SCALE
0D MAIN.TIME
0E GET_SCALE.SCALE
0E PUTHEX.N
0E MAIN.@SCRATCH
Call Tree Opens the tree file in read only mode. The file must
have been compiled to view the tree file. If open, this
file will be updated after each compile. The call tree
shows each function and what functions it calls along
with the ROM and RAM usage for each.
A (inline) will appear after inline procedures that begin

with @. After the procedure name is a number of the
form s/n where s is the page number of the procedure
and n is the number is locations of code storage is
required. If s is ?, then this was the last procedure
attempted when the compiler ran out of ROM space.
RAM=xx indicates the total RAM required for the
function.
14
PCW IDE
For Example:
Main 0/30
INIT 0/6
WAIT_FOR_HOST 0/23 (Inline)
DELAY_US 0/12
SEND_DATA 0/65
Statistics Opens the stats file in read only mode. The file must
have been compiled to view the stats file. If open, this
file will be updated after each compile. The statistics file
shows each function, the ROM and RAM usage by file,
segment and name.
Data Sheet This tool will bring up Acrobat Reader with the
manufacture data sheet for the selected part. If data
sheets were not copied to disk, then the CCS CD ROM
or a manufacture CD ROM must be inserted.
Binary file Opens a binary file in read only mode. The file is
shown in HEX and ASCII.
COD Debug file Opens a debug file in read only mode. The file is
shown in an interpreted form.
Valid Fuses Shows a list of all valid keywords for the #fuses
directive for this device.
Valid Interrupts Shows a list of all valid keywords for the #int_xxxx
directive and enable/disable _interrupts for this device.
15
PCW IDE
Tools Menu
Device Editor This tool allows the essential characteristics for each
supported processor to be specified. This tool edits a
database used by the compiler to control the
compilation. CCS maintains this database
(Devices.dat) however users may want to add new
devices or change the entries for a device for a special
application. Be aware if the database is changed and
then the software is updated, the changes will be lost.
Save your DEVICES.DAT file during an update to
prevent this.
Device Selector This tool uses the device database to allow a

parametric selection of devices. By selecting key
characteristics the tool displays all eligible devices.
File Compare Compares two files. When source or text file is

selected, then a normal line by line compare is done.
When list file is selected the compare may be set to
ignore RAM and/or ROM addresses to make the
comparison more meaningful. For example if an asm
line was added at the beginning of the program a
normal compare would flag every line as different. By
ignoring ROM addresses then only the extra line is
flagged as changed. Two output formats are available.
One for display and one for files or printing.
Numeric Converter A conversion tool to convert between decimal, hex and

float.
Serial An easy to use tool to connect to a serial port. This tool

Port Monitor is convenient to communicate with a target program
over an RS232 link. Data is shown as ASCII
characters and as raw hex.
Disassembler This tool will take as input a HEX file and will output
ASM. The ASM may be in a form that can be used as
inline ASM.
This command will take a HEX file and generate an
16
PCW IDE
assembly file so that selected sections can be

extracted and inserted into your C programs as inline
assembly. Options will allow the selection of the
assembly format.
• 12 or 14 bit opcodes
• Address, C, MC ASM labels
• Hex or Binary
• Simple, ASM, C numbers
Extract This tool will take as input a HEX file and will extract
Cal Data the calibration data to a C include file. This may be
used to maintain calibration data for a UV erasable
part. By including the include file in a program the
calibration data will be restored after re-burning the
part.
Program Chip This simply invokes device programmer software with

the output file as specified in the Compile\Options
window. This command will invoke the device
programmer software of your choice. Use the compile
options to establish the command line.
MPLAB Invokes MPLAB with the current project. The project is

closed so MPLAB may modify the files if needed.
When MPLAB is invoked this way PCW stays
minimized until MPLAB terminates and then the project
is reloaded.
Internet These options invoke your WWW browser with the

requested CCS Internet page:
Check for Automatically starts your internet

Software Updates program and routes to CCS web site
to check for new software releases.
Download Automatically download new

Software software with a valid reference
Updates number.
Maintenance Our current product price list

Prices
17
PCW IDE
Compiler News An internet site devoted to the

current happenings of the PIC.
PIC Web View a web site dedicated for

Resources hardware and software for the PIC.
Data Sheets A list of various manufacture data

for Device Drivers sheets for devices CCS has device
drivers for (such as EEPROMs, A/D
converters, RTC...)
Help Menu
About Shows the version of the IDE and each installed

compiler.
Contents The help file table of contents.
Index The help file index.
Keyword at cursor Does an index search for the keyword at the cursor
location. Press F1 to use this feature.
F12 Bring up help index
Shift F12 Bring up editor help
18
PCW IDE
PCW Editor Keys
Cursor Movement
Left Arrow Move cursor one character to the left
Right Arrow Move cursor one character to the right
Up Arrow Move cursor one line up
Down Arrow Move cursor one line down
Ctrl Left Arrow Move cursor one word to the left
Ctrl Right Arrow Move cursor one word to the right
Home Move cursor to start of line
End Move cursor to end of line
Ctrl PgUp Move cursor to top of window
Ctrl PgDn Move cursor to bottom of window
PgUp Move cursor to previous page
PgDn Move cursor to next page
Ctrl Home Move cursor to beginning of file
Ctrl End Move cursor to end of file
Ctrl S Move cursor one character to the left
Ctrl D Move cursor one character to the right
Ctrl E Move cursor one line up
Ctrl X ** Move cursor one line down
Ctrl A Move cursor one word to the left
Ctrl F Move cursor one word to the right
Ctrl Q S Move cursor to top of window
Ctrl Q D Move cursor to bottom of window
Ctrl R Move cursor to beginning of file
Ctrl C * Move cursor to end of file
Shift ~ Where ~ is any of the above: Extend selected
area as cursor moves
19
PCW IDE
Editing Commands
F4 Select next text with matching() or {}
Ctrl # Goto bookmark # 0-9
Shift Ctrl # Set bookmark # 0-9
Ctrl Q # Goto bookmark # 0-9
Ctrl K # Set bookmark # 0-9
Ctrl W Scroll up
Ctrl Z * Scroll down
Del Delete the following character
BkSp Delete the previous character
Shift BkSp Delete the previous character
Ins Toggle Insert/Overwrite mode
Ctrl Z ** Undo last operation
Shift Ctrl Z Redo last undo
Alt BkSp Restore to original contents
Ctrl Enter Insert new line
Shift Del Cut selected text from file
Ctrl Ins Copy selected text
Shift Ins Paste
Tab Insert tab or spaces
Ctrl Tab Insert tab or spaces
Ctrl P ~ Insert control character ~ in text
Ctrl G Delete the following character
Ctrl T Delete next word
Ctrl H Delete the previous character
Ctrl Y Delete line
Ctrl Q Y Delete to end of line
Ctrl Q L Restore to original contents
Ctrl X ** Cut selected text from file
Ctrl C ** Copy selected text
Ctrl V Paste
Ctrl K R Read file at cursor location
Ctrl K W Write selected text to file
Ctrl-F ** Find text
Ctrl-R ** Replace text
F3 Repeat last find/replace
* Only when WordStar mode selected

** Only when WordStar mode is not selected
20
PCW IDE
Project Wizard
The new project wizard makes starting a new project easier.
After starting the Wizard you are prompted for the name for your new main c file.
This file will be created along with a corresponding .h file.
The tabbed notebook that is displayed allows the selection of various project
parameters. For example:
• General Tab -> Select the device and clock speed
• Communications tab --> Select RS232 ports
• I/O Pins tab --> Select you own names for the various pins
When any tab is selected you may click on the blue square in the lower right and
the wizard will show you what code is generated as a result of your selections in
that screen.
After clicking OK all the code is generated and the files are opened in the PCW
editor
This command will bring up a number of fill-in-the-blank forms about your new
project. RS232 I/O and 12C characteristics, timer options, interrupts used, A/D
options, drivers needed and pin names all may be specified in the forms. When
drivers are selected, the tool will select required pins and pins that can be
combined will be. The user may edit the final pins selections. After all selections
are made an initial .c and .h files are created with #defines, #includes and
initialization commands require for your project. This is a fast way to start a new
project. Once the files are created you cannot return to the menus to make
further changes.
21
CCS Debugger
Debugger - Overview
The PCW IDE comes with a built in debugger. The debugger is started via the
Debug|Enable menu selection. This section contains the following topics:
• Debug Menu
• Configure
• Control
• Watches
• Breaks
• RAM
• ROM
• Data EEPROM
• Stack
• Eval
• Log
• Monitor
• Peripherals
• Snapshot
• Enable/Disable
Debugger - Menu
This menu contains all the debugger options if the ICD is connected to the PC
and the prototype board for debugging the C program.
Debugger - Configure
The configure tab allows a selection of what hardware the debugger connects to.
Other configuration options vary depending on the hardware debugger in use.
The configure tab also allows manually reloading the target with your code.
If the debugger window is open and the “Reload target after every compile” box
is selected every time the program is compiled the program is downloaded into
the target.
23
Debugger
A debugger profile contains all the selections in all the debugger tabs such as the
variables being watched, the debugger window position and size and the
breakpoints set. Profiles may be saved into files and loaded from the configure
tab. The last profile file saved or loaded is also saved in the projects .PJT file for
use the next time the debugger is started for that project.
Special notes for ICD users:

When using an ICD unit the CCS firmware must be installed in the ICD. To
install the firmware click on “Configure Hardware” then click on the center top
button to load ICD firmware.
Debugger - Control
The reset button puts the target into a reset condition. Note that in the source file
windows, Listing window and ROM window the current program counter line is
highlighted in yellow. This is the next line to execute.
The Go button starts the program running. While running none of the debugger
windows are updated with current information. The program stops when a break
condition is reached or the STOP button is clicked.
The STEP button will execute one C line if the source file is the active editor tab
and one assembly line if the list file is the active editor tab. STEP OVER works
like STEP except if the line is a call to another function then the whole function is
executed with one STEP OVER.
THE GO TO button will execute until the line the editor cursor is on is reached.
Debugger- Enable/Disable
This option enables/disables the debugger if it is not already in that state. The
menu option automatically changes to the other one. Shows or hides the PCW
debugger IDE as required.
Debugger - Watches
Click the + icon when the watch tab is selected to enter a new expression to
watch. The helper window that pops up will allow you to find identifiers in your
program to watch. Normal C expressions may be watched like:
X
X+Y
BUFFER[X]
24
CCS Debugger
BUUFER[X].NAME
Note that where the editor cursor is in the source file at the time you enter the
watch will affect how the expression is evaluated. For example consider you
have two functions F1 and F2 and you simply enter I as a watch expression. The
I that you get will depend on what function the cursor is in. You can proceed any
variable with a function name and period to exactly specify the variable (like:
F1.I).
Debugger - Breaks
To set a breakpoint move the editor cursor to a source or list file line. Then
select the break tab in the debugger and click the + icon.
Note that the breaks work differently for different hardware units. For example on
a PIC16 using an ICD, you can only have one breakpoint and the processor
executes the line (assembly line) the break is set on before stopping.
Debugger - RAM
The debugger RAM tab shows the target RAM. Red numbers indicate locations
that changed since the last time the program stopped. Some locations are
blacked out that either do not represent a physical register or are not available
during debugging. To change a RAM location double click the value to change.
All numbers are in hex.
Debugger - ROM
The ROM tab shows the contents of the target program memory both in hex and
disassembled. This data is initially from the HEX file and is not refreshed from
the target unless the user requests it. To reload from the target right click in the
window.
Debugger - Data EEPROM
The debugger Data EEPROM tab shows the target Data EEPROM. Red
numbers indicate locations that changed since the last time the program
stopped. To change a Data EEPROM location double click the value to change.
All numbers are in hex.
25
Debugger
Debugger - Stack
This tab shows the current stack. The last function called and all it’s parameters
are shown at the top of the list.
Note that the PIC16 ICD cannot read the stack. To view the stack, a #DEVICE
CCSICD=TRUE line must appear in your source file. The compiler then
generates extra code to allow the stack to be seen by the debugger.
Debugger - Eval
This tab allows the evaluation of a C expression. It is similar to the watch

capability except that more space is provided for the result (for large structures or
arrays).
The evaluation also allows calling a C function in the target. In this case you
must provide all the parameters. The result of the function is shown in the result
window. This capability is not available on all debugger platforms.
Debugger - Log
The log capability is a combination of the break, watch and snapshot. You
specify a break number and an expression to evaluate each time the break is
reached. The program is restarted after the expression is evaluated and the
result is logged in the log window. Separate multiple expressions with semi-
colons. The log window may be saved to a file. Each expression result in the file
is separated with a tab making it suitable for importing into a spreadsheet
program.
Debugger - Monitor
The monitor window shows data from the target and allows entry of data to be
sent to the target. This is done on the target like this:
#use RS232(DEBUGGER)
...
printf(“Test to run? “);
test=getc();
For the PIC16 ICD the B3 pin is used on the target to implement this capability.
The normal ICD cable is already set up correctly for this.
26
CCS Debugger
Debugger - Peripherals
This tab shows the state of the targets special function registers. This data is
organized by function. Select a function from the drop down list and the registers
associated with that function are shown. Below the registers is a listing of each
field in the registers with an interpretation of what the bit pattern means.
Debugger - Snapshot
Click on the camera icon to bring up the snapshot window. The snapshot
function allows the recording of the contents of part or all of the various debugger
windows. On the right hand side you may select what items you need to record.
The top right is a selection of where to record the data. The options are:
• Printer
• A new file
• Append to an existing file
In addition you can select when to do the snapshot:

• Now
• On every break
• On every single step
Furthermore you can click on the APPEND COMMENT button to add a comment
to be inserted into the file.
27
Pre-Processor
PRE-PROCESSOR
Pre-Processor Command Summary

Standard C Device Specification
#DEFINE ID STRING p.37 #DEVICE CHIP p.38
#ELSE p.43 #ID NUMBER p.42
#ENDIF p.43 #ID "filename" p.42
#ERROR p.39 #ID CHECKSUM p.42
#IF expr p.43 #FUSES options p.41
#IFDEF id p.44 #SERIALIZE p.57
#INCLUDE "FILENAME" p.45 #TYPE type=type p.60
#INCLUDE <FILENAME> p.45 Built-in Libraries
#LIST p.50 #USE DELAY CLOCK p.61
#NOLIST p.51 #USE FAST_IO p.61
#PRAGMA cmd p.55 #USE FIXED_IO p.62
#UNDEF id p.60 #USE I2C p.63
#USE RS232 p.64
Function Qualifier #USE STANDARD_IO p.67
#INLINE p.46 Memory Control
#INT_DEFAULT p.48 #ASM p.30
#INT_GLOBAL p.49 #BIT id=const.const p.34
#INT_xxx p.46 #BIT id=id.const p.34
#SEPARATE p.59 #BYTE id=const p.35
Pre-Defined Identifier #BYTE id=id p.34
__DATE__ p.37 #LOCATE id=const p.50
__DEVICE__ p.39 #ENDASM p.30
__FILE__ p.40 #RESERVE p.56
__LINE__ p.49 #ROM p.56
__PCB __ p.53 #ZERO_RAM p.67
__PCM__ p.54 #BUILD p.34
__PCH__ p.54 #FILL_ROM p.40
__TIME__ p.59 Compiler Control
#CASE p.36
#OPT n p.51
#PRIORITY p.55
#ORG p.52
#IGNORE_WARNINGS p.44
29
Pre-Processor
Pre-Processor Directives
Pre-processor directives all begin with a # and are followed by a specific

command. Syntax is dependent on the command. Many commands do not allow
other syntactical elements on the remainder of the line. A table of commands
and a description is listed on the previous page.
Several of the pre-processor directives are extensions to standard C. C provides

a pre-processor directive that compilers will accept and ignore or act upon the
following data. This implementation will allow any pre-processor directives to
begin with #PRAGMA. To be compatible with other compilers, this may be used
before non-standard features.
Examples: Both of the following are valid

#INLINE
#PRAGMA INLINE
#ASM
#ENDASM
Syntax: #asm
or
#asm ASIS
code
#endasm
Elements: code is a list of assembly language instructions
Purpose: The lines between the #ASM and #ENDASM are treated
as assembly code to be inserted. These may be used
anywhere an expression is allowed. The syntax is
described on the following page. The predefined
variable _RETURN_ may be used to assign a return
value to a function from the assembly code. Be aware
that any C code after the #ENDASM and before the end
of the function may corrupt the value.
If the second form is used with ASIS then the compiler

will not do any automatic bank switching for variables
that cannot be accessed from the current bank. The
assembly code is used as-is. Without this option the
30
Pre-Processor
assembly is augmented so variables are always

accessed correctly by adding bank switching where
needed.
Examples: int find_parity (int data) {
int count;
#asm
movlw 0x8
movwf count
movlw 0
loop:
xorwf data,w
rrf data,f
decfsz count,f
goto loop
movwf _return_
#endasm
}
Example Files: ex_glint.c
Also See: None
31
Pre-Processor
12 Bit and 14 Bit

ADDWF f,d ANDWF f,d
CLRF f CLRW
COMF f,d DECF f,d
DECFSZ f,d INCF f,d
INCFSZ f,d IORWF f,d
MOVF f,d MOVPHW
MOVPLW MOVWF f
NOP RLF f,d f
RRF f,d SUBWF f,d
SWAPF f,d XORWF f,d
BCF f,b BSF f,b
BTFSC f,b BTFSS f,b
ANDLW k CALL k
CLRWDT GOTO k
IORLW k MOVLW k
RETLW k SLEEP
XORLW OPTION
TRIS k
Only PCM:
ADDLW k
SUBLW k
RETFIE
RETURN
f may be a constant (file number) or a simple variable

d may be a constant (0 or 1) or W or F
f,b may be a file (as above) and a constant (0-7) or it may be
just a bit variable reference.
k may be a constant expression
Note that all expressions and comments are in C like syntax.
32
Pre-Processor
PIC 18
ADDWF f,d ADDWFC f,d ANDWF f,d
CLRF f COMF f,d CPFSEQ f
CPFSGT f CPFSLT f DECF f,d
DECFSZ f,d DCFSNZ f,d INCF f,d
INFSNZ f,d IORWF f,d MOVF f,d
MOVFF fs, fd MOVWF f MULWF f
NEGF f RLCF f,d RLNCF f,d
RRCF f,d RRNCF f,d SETF f
SUBFWB f,d SUBWF f,d SUBWFB f,d
SWAPF f,d TSTFSZ f XORWF f,d
BCF f,b BSF f,b BTFSC f,b
BTFSS f,b BTG f,d BC n
BN n BNC n BNN n
BNOV n BNZ n BOV n
BRA n BZ n CALL n,s
CLRWDT - DAW - GOTO n
NOP - NOP - POP -
PUSH - RCALL n RESET -
RETFIE s RETLW k RETURN s
SLEEP - ADDLW k ANDLW k
IORLW k LFSRf ,k MOVLB k
MOVLW k MULLW k RETLW k
SUBLW k XORLW k TBLRD *
TBLRD*+ TBLRD *- TBLRD +*
TBLWT* TBLWT *+ TBLWT *-
TBLWT +*
The compiler will set the access bit depending on the value of the file register.
33
Pre-Processor
#BIT
Syntax: #bit id = x.y
Elements: id is a valid C identifier,

x is a constant or a C variable,
y is a constant 0-7.
Purpose: A new C variable (one bit) is created and is placed in

memory at byte x and bit y. This is useful to gain
access in C directly to a bit in the processors special
function register map. It may also be used to easily
access a bit of a standard C variable.
Examples: #bit T0IF = 0xb.2

...
T0IF = 0; // Clear Timer 0 interrupt flag
int result;
#bit result_odd = result.0
...
if (result_odd)
Also See: #byte, #reserve, #locate
#BUILD
Syntax: #build(segment = address)

#build(segment = address, segment = address)
#build(segment = start:end)
#build(segment = start: end, segment = start: end)
Elements: segment is one of the following memory segments

which may be assigned a location: MEMORY, RESET,
or INTERRUPT.
address is a ROM location memory address. Start and

end are used to specify a range in memory to be used.
34
Pre-Processor
Start is the first ROM location and end is the last ROM
location to be used.
Purpose: PIC18XXX devices with external ROM or PIC18XXX

devices with no internal ROM can direct the compiler to
utilize the ROM.
Examples: #build(memory=0x20000:0x2FFFF)
//Assigns memory space
#build(reset=0x200,interrupt=0x208)
//Assigns start location of
//reset and interrupt vectors
#build(reset=0x200:0x207,
interrupt=0x208:0x2ff)
//Assign limited space for
//reset and interrupt vectors.
Example Files: None
Also See: #locate, #reserve, #rom, #org
#BYTE
Syntax: #byte id = x
Elements: id is a valid C identifier,

x is a C variable or a constant
Purpose: If the id is already known as a C variable then this will

locate the variable at address x. In this case the
variable type does not change from the original
definition. If the id is not known a new C variable is
created and placed at address x with the type int (8 bit)
Warning: In both cases memory at x is not exclusive to

this variable. Other variables may be located at the
same location. In fact when x is a variable, then id and
x share the same memory location.
Examples: #byte status = 3

#byte b_port = 6
35
Pre-Processor
struct {
short int r_w;
short int c_d;
int unused : 2;
int data : 4; } a_port;
#byte a_port = 5
...
a_port.c_d = 1;
Also See: #bit, #locate, #reserve
#CASE
Syntax: #case
Elements: None
Purpose: Will cause the compiler to be case sensitive. By default

the compiler is case insensitive.
Warning: Not all the CCS example programs, headers

and drivers have been tested with case sensitivity
turned on.
Examples: #case
int STATUS;
void func() {
int status;
...
STATUS = status; // Copy local status to
//global
}
Example Files: ex_cust.c
Also See: None
36
Pre-Processor
__DATE__
Syntax: __date__
Elements: None
Purpose: This pre-processor identifier is replaced at compile time

with the date of the compile in the form: "31-MAY-03"
Examples: printf("Software was compiled on ");

printf(__DATE__);
Example Files: None
Also See: None
#DEFINE
Syntax: #define id text

or
#define id (x,y...) text
Elements: id is a preprocessor identifier, text is any text, x,y and

so on are local preprocessor identifiers, and in this form
there may be one or more identifiers separated by
commas.
Purpose: Used to provide a simple string replacement of the ID

with the given text from this point of the program and on.
In the second form (a C macro) the local identifiers are

matched up with similar identifiers in the text and they
are replaced with text passed to the macro where it is
used.
If the text contains a string of the form #idx then the

result upon evaluation will be the parameter id
concatenated with the string x.
If the text contains a string of the form idx##idy then
37
Pre-Processor
parameter idx is concatenated with parameter idy

forming a new identifier.
Examples: #define BITS 8

a=a+BITS; //same as a=a+8;
#define hi(x) (x<<4)

a=hi(a); //same as a=(a<<4);
Example Files: ex_stwt.c, ex_macro.c
Also See: #undef, #ifdef, #ifndef
#DEVICE
Syntax: #device chip options
Elements: chip is the name of a specific processor (like:

PIC16C74), To get a current list of supported devices:
START | RUN | CCSC +Q
Options are qualifiers to the standard operation of the

device. Valid options are:
*=5 Use 5 bit pointers (for all parts)
*=8 Use 8 bit pointers (14 and 16 bit
parts)
*=16 Use 16 bit pointers (for 14 bit parts)
ADC=x Where x is the number of bits
read_adc() should return
ICD=TRUE Generates code compatible with
Microchips ICD debugging hardware.
WRITE_EEPROM=ASYNC Prevents
WRITE_EEPROM
from hanging while
writing is taking
place. When used,
do not write to
EEPROM from both
ISR and outside ISR.
38
Pre-Processor
Both chip and options are optional, so multiple #device

lines may be used to fully define the device. Be warned
that a #device with a chip identifier, will clear all previous
#device and #fuse settings.
Purpose: Defines the target processor. Every program must have

exactly one #device with a chip.
Examples: #device PIC16C74

#device PIC16C67 *=16
#device *=16 ICD=TRUE
#device PIC16F877 *=16 ADC=10
Example Files: ex_mxram.c, ex_icd.c, 16c74.h
Also See: read_adc()
__DEVICE__
Syntax: __device __
Elements: None
Purpose: This pre-processor identifier is defined by the compiler

with the base number of the current device (from a
#device). The base number is usually the number after
the C in the part number. For example the PIC16C622
has a base number of 622.
Examples: #if __device__==71

SETUP_ADC_PORTS( ALL_DIGITAL );
#endif
Example Files: None
Also See: #device
#ERROR
39
Pre-Processor
Syntax: #error text
Elements: text is optional and may be any text
Purpose: Forces the compiler to generate an error at the location

this directive appears in the file. The text may include
macros that will be expanded for the display. This may
be used to see the macro expansion. The command
may also be used to alert the user to an invalid compile
time situation.
Examples: #if BUFFER_SIZE>16

#error Buffer size is too large
#endif
#error Macro test: min(x,y)
Example Files: ex_psp.c
Also See: None
__FILE__
Syntax: __file__
Elements: None
Purpose: The pre-processor identifier is replaced at compile time

with the filename of the file being compiled.
Examples: if(index>MAX_ENTRIES)
printf("Too many entries, source file: "
__FILE__" at line " __LINE__"\r\n");
Example Files: assert.h
Also See: __line__
#FILL_ROM
40
Pre-Processor
Syntax: #fill_rom value
Elements: value is a constant 16-bit value
Purpose: This directive specifies the data to be used to fill unused

ROM locations.
Examples: #fill_rom 0x36
Example Files: None
Also See: #rom
#FUSES
Syntax: #fuse options
Elements: options vary depending on the device. A list of all valid

options has been put at the top of each devices .h file in
a comment for reference. The PCW device edit utility
can modify a particular devices fuses. The PCW pull
down menu VIEW | Valid fuses will show all fuses with
their descriptions.
Some common options are:

• LP, XT, HS, RC
• WDT, NOWDT
• PROTECT, NOPROTECT
• PUT, NOPUT (Power Up Timer)
• BROWNOUT, NOBROWNOUT
Purpose: This directive defines what fuses should be set in the

part when it is programmed. This directive does not
affect the compilation; however, the information is put in
the output files. If the fuses need to be in Parallax
format, add a PAR option. SWAP has the special
function of swapping (from the Microchip standard) the
high and low BYTES of non-program data in the Hex
file. This is required for some device programmers.
41
Pre-Processor
Examples: #fuses HS,NOWDT
Example Files: ex_sqw.c
Also See: None
#ID
Syntax: #ID number 16

#ID number, number, number, number
#ID "filename"
#ID CHECKSUM
Elements: Number16 is a 16 bit number, number is a 4 bit

number, filename is any valid PC filename and
checksum is a keyword.
Purpose: This directive defines the ID word to be programmed

into the part. This directive does not affect the
compilation but the information is put in the output file.
The first syntax will take a 16-bit number and put one
nibble in each of the four ID words in the traditional
manner. The second syntax specifies the exact value
to be used in each of the four ID words.
When a filename is specified the ID is read from the file.

The format must be simple text with a CR/LF at the
end. The keyword CHECKSUM indicates the device
checksum should be saved as the ID.
Examples: #id 0x1234

#id "serial.num"
#id CHECKSUM
Also See: None
42
Pre-Processor
#IF expr
#ELSE
#ELIF
#ENDIF
Syntax: #if expr

code
#elif expr //Optional, any number may be used
code
#else //Optional
code
#endif
Elements: expr is an expression with constants, standard

operators and/or preprocessor identifiers. Code is any
standard c source code.
Purpose: The pre-processor evaluates the constant expression

and if it is non-zero will process the lines up to the
optional #ELSE or the #ENDIF.
Note: you may NOT use C variables in the #IF. Only

preprocessor identifiers created via #define can be
used.
The preprocessor expression DEFINED(id) may be

used to return 1 if the id is defined and 0 if it is not.
Examples: #if MAX_VALUE > 255

long value;
#else
int value;
#endif
Example Files: ex_extee.c
Also See: #ifdef, #ifndef
43
Pre-Processor
#IGNORE_WARNINGS
Syntax: #ignore_warnings ALL

#ignore_warnings none
#ignore_warnings warnings
Elements: warnings is one or more warning numbers separated

by commas
Purpose: This function will suppress warning messages from the

compiler. ALL indicates no warning will be generated.
NONE indicates all warnings will be generated. If
numbers are listed then those warnings are suppressed.
Examples: #ignore_warnings 203

while(TRUE) {
#ignore_warnings NONE
Example Files: None
Also See: Warning messages
#IFDEF
#IFNDEF
#ELSE
#ELIF
#ENDIF
Syntax: #ifdef id
code
#elif
code
#else
code
#endif
#ifndef id
code
#elif
code
44
Pre-Processor
#else
code
#endif
Elements: id is a preprocessor identifier, code is valid C source

code.
Purpose: This directive acts much like the #IF except that the
preprocessor simply checks to see if the specified ID is
known to the preprocessor (created with a #DEFINE).
#IFDEF checks to see if defined and #IFNDEF checks
to see if it is not defined.
Examples: #define debug // Comment line out for no debug
...
#ifdef DEBUG
printf("debug point a");
#endif
Also See: #if
#INCLUDE
Syntax: #include <filename>

or
#include "filename"
Elements: filename is a valid PC filename. It may include normal

drive and path information.
Purpose: Text from the specified file is used at this point of the
compilation. If a full path is not specified the compiler
will use the list of directories specified for the project to
search for the file. If the filename is in "" then the
directory with the main source file is searched first. If
the filename is in <> then the directory with the main
source file is searched last.
45
Pre-Processor
Examples: #include <16C54.H>
#include<C:\INCLUDES\COMLIB\MYRS232.C>
Also See: None
#INLINE
Syntax: #inline
Elements: None
Purpose: Tells the compiler that the function immediately following

the directive is to be implemented INLINE. This will
cause a duplicate copy of the code to be placed
everywhere the function is called. This is useful to save
stack space and to increase speed. Without this
directive the compiler will decide when it is best to make
procedures INLINE.
Examples: #inline
swapbyte(int &a, int &b) {
int t;
t=a;
a=b;
b=t;
}
Also See: #separate
#INT_xxxx
Syntax: #INT_AD Analog to digital conversion complete

#INT_ADOF Analog to digital conversion timeout
#INT_BUSCOL Bus collision
#INT_BUTTON Pushbutton
46
Pre-Processor
#INT_CCP1 Capture or Compare on unit 1

#INT_CCP2 Capture or Compare on unit 2
#INT_COMP Comparator detect
#INT_EEPROM write complete
#INT_EXT External interrupt
#INT_EXT1 External interrupt #1
#INT_EXT2 External interrupt #2
#INT_I2C I2C interrupt (only on 14000)
#INT_LCD LCD activity
#INT_LOWVOLT Low voltage detected
#INT_PSP Parallel Slave Port data in
#INT_RB Port B any change on B4-B7
#INT_RC Port C any change on C4-C7
#INT_RDA RS232 receive data available
#INT_RTCC Timer 0 (RTCC) overflow
#INT_SSP SPI or I2C activity
#INT_TBE RS232 transmit buffer empty
#INT_TIMER0 Timer 0 (RTCC) overflow
#INT_TIMER1 Timer 1 overflow
Note many more #INT_ options are available on specific
chips. Check the devices .h file for a full list for a given
chip.
Elements: None
Purpose: These directives specify the following function is an

interrupt function. Interrupt functions may not have any
parameters. Not all directives may be used with all
parts. See the devices .h file for all valid interrupts for
the part or in PCW use the pull down VIEW | Valid Ints
The compiler will generate code to jump to the function

when the interrupt is detected. It will generate code to
save and restore the machine state, and will clear the
interrupt flag. To prevent the flag from being cleared
add NOCLEAR after the #INT_xxxx. The application
program must call ENABLE_INTERRUPTS(INT_xxxx)
to initially activate the interrupt along with the
ENABLE_INTERRUPTS(GLOBAL) to enable interrupts.
The keyword FAST may be used with the PCH compiler
47
Pre-Processor
to mark an interrupt high priority. A fast interrupt can

interrupt another interrupt handler. The compiler does
no save/restore in a fast ISR. You should do as little as
possible and save any registers that need to be saved
on your own.
Examples: #int_ad
adc_handler() {
adc_active=FALSE;
}
#int_rtcc noclear
isr() {
...
}
Example Files: See ex_sisr.c and ex_stwt.c for full example programs.
Also See: enable_interrupts(), disable_interrupts(), #int_default,

#int_global
#INT_DEFAULT
Syntax: #int_default
Elements: None
Purpose: The following function will be called if the PIC® triggers

an interrupt and none of the interrupt flags are set. If an
interrupt is flagged, but is not the one triggered, the
#INT_DEFAULT function will get called.
Examples: #int_default
default_isr() {
printf("Unexplained interrupt\r\n");
}
Example Files: None
Also See: #INT_xxxx, #INT_global
48
Pre-Processor
#INT_GLOBAL
Syntax: #int_global
Elements: None
Purpose: This directive causes the following function to replace

the compiler interrupt dispatcher. The function is
normally not required and should be used with great
caution. When used, the compiler does not generate
start-up code or clean-up code, and does not save the
registers.
Examples: #int_global
isr() { // Will be located at location 4
#asm
bsf isr_flag
retfie
#endasm
}
Also See: #int_xxxx
__LINE__
Syntax: __line__
Elements: None
Purpose: The pre-processor identifier is replaced at compile time

with line number of the file being compiled.
Examples: if(index>MAX_ENTRIES)
printf("Too many entries, source file: "
__FILE__" at line " __LINE__"\r\n");
Example Files: assert.h
Also See: __file__
49
Pre-Processor
#LIST
Syntax: #list
Elements: None
Purpose: #List begins inserting or resumes inserting source lines

into the .LST file after a #NOLIST.
Examples: #NOLIST // Don't clutter up the list file

#include <cdriver.h>
#LIST
Example Files: 16c74.h
Also See: #nolist
#LOCATE
Syntax: #locate id=x
Elements: id is a C variable,
x is a constant memory address
Purpose: #LOCATE works like #BYTE however in addition it

prevents C from using the area.
Examples: //This will locate the float variable at 50-53

// and C will not use this memory for other
// variables automatically located.
float x;
#locate x=0x50
Also See: #byte, #bit, #reserve
50
Pre-Processor
#NOLIST
Syntax: #nolist
Elements: None
Purpose: Stops inserting source lines into the .LST file (until a
#LIST)
Examples: #NOLIST // Don't clutter up the list file

#include <cdriver.h>
#LIST
Example Files: 16c74.h
Also See: #LIST
#OPT
Syntax: #OPT n
Elements: All devices: n is the optimization level 0-9

PIC18XXX: n is the optimization level 0-11
Purpose: The optimization level is set with this directive. This

setting applies to the entire program and may appear
anywhere in the file. Optimization level 5 will set the
level to be the same as the PCB, PCM, and PCH
standalone compilers. The PCW default is 9 for full
optimization. PIC18XXX devices may utilize levels 10
and 11 for extended optimization. Level 9 may be used
to set a PCW compile to look exactly like a PCM
compile for example. It may also be used if an
optimization error is suspected to reduce optimization.
Examples: #opt 5
Example Files: None
Also See: None
51
Pre-Processor
#ORG
Syntax: #org start, end

or
#org segment
or
#org start, end {}
or
#org start, end auto=0
#org start,end DEFAULT
or
#org DEFAULT
Elements: start is the first ROM location (word address) to use,

end is the last ROM location, segment is the start ROM
location from a previous #org
Purpose: This directive will fix the following function or constant

declaration into a specific ROM area. End may be
omitted if a segment was previously defined if you only
want to add another function to the segment.
Follow the ORG with a {} to only reserve the area with

nothing inserted by the compiler.
The RAM for a ORG'ed function may be reset to low

memory so the local variables and scratch variables are
placed in low memory. This should only be used if the
ORG'ed function will not return to the caller. The RAM
used will overlap the RAM of the main program. Add a
AUTO=0 at the end of the #ORG line.
If the keyword DEFAULT is used then this address range

is used for all functions user and compiler generated
from this point in the file until a #ORG DEFAULT is
encountered (no address range). If a compiler function is
called from the generated code while DEFAULT is in
effect the compiler generates a new version of the
function within the specified address range.
52
Pre-Processor
Examples: #ORG 0x1E00, 0x1FFF

MyFunc() {
//This function located at 1E00
}
#ORG 0x1E00
Anotherfunc(){
// This will be somewhere 1E00-1F00
}
#ORG 0x800, 0x820 {}

//Nothing will be at 800-820
#ORG 0x1C00, 0x1C0F

CHAR CONST ID[10}= {"123456789"};
//This ID will be at 1C00
//Note some extra code will
//proceed the 123456789
#ORG 0x1F00, 0x1FF0

Void loader(){
.
.
.
}
Example Files: loader.c
Also See: #ROM
__PCB__
Syntax: __pcb __
Elements: None
Purpose: The PCB compiler defines this pre-processor identifier.

It may be used to determine if the PCB compiler is doing
the compilation.
Examples: #ifdef __pcb__

#device PIC16c54
#endif
53
Pre-Processor
Also See: __pcm__, __pch__
__PCM__
Syntax: __pcm __
Elements: None
Purpose: The PCM compiler defines this pre-processor identifier.

It may be used to determine if the PCM compiler is
doing the compilation.
Examples: #ifdef __pcm__

#device PIC16c71
#endif
Also See: __pcb__, __pch__
__PCH __
Syntax: __pch __
Elements: None
Purpose: The PCH compiler defines this pre-processor identifier.

It may be used to determine if the PCH compiler is doing
the compilation.
Examples: #ifdef __PCH __

#device PIC18C452
#endif
Also See: __pcb__, __pcm__
54
Pre-Processor
#PRAGMA
Syntax: #pragma cmd
Elements: cmd is any valid preprocessor directive.
Purpose: This directive is used to maintain compatibility between

C compilers. This compiler will accept this directive
before any other pre-processor command. In no case
does this compiler require this directive.
Examples: #pragma device PIC16C54
Also See: None
#PRIORITY
Syntax: #priority ints
Elements: ints is a list of one or more interrupts separated by

commas.
Purpose: The priority directive may be used to set the interrupt

priority. The highest priority items are first in the list. If
an interrupt is active it is never interrupted. If two
interrupts occur at around the same time then the higher
one in this list will be serviced first.
Examples: #priority rtcc,rb
Example Files: None
Also See: #int_xxxx
55
Pre-Processor
#RESERVE
Syntax: #reserve address

or
#reserve address, address, address
or
#reserve start:end
Elements: address is a RAM address, start is the first address

and end is the last address
Purpose: This directive allows RAM locations to be reserved from

use by the compiler. #RESERVE must appear after the
#DEVICE otherwise it will have no effect.
Examples: #DEVICE PIC16C74

#RESERVE 0x60:0X6f
Also See: #org
#ROM
Syntax: #rom address = {list};
Elements: address is a ROM word address, list is a list of words

separated by commas
Purpose: Allows the insertion of data into the .HEX file. In

particular, this may be used to program the ’84 data
EEPROM, as shown in the following example.
Note that if the #ROM address is inside the program

memory space, the directive creates a segment for the
data, resulting in an error if a #ORG is over the same
area. The #ROM data will also be counted as used
program memory space.
Examples: #rom 0x2100={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
56
Pre-Processor
Example Files: None
Also See: #org
#SERIALIZE
Syntax: #serialize(id=xxx, next=”x” | file=" filename.txt " |

listfile=" filename.txt," prompt="text",
log="filename.txt")
-Or-
#serialize(dataee=x, binary=x, next=”x” |
file="filename.txt" | listfile=" filename.txt ", prompt="
text ", log=" filename.txt ")
Elements: id=xxx Specify a C CONST identifier, may be

int8,int16,int32 or char array
Use in place of id parameter, when storing serial number

to EEPROM:
dataee=x The address x is the start address in the data

EEPROM.
binary=x The integer x is the number of bytes to

be written to address specified.
-or-
string=x The integer x is the number of bytes to be
written to address specified.
Use only one of the next three options:

file=”filename.txt” The file x is used to read the
initial serial number from, and this file is updated by the
ICD programmer. It is assumed this is a one line file with
the serial number. The programmer will
increment the serial number.
listfile=”filename.txt” The file x is used to read the

initial serial number from, and this file is updated by the
ICD programmer. It is assumed this is a file one serial
number per line. The programmer will read the first line
57
Pre-Processor
then delete that line from the file. next=”x” The serial
number X is used for the first load, then the hex file is
updated to increment x by one.
prompt=”text” If specified the user will be prompted for

a serial number on each load. If used with one of the
above three options then the default value the user may
use is picked according to the above rules.
log=xxx A file may optionally be specified to keep a

log of the date, time, hex file name and serial number
each time the part is programmed. If no id=xxx is
specified then this may be used as a simple log of all
loads of the hex file.
Purpose: Assists in making serial numbers easier to implement

when working with CCS ICD units. Comments are
inserted into the hex file that the ICD software interprets.
Examples: //Prompt user for serial number to be placed

//at address of serialNumA
//Default serial number = 200
int8 const serialNumA=100;
#serialize(id=serialNumA,next="200",prompt="Enter
the serial number")
//Adds serial number log in seriallog.txt

#serialize(id=serialNumA,next="200",prompt="Enter
the serial number", log="seriallog.txt")
//Retrieves serial number from serials.txt

#serialize(id=serialNumA,listfile=”serials.txt”)
//Place serial number at EEPROM address 0,

reserving 1 byte
#serialize(dataee=0,binary=1,next="45",prompt="Put
in Serial number")
//Place string serial number at EEPROM address 0,

reserving 2 bytes
#serialize(dataee=0,
string=2,next="AB",prompt="Put in Serial number")
Example Files: None
Also See: None
58
Pre-Processor
#SEPARATE
Syntax: #separate
Elements: None
Purpose: Tells the compiler that the procedure IMMEDIATELY

following the directive is to be implemented
SEPARATELY. This is useful to prevent the compiler
from automatically making a procedure INLINE. This will
save ROM space but it does use more stack space. The
compiler will make all procedures marked SEPARATE,
separate, as requested, even if there is not enough
stack space to execute.
Examples: #separate
swapbyte (int *a, int *b) {
int t;
t=*a;
*a=*b;
*b=t;
}
Also See: #inline
__TIME __
Syntax: __time__
Elements: None
Purpose: This pre-processor identifier is replaced at compile time

with the time of the compile in the form: "hh:mm:ss"
Examples: printf("Software was compiled on ");

printf(__TIME__);
59
Pre-Processor
Example Files: None
Also See: None
#TYPE
Syntax: #type standard-type=size
Elements: standard-type is one of the C keywords short,int or

long. size is 1,8,16 or 32
Purpose: By default the compiler treats SHORT as one bit, INT as

8 bits and LONG as 16 bits. The traditional C
convention is to have INT defined as the most efficient
size for the target processor. This is why it is 8 bits on
the PIC®. In order to help with code compatibility a
#TYPE directive may be used to allow these types to be
changed. #TYPE can redefine these keywords.
Note that the commas are optional. Since #TYPE may

render some sizes inaccessible (like a one bit int in the
above) four keywords representing the four ints may
always be used: INT1, INT8, INT16 and INT32. Be
warned CCS example programs and include files may
not work right if you use #TYPE in your program.
Examples: #TYPE SHORT=8, INT=16, LONG=32
Also See: None
#UNDEF
Syntax: #undef id
Elements: id is a pre-processor id defined via #define
60
Pre-Processor
Purpose: The specified pre-processor ID will no longer have

meaning to the pre-processor.
Examples: #if MAXSIZE<100

#undef MAXSIZE
#define MAXSIZE 100
#endif
Example Files: None
Also See: #define
#USE DELAY
Syntax: #use delay (clock=speed)

or
#use delay(clock=speed, restart_wdt)
Elements: speed is a constant 1-100000000 (1 hz to 100 mhz)
Purpose: Tells the compiler the speed of the processor and

enables the use of the built-in functions: delay_ms() and
delay_us(). Speed is in cycles per second. An optional
restart_WDT may be used to cause the compiler to
restart the WDT while delaying.
Examples: #use delay (clock=20000000)

#use delay (clock=32000, RESTART_WDT)
Also See: delay_ms(), delay_us()
#USE FAST_IO
Syntax: #use fast_io (port)
Elements: port is A-G
61
Pre-Processor
Purpose: Affects how the compiler will generate code for input
and output instructions that follow. This directive takes
effect until another #use xxxx_IO directive is
encountered. The fast method of doing I/O will cause
the compiler to perform I/O without programming of the
direction register. The user must ensure the direction
register is set correctly via set_tris_X().
Examples: #use fast_io(A)
Also See: #use fixed_io, #use standard_io, set_tris_X()
#USE FIXED_IO
Syntax: #use fixed_io (port_outputs=pin, pin?)
Elements: port is A-G, pin is one of the pin constants defined in

the devices .h file.
Purpose: This directive affects how the compiler will generate

code for input and output instructions that follow. This
directive takes effect until another #use xxx_IO directive
is encountered. The fixed method of doing I/O will
cause the compiler to generate code to make an I/O pin
either input or output every time it is used. The pins are
programmed according to the information in this
directive (not the operations actually performed). This
saves a byte of RAM used in standard I/O.
Examples: #use fixed_io(a_outputs=PIN_A2, PIN_A3)
Example Files: None
Also See: #use fast_io, #use standard_io
62
Pre-Processor
#USE I2C
Syntax: #use i2c (options)
Elements: Options are separated by commas and may be:

MASTER Set the master mode
SLAVE Set the slave mode
SCL=pin Specifies the SCL pin (pin is a
bit address)
SDA=pin Specifies the SDA pin
ADDRESS=nn Specifies the slave mode
address
FAST Use the fast I2C specification
SLOW Use the slow I2C specification
RESTART_WDT Restart the WDT while waiting in
I2C_READ
FORCE_HW Use hardware I2C functions.
NOFLOAT_HIGH Does not allow signals to float
high, signals are driven from low
to high
SMBUS Bus used is not I2C bus, but
very similar
Purpose: The I2C library contains functions to implement an I2C
bus. The #USE I2C remains in effect for the I2C_START,
I2C_STOP, I2C_READ, I2C_WRITE and I2C_POLL
functions until another USE I2C is encountered.
Software functions are generated unless the
FORCE_HW is specified. The SLAVE mode should only
be used with the built-in SSP.
Examples: #use I2C(master, sda=PIN_B0, scl=PIN_B1)
#use I2C(slave,sda=PIN_C4,scl=PIN_C3
address=0xa0,FORCE_HW)
Example Files: ex_extee.c with 2464.c
Also See: i2c_read(), i2c_write()
63
Pre-Processor
#USE RS232
Syntax: #use rs232 (options)
Elements: Options are separated by commas and may be:

STREAM=id Associates a stream identifier
with this RS232 port. The
identifier may then be used in
functions like fputc.
BAUD=x Set baud rate to x
XMIT=pin Set transmit pin
RCV=pin Set receive pin
FORCE_SW Will generate software serial
I/O routines even when the
UART pins are specified.
BRGH1OK Allow bad baud rates on chips
that have baud rate problems.
DEBUGGER Indicates this stream is used
to send/receive data though a
CCS ICD unit. The default pin
used in B3, use XMIT= and
RCV= to change the pin used.
Both should be the same pin.
RESTART_WDT Will cause GETC() to clear
the WDT as it waits for a
character.
INVERT Invert the polarity of the serial
pins (normally not needed
when level converter, such as
the MAX232). May not be
used with the internal UART.
PARITY=X Where x is N, E, or O.
BITS =X Where x is 5-9 (5-7 may not
be used with the UART).
FLOAT_HIGH The line is not driven high.
This is used for open collector
outputs. Bit 6 in
RS232_ERRORS is set if the
pin is not high at the end of the
bit time.
ERRORS Used to cause the compiler to
64
Pre-Processor
keep receive errors in the

variable RS232_ERRORS and
to reset errors when they
occur.
SAMPLE_EARLY A getc() normally samples
data in the middle of a bit time.
This option causes the sample
to be at the start of a bit time.
May not be used with the
UART.
RETURN=pin For FLOAT_HIGH and
MULTI_MASTER this is the
pin used to read the signal
back. The default for
FLOAT_HIGH is the XMIT pin
and for MULTI_MASTER the
RCV pin.
MULTI_MASTER Uses the RETURN pin to
determine if another master on
the bus is transmitting at the
same time. If a collision is
detected bit 6 is set in
RS232_ERRORS and all
future PUTC's are ignored
until bit 6 is cleared. The
signal is checked at the start
and end of a bit time. May not
be used with the UART.
LONG_DATA Makes getc() return an int16
and putc accept an int16. This
is for 9 bit data formats.
DISABLE_INTS Will cause interrupts to be
disabled when the routines get
or put a character. This
prevents character distortion
for software implemented I/O
and prevents interaction
between I/O in interrupt
handlers and the main
program when using the
UART.
Purpose: This directive tells the compiler the baud rate and pins
65
Pre-Processor
used for serial I/O. This directive takes effect until

another RS232 directive is encountered. The #USE
DELAY directive must appear before this directive can be
used. This directive enables use of built-in functions
such as GETC, PUTC, and PRINTF.
When using parts with built-in SCI and the SCI pins are
specified, the SCI will be used. If a baud rate cannot be
achieved within 3% of the desired value using the current
clock rate, an error will be generated.
The definition of the RS232_ERRORS is as follows:
No UART:
• Bit 7 is 9th bit for 9 bit data mode (get and put).
• Bit 6 set to one indicates a put failed in float high mode.
With a UART:
• Used only by get:
• Copy of RCSTA register except:
• Bit 0 is used to indicate a parity error.
Examples: #use rs232(baud=9600, xmit=PIN_A2,rcv=PIN_A3)
Also See: getc(), putc(), printf()
66
Pre-Processor
#USE STANDARD_IO
Syntax: #USE STANDARD_IO (port)
Elements: port may be A-G
Purpose: This directive affects how the compiler will generate

code for input and output instructions that follow. This
directive takes effect until another #use xxx_io directive
is encountered. The standard method of doing I/O will
cause the compiler to generate code to make an I/O pin
either input or output every time it is used. On the 5X
processors this requires one byte of RAM for every port
set to standard I/O.
Standard_io is the default I/O method for all ports.
Examples: #use standard_io(A)
Also See: #use fast_io, #use fixed_io
#ZERO_RAM
Syntax: #zero_ram
Elements: None
Purpose: This directive zero's out all of the internal registers that
may be used to hold variables before program execution
begins.
Examples: #zero_ram
void main() {
67
Pre-Processor
Also See: None
68
Data Definitions
Data Types
The following tables show the syntax for data definitions. If the keyword
TYPEDEF is used before the definition then the identifier does not allocate space
but rather may be used as a type specifier in other data definitions. If the
keyword CONST is used before the identifier, the identifier is treated as a
constant. Constants must have an initializer and may not be changed at run-
time. Pointers to constants are not permitted.
SHORT is a special type used to generate very efficient code for bit operations
and I/O. Arrays of SHORT and pointers to SHORT are not permitted. Note: [ ]
in the following tables indicates an optional item.
Data Declarations
[type-qualifier] [type-specifier] [declarator];
enum [id] { [ id [ = cexpr]] }
One or more comma separated
struct [*] [id] { [ type-qualifier ] [*]id cexpr [ cexpr ] ]]}

or
union
One or more semi- Zero or more
colon separated
typedef [type-qualifier] [type-specifier] [declarator];
Type Qualifier
static Variable is globally active and initialized to 0
auto Variable exists only while the procedure is active
This is the default and AUTO need not be used.
double Is a reserved word but is not a supported data type.
extern Is allowed as a qualifier however, has no effect.
register Is allowed as a qualifier however, has no effect.
69
Data Definitions
Type-Specifier
int1 Defines a 1 bit number
int8 Defines an 8 bit number
char Defines a 8 bit character
float Defines a 32 bit floating point number
short By default the same as int1
Int By default the same as int8
long By default the same as int16
void Indicates no specific type
The id after ENUM is created as a type large enough to the largest constant in
the list. The ids in the list are each created as a constant. By default the first id
is set to zero and they increment by one. If a =cexpr follows an id that id will
have the value of the constant expression and the following list will increment by
one.
The :cexpr after an id specifies in a struct or union the number of bits to use for
the id. This number may be 1-8. Multiple [] may be used for multiple dimension
arrays. Structures and unions may be nested. The id after STRUCT may be
used in another STRUCT and the {} is not used to reuse the same structure form
again.
Examples:
int a,b,c,d;
typedef int byte;
typedef short bit;
bit e,f;
byte g[3][2];
char *h;
enum boolean {false, true};
boolean j;
byte k = 5;
byte const WEEKS = 52;
byte const FACTORS [4] =
{8, 16, 64, 128};
struct data_record {
byte a [2];
byte b : 2; /*2 bits */
byte c : 3; /*3 bits*/
int d;
}
70
Function Definition
Function Definition
The format of a function definition is as follows:
qualifier id ( [ type-specifier id ] ) { [ stmt ] }
↑ ↑ ↑
Optional See Below Zero or more Zero or more Semi-
comma separated. See colon separated. See
Data Types Statements.
The qualifiers for a function are as follows:

• VOID
• type-specifier
• #separate
• #inline
• #int_..
When one of the above are used and the function has a prototype (forward
declaration of the function before it is defined) you must include the qualifier on
both the prototype and function definition.
A (non-standard) feature has been added to the compiler to help get around the
problems created by the fact that pointers cannot be created to constant strings.
A function that has one CHAR parameter will accept a constant string where it is
called. The compiler will generate a loop that will call the function once for each
character in the string.
Example:
void lcd_putc(char c ) {
...
}
lcd_putc ("Hi There.");
71
Function Definition
Reference Parameters
The compiler has limited support for reference parameters. This increases the
readability of code and the efficiency of some inline procedures. The following
two procedures are the same. The one with reference parameters will be
implemented with greater efficiency when it is inline.
funct_a(int*x,int*y){
/*Traditional*/
if(*x!=5)
*y=*x+3;
}
funct_a(&a,&b);
funct_b(int&x,int&y){
/*Reference params*/
if(x!=5)
y=x+3;
}
funct_b(a,b);
72
C Statements And Expressions
Program Syntax
A program is made up of the following four elements in a file. These are covered
in more detail in the following paragraphs.
• Comment
• Pre-Processor Directive
• Data Definition
• Function Definition
Comment
A comment may appear anywhere within a file except within a quoted string.
Characters between the /* and */ are ignored. Characters after a // up to the end
of a line are also ignored.
73
C Statements and Expressions
STATEMENTS
STATEMENT EXAMPLE
if (expr) stmt; [else stmt;] if (x==25)
x=1;
else
x=x+1;
while (expr) stmt; while(get_rtcc()!=0)
putc(‘n’);
do stmt while (expr); do {
putc(c=getc());
} while (c!=0);
for (expr1;expr2;expr3) stmt; for(i=1;i<=10;++i)
printf(“%u\r\n”,i);
switch (expr) { switch (cmd) {
case 0:printf(“cmd 0”);
case cexpr: stmt; //one or more break;
case [default:stmt] case 1:printf(“cmd 1”);
... } break;
default:printf(“bad cmd”);
break; }
return [expr]; return (5);
goto label; goto loop;
label: stmt; loop: I++;
break; break;
continue; continue;
expr; i=1;
; ;
{[stmt]} {a=1;
↑ b=1;}
Zero or more
Note: Items in [ ] are optional
74
Expressions
Constants:
123 Decimal
0123 Octal
0x123 Hex
0b010010 Binary
'x' Character
'\010' Octal Character
'\xA5’ Hex Character
'\c' Special Character. Where c is one of:
\n Line Feed- Same as \x0a
\r Return Feed - Same as \x0d
\t TAB- Same as \x09
\b Backspace- Same as \x08
\f Form Feed- Same as x0c
\a Bell- Same as \x07
\v Vertical Space- Same as \x0b
\? Question Mark- Same as \x3f
\’ Single Quote- Same as \x60
\” Double Quote- Same as \x22
\\ A Single Backslash- Same as \x5c
"abcdef" String (null is added to the end)
Identifiers:
ABCDE Up to 32 characters beginning with a non-numeric. Valid
characters are A-Z, 0-9 and _ (underscore).
ID[X] Single Subscript
ID[X][X] Multiple Subscripts
ID.ID Structure or union reference
ID->ID Structure or union reference
75
Operators
+ Addition Operator
+= Addition assignment operator, x+=y, is the same as x=x+y
&= Bitwise and assignment operator, x&=y, is the same as x=x&y
& Address operator
& Bitwise and operator
^= Bitwise exclusive or assignment operator, x^=y, is the same as
x=x^y
^ Bitwise exclusive or operator
l= Bitwise inclusive or assignment operator, xl=y, is the same as
x=xly
l Bitwise inclusive or operator
?: Conditional Expression operator
-- Decrement
/= Division assignment operator, x\=y, is the same as x=x/y
/ Division operator
== Equality
> Greater than operator
>= Greater than or equal to operator
++ Increment
* Indirection operator
!= Inequality
<<= Left shift assignment operator, x<<=y, is the same as x=x<<y
< Less than operator
<< Left Shift operator
<= Less than or equal to operator
&& Logical AND operator
! Logical negation operator
ll Logical OR operator
%= Modules assignment operator x%=y, is the same as x=x%y
% Modules operator
*= Multiplication assignment operator, x*=y, is the same as x=x*y
* Multiplication operator
~ One's complement operator
>>= Right shift assignment, x>>=y, is the same as x=x>>y
>> Right shift operator
-> Structure Pointer operation
-= Subtraction assignment operator
- Subtraction operator
sizeof Determines size in bytes of operand
76
Operator Precedence
In descending precedence
(expr)
!expr ~expr ++expr expr++ - -expr expr- -
(type)expr *expr &value sizeof(type)
expr*expr expr/expr expr%expr
expr+expr expr-expr
expr<<expr expr>>expr
expr<expr expr<=expr expr>expr expr>=expr
expr==expr expr!=expr
expr&expr
expr^expr
expr | expr
expr&& expr
expr || expr
!value ? expr: expr
value = expr value+=expr value-=expr
value*=expr value/=expr value%=expr
value>>=expr value<<=expr value&=expr
value^=expr value|=expr expr, expr
Trigraph Sequences
The compiler accepts three character sequences instead of some special
characters not available on all keyboards as follows:
Sequence Same as
??= #
??( [
??/ \
??) ]
??' ^
??< {
??! |
??> }
??- ~
77
78
Built-In Functions
Built-In Function List By Category
RS232 I/O Parallel Slave I/O
getc() p.101 setup_psp() p.166
putc() p.138 psp_input_full() p.137
fgetc() p.138 psp_output_full() p.137
gets() p.105 psp_overflow() p.137
puts() p.139 I2C I/O
fgets() p.139 i2c_start() p.108
fputc() p.138 i2c_stop() p.108
fputs() p.139 i2C_read p.107
printf() p.135 i2c_write() p.109
kbhit() p.114 i2c_poll() p.106
fprintf() p.135 Processor Controls
set_uart_speed() p.155 sleep() p.179
perror() p.131 reset_cpu() p.146
assert() p.82 restart_cause() p.147
getchar() p.101 disable_interrupts() p.92
putchar() p.138 enable_interrupts() p.94
setup_uart() p.172 ext_int_edge() p.96
SPI two wire I/O read_bank() p.141
setup_spi() p.167 write_bank() p.193
spi_read() p.180 label_address() p.115
spi_write() p.181 goto_address() p.105
spi_data_is_in() p.180 getenv() p.102
Discrete I/O clear_interrupts() p.89
output_low() p.130 setup_oscillator() p.162
output_high() p.129 Bit/Byte Manipulation
output_float() p.128 shift_right() p.176
output_bit() p.127 shift_left() p.175
input() p.110 rotate_right() p.149
output_X() p.127 rotate_left() p.148
output_toggle() p.130 bit_clear() p.85
input_state() p.111 bit_set() p.86
input_X() p.111 bit_test() p.86
port_b_pullups() p.132 swap() p.191
set_tris_X() p.154 make8() p.121
make16() p.121
make32() p.122
79
Built-in Functions
Built-In Function List By Category… Continued

Standard C Math Standard C Char
abs() p.82 atoi() p.84
acos() p.82 atoi32() p.84
asin() p.82 atol() p.84
atan() p.82 atof() p.83
ceil() p.88 tolower() p.192
cos() p.88 toupper() p.192
exp() p.95 isalnum() p.112
floor() p.97 isalpha() p.112
labs() p.116 isamoung() p.113
sinh() p.177 isdigit() p.114
log() p.119 islower() p.112
log10() p.120 isspace() p.112
pow() p.133 isupper() p.112
sin() p.177 isxdigit() p.112
cosh() p.177 strlen() p.184
tanh() p.177 strcpy() p.187
fabs() p.97 strncpy() p.184
fmod() p.98 strcmp() p.184
atan2() p.83 stricmp() p.184
frexp() p.99 strncmp() p.184
ldexp() p.118 strcat() p.184
modf() p.125 strstr() p.184
sqrt() p.183 strchr() p.184
tan() p.183 strrchr() p.184
div() p.93 isgraph() p.112
ldiv() p.93 iscntrl() p.112
Voltage Ref strtok() p.188
setup_vref() p.173 strspn() p.185
A/D Conversion strcspn() p.185
setup_adc_ports() p.157 strpbrk() p.184
setup_adc() p.156 strlwr() p.184
set_adc_channel() p.150 sprintf() p.182
read_adc() p.140 isprint() p.112
strtod() p.187
strtol() p.189
strtoul() p.190
strncat() p.184
strcoll(), strxfrm() p.184
80
Built-in Functions
Built-In Function List By Category… Continued

Timers Internal EEPROM
setup_timer_X() p.167 read_eeprom() p.143
set_timer_X() p.100 write_eeprom() p.194
get_timer_X() p.100 read_program_eeprom() p.144
setup_counters() p.160 write_program_eeprom() p.197
setup_wdt() p.174 read_calibration() p.142
restart_wdt() p.147 write_program_memory() p.197
Standard C memory read_program_memory() p.144
memset() p.124 write_external_memory() p.196
memcpy() p.123 erase_program_memory() p.94
offsetof() p.126 setup_external_memory() p.161
offsetofbit() p.126 Standard C Special
malloc() p.123 rand() p.139
calloc() p.87 srand() p.184
free() p.98 Delays
realloc() p.145 delay_us() p.91
memmove() p.123 delay_ms() p.90
memcmp() p.123 delay_cycles() p.89
memchr() p.123 Analog Compare
setup_comparator() p.159
Capture/Compare/PWM
setup_ccpX() p.158
set_pwmX_duty() p.151
setup_power_pwm() p.164
setup_power_pwm_pins() p.165
set_power_pwmx_duty() p.152
set_power_pwm_override() p.152
81
Built-in Functions
ABS()
Syntax: value = abs(x)
Parameters: x is a signed 8, 16, or 32 bit int or a float
Returns: Same type as the parameter.
Function: Computes the absolute value of a number.
Availability: All devices
Requires #include <stdlib.h>
Examples: signed int target,actual;

...
error = abs(target-actual);
Example Files: None
Also See: labs()
ACOS()
See: SIN()
ASIN()
See: SIN()
ASSERT()
Syntax: assert (condition);
Parameters: condition is any relational expression
Returns: Nothing
82
Built-in Functions
Function: This function tests the condition and if FALSE will

generate an error message on STDERR (by default the
first USE RS232 in the program). The error message
will include the file and line of the assert(). No code is
generated for the assert() if you #define NODEBUG. In
this way you may include asserts in your code for testing
and quickly eliminate them from the final program..
Requires assert.h and #use rs232
Examples: assert( number_of_entries<TABLE_SIZE );
// If number_of_entries is >= TABLE_SIZE then

// the following is output at the RS232:
// Assertion failed, file myfile.c, line 56
Example Files: None
Also See: #use rs232
ATOF()
Syntax: result = atof (string)
Parameters: string is a pointer to a null terminated string of

characters.
Returns: Result is a 32 bit floating point number.
Function: Converts the string passed to the function into a floating

point representation. If the result cannot be
represented, the behavior is undefined.
83
Built-in Functions
Examples: char string [10];

float x;
strcpy (string, "123.456");

x = atof(string);
// x is now 123.456
Example Files: ex_tank.c
Also See: atoi(), atol(), atoi32(), printf()
ATOI()
ATOL()
ATOI32()
Syntax: ivalue = atoi(string)

or
lvalue = atol(string)
or
i32value = atoi32(string)
Parameters: string is a pointer to a null terminated string of

characters.
Returns: ivalue is an 8 bit int.

lvalue is a 16 bit int.
i32value is a 32 bit int.
Function: Converts the string pointed to by ptr to int

representation. Accepts both decimal and hexadecimal
argument. If the result cannot be represented, the
behavior is undefined.
84
Built-in Functions
Examples: char string[10];

int x;
strcpy(string,"123");
x = atoi(string);
// x is now 123
Example Files: input.c
Also See: printf()
BIT_CLEAR()
Syntax: bit_clear(var, bit)
Parameters: var may be a 8,16 or 32 bit variable (any lvalue) bit is a

number 0-31 representing a bit number, 0 is the least
significant bit.
Returns: undefined
Function: Simply clears the specified bit (0-7, 0-15 or 0-31) in the
given variable. The least significant bit is 0. This
function is the same as: var &= ~(1<<bit);
Requires None
Examples: int x;
x=5;
bit_clear(x,2);
// x is now 1
bit_clear(*11,7); // A crude way to disable ints
Example Files: ex_patg.c
Also See: bit_set(), bit_test()
85
Built-in Functions
BIT_SET()
Syntax: bit_set(var, bit)

significant bit.
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the specified bit (0-7, 0-15 or 0-31) in the given
variable. The least significant bit is 0. This function is
the same as: var |= (1<<bit);
Requires Nothing
Examples: int x;
x=5;
bit_set(x,3);
// x is now 13
bit_set(*6,1); // A crude way to set pin B1 high
Also See: bit_clear(), bit_test()
BIT_TEST()
Syntax: value = bit_test (var, bit)

significant bit.
Returns: 0 or 1
Function: Tests the specified bit (0-7,0-15 or 0-31) in the given
86
Built-in Functions
variable. The least significant bit is 0. This function is

much more efficient than, but otherwise the same as:
((var & (1<<bit)) != 0)
Requires Nothing
Examples: if( bit_test(x,3) || !bit_test (x,1) ){

//either bit 3 is 1 or bit 1 is 0
}
if(data!=0)
for(i=31;!bit_test(data, i);i--) ;
// i now has the most significant bit in data
// that is set to a 1
Also See: bit_clear(), bit_set()
CALLOC()
Syntax: ptr=calloc(nmem, size)
Parameters: nmem is an integer representing the number of member

objects and size the number of bytes to be allocated or
each one of them.
Returns: A pointer to the allocated memory, if any. Returns null

otherwise.
Function: The calloc function allocates space for an array of

nmem objects whose size is specified by size. The
space is initialized to all bits zero.
Requires STDLIBM.H must be included
87
Built-in Functions
Examples: int * iptr;

iptr=calloc(5,10);
// iptr will point to a block of memory of
// 50 bytes all initialized to 0.
Example Files: None
Also See: realloc(), free(), malloc()
CEIL()
Syntax: result = ceil (value)
Parameters: value is a float
Returns: A float
Function: Computes the smallest integral value greater than the

argument. CEIL(12.67) is 13.00.
Requires #include <math.h>
Examples: // Calculate cost based on weight rounded

// up to the next pound
cost = ceil( weight ) * DollarsPerPound;
Example Files: None
Also See: floor()
COS()
See: SIN()
88
Built-in Functions
COSH()
See: SIN()
CLEAR_INTERRUPT()
Syntax: clear_interrupt(level)
Parameters: level – a constant defined in the devices.h file
Returns: undefined
Function: Clears the interrupt flag for the given level. This function
is designed for use with a specific interrupt, thus
eliminating the GLOBAL level as a possible parameter.
Requires Nothing
Examples: clear_interrupt(int_timer1);
Example Files: None
Also See: enable_interrupts(), #INT
DELAY_CYCLES()
Syntax: delay_cycles (count)
Parameters: count - a constant 1-255
Returns: undefined
Function: Creates code to perform a delay of the specified number

of instruction clocks (1-255). An instruction clock is
equal to four oscillator clocks.
89
Built-in Functions
The delay time may be longer than requested if an

interrupt is serviced during the delay. The time spent in
the ISR does not count toward the delay time.
Requires Nothing
Examples: delay_cycles( 1 ); // Same as a NOP
delay_cycles(25); // At 20 mhz a 5us delay
Also See: delay_us(), delay_ms()
DELAY_MS()
Syntax: delay_ms (time)
Parameters: time - a variable 0-255 or a constant 0-65535
Returns: undefined
Function: This function will create code to perform a delay of the

specified length. Time is specified in milliseconds. This
function works by executing a precise number of
instructions to cause the requested delay. It does not
use any timers. If interrupts are enabled the time spent
in an interrupt routine is not counted toward the time.

Requires #use delay
Examples: #use delay (clock=20000000)
90
Built-in Functions
delay_ms( 2 );
void delay_seconds(int n) {
for (;n!=0; n- -)
delay_ms( 1000 );
}
Also See: delay_us(), delay_cycles(), #use delay
DELAY_US()
Syntax: delay_us (time)
Parameters: time - a variable 0-255 or a constant 0-65535
Returns: undefined
Function: Creates code to perform a delay of the specified length.

Time is specified in microseconds. Shorter delays will
be INLINE code and longer delays and variable delays
are calls to a function. This function works by executing
a precise number of instructions to cause the requested
delay. It does not use any timers. If interrupts are
enabled the time spent in an interrupt routine is not
counted toward the time.

Requires #use delay
Examples: #use delay(clock=20000000)
do {
output_high(PIN_B0);
91
Built-in Functions
delay_us(duty);
output_low(PIN_B0);
delay_us(period-duty);
} while(TRUE);
Also See: delay_ms(), delay_cycles(), #use delay
DISABLE_INTERRUPTS()
Syntax: disable_interrupts (level)
Parameters: level - a constant defined in the devices .h file
Returns: undefined
Function: Disables the interrupt at the given level. The GLOBAL

level will not disable any of the specific interrupts but will
prevent any of the specific interrupts, previously enabled
to be active. Valid specific levels are the same as are
used in #INT_xxx and are listed in the devices .h file.
GLOBAL will also disable the peripheral interrupts on
devices that have it. Note that it is not necessary to
disable interrupts inside an interrupt service routine
since interrupts are automatically disabled.
Availability: Device with interrupts (PCM and PCH)
Requires Should have a #int_xxxx, constants are defined in the

devices .h file.
Examples: disable_interrupts(GLOBAL); // all interrupts OFF

disable_interrupts(INT_RDA); // RS232 OFF
enable_interrupts(ADC_DONE);
enable_interrupts(RB_CHANGE);
// these enable the interrupts
// but since the GLOBAL is disabled they
// are not activated until the following
// statement:
enable_interrupts(GLOBAL);
92
Built-in Functions
Example Files: ex_sisr.c, ex_stwt.c
Also See: enable_interrupts(), #int_xxxx
DIV()
LDIV()
Syntax: idiv=div(num, denom)

ldiv =ldiv(lnum, ldenom)
idiv=ldiv(lnum, ldenom)
Parameters: num and denom are signed integers.

num is the numerator and denom is the denominator.
lnum and ldenom are signed longs.
lnum is the numerator and ldenom is the denominator.
Returns: idiv is an object of type div_t and lidiv is an object of

type ldiv_t. The div function returns a structure of type
div_t, comprising of both the quotient and the
remainder. The ldiv function returns a structure of type
ldiv_t, comprising of both the quotient and the
remainder.
Function: The div and ldiv function computes the quotient and
remainder of the division of the numerator by the
denominator. If the division is inexact, the resulting
quotient is the integer or long of lesser magnitude that is
the nearest to the algebraic quotient. If the result cannot
be represented, the behavior is undefined; otherwise
quot*denom(ldenom)+rem shall equal num(lnum).
Availability: All devices.
Requires #include <STDLIB.H>
Examples: div_t idiv;

ldiv_t lidiv;
idiv=div(3,2);
// idiv will contain quot=1 and rem=1
93
Built-in Functions
lidiv=ldiv(300,250);
//lidiv will contain quot=1 and rem=50
Example Files: None
Also See: None
ENABLE_INTERRUPTS()
Syntax: enable_interrupts (level)
Parameters: level - a constant defined in the devices .h file
Returns: undefined
Function: Enables the interrupt at the given level. An interrupt

procedure should have been defined for the indicated
interrupt. The GLOBAL level will not enable any of the
specific interrupts but will allow any of the specific
interrupts previously enabled to become active.
Availability: Device with interrupts (PCM and PCH)
Requires Should have a #int_xxxx, Constants are defined in the

devices .h file.
Examples: enable_interrupts(GLOBAL);
enable_interrupts(INT_TIMER0);
enable_interrupts(INT_TIMER1);
Example Files: ex_sisr.c, ex_stwt.c
Also See: disable_interrupts(), #int_xxxx
ERASE_PROGRAM_EEPROM()
Syntax: erase_program_eeprom (address);
Parameters: address is 16 bits on PCM parts and 32 bits on PCH parts.
94
Built-in Functions
The least significant bits may be ignored.
Returns: undefined
Function: Erases FLASH_ERASE_SIZE bytes to 0xFFFF in program

memory. FLASH_ERASE_SIZE varies depending on the
part. For example, if it is 64 bytes then the least significant 6
bits of address is ignored.
Availability: Only devices that allow writes to program memory.
Requires Nothing
Examples: for(i=0x1000;i<=0x1fff;i+=getenv("FLASH_ERASE_SIZE"))
erase_program_memory(i);
Example Files: None
Also See: write_program_eeprom(), write_program_memory()
EXP()
Syntax: result = exp (value)
Returns: A float
Function: Computes the exponential function of the argument.

This is e to the power of value where e is the base of
natural logarithms. exp(1) is 2.7182818.
Note on error handling:

If "errno.h" is included then the domain and range errors
are stored in the errno variable. The user can check the
errno to see if an error has occurred and print the error
using the perror function.
Range error occur in the following case:

• exp: when the argument is too large
95
Built-in Functions
Requires math.h must be included
Examples: // Calculate x to the power of y
x_power_y = exp( y * log(x) );
Example Files: None
Also See: pow(), log(), log10()
EXT_INT_EDGE()
Syntax: ext_int_edge (source, edge)
Parameters: source is a constant 0,1 or 2 for the PIC18XXX and 0

otherwise source is optional and defaults to 0 edge is a
constant H_TO_L or L_TO_H representing "high to low"
and "low to high"
Returns: undefined
Function: Determines when the external interrupt is acted upon.

The edge may be L_TO_H or H_TO_L to specify the
rising or falling edge.
Availability: Only devices with interrupts (PCM and PCH)
Requires Constants are in the devices .h file
Examples: ext_int_edge( 2, L_TO_H); // Set up PIC18 EXT2
ext_int_edge( H_TO_L ); // Sets up EXT
Example Files: ex_wakup.c
Also See: #INT_EXT, enable_interrupts(), disable_interrupts()
96
Built-in Functions
FABS()
Syntax: result=fabs (value)
Returns: result is a float
Function: The fabs function computes the absolute value of a float
Requires MATH.H must be included
Examples: float result;

result=fabs(-40.0)
// result is 40.0
Example Files: None
Also See: abs(), labs()
FLOOR()
Syntax: result = floor (value)
Function: Computes the greatest integral value not greater than

the argument. Floor (12.67) is 12.00.
Examples: // Find the fractional part of a value
97
Built-in Functions
frac = value - floor(value);
Example Files: None
Also See: ceil()
FMOD()
Syntax: result= fmod (val1, val2)
Parameters: val1 and val2 are floats
Function: Returns the floating point remainder of val1/val2.

Returns the value val1 - i*val2 for some integer “i” such
that, if val2 is nonzero, the result has the same sign as
val1 and magnitude less than the magnitude of val2.

result=fmod(3,2);
// result is 1
Example Files: None
Also See: None
FREE()
Syntax: free(ptr)
Parameters: ptr is a pointer earlier returned by the calloc, malloc or

realloc.
98
Built-in Functions
Returns: No value
Function: The free function causes the space pointed to by the ptr
to be deallocated, which is made available for further
allocation. If ptr is a null pointer, no action occurs. If the
ptr does not match a pointer earlier returned by the
calloc, malloc or realloc, or if the space has been
deallocated by a call to free or realloc function, the

iptr=malloc(10);
free(iptr)
// iptr will be deallocated
Example Files: None
Also See: realloc(), malloc(), calloc()
FREXP()
Syntax: result=frexp (value, & exp);
Parameters: value is float

exp is a signed int.
Function: The frexp function breaks a floating point number into a

normalized fraction and an integral power of 2. It stores
the integer in the signed int object exp. The result is in
the interval [1/2,1) or zero, such that value is result
times 2 raised to power exp. If value is zero then both
parts are zero.
99
Built-in Functions

signed int exp;
result=frexp(.5,&exp);
// result is .5 and exp is 0
Example Files: None
Also See: ldexp(), exp(), log(), log10(), modf()
GET_TIMERx()
Syntax: value=get_timer0() Same as: value=get_rtcc()

value=get_timer1()
value=get_timer2()
value=get_timer3()
value=get_timer4()
value=get_timer5()
Parameters: None
Returns: Timers 1, 3, and 5 return a 16 bit int.

Timers 2 and 4 return an 8 bit int.
Timer 0 (AKA RTCC) returns a 8 bit int except on the
PIC18XXX where it returns a 16 bit int.
Function: Returns the count value of a real time clock/counter.

RTCC and Timer0 are the same. All timers count up.
When a timer reaches the maximum value it will flip over
to 0 and continue counting (254, 255, 0, 1, 2...).
Availability: Timer 0 - All devices

Timers 1 & 2 - Most but not all PCM devices
Timer 3 - Only PIC18XXX
Timer 4 – Some PCH devices
Timer 5 – Only PIC18XX31
Requires Nothing
100
Built-in Functions
Examples: set_timer0(0);
while ( get_timer0() < 200 ) ;
Example Files: ex_stwt.c
Also See: set_timerx(), setup_timerx()
GETC()
GETCH()
GETCHAR()
FGETC()
Syntax: value = getc()

value = fgetc(stream)
value=getch()
value=getchar()
Parameters: stream is a stream identifier (a constant byte)
Returns: An 8 bit character
Function: This function waits for a character to come in over the

RS232 RCV pin and returns the character. If you do
not want to hang forever waiting for an incoming
character use kbhit() to test for a character available. If
a built-in USART is used the hardware can buffer 3
characters otherwise GETC must be active while the
character is being received by the PIC®.
If fgetc() is used then the specified stream is used where

getc() defaults to STDIN (the last USE RS232).
Requires #use rs232
Examples: printf("Continue (Y,N)?");

do {
answer=getch();
}while(answer!='Y' && answer!='N');
101
Built-in Functions
#use rs232(baud=9600,xmit=pin_c6,
rcv=pin_c7,stream=HOSTPC)
#use rs232(baud=1200,xmit=pin_b1,
rcv=pin_b0,stream=GPS)
#use rs232(baud=9600,xmit=pin_b3,
stream=DEBUG)
...
while(TRUE) {
c=fgetc(GPS);
fputc(c,HOSTPC);
if(c==13)
fprintf(DEBUG,"Got a CR\r\n");
}
Also See: putc(), kbhit(), printf(), #use rs232, input.c
GETENV()
Syntax: value = getenv (cstring);
Parameters: cstring is a constant string with a recognized keyword
Returns: A constant number, a constant string or 0
Function: This function obtains information about the execution

environment. The following are recognized keywords.
This function returns a constant 0 if the keyword is not
understood.
FUSE_SET fffff Returns 1 if fuse
fffff is enabled
FUSE_VALID fffff Returns 1 if fuse
fffff is valid
INT:iiiii Returns 1 if the
interrupt iiiii is valid
ID Returns the device ID
(set by #ID)
DEVICE Returns the device
name string (like
"PIC16C74")
102
Built-in Functions
VERSION Returns the compiler

version as a float
VERSION_STRING Returns the compiler
version as a string
PROGRAM_MEMORY Returns the size of
memory for code (in
words)
STACK Returns the stack
size
DATA_EEPROM Returns the number
of bytes of data
EEPROM
READ_PROGRAM Returns a 1 if the
code memory can be
read
PIN:pb Returns a 1 if bit b on
port p is on this part
ADC_CHANNELS Returns the number
of A/D channels
ADC_RESOLUTION Returns the number
of bits returned from
READ_ADC()
ICD Returns a 1 if this is
being compiled for a
ICD
SPI Returns a 1 if the
device has SPI
USB Returns a 1 if the
device has USB
CAN Returns a 1 if the
device has CAN
I2C_SLAVE Returns a 1 if the
device has I2C slave
H/W
I2C_MASTER Returns a 1 if the
device has I2C
master H/W
PSP Returns a 1 if the
device has PSP
COMP Returns a 1 if the
device has a
103
Built-in Functions
comparator
VREF Returns a 1 if the
device has a voltage
reference
LCD Returns a 1 if the
device has direct LCD
H/W
UART Returns the number
of H/W UARTs
CCPx Returns a 1 if the
device has CCP
number x
TIMERx Returns a 1 if the
device has TIMER
number x
FLASH_WRITE_SIZE Smallest number of
bytes that can be
written to FLASH
FLASH_ERASE_SIZE Smallest number of
bytes that can be
erased in FLASH
BYTES_PER_ADDRESS Returns the number
of bytes at an
address location
BITS_PER_INSTRUCTION Returns the size of an
instruction in bits
Requires Nothing
Examples: #IF getenv("VERSION")<3.050

#ERROR Compiler version too old
#ENDIF
for(i=0;i<getenv("DATA_EEPROM");i++)
write_eeprom(i,0);
#IF getenv("FUSE_VALID:BROWNOUT")
#FUSE BROWNOUT
#ENDIF
Example Files: None
104
Built-in Functions
Also See: None
GETS()
FGETS()
Syntax: gets (string)

value = fgets (string, stream)
Parameters: string is a pointer to an array of characters. Stream is a

stream identifier (a constant byte)
Returns: undefined
Function: Reads characters (using GETC()) into the string until a

RETURN (value 13) is encountered. The string is
terminated with a 0. Note that INPUT.C has a more
versatile GET_STRING function.
If fgets() is used then the specified stream is used where

gets() defaults to STDIN (the last USE RS232).
Requires #use rs232
Examples: char string[30];
printf("Password: ");
gets(string);
if(strcmp(string, password))
printf("OK");
Example Files: None
Also See: getc(), get_string in input.c
GOTO_ADDRESS()
Syntax: goto_address(location);
105
Built-in Functions
Parameters: location is a ROM address, 16 or 32 bit int.
Returns: Nothing
Function: This function jumps to the address specified by

location. Jumps outside of the current function should
be done only with great caution. This is not a normally
used function except in very special situations.
Requires Nothing
Examples: #define LOAD_REQUEST PIN_B1

#define LOADER 0x1f00
if(input(LOAD_REQUEST))
goto_address(LOADER);
Example Files: setjmp.h
Also See: label_address()
I2C_POLL()
Syntax: i2c_poll()
Parameters: None
Returns: 1 (TRUE) or 0 (FALSE)
Function: The I2C_POLL() function should only be used when the

built-in SSP is used. This function returns TRUE if the
hardware has a received byte in the buffer. When a
TRUE is returned, a call to I2C_READ() will immediately
return the byte that was received.
Availability: Devices with built in I2C
106
Built-in Functions
Requires #use i2c
Examples: i2c_start(); // Start condition

i2c_write(0xc1); // Device address/Read
count=0;
while(count!=4) {
while(!i2c_poll()) ;
buffer[count++]= i2c_read(); //Read Next
}
i2c_stop(); // Stop condition
Example Files: ex_slave.c
Also See: i2c_start, i2c_write, i2c_stop, i2c_poll
I2C_READ()
Syntax: data = i2c_read();

or
data = i2c_read(ack);
Parameters: ack -Optional, defaults to 1.

0 indicates do not ack.
1 indicates to ack.
Returns: data - 8 bit int
Function: Reads a byte over the I2C interface. In master mode

this function will generate the clock and in slave mode it
will wait for the clock. There is no timeout for the slave,
use I2C_POLL to prevent a lockup. Use
RESTART_WDT in the #USE I2C to strobe the watch-
dog timer in the slave mode while waiting.
Availability: Devices with built in I2C
Requires #use i2c
Examples: i2c_start();
i2c_write(0xa1);
data1 = i2c_read();
data2 = i2c_read();
107
Built-in Functions
i2c_stop();
Example Files: ex_extee.c with 2416.C
I2C_START()
Syntax: i2c_start()
Parameters: None
Returns: undefined
Function: Issues a start condition when in the I2C master mode.

After the start condition the clock is held low until
I2C_WRITE() is called. If another I2C_start is called in
the same function before an i2c_stop is called then a
special restart condition is issued. Note that specific I2C
protocol depends on the slave device.
Requires #use i2c
Examples: i2c_start();
i2c_write(0xa0); // Device address
i2c_write(address); // Data to device
i2c_start(); // Restart
i2c_write(0xa1); // to change data direction
data=i2c_read(0); // Now read from slave
i2c_stop();
I2C_STOP()
108
Built-in Functions
Syntax: i2c_stop()
Parameters: None
Returns: undefined
Function: Issues a stop condition when in the I2C master mode.
Requires #use i2c
Examples: i2c_start(); // Start condition

i2c_write(0xa0); // Device address
i2c_write(5); // Device command
i2c_write(12); // Device data
Also See: i2c_start, i2c_write, i2c_read, i2c_poll, #use i2c
I2C_WRITE()
Syntax: i2c_write (data)
Parameters: data is an 8 bit int
Returns: This function returns the ACK Bit.

0 means ACK, 1 means NO ACK.
Function: Sends a single byte over the I2C interface. In master

mode this function will generate a clock with the data
and in slave mode it will wait for the clock from the
master. No automatic timeout is provided in this
function. This function returns the ACK bit. The LSB of
the first write after a start determines the direction of
data transfer (0 is master to slave). Note that specific
I2C protocol depends on the slave device.
109
Built-in Functions
Requires #use i2c
Examples: long cmd;

...
i2c_start(); // Start condition
i2c_write(0xa0);// Device address
i2c_write(cmd);// Low byte of command
i2c_write(cmd>>8);// High byte of command
Also See: i2c_start(), i2c_stop, i2c_read, i2c_poll, #use i2c
INPUT()
Syntax: value = input (pin)
Parameters: Pin to read. Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The
actual value is a bit address. For example, port a (byte
5) bit 3 would have a value of 5*8+3 or 43. This is
defined as follows: #define PIN_A3 43
Returns: 0 (or FALSE) if the pin is low,

1 (or TRUE) if the pin is high
Function: This function returns the state of the indicated pin. The
method of I/O is dependent on the last USE *_IO
directive. By default with standard I/O before the input
is done the data direction is set to input.
Requires Pin constants are defined in the devices .h file
Examples: while ( !input(PIN_B1) );

// waits for B1 to go high
if( input(PIN_A0) )
printf("A0 is now high\r\n");
110
Built-in Functions
Example Files: EX_PULSE.C
Also See: input_x(), output_low(), output_high(), #use xxxx_io
INPUT_STATE()
Syntax: value = input_state(pin)
Parameters: pin to read. Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The
actual value is a bit address. For example, port A (byte
defined as follows: #define PIN_A3 43.
Returns: Bit specifying whether pin is input or output. A 1

indicates the pin is input and a 0 indicates it is output.
Function: This function reads the I/O state of a pin without

changing the direction of the pin as INPUT() does.
Requires Nothing
Examples: dir = input_state(pin_A3);

printf("Direction: %d",dir);
Example Files: None
Also See: input(), set_tris_x(), output_low(), output_high()
INPUT_x()
Syntax: value = input_a()

value = input_b()
value = input_c()
value = input_d()
value = input_e()
111
Built-in Functions
Parameters: None
Returns: An 8 bit int representing the port input data.
Function: Inputs an entire byte from a port. The direction register

is changed in accordance with the last specified #USE
*_IO directive. By default with standard I/O before the
input is done the data direction is set to input.
Requires Nothing
Examples: data = input_b();
Also See: input(), output_x(), #USE xxxx_IO
ISALNUM(char)
ISALPHA(char)
ISDIGIT(char)
ISLOWER(char)
ISSPACE(char)
ISUPPER(char)
ISXDIGIT(char)
ISCNTRL(x)
ISGRAPH(x)
ISPRINT(x)
ISPUNCT(x)
Syntax: value = isalnum(datac)

value = isdigit(datac)
value = islower(datac)
value = isspace(datac)
value = isupper(datac)
value = isxdigit(datac)
112
Built-in Functions
iscntrl(x) X is less than a space

isgraph(x) X is greater than a space
isprint(x) X is greater than or equal to a space
ispunct(x) X is greater than a space and not a letter or
number
Parameters: datac is a 8 bit character
Returns: 0 (or FALSE) if datac dose not match the criteria, 1 (or
TRUE) if datac does match the criteria.
Function: Tests a character to see if it meets specific criteria as

follows:
isalnum(x) X is 0..9, 'A'..'Z', or 'a'..'z'
isalpha(x) X is 'A'..'Z' or 'a'..'z
isdigit(x) X is '0'..'9'
islower(x) X is 'a'..'z'
isupper(x) X is 'A'..'Z
isspace(x) X is a space
isxdigit(x) X is '0'..'9', 'A'..'F', or 'a'..'f
Requires ctype.h
Examples: char id[20];

...
if(isalpha(id[0])) {
valid_id=TRUE;
for(i=1;i<strlen(id);i++)
valid_id=valid_id&& isalnum(id[i]);
} else
valid_id=FALSE;
Example Files: ex_str.c
Also See: isamoung()
ISAMOUNG()
Syntax: result = isamoung (value, cstring)
113
Built-in Functions
Parameters: value is a character

cstring is a constant string
Returns: 0 (or FALSE) if value is not in cstring

1 (or TRUE) if value is in cstring
Function: Returns TRUE if a character is one of the characters in

a constant string.
Requires Nothing
Examples: char x;
...
if( isamoung (x,"0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ") )
printf("The character is valid");
Example Files: ctype.h
Also See: isalnum(), isalpha(), isdigit(), isspace(), islower(),

isupper(), isxdigit()
KBHIT()
Syntax: value = kbhit()

value = kbhit(stream)
Parameters: stream is the stream id assigned to an available RS232

port. If the stream parameter is not included, the
function uses the primary stream used by getc().
Returns: 0 (or FALSE) if getc() will need to wait for a character to

come in, 1 (or TRUE) if a character is ready for getc()
Function: If the RS232 is under software control this function

returns TRUE if the start bit of a character is being sent
on the RS232 RCV pin. If the RS232 is hardware this
function returns TRUE is a character has been received
114
Built-in Functions
and is waiting in the hardware buffer for getc() to read.

This function may be used to poll for data without
stopping and waiting for the data to appear. Note that in
the case of software RS232 this function should be
called at least 10 times the bit rate to ensure incoming
data is not lost.
Requires #use rs232
Examples: char timed_getc() {
long timeout;
timeout_error=FALSE;
timeout=0;
while(!kbhit()&&(++timeout<50000)) // 1/2
// second
delay_us(10);
if(kbhit())
return(getc());
else {
timeout_error=TRUE;
return(0);
}
}
Example Files: ex_tgetc.c
Also See: getc(), #USE RS232
LABEL_ADDRESS()
Syntax: value = label_address(label);
Parameters: label is a C label anywhere in the function
Returns: A 16 bit int in PCB,PCM and a 32 bit int for PCH
Function: This function obtains the address in ROM of the next

instruction after the label. This is not a normally used
function except in very special situations.
115
Built-in Functions
Requires Nothing
Examples: start:
a = (b+c)<<2;
end:
printf("It takes %lu ROM locations.\r\n",
label_address(end)-label_address(start));
Example Files: setjmp.h
Also See: goto_address()
LABS()
Syntax: result = labs (value)
Parameters: value is a 16 bit signed long int
Returns: A 16 bit signed long int
Function: Computes the absolute value of a long integer.
Requires stdlib.h must be included
Examples: if(labs( target_value - actual_value ) > 500)

printf("Error is over 500 points\r\n");
Example Files: None
Also See: abs()
LCD_LOAD()
116
Built-in Functions
Syntax: lcd_load (buffer_pointer, offset, length);
Parameters: buffer_pointer points to the user data to send to the

LCD, offset is the offset into the LCD segment memory
to write the data, length is the number of bytes to
transfer.
Returns: undefined
Function: Will load length bytes from buffer_pointer into the

923/924 LCD segment data area beginning at offset (0-
15). lcd_symbol provides an easier way to write data to
the segment memory.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with LCD drive

hardware.
Requires Constants are defined in the devices .h file.
Examples: lcd_load(buffer, 0, 16);
Example Files: ex_92lcd.c
Also See: lcd_symbol(), setup_lcd()
LCD_SYMBOL()
Syntax: lcd_symbol (symbol, b7_addr, b6_addr, b5_addr,

b4_addr, b3_addr, b2_addr, b1_addr, b0_addr);
Parameters: symbol is a 8 bit constant.

bX_addr is a bit address representing the segment
location to be used for bit X of symbol.
Returns: undefined
Function: Loads 8 bits into the segment data area for the LCD with
each bit address specified. If bit 7 in symbol is set the
segment at B7_addr is set, otherwise it is cleared. The
same is true of all other bits in symbol. The B7_addr is a
117
Built-in Functions
bit address into the LCD RAM.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with LCD drive

hardware.
Examples: byte CONST DIGIT_MAP[10]=

{0X90,0XB7,0X19,0X36,0X54,0X50,0XB5,0X24};
#define DIGIT_1_CONFIG
COM0+2,COM0+4,COM05,COM2+4,COM2+1,
COM1+4,COM1+5
for(i=1; i<=9; ++i) {

LCD_SYMBOL(DIGIT_MAP[i],DIGIT_1_CONFIG);
delay_ms(1000);
}
Also See: setup_lcd(), lcd_load()
LDEXP()
Syntax: result= ldexp (value, exp);
Parameters: value is float

exp is a signed int.
Returns: result is a float with value result times 2 raised to power

exp.
Function: The ldexp function multiplies a floating-point number by

an integral power of 2.
118
Built-in Functions
signed int exp;

result=ldexp(.5,0);
// result is .5
Example Files: None
Also See: frexp(), exp(), log(), log10(), modf()
LOG()
Syntax: result = log (value)
Returns: A float
Function: Computes the natural logarithm of the float x. If the

argument is less than or equal to zero or too large, the

f "errno.h" is included then the domain and range errors
Domain error occurs in the following cases:

• log: when the argument is negative
Requires math.h must be included.
Examples: lnx = log(x);
Example Files: None
Also See: log10(), exp(), pow()
119
Built-in Functions
LOG10()
Syntax: result = log10 (value)
Returns: A float
Function: Computes the base-ten logarithm of the float x. If the

argument is less than or equal to zero or too large, the


• log10: when the argument is negative
Examples: db = log10( read_adc()*(5.0/255) )*10;
Example Files: None
Also See: log(), exp(), pow()
120
Built-in Functions
MAKE8()
Syntax: i8 = MAKE8(var, offset)
Parameters: var is a 16 or 32 bit integer.

offset is a byte offset of 0,1,2 or 3.
Returns: An 8 bit integer
Function: Extracts the byte at offset from var. Same as: i8 = (((var
>> (offset*8)) & 0xff) except it is done with a single byte
move.
Requires Nothing
Examples: int32 x;
int y;
y = make8(x,3); // Gets MSB of x
Example Files: None
Also See: make16(), make32()
MAKE16()
Syntax: i16 = MAKE16(varhigh, varlow)
Parameters: varhigh and varlow are 8 bit integers.
Returns: A 16 bit integer
Function: Makes a 16 bit number out of two 8 bit numbers. If

either parameter is 16 or 32 bits only the lsb is used.
Same as: i16 =
(int16)(varhigh&0xff)*0x100+(varlow&0xff) except it is
done with two byte moves.
121
Built-in Functions
Requires Nothing
Examples: long x;
int hi,lo;
x = make16(hi,lo);
Example Files: ltc1298.c
MAKE32()
Syntax: i32 = MAKE32(var1, var2, var3, var4)
Parameters: var1-4 are a 8 or 16 bit integers. var2-4 are optional.
Returns: A 32 bit integer
Function: Makes a 32 bit number out of any combination of 8 and

16 bit numbers. Note that the number of parameters
may be 1 to 4. The msb is first. If the total bits provided
is less than 32 then zeros are added at the msb.
Requires Nothing
Examples: int32 x;
int y;
long z;
x = make32(1,2,3,4); // x is 0x01020304
y=0x12;
z=0x4321;
x = make32(y,z); // x is 0x00124321
122
Built-in Functions
x = make32(y,y,z); // x is 0x12124321
Example Files: ex_freqc.c
MALLOC()
Syntax: ptr=malloc(size)
Parameters: size is an integer representing the number of byes to be

allocated.
Returns: A pointer to the allocated memory, if any. Returns null

otherwise.
Function: The malloc function allocates space for an object whose

size is specified by size and whose value is
indeterminate.

iptr=malloc(10);
// iptr will point to a block of memory of 10
bytes.
Example Files: None
Also See: realloc(), free(), calloc()
MEMCPY()
MEMMOVE()
Syntax: memcpy (destination, source, n)

memmove(destination, source, n)
123
Built-in Functions
Parameters: destination is a pointer to the destination memory,

source is a pointer to the source memory, n is the
number of bytes to transfer
Returns: undefined
Function: Copies n bytes from source to destination in RAM. Be

aware that array names are pointers where other
variable names and structure names are not (and
therefore need a & before them).
Memmove performs a safe copy (overlapping objects

doesn't cause a problem). Copying takes place as if the
n characters from the source are first copied into a
temporary array of n characters that doesn't overlap the
destination and source objects. Then the n characters
from the temporary array are copied to destination.
Requires Nothing
Examples: memcpy(&structA, &structB, sizeof (structA));

memcpy(arrayA,arrayB,sizeof (arrayA));
memcpy(&structA, &databyte, 1);
char a[20]="hello";
memmove(a,a+2,5);
// a is now "llo"MEMMOVE()
Example Files: None
Also See: strcpy(), memset()
MEMSET()
Syntax: memset (destination, value, n)
Parameters: destination is a pointer to memory, value is a 8 bit int,

and n is a 8 bit int.
124
Built-in Functions
Returns: undefined
Function: Copies n bytes of memory at destination with the value.

Be aware that array names are pointers where other
variable names and structure names are not (and
therefore need a & before them).
Requires Nothing
Examples: memset(arrayA, 0, sizeof(arrayA));

memset(arrayB, '?', sizeof(arrayB));
memset(&structA, 0xFF, sizeof (structA));
Example Files: None
Also See: memcpy()
MODF()
Syntax: result= modf (value, & integral)
Parameters: value and integral are floats
Function: The modf function breaks the argument value into

integral and fractional parts, each of which has the same
sign as the argument. It stores the integral part as a float
in the object integral.
Examples: float result, integral;

result=modf(123.987,&integral);
// result is .987 and integral is 123.0000
125
Built-in Functions
Example Files: None
Also See: None
OFFSETOF()
OFFSETOFBIT()
Syntax: value = offsetof(stype, field);

value = offsetofbit(stype, field);
Parameters: stype is a structure type name.

Field is a field from the above structure
Returns: An 8 bit byte
Function: These functions return an offset into a structure for the

indicated field. offsetof returns the offset in bytes and
offsetofbit returns the offset in bits.
Requires stddef.h
Examples: struct time_structure {

int hour, min, sec;
int zone : 4;
short daylight_savings;
}
x = offsetof(time_structure, sec);
// x will be 2
x = offsetofbit(time_structure, sec);
// x will be 16
x = offsetof (time_structure,
daylight_savings);
// x will be 3
x = offsetofbit(time_structure,
daylight_savings);
// x will be 28
Example Files: None
126
Built-in Functions
Also See: None
OUTPUT_A()
OUTPUT_B()
OUTPUT_C()
OUTPUT_D()
OUTPUT_E()
Syntax: output_a (value)

output_b (value)
output_c (value)
output_d (value)
output_e (value)
Parameters: value is a 8 bit int
Returns: undefined
Function: Output an entire byte to a port. The direction register is

changed in accordance with the last specified #USE
*_IO directive.
Availability: All devices, however not all devices have all ports (A-E)
Requires Nothing
Examples: OUTPUT_B(0xf0);
Also See: input(), output_low(), output_high(), output_float(),

output_bit(), #use xxxx_io
OUTPUT_BIT()
Syntax: output_bit (pin, value)
127
Built-in Functions
Parameters: Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The actual number
is a bit address. For example, port a (byte 5) bit 3 would
have a value of 5*8+3 or 43. This is defined as follows:
#define PIN_A3 43. Value is a 1 or a 0.
Returns: undefined
Function: Outputs the specified value (0 or 1) to the specified I/O

pin. The method of setting the direction register is
determined by the last #USE *_IO directive.
Examples: output_bit( PIN_B0, 0);

// Same as output_low(pin_B0);
output_bit( PIN_B0,input( PIN_B1 ) );

// Make pin B0 the same as B1
output_bit( PIN_B0,
shift_left(&data,1,input(PIN_B1)));
// Output the MSB of data to
// B0 and at the same time
// shift B1 into the LSB of data
Also See: input(), output_low(), output_high(), output_float(),

output_x(), #use xxxx_io
OUTPUT_FLOAT()
Syntax: output_float (pin)
Parameters: Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The actual value is
a bit address. For example, port a (byte 5) bit 3 would
#define PIN_A3 43
128
Built-in Functions
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the specified pin to the input mode. This will allow
the pin to float high to represent a high on an open
collector type of connection.
Examples: if( (data & 0x80)==0 )

output_low(pin_A0);
else
output_float(pin_A0);
Example Files: None
Also See: input(), output_low(), output_high(), output_bit(),

output_x(), #use xxxx_io
OUTPUT_HIGH()
Syntax: output_high (pin)
Parameters: Pin to read. Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The
actual value is a bit address. For example, port a (byte
defined as follows: #define PIN_A3 43
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets a given pin to the high state. The method of I/O
used is dependent on the last USE *_IO directive.
Examples: output_high(PIN_A0);
129
Built-in Functions
Also See: input(), output_low(), output_float(), output_high(),

output_bit(), output_x(), #use xxxx_io
OUTPUT_LOW()
Syntax: output_low (pin)
Parameters: Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The actual value
#define PIN_A3 43
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets a given pin to the ground state. The method of I/O
used is dependent on the last USE *_IO directive.
Examples: output_low(PIN_A0);
Also See: input(), output_high(), output_low(), output_float(),

output_high(), output_bit(), output_x(), #use xxxx_io
OUTPUT_TOGGLE()
Syntax: output_toggle(pin)
Parameters: Pins are defined in the devices .h file. The actual value
have a value of 5*8+3 or 43. This is a defined as
130
Built-in Functions
follows: #define PIN_A3 43.
Returns: undefined
Function: Toggles the high/low state of the specified pin.
Examples: output_toggle(PIN_B4);
Example Files: None
Also See: Input(), output_high(), output_low(), output_bit(),

output_x()
PERROR()
Syntax: perror(string);
Parameters: string is a constant string or array of characters (null

terminated).
Returns: Nothing
Function: This function prints out to STDERR the supplied string

and a description of the last system error (usually a
math error).
Requires #use rs232, errno.h
Examples: x = sin(y);
if(errno!=0)
perror("Problem in find_area");
Example Files: None
131
Built-in Functions
Also See: None
PORT_A_PULLUPS()
Syntax: port_a_pullups (value)
Parameters: value is TRUE or FALSE on most parts, some parts that

allow pullups to be specified on individual pins permit an
8 bit int here, one bit for each port pin.
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the port A input pullups. TRUE will activate, and a
FALSE will deactivate.
Availability: Only 14 and 16 bit devices (PCM and PCH). (Note: use
SETUP_COUNTERS on PCB parts).
Requires Nothing
Examples: port_a_pullups(FALSE);
Example Files: ex_lcdkb.c with kbd.c
Also See: input(), input_x(), output_float()
PORT_B_PULLUPS()
Syntax: port_b_pullups (value)
Parameters: value is TRUE or FALSE on most parts, some parts that

allow pullups to be specified on individual pins permit an
8 bit int here, one bit for each port pin.
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the port B input pullups. TRUE will activate, and a
132
Built-in Functions
FALSE will deactivate.
Availability: Only 14 and 16 bit devices (PCM and PCH). (Note: use
SETUP_COUNTERS on PCB parts).
Requires Nothing
Examples: port_b_pullups(FALSE);
Example Files: ex_lcdkb.c with kbd.c
Also See: input(), input_x(), output_float()
POW()
Syntax: f = pow (x,y)
Parameters: x and y and of type float
Returns: A float
Function: Calculates X to the Y power.

Range error occurs in the following case:

• pow: when the argument X is negative
Availability: All Devices
Examples: area = (size,3.0);
Example Files: None
133
Built-in Functions
Also See: None
POWER CONTROL PWM
Syntax: setup_power_pwm(modes,postscale,time_base,period,compare,
compare_postscale,dead_time)
Parameters: modes: (or together one from each group)

PWM_CLOCK_DIV_4
PWM_CLOCK_DIV_16
PWM_CLOCK_DIV_64
PWM_CLOCK_DIV_128
PWM_OFF
PWM_FREE_RUN
PWM_SINGLE_SHOT
PWM_UP_DOWN
PWM_UP_DOWN_INT
PWM_OVERRIDE_SYNC
PWM_UP_TRIGGER
PWM_DOWN_TRIGGER
PWM_UPDATE_DISABLE
PWM_UPDATE_ENABLE
PWM_DEAD_CLOCK_DIV_2
Returns: A float
Function: Calculates X to the Y power.

If "errno.h" is included then the domain and range errors are
stored in the errno variable. The user can check the errno to see
if an error has occurred and print the error using the perror
function.
134
Built-in Functions
Range error occurs in the following case:

• pow: when the argument X is negative
Examples: area = (size,3.0);
Example None
Files:
Also See: None
PRINTF()
FPRINTF()
Syntax: printf (string)

or
printf (cstring, values...)
or
printf (fname, cstring, values...)
fprintf (stream, cstring, values...)
Parameters: String is a constant string or an array of characters null

terminated. Values is a list of variables separated by
commas, fname is a function name to be used for
outputting (default is putc is none is specified). Stream
is a stream identifier (a constant byte)
Returns: undefined
Function: Outputs a string of characters to either the standard RS-

232 pins (first two forms) or to a specified function.
Formatting is in accordance with the string argument.
When variables are used this string must be a constant.
The % character is used within the string to indicate a
variable value is to be formatted and output. Longs in
the printf may be 16 or 32 bit. A %% will output a single
%. Formatting rules for the % follows.
135
Built-in Functions
If fprintf() is used then the specified stream is used

where printf() defaults to STDOUT (the last USE
RS232).
Format:
The format takes the generic form %wt where w is
optional and may be 1-9 to specify how many characters
are to be outputted, or 01-09 to indicate leading zeros or
1.1 to 9.9 for floating point. t is the type and may be one
of the following:
C Character
S String or character
U Unsigned int
x Hex int (lower case output)
X Hex int (upper case output)
D Signed int
e Float in exp format
f Float
Lx Hex long int (lower case)
LX Hex long int (upper case)
lu unsigned decimal long
ld signed decimal long
% Just a %
Example formats:
Specifier Value=0x12 Value=0xfe
%03u 018 254
%u 18 254
%2u 18 *
%5 18 254
%d 18 -2
%x 12 Fe
%X 12 FE
%4X 0012 00FE
* Result is undefined - Assume garbage.
Requires #use rs232 (unless fname is used)
136
Built-in Functions
Examples: byte x,y,z;

printf("HiThere");
printf("RTCCValue=>%2x\n\r",get_rtcc());
printf("%2u %X %4X\n\r",x,y,z);
printf(LCD_PUTC, "n=%u",n);
Example Files: ex_admm.c, ex_lcdkb.c
Also See: atoi(), puts(), putc(), getc() (for a stream example)
PSP_OUTPUT_FULL()
PSP_INPUT_FULL()
PSP_OVERFLOW()
Syntax: result = psp_output_full()

result = psp_input_full()
result = psp_overflow()
Parameters: None
Returns: A 0 (FALSE) or 1 (TRUE)
Function: These functions check the Parallel Slave Port (PSP) for
the indicated conditions and return TRUE or FALSE.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with PSP

hardware on chips.
Requires Nothing
Examples: while (psp_output_full()) ;

psp_data = command;
while(!psp_input_full()) ;
if ( psp_overflow() )
error = TRUE;
else
data = psp_data;
Also See: setup_psp()
137
Built-in Functions
PUTC()
PUTCHAR()
FPUTC()
Syntax: putc (cdata)

putchar (cdata)
value = fputc(cdata, stream)
Parameters: cdata is a 8 bit character. Stream is a stream identifier

(a constant byte)
Returns: undefined
Function: This function sends a character over the RS232 XMIT

pin. A #USE RS232 must appear before this call to
determine the baud rate and pin used. The #USE
RS232 remains in effect until another is encountered in
the file.
If fputc() is used then the specified stream is used where

putc() defaults to STDOUT (the last USE RS232).
Requires #use rs232
Examples: putc('*');
for(i=0; i<10; i++)
putc(buffer[i]);
putc(13);
Example Files: ex_tgetc.c
Also See: getc(), printf(), #USE RS232
138
Built-in Functions
PUTS()
FPUTS()
Syntax: puts (string). value = fputs (string, stream)
Parameters: string is a constant string or a character array (null-

terminated). Stream is a stream identifier (a constant
byte)
Returns: undefined
Function: Sends each character in the string out the RS232 pin
using PUTC(). After the string is sent a RETURN (13)
and LINE-FEED (10) are sent. In general printf() is
more useful than puts().
If fputs() is used then the specified stream is used where

puts() defaults to STDOUT (the last USE RS232)
Requires #use rs232
Examples: puts( " ----------- " );

puts( " | HI | " );
puts( " ----------- " );
Example Files: None
Also See: printf(), gets()
RAND()
Syntax: re=rand()
Parameters: None
Returns: A pseudo-random integer.
139
Built-in Functions
Function: The rand function returns a sequence of pseudo-

random integers in the range of 0 to RAND_MAX.
Examples: int I;
I=rand();
Example Files: None
Also See: srand()
READ_ADC()
Syntax: value = read_adc ([mode])
Parameters: mode is an optional parameter. If used the values may

be:
ADC_START_AND_READ (this is the default)
ADC_START_ONLY (starts the conversion and returns)
ADC_READ_ONLY (reads last conversion result)
Returns: Either a 8 or 16 bit int depending on #DEVICE ADC=

directive.
140
Built-in Functions
Function: This function will read the digital value from the analog
to digital converter. Calls to setup_adc(),
setup_adc_ports() and set_adc_channel() should be
made sometime before this function is called. The
range of the return value depends on number of bits in
the chips A/D converter and the setting in the #DEVICE
ADC= directive as follows:
#DEVICE 8 bit 10 bit 11 bit 16 bit
ADC=8 00-FF 00-FF 00-FF 00-FF
ADC=10 x 0-3FF x x
ADC=11 x x 0-7FF x
ADC=16 0-FF00 0-FFC0 0-FFEO 0-FFFF
Note: x is not defined
Availability: This function is only available on devices with A/D

hardware.
Examples: setup_adc( ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL );

setup_adc_ports( ALL_ANALOG );
set_adc_channel(1);
while ( input(PIN_B0) ) {
delay_ms( 5000 );
value = read_adc();
printf("A/D value = %2x\n\r", value);
}
read_adc(ADC_START_ONLY);
sleep();
value=read_adc(ADC_READ_ONLY);
Example Files: ex_admm.c, ex_14kad.c
Also See: setup_adc(), set_adc_channel(), setup_adc_ports(),

#DEVICE
READ_BANK()
Syntax: value = read_bank (bank, offset)
Parameters: bank is the physical RAM bank 1-3 (depending on the
141
Built-in Functions
device), offset is the offset into user RAM for that bank
(starts at 0),
Returns: 8 bit int
Function: Read a data byte from the user RAM area of the
specified memory bank. This function may be used on
some devices where full RAM access by auto variables
is not efficient. For example on the PIC16C57 chip
setting the pointer size to 5 bits will generate the most
efficient ROM code however auto variables can not be
above 1Fh. Instead of going to 8 bit pointers you can
save ROM by using this function to write to the hard to
reach banks. In this case the bank may be 1-3 and the
offset may be 0-15.
Availability: All devices but only useful on PCB parts with memory
over 1Fh and PCM parts with memory over FFh.
Requires Nothing
Examples: // See write_bank example to see

// how we got the data
// Moves data from buffer to LCD
i=0;
do {
c=read_bank(1,i++);
if(c!=0x13)
lcd_putc(c);
} while (c!=0x13);
Also See: write_bank(), and the "Common Questions and

Answers" section for more information.
READ_CALIBRATION()
Syntax: value = read_calibration (n)
Parameters: n is an offset into calibration memory beginning at 0
142
Built-in Functions
Returns: An 8 bit byte
Function: The read_calibration function reads location "n" of the

14000-calibration memory.
Availability: This function is only available on the PIC14000.
Requires Nothing
Examples: fin = read_calibration(16);
Example Files: ex_14kad.c with 14kcal.c
Also See: None
READ_EEPROM()
Syntax: value = read_eeprom (address)
Parameters: address is an 8 bit int
Returns: An 8 bit int
Function: Reads a byte from the specified data EEPROM

address. The address begins at 0 and the range
depends on the part.
Availability: This command is only for parts with built-in EEPROMS
Requires Nothing
Examples: #define LAST_VOLUME 10

volume = read_EEPROM (LAST_VOLUME);
Example Files: ex_intee.c
Also See: write_eeprom()
143
Built-in Functions
READ_PROGRAM_EEPROM()
Syntax: value = read_program_eeprom (address)
Parameters: address is 16 bits on PCM parts and 32 bits on PCH

parts. The least significant bit should always be 0 in
PCH.
Returns: 16 bits
Function: Reads data from the program memory.
Availability: Only devices that allow reads from program memory.
Requires Nothing
Examples: checksum = 0;
for(i=0;i<8196;i++)
checksum^=read_program_eeprom(i);
printf("Checksum is %2X\r\n",checksum);
Example Files: None
Also See: write_program_eeprom(), write_eeprom(), read_eeprom()
READ_PROGRAM_MEMORY()
READ_EXTERNAL_MEMORY()
Syntax: read_program_memory (address, dataptr, count );

read_external_memory (address, dataptr, count );

parts. dataptr is a pointer to one or more bytes. count
is a 8 bit integer
Returns: undefined
144
Built-in Functions
Function: Reads count bytes from program memory at address to

RAM at dataptr. Both of these functions operate exactly
the same.
Availability: Only devices that allow reads from program memory.
Requires Nothing
Examples: char buffer[64];

read_external_memory(0x40000, buffer, 64);
Example Files: None
Also See: write_program_memory()
REALLOC()
Syntax: realloc (ptr, size)
Parameters: ptr is a null pointer or a pointer previously returned by

calloc or malloc or realloc function, size is an integer
representing the number of byes to be allocated.
Returns: A pointer to the possibly moved allocated memory, if

any. Returns null otherwise.
Function: The realloc function changes the size of the object

pointed to by the ptr to the size specified by the size.
The contents of the object shall be unchanged up to the
lesser of new and old sizes. If the new size is larger the
value of the newly allocated space is indeterminate. If
ptr is a null pointer, the realloc function behaves like
malloc function for the specified size. If the ptr does not
match a pointer earlier returned by the calloc, malloc or
realloc, or if the space has been deallocated by a call to
free or realloc function, the behavior is undefined. If the
space cannot be allocated, the object pointed to by ptr is
unchanged. If size is zero and the ptr is not a null
pointer, the object is to be freed.
145
Built-in Functions

iptr=malloc(10);
realloc(ptr,20)
// iptr will point to a block of memory of
// 20 bytes, if available.
Example Files: None
Also See: malloc(), free(), calloc()
RESET_CPU()
Syntax: reset_cpu()
Parameters: None
Returns: This function never returns
Function: This is a general purpose device reset. It will jump to

location 0 on PCB and PCM parts and also reset the
registers to power-up state on the PIC18XXX.
Requires Nothing
Examples: if(checksum!=0)
reset_cpu();
Example Files: None
Also See: None
146
Built-in Functions
RESTART_CAUSE()
Syntax: value = restart_cause()
Parameters: None
Returns: A value indicating the cause of the last processor reset.

The actual values are device dependent. See the
device .h file for specific values for a specific device.
Some example values are: WDT_FROM_SLEEP,
WDT_TIMEOUT, MCLR_FROM_SLEEP and
NORMAL_POWER_UP.
Function: This is a general purpose device reset. It will jump to

location 0 on PCB and PCM parts and also reset the
registers to power-up state on the PIC18XXX.
Examples: switch ( restart_cause() ) {

case WDT_FROM_SLEEP:
case WDT_TIMEOUT:
handle_error();
}
Example Files: ex_wdt.c
Also See: restart_wdt(), reset_cpu()
RESTART_WDT()
Syntax: restart_wdt()
Parameters: None
Returns: undefined
147
Built-in Functions
Function: Restarts the watchdog timer. If the watchdog timer is

enabled, this must be called periodically to prevent the
processor from resetting.
The watchdog timer is used to cause a hardware reset if

the software appears to be stuck.
The timer must be enabled, the timeout time set and

software must periodically restart the timer. These are
done differently on the PCB/PCM and PCH parts as
follows:
PCB/PCM PCH
Enable/Disable #fuses setup_wdt()
Timeout time setup_wdt() #fuses
restart restart_wdt() restart_wdt()
Requires #fuses
Examples: #fuses WDT // PCB/PCM example

// See setup_wdt for a PIC18 example
main() {
setup_wdt(WDT_2304MS);
while (TRUE) {
restart_wdt();
perform_activity();
}
}
Also See: #fuses, setup_wdt()
ROTATE_LEFT()
Syntax: rotate_left (address, bytes)
Parameters: address is a pointer to memory, bytes is a count of the

number of bytes to work with.
Returns: undefined
148
Built-in Functions
Function: Rotates a bit through an array or structure. The

address may be an array identifier or an address to a
byte or structure (such as &data). Bit 0 of the lowest
BYTE in RAM is considered the LSB.
Requires Nothing
Examples: x = 0x86;
rotate_left( &x, 1);
// x is now 0x0d
Example Files: None
Also See: rotate_right(), shift_left(), shift_right()
ROTATE_RIGHT()
Syntax: rotate_right (address, bytes)

number of bytes to work with.
Returns: undefined
Function: Rotates a bit through an array or structure. The

address may be an array identifier or an address to a
byte or structure (such as &data). Bit 0 of the lowest
BYTE in RAM is considered the LSB.
Requires Nothing
Examples: struct {
int cell_1 : 4;
int cell_2 : 4;
int cell_3 : 4;
int cell_4 : 4; } cells;
rotate_right( &cells, 2);
149
Built-in Functions

// cell_1->4, 2->1, 3->2 and 4-> 3
Example Files: None
Also See: rotate_left(), shift_left(), shift_right()
SET_ADC_CHANNEL()
Syntax: set_adc_channel (chan)
Parameters: chan is the channel number to select. Channel

numbers start at 0 and are labeled in the data sheet
AN0, AN1
Returns: undefined
Function: Specifies the channel to use for the next READ_ADC

call. Be aware that you must wait a short time after
changing the channel before you can get a valid read.
The time varies depending on the impedance of the
input source. In general 10us is good for most
applications. You need not change the channel before
every read if the channel does not change.

hardware.
Requires Nothing
Examples: set_adc_channel(2);
delay_us(10);
value = read_adc();
Example Files: ex_admm.c
Also See: read_adc(), setup_adc(), setup_adc_ports()
150
Built-in Functions
SET_PWM1_DUTY()
SET_PWM2_DUTY()
SET_PWM3_DUTY()
SET_PWM4_DUTY()
SET_PWM5_DUTY()
Syntax: set_pwm1_duty (value)

set_pwm2_duty (value)
Parameters: value may be an 8 or 16 bit constant or variable.
Returns: undefined
Function: Writes the 10-bit value to the PWM to set the duty. An
8-bit value may be used if the least significant bits are
not required. If value is an 8 bit item it is shifted up with
two zero bits in the lsb positions to get 10 bits. The 10
bit value is then used to determine the amount of time
the PWM signal is high during each cycle as follows:
• value*(1/clock)*t2div
Where clock is oscillator frequency and t2div is the timer

2 prescaler (set in the call to setup_timer2).
Availability: This function is only available on devices with

CCP/PWM hardware.
Requires Nothing
Examples: // For a 20 mhz clock, 1.2 khz frequency,

// t2DIV set to 16
// the following sets the duty to 50% (or 416 us).
long duty;
duty = 520; // .000416/(16*(1/20000000))

set_pwm1_duty(duty);
Example Files: ex_pwm.c
151
Built-in Functions
Also See: setup_ccpX()
SET_POWER_PWMX_DUTY()
Syntax: set_power_pwmX_duty(duty)
Parameters: X is 0, 2, 4, or 6
Duty is an integer between 0 and 16383.
Returns: undefined
Function: Stores the value of duty into the appropriate PDCXL/H

register. This duty value is the amount of time that the
PWM output is in the active state.
Availability: All devices equipped with PWM.
Requires None
Examples: set_power_pwm0_duty(4000);
Example Files: None
Also See: setup_power_pwm(), setup_power_pwm_pins(),

set_power_pwm_override()
SET_POWER_PWM_OVERRIDE()
Syntax: set_power_pwm_override(pwm, override, value)
Parameters: pwm is a constant between 0 and 7

Override is true or false
Value is 0 or 1
Returns: undefined
Function: pwm selects which module will be affected. override
152
Built-in Functions
determines whether the output is to be determined by

the OVDCONS register or the PDC registers. When
override is false, the PDC registers determine the
output. When override is true, the output is determined
by the value stored in OVDCONS. When value is a 1,
the PWM pin will be driven to its active state on the next
duty cycle. If value is 0, the pin will be inactive.
Requires None
Examples: set_power_pwm_override(1, true, 1);

//PWM1 will be overridden to active state
set_power_pwm_override(1, false, 0);
//PMW1 will not be overidden
Example Files: None
Also See: setup_power_pwm(), setup_power_pwm_pins(),

set_power_pwmX_duty()
SET_RTCC()
SET_TIMER0()
SET_TIMER1()
SET_TIMER2()
SET_TIMER3()
SET_TIMER4()
Syntax: set_timer0(value) or set_rtcc (value)

set_timer1(value)
set_timer2(value)
set_timer3(value)
set_timer4(value)
set_timer5(value)
Parameters: Timers 1, 3, and 5 get a 16 bit int.

Timers 2 and 4 get an 8 bit int.
Timer 0 (AKA RTCC) gets an 8 bit int except on the
PIC18XXX where it needs a 16 bit int.
153
Built-in Functions
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the count value of a real time clock/counter. RTCC

and Timer0 are the same. All timers count up. When
a timer reaches the maximum value it will flip over to 0
and continue counting (254, 255, 0, 1, 2...)
Availability: Timer 0 - All devices

Timers 1 & 2 - Most but not all PCM devices
Timer 3 - Only PIC18XXX
Timer 4 – Some PCH devices
Timer 5 – Only PIC18XX31
Requires Nothing
Examples: // 20 mhz clock, no prescaler, set timer 0

// to overflow in 35us
set_timer0(81); // 256-(.000035/(4/20000000))
Also See: set_timer1(), get_timerX()
SET_TRIS_A()
SET_TRIS_B()
SET_TRIS_C()
SET_TRIS_D()
SET_TRIS_E()
Syntax: set_tris_a (value)

set_tris_b (value)
set_tris_c (value)
set_tris_d (value)
set_tris_e (value)
Parameters: value is an 8 bit int with each bit representing a bit of

the I/O port.
154
Built-in Functions
Returns: undefined
Function: These functions allow the I/O port direction (TRI-State)

registers to be set. This must be used with FAST_IO
and when I/O ports are accessed as memory such as
when a #BYTE directive is used to access an I/O port.
Using the default standard I/O the built in functions set
the I/O direction automatically.
Each bit in the value represents one pin. A 1 indicates

the pin is input and a 0 indicates it is output.
Availability: All devices (however not all devices have all I/O ports)
Requires Nothing
Examples: SET_TRIS_B( 0x0F );

// B7,B6,B5,B4 are outputs
// B3,B2,B1,B0 are inputs
Example Files: lcd.c
Also See: #USE xxxx_IO
SET_UART_SPEED()
Syntax: set_uart_speed (baud, [stream])
Parameters: baud is a constant 100-115200 representing the

number of bits per second. stream is an optional stream
identifier.
Returns: undefined
Function: Changes the baud rate of the built-in hardware RS232

serial port at run-time.
Each bit in the value represents one pin. A 1 indicates

the pin is input and a 0 indicates it is output.
155
Built-in Functions
Availability: This function is only available on devices with a built in

UART.
Requires #use rs232
Examples: // Set baud rate based on setting

// of pins B0 and B1
switch( input_b() & 3 ) {

case 0 : set_uart_speed(2400); break;
}
Also See: #USE RS232, putc(), getc()
SETUP_ADC(mode)
Syntax: setup_adc (mode);
Parameters: mode- Analog to digital mode. The valid options vary

depending on the device. See the devices .h file for all
options. Some typical options include:
• ADC_OFF
• ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL
• ADC_CLOCK_DIV_32
Returns: undefined
Function: Configures the analog to digital converter.
Availability: Only the devices with built in analog to digital converter.
Examples: setup_adc_ports( ALL_ANALOG );

setup_adc(ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL );
set_adc_channel( 0 );
156
Built-in Functions
value = read_adc();
setup_adc( ADC_OFF );
Also See: setup_adc_ports(), set_adc_channel(), read_adc(),

#device. The device .h file.
SETUP_ADC_PORTS()
Syntax: setup_adc_ports (value)
Parameters: value - a constant defined in the devices .h file
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets up the ADC pins to be analog, digital or a

combination. The allowed combinations vary depending
on the chip. The constants used are different for each
chip as well. Check the device include file for a
complete list. The constants ALL_ANALOG and
NO_ANALOGS are valid for all chips. Some other
example constants:
ANALOG_RA3_REF- All analog and RA3 is the
reference
RA0_RA1_RA3_ANALOG- Just RA0, RA1 and RA3 are
analog

hardware.
Examples: // All pins analog (that can be)
setup_adc_ports( ALL_ANALOG );
// Pins A0, A1 and A3 are analog and all others

// are digital. The +5v is used as a reference.
setup_adc_ports( RA0_RA1_RA3_ANALOG );
// Pins A0 and A1 are analog. Pin RA3 is used
157
Built-in Functions
// for the reference voltage and all other pins

// are digital.
setup_adc_ports( A0_RA1_ANALOGRA3_REF );
Also See: setup_adc(), read_adc(), set_adc_channel()
SETUP_CCP1()
SETUP_CCP2()
SETUP_CCP3()
SETUP_CCP4()
SETUP_CCP5()
Syntax: setup_ccp1 (mode)

setup_ccp2 (mode)
setup_ccp3 (mode)
setup_ccp4 (mode)
setup_ccp5 (mode)
Parameters: mode is a constant. Valid constants are in the devices

.h file and are as follows:
Disable the CCP:
CCP_OFF
Set CCP to capture mode:

CCP_CAPTURE_FE Capture on falling edge
CCP_CAPTURE_RE Capture on rising edge
CCP_CAPTURE_DIV_4 Capture after 4 pulses
CCP_CAPTURE_DIV_16 Capture after 16 pulses
Set CCP to compare mode:

CCP_COMPARE_SET_ON_MATCH Output high on compare
CCP_COMPARE_CLR_ON_MATCH Output low on compare
CCP_COMPARE_INT interrupt on compare
CCP_COMPARE_RESET_TIMER Reset timer on compare
Set CCP to PWM mode:

CCP_PWM Enable Pulse Width
Modulator
Returns: undefined
158
Built-in Functions
Function: Initialize the CCP. The CCP counters may be accessed

using the long variables CCP_1 and CCP_2. The CCP
operates in 3 modes. In capture mode it will copy the
timer 1 count value to CCP_x when the input pin event
occurs. In compare mode it will trigger an action when
timer 1 and CCP_x are equal. In PWM mode it will
generate a square wave. The PCW wizard will help to
set the correct mode and timer settings for a particular
application.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with CCP

hardware.
Examples: setup_ccp1(CCP_CAPTURE_RE);
Example Files: ex_pwm.c, ex_ccpmp.c, ex_ccp1s.c
Also See: set_pwmX_duty()
SETUP_COMPARATOR()
Syntax: setup_comparator (mode)
Parameters: mode is a constant. Valid constants are in the devices

.h file and are as follows:
A0_A3_A1_A2
A0_A2_A1_A2
NC_NC_A1_A2
NC_NC_NC_NC
A0_VR_A1_VR
A3_VR_A2_VR
A0_A2_A1_A2_OUT_ON_A3_A4
A3_A2_A1_A2
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the analog comparator module. The above
159
Built-in Functions
constants have four parts representing the inputs: C1-,

C1+, C2-, C2+
Availability: This function is only available on devices with an analog

comparator.
Examples: // Sets up two independent comparators (C1 and C2),

// C1 uses A0 and A3 as inputs (- and +), and C2
// uses A1 and A2 as inputs
setup_comparator(A0_A3_A1_A2);
Example Files: ex_comp.c
Also See: None
SETUP_COUNTERS()
Syntax: setup_counters (rtcc_state, ps_state)
Parameters: rtcc_state may be one of the constants defined in the

devices .h file. For example: RTCC_INTERNAL,
RTCC_EXT_L_TO_H or RTCC_EXT_H_TO_L
ps_state may be one of the constants defined in the

devices .h file.
For example: RTCC_DIV_2, RTCC_DIV_4,

RTCC_DIV_8, RTCC_DIV_16, RTCC_DIV_32,
WDT_18MS, WDT_36MS, WDT_72MS, WDT_144MS,
WDT_288MS, WDT_576MS, WDT_1152MS,
WDT_2304MS
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets up the RTCC or WDT. The rtcc_state determines

what drives the RTCC. The PS state sets a prescaler
for either the RTCC or WDT. The prescaler will
160
Built-in Functions
lengthen the cycle of the indicated counter. If the RTCC

prescaler is set the WDT will be set to WDT_18MS. If
the WDT prescaler is set the RTCC is set to
RTCC_DIV_1.
This function is provided for compatibility with older

versions. setup_timer_0 and setup_WDT are the
recommended replacements when possible. For PCB
devices if an external RTCC clock is used and a WDT
prescaler is used then this function must be used.
Examples: setup_counters (RTCC_INTERNAL, WDT_2304MS);
Example Files: None
Also See: setup_wdt(), setup_timer_0(), devices .h file
SETUP_EXTERNAL_MEMORY()
Syntax: setup_external_memory( mode );
Parameters: mode is one or more constants from the device header

file OR'ed together.
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets the mode of the external memory bus.
Availability: Only devices that allow external memory.
Requires Device .h file.
Examples: setup_external_memory(EXTMEM_WORD_WRITE
|EXTMEM_WAIT_0 );
setup_external_memory(EXTMEM_DISABLE);
Example Files: None
161
Built-in Functions
Also See: write_program_eeprom(), write_program_memory()
SETUP_LCD()
Syntax: setup_lcd (mode, prescale, segments);
Parameters: Mode may be one of these constants from the devices

.h file:
LCD_DISABLED, LCD_STATIC,
LCD_MUX12,LCD_MUX13, LCD_MUX14
The following may be or'ed (via |) with any of the above:

STOP_ON_SLEEP, USE_TIMER_1
Prescale may be 0-15 for the LCD clock segments may

be any of the following constants or'ed together:
SEGO_4, SEG5_8, SEG9_11, SEG12_15, SEG16_19,
SEGO_28, SEG29_31, ALL_LCD_PINS
Returns: undefined
Function: This function is used to initialize the 923/924 LCD

controller.
Availability: Only devices with built in LCD drive hardware.
Examples: setup_lcd(LCD_MUX14|STOP_ON_SLEEP,2,
ALL_LCD_PINS);
Also See: lcd_symbol(), lcd_load()
SETUP_OSCILLATOR()
162
Built-in Functions
Syntax: setup_oscillator(mode, finetune)
Parameters: mode is dependent on the chip. For example, some

chips allow speed setting such as OSC_8MHZ or
OSC_32KHZ. Other chips permit changing the source
like OSC_TIMER1.
The finetune (only allowed on certain parts) is a signed

int with a range of -31 to +31.
Returns: Some chips return a state such as

OSC_STATE_STABLE to indicate the oscillator is
stable.
Function: This function controls and returns the state of the

internal RC oscillator on some parts. See the devices .h
file for valid options for a particular device.
Note that if INTRC or INTRC_IO is specified in #fuses

and a #USE DELAY is used for a valid speed option,
then the compiler will do this setup automatically at the
start of main().
WARNING: If the speed is changed at run time the

compiler may not generate the correct delays for some
built in functions. The last #USE DELAY encountered in
the file is always assumed to be the correct speed.
You can have multiple #USE DELAY lines to control the
compilers knowledge about the speed.
Availability: Only parts with a OSCCON register.
Requires Constants are defined in the .h file.
Examples: setup_oscillator( OSC_2MHZ );
Example Files: None
Also See: #fuses
163
Built-in Functions
SETUP_POWER_PWM()
Syntax: setup_power_pwm(modes, postscale, time_base,

period, compare, compare_postscale, dead_time)
Parameters: modes values may be up to one from each group of the

following:
PWM_CLOCK_DIV_4, PWM_CLOCK_DIV_16,
PWM_CLOCK_DIV_64, PWM_CLOCK_DIV_128
PWM_OFF, PWM_FREE_RUN, PWM_SINGLE_SHOT,

PWM_UP_DOWN, PWM_UP_DOWN_INT
PWM_OVERRIDE_SYNC
PWM_UP_TRIGGER, PWM_DOWN_TRIGGER
PWM_UPDATE_DISABLE, PWM_UPDATE_ENABLE
PWM_DEAD_CLOCK_DIV_2,
postscale is an integer between 1 and 16. This value

sets the PWM time base output postscale.
time_base is an integer between 0 and 65535. This is

the initial value of the PWM base timer.
period is an integer between 0 and 4095. The PWM

time base is incremented until it reaches this number.
compare is an integer between 0 and 255. This is the

value that the PWM time base is compared to, to
determine if a special event should be triggered.
compare_postscale is an integer between 1 and 16.

This postscaler affects compare, the special events
trigger.
dead_time is an integer between 0 and 15. This value

specifies the length of an off period that should be
164
Built-in Functions
inserted between the going off of a pin and the going on

of it’s complementary pin.
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes and configures the Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM) device.
Requires None
Examples: setup_power_pwm(PWM_CLOCK_DIV_4 | PWM_FREE_RUN |

PWM_DEAD_CLOCK_DIV_4,1,10000,1000,0,1,0);
Example Files: None
Also See: set_power_pwm_override(), setup_power_pwm_pins(),

SETUP_POWER_PWM_PINS()
Syntax: setup_power_pwm_pins(module0,module1,module2,mo
dule3)
Parameters: For each module (two pins) specify:

PWM_OFF, PWM_ODD_ON, PWM_BOTH_ON,
PWM_COMPLEMENTARY
Returns: undefined
Function: Configures the pins of the Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM) device.
Requires None
Examples: setup_power_pwm_pins(PWM_OFF, PWM_OFF, PWM_OFF,

PWM_OFF);
setup_power_pwm_pins(PWM_COMPLEMENTARY,
165
Built-in Functions
PWM_COMPLEMENTARY, PWM_OFF, PWM_OFF);
Example Files: None
Also See: setup_power_pwm(), set_power_pwm_override(),

SETUP_PSP()
Syntax: setup_psp (mode)
Parameters: mode may be:

PSP_ENABLED
PSP_DISABLED
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes the Parallel Slave Port (PSP). The

SET_TRIS_E(value) function may be used to set the
data direction. The data may be read and written to
using the variable PSP_DATA.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with PSP

hardware.
Examples: setup_psp(PSP_ENABLED);
Also See: set_tris_e()
166
Built-in Functions
SETUP_SPI()
Syntax: setup_spi (mode)
Parameters: mode may be:

SPI_MASTER, SPI_SLAVE, SPI_SS_DISABLED
SPI_L_TO_H, SPI_H_TO_L
SPI_CLK_DIV_4, SPI_CLK_DIV_16,
SPI_CLK_DIV_64, SPI_CLK_T2
Constants from each group may be or'ed together with |.
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes the Serial Port Interface (SPI). This is used

for 2 or 3 wire serial devices that follow a common
clock/data protocol.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with SPI

hardware.
Examples: setup_spi(spi_master |spi_l_to_h |

spi_clk_div_16 );
Example Files: ex_spi.c
Also See: spi_write(), spi_read(), spi_data_is_in()
SETUP_TIMER_0()
Syntax: setup_timer_0 (mode)
Parameters: mode may be one or two of the constants defined in the

devices .h file. RTCC_INTERNAL,
RTCC_EXT_L_TO_H or RTCC_EXT_H_TO_L

167
Built-in Functions
RTCC_DIV_128, RTCC_DIV_256
PIC18XXX only: RTCC_OFF, RTCC_8_BIT
One constant may be used from each group or'ed

together with the | operator.
Returns: undefined
Function: Sets up the timer 0 (aka RTCC).
Examples: setup_timer_0 (RTCC_DIV_2|RTCC_EXT_L_TO_H);
Also See: get_timer0(), set_timer0(), setup_counters()
SETUP_TIMER_1()
Parameters: mode values may be:

T1_DISABLED, T1_INTERNAL, T1_EXTERNAL,
T1_EXTERNAL_SYNC
T1_CLK_OUT
T1_DIV_BY_1, T1_DIV_BY_2, T1_DIV_BY_4,
T1_DIV_BY_8
constants from different groups may be or'ed together
with |.
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes timer 1. The timer value may be read and

written to using SET_TIMER1() and GET_TIMER1()
Timer 1 is a 16 bit timer. With an internal clock at
168
Built-in Functions
20mhz and with the T1_DIV_BY_8 mode, the timer will

increment every 1.6us. It will overflow every
104.8576ms.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with timer 1

hardware.
Examples: setup_timer_1 ( T1_DISABLED );

setup_timer_1 ( T1_INTERNAL | T1_DIV_BY_4 );
setup_timer_1 ( T1_INTERVAL | T1_DIV_BY_8 );
Also See: get_timer1()
SETUP_TIMER_2()
Syntax: setup_timer_2 (mode, period, postscale)
Parameters: mode may be one of:

T2_DISABLED, T2_DIV_BY_1, T2_DIV_BY_4,
T2_DIV_BY_16
period is a int 0-255 that determines when the clock

value is reset,
postscale is a number 1-16 that determines how many

timer resets before an interrupt: (1 means one reset, 2
means 2, and so on).
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes timer 2. The mode specifies the clock divisor

(from the oscillator clock). The timer value may be
read and written to using GET_TIMER2() and
SET_TIMER2(). Timer 2 is a 8 bit counter/timer.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with timer 2
169
Built-in Functions
hardware.
Examples: setup_timer_2 ( T2_DIV_BY_4, 0xc0, 2);

// At 20mhz, the timer will include every 800ns,
// will overflow every 154.4us,
// and will interrupt every 308.8us.
Example Files: ex_pwm.c
Also See: get_timer2(), set_timer2()
SETUP_TIMER_3()
Parameters: Mode may be one of the following constants from each

group or'ed (via |) together:
T3_DISABLED, T3_INTERNAL, T3_EXTERNAL,
T3_EXTERNAL_SYNC
T3_DIV_BY_8
Returns: undefined
Function: Initializes timer 3 or 4. The mode specifies the clock

divisor (from the oscillator clock). The timer value
may be read and written to using GET_TIMER3() and
Availability: This function is only available on PIC®18 devices.
Examples: setup_timer_3 (T3_INTERNAL | T3_DIV_BY_2);
Example Files: None
170
Built-in Functions
SETUP_TIMER_4()

devices .h file.
T4_DISABLED, T4_DIV_BY_1, T4_DIV_BY_4,
T4_DIV_BY_16
Returns: undefined

(from the oscillator clock). The timer value may be read
and written to using GET_TIMER4() and
SET_TIMER4(). Timer 4 is an 8 bit counter/timer.
Availability: This function is only available on some PCH devices.
Examples: setup_timer_4 (T4_DIV_BY_4)
Example Files: None
171
Built-in Functions
SETUP_TIMER_5()

devices .h file.
T5_DISABLED, T5_INTERNAL, T5_EXTERNAL, or
T5_EXTERNAL_SYNC

T5_DIV_BY_8
T5_ONE_SHOT, T5_DISABLE_SE_RESET, or
T5_ENABLE_DURING_SLEEP
Returns: undefined

(from the oscillator clock). The timer value may be read
and written to using GET_TIMER5() and
Availability: This function is only available on PIC18XX31 devices.
Examples: setup_timer_5 (T5_INTERNAL | T5_DIV_BY_2)
Example Files: None
SETUP_UART()
Syntax: setup_uart(baud, stream)

setup_uart(baud)
Parameters: baud is a constant representing the number of bits per

second. A one or zero may also be passed to control
the on/off status. Stream is an optional stream
172
Built-in Functions
identifier.
Chips with the advanced UART may also use the

following constants:
UART_ADDRESS UART only accepts data with 9th
bit=1
UART_DATA UART accepts all data
Chips with the EUART H/W may use the following

constants:
UART_AUTODETECT Waits for 0x55 character and
sets the UART baud rate to match.
UART_AUTODETECT_NOWAIT Same as above

function, except returns before 0x55 is received.
KBHIT() will be true when the match is made. A call to
GETC() will clear the character.
UART_WAKEUP_ON_RDA Wakes PIC up out of

sleep when RCV goes from high to low
Returns: undefined
Function: Very similar to SET_UART_SPEED. If 1 is passed as a

parameter, the UART is turned on, and if 0 is passed,
UART is turned off. If a BAUD rate is passed to it, the
UART is also turned on, if not already on.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with a built in

UART.
Requires #use rs232
Examples: setup_uart(9600);
setup_uart(9600, rsOut);
Example Files: None
Also See: #USE RS232, putc(), getc()
SETUP_VREF()
173
Built-in Functions
Syntax: setup_vref (mode | value)
Parameters: mode may be one of the following constants:

FALSE (off)
VREF_LOW for VDD*VALUE/24
VREF_HIGH for VDD*VALUE/32 + VDD/4
any may be or'ed with VREF_A2.
value is an int 0-15.
Returns: undefined
Function: Establishes the voltage of the internal reference that

may be used for analog compares and/or for output on
pin A2.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with VREF

hardware.
Examples: setup_vref (VREF_HIGH | 6);

// At VDD=5, the voltage is 2.19V
Example Files: ex_comp.c
Also See: None
SETUP_WDT()
Syntax: setup_wdt (mode)
Parameters: For PCB/PCM parts: WDT_18MS, WDT_36MS,

WDT_72MS, WDT_144MS,WDT_288MS,
WDT_576MS, WDT_1152MS, WDT_2304MS
For PIC®18 parts: WDT_ON, WDT_OFF
Returns: undefined
174
Built-in Functions
Function: Sets up the watchdog timer.
The watchdog timer is used to cause a hardware reset if

the software appears to be stuck.
The timer must be enabled, the timeout time set and

software must periodically restart the timer. These are
done differently on the PCB/PCM and PCH parts as
follows:
PCB/PCM PCH
Enable/Disable #fuses setup_wdt()
Timeout time setup_wdt() #fuses
restart restart_wdt() restart_wdt()
Requires #fuses, Constants are defined in the devices .h file.
Examples: #fuses WDT_18MS // PIC18 example, See

// restart_wdt for a PIC18 example
main() {
setup_wdt(WDT_ON);
while (TRUE) {
restart_wdt();
perform_activity();
}
}
Also See: #fuses, restart_wdt()
SHIFT_LEFT()
Syntax: shift_left (address, bytes, value)

number of bytes to work with, value is a 0 to 1 to be
shifted in.
Returns: 0 or 1 for the bit shifted out
175
Built-in Functions
Function: Shifts a bit into an array or structure. The address may

be an array identifier or an address to a structure (such
as &data). Bit 0 of the lowest byte in RAM is treated as
the LSB.
Requires Nothing
Examples: byte buffer[3];

for(i=0; i<=24; ++i){
// Wait for clock high
while (!input(PIN_A2));
shift_left(buffer,3,input(PIN_A3));
// Wait for clock low
while (input(PIN_A2));
}
// reads 24 bits from pin A3,each bit is read
// on a low to high on pin A2
Also See: shift_right(), rotate_right(), rotate_left(), <<, >>
SHIFT_RIGHT()
Syntax: shift_right (address, bytes, value)

number of bytes to work with, value is a 0 to 1 to be
shifted in.
Returns: 0 or 1 for the bit shifted out
Function: Shifts a bit into an array or structure. The address may

be an array identifier or an address to a structure (such
as &data). Bit 0 of the lowest byte in RAM is treated as
the LSB.
176
Built-in Functions
Requires Nothing
Examples: // reads 16 bits from pin A1, each bit is read

// on a low to high on pin A2
struct {
byte time;
byte command : 4;
byte source : 4;} msg;
for(i=0; i<=16; ++i) {

while(!input(PIN_A2));
shift_right(&msg,3,input(PIN_A1));
while (input(PIN_A2)) ;}
// This shifts 8 bits out PIN_A0, LSB first.

for(i=0;i<8;++i)
output_bit(PIN_A0,shift_right(&data,1,0));
Also See: shift_left(), rotate_right(), rotate_left(), <<, >>
SIN()
COS()
TAN()
ASIN()
ACOS()
ATAN()
SINH()
COSH()
TANH()
ATAN2()
Syntax: val = sin (rad)

val = cos (rad)
val = tan (rad)
rad = asin (val)
rad1 = acos (val)
rad = atan (val)
rad2=atan2(val, val)
result=sinh(value)
177
Built-in Functions
result=cosh(value)
result=tanh(value)
Parameters: rad is a float representing an angle in Radians -2pi to

2pi. val is a float with the range -1.0 to 1.0. Value is a
float.
Returns: rad is a float representing an angle in Radians -pi/2 to

pi/2
val is a float with the range -1.0 to 1.0.
rad1 is a float representing an angle in Radians 0 to pi
rad2 is a float representing an angle in Radians -pi to pi

Result is a float
Function: These functions perform basic Trigonometric functions.

sin returns the sine value of the parameter (measured
in radians)
cos returns the cosine value of the parameter
(measured in radians)
tan returns the tangent value of the parameter
(measured in radians)
asin returns the arc sine value in the range [-pi/2,+pi/2]
radians
acos returns the arc cosine value in the range[0,pi]
radians
atan returns the arc tangent value in the range [-
pi/2,+pi/2] radians
atan2returns the arc tangent of y/x in the range [-pi,+pi]
radians
sinh returns the hyperbolic sine of x
cosh returns the hyperbolic cosine of x
tanh returns the hyperbolic tangent of x

178
Built-in Functions
asin: when the argument not in the range[-1,+1]

acos: when the argument not in the range[-1,+1]
atan2: when both arguments are zero
Range error occur in the following cases:

cosh: when the argument is too large
sinh: when the argument is too large
Requires math.h must be included.
Examples: float phase;

// Output one sine wave
for(phase=0; phase<2*3.141596; phase+=0.01)
set_analog_voltage( sin(phase)+1 );
Example Files: ex_tank.c
Also See: log(), log10(), exp(), pow(), sqrt()
SINH()
See: SIN()
SLEEP()
Syntax: sleep()
Parameters: None
Returns: Undefined
Function: Issues a SLEEP instruction. Details are device

dependent however in general the part will enter low
power mode and halt program execution until woken by
specific external events. Depending on the cause of the
wake up execution may continue after the sleep
instruction. The compiler inserts a sleep() after the last
179
Built-in Functions
statement in main().
Requires Nothing
Examples: SLEEP();
Example Files: ex_wakup.c
Also See: reset_cpu()
SPI_DATA_IS_IN()
Syntax: result = spi_data_is_in()
Parameters: None
Returns: 0 (FALSE) or 1 (TRUE)
Function: Returns TRUE if data has been received over the SPI.

hardware.
Requires Nothing
Examples: while( !spi_data_is_in() && input(PIN_B2) );

if( spi_data_is_in() )
data = spi_read();
Example Files: None
Also See: spi_read(), spi_write()
SPI_READ()
180
Built-in Functions
Syntax: value = spi_read (data)
Parameters: data is optional and if included is an 8 bit int.
Returns: An 8 bit int
Function: Return a value read by the SPI. If a value is passed to

SPI_READ the data will be clocked out and the data
received will be returned. If no data is ready,
SPI_READ will wait for the data.
If this device supplies the clock then either do a

SPI_WRITE(data) followed by a SPI_READ() or do a
SPI_READ(data). These both do the same thing and
will generate a clock. If there is no data to send just do
a SPI_READ(0) to get the clock.
If the other device supplies the clock then either call

SPI_READ() to wait for the clock and data or use
SPI_DATA_IS_IN() to determine if data is ready.

hardware.
Requires Nothing
Examples: in_data = spi_read(out_data);
Also See: spi_data_is_in(), spi_write()
SPI_WRITE()
Syntax: SPI_WRITE (value)
Parameters: value is an 8 bit int
Returns: Nothing
181
Built-in Functions
Function: Sends a byte out the SPI interface. This will cause 8
clocks to be generated. This function will write the value
out to the SPI.

hardware.
Requires Nothing
Examples: spi_write( data_out );

data_in = spi_read();
Also See: spi_read(), spi_data_is_in()
SPRINTF()
Syntax: sprintf(string, cstring, values...);
Parameters: string is an array of characters.

cstring is a constant string or an array of characters null
terminated. Values are a list of variables separated by
commas.
Returns: Nothing
Function: This function operates like printf except that the output is
placed into the specified string. The output string will be
terminated with a null. No checking is done to ensure
the string is large enough for the data. See printf() for
details on formatting.
Requires Nothing
Examples: char mystring[20];

long mylong;
182
Built-in Functions
mylong=1234;
sprintf(mystring,"<%lu>",mylong);
// mystring now has:
// < 1 2 3 4 > \0
Example Files: None
Also See: printf()
SQRT()
Syntax: result = sqrt (value)
Returns: A float
Function: Computes the non-negative square root of the float x. If

the argument is negative, the behavior is undefined.


sqrt: when the argument is negative
Examples: distance = sqrt( sqr(x1-x2) + sqr(y1-y2) );
Example Files: None
Also See: None
183
Built-in Functions
SRAND()
Syntax: srand(n)
Parameters: n is the seed for a new sequence of pseudo-random

numbers to be returned by subsequent calls to rand.
Returns: No value.
Function: The srand function uses the argument as a seed for a

new sequence of pseudo-random numbers to be
returned by subsequent calls to rand. If srand is then
called with same seed value, the sequence of random
numbers shall be repeated. If rand is called before any
call to srand have been made, the same sequence shall
be generated as when srand is first called with a seed
value of 1.
Examples: srand(10);
I=rand();
Example Files: None
Also See: rand()
STANDARD STRING FUNCTIONS

MEMCHR()
MEMCMP()
STRCAT()
STRCHR()
STRCMP()
STRCOLL()
STRCSPN()
STRICMP()
STRLEN()
184
Built-in Functions
STRLWR()
STRNCAT()
STRNCMP()
STRNCPY()
STRPBRK()
STRRCHR()
STRSPN()
STRSTR()
STRXFRM()
Syntax: ptr=strcat (s1, s2) Concatenate s2 onto

s1
ptr=strchr (s1, c) Find c in s1 and
return &s1[i]
ptr=strrchr (s1, c) Same but search in
reverse
cresult=strcmp (s1, s2) Compare s1 to s2
iresult=strncmp (s1, s2, n) Compare s1 to s2 (n
bytes)
iresult=stricmp (s1, s2) Compare and ignore
case
ptr=strncpy (s1, s2, n) Copy up to n
characters s2->s1
iresult=strcspn (s1, s2) Count of initial chars in
s1 not in s2
iresult=strspn (s1, s2) Count of initial chars in
s1 also in s2
iresult=strlen (s1) Number of characters in
s1
ptr=strlwr (s1) Convert string to lower
case
ptr=strpbrk (s1, s2) Search s1 for first char
also in s2
ptr=strstr (s1, s2) Search for s2 in s1
ptr=strncat(s1,s2) Concatenates up to n
bytes of s2 onto s1
iresult=strcoll(s1,s2) Compares s1 to s2, both
interpreted as
appropriate to the
current locale.
185
Built-in Functions
res=strxfrm(s1,s2,n) Transforms maximum of

n characters of s2 and
places them in s1, such
that strcmp(s1,s2) will
give the same result as
strcoll(s1,s2)
iresult=memcmp(m1,m2,n) Compare m1 to m2 (n
bytes)
ptr=memchr(m1,c,n) Find c in first n
characters of m1 and
return &m1[i]
Parameters: s1 and s2 are pointers to an array of characters (or the
name of an array). Note that s1 and s2 MAY NOT BE A
CONSTANT (like "hi").
n is a count of the maximum number of character to

operate on.
c is a 8 bit character
m1 and m2 are pointers to memory.
Returns: ptr is a copy of the s1 pointer

iresult is an 8 bit int
result is -1 (less than), 0 (equal) or 1 (greater than)
res is an integer.
Function: Functions are identified above.
Requires #include <string.h>
Examples: char string1[10], string2[10];
strcpy(string1,"hi ");
strcpy(string2,"there");
strcat(string1,string2);
printf("Length is %u\r\n", strlen(string1));

// Will print 8
186
Built-in Functions
Also See: strcpy(), strtok()
STRCPY()
Syntax: strcpy (dest, src)
Parameters: dest is a pointer to a RAM array of characters.

src may be either a pointer to a RAM array of
characters or it may be a constant string.
Returns: undefined
Function: Copies a constant or RAM string to a RAM string.

Strings are terminated with a 0.
Requires Nothing
Examples: char string[10], string2[10];

.
.
.
strcpy (string, "Hi There");
strcpy(string2,string);
Also See: strxxxx()
STRTOD()
Syntax: result=strtod(nptr,& endptr)
Parameters: nptr and endptr are strings
Returns: result is a float.

returns the converted value in result, if any. If no
187
Built-in Functions
conversion could be performed, zero is returned.
Function: The strtod function converts the initial portion of the

string pointed to by nptr to a float representation. The
part of the string after conversion is stored in the object
pointed to endptr, provided that endptr is not a null
pointer. If nptr is empty or does not have the expected
form, no conversion is performed and the value of nptr is
stored in the object pointed to by endptr, provided
endptr is not a null pointer.
Requires STDLIB.H must be included

char str[2]="123.45hello";
char *ptr;
result=strtod(str,&ptr);
//result is 123.45 and ptr is "hello"
Example Files: None
Also See: strtol(), strtoul()
STRTOK()
Syntax: ptr = strtok(s1, s2)
Parameters: s1 and s2 are pointers to an array of characters (or the

name of an array). Note that s1 and s2 MAY NOT BE A
CONSTANT (like "hi"). s1 may be 0 to indicate a
continue operation.
Returns: ptr points to a character in s1 or is 0
Function: Finds next token in s1 delimited by a character from

separator string s2 (which can be different from call to
call), and returns pointer to it.
First call starts at beginning of s1 searching for the first
188
Built-in Functions
character NOT contained in s2 and returns null if there

is none are found.
If none are found, it is the start of first token (return

value). Function then searches from there for a
character contained in s2.
If none are found, current token extends to the end of

s1, and subsequent searches for a token will return null.
If one is found, it is overwritten by '\0', which terminates

current token. Function saves pointer to following
character from which next search will start.
Each subsequent call, with 0 as first argument, starts

searching from the saved pointer.
Requires #include <string.h>
Examples: char string[30], term[3], *ptr;
strcpy(string,"one,two,three;");
strcpy(term,",;");
ptr = strtok(string, term);

while(ptr!=0) {
puts(ptr);
ptr = strtok(0, term);
}
// Prints:
one
two
three
Also See: strxxxx(), strcpy()
STRTOL()
Syntax: result=strtol(nptr,& endptr, base)
189
Built-in Functions
Parameters: nptr and endptr are strings and base is an integer
Returns: result is a signed long int.

returns the converted value in result , if any. If no
Function: The strtol function converts the initial portion of the

string pointed to by nptr to a signed long int
representation in some radix determined by the value of
base. The part of the string after conversion is stored in
the object pointed to endptr, provided that endptr is not
a null pointer. If nptr is empty or does not have the
expected form, no conversion is performed and the
value of nptr is stored in the object pointed to by endptr,
provided endptr is not a null pointer.
Examples: signed long result;

char str[2]="123hello";
char *ptr;
result=strtol(str,&ptr,10);
//result is 123 and ptr is "hello"
Example Files: None
Also See: strtod(), strtoul()
STRTOUL()
Syntax: result=strtoul(nptr,& endptr, base)
Parameters: nptr and endptr are strings and base is an integer
Returns: result is an unsigned long int.

returns the converted value in result , if any. If no
190
Built-in Functions
Function: The strtoul function converts the initial portion of the

string pointed to by nptr to a long int representation in
some radix determined by the value of base. The part of
the string after conversion is stored in the object pointed
to endptr, provided that endptr is not a null pointer. If
nptr is empty or does not have the expected form, no
conversion is performed and the value of nptr is stored
in the object pointed to by endptr, provided endptr is not
a null pointer.
Examples: long result;

char str[2]="123hello";
char *ptr;
result=strtoul(str,&ptr,10);
//result is 123 and ptr is "hello"
Example Files: None
Also See: strtol(), strtod()
SWAP()
Syntax: swap (lvalue)
Parameters: lvalue is a byte variable
Returns: undefined - WARNING: this function does not return the

result
Function: Swaps the upper nibble with the lower nibble of the
specified byte. This is the same as:
byte = (byte << 4) | (byte >> 4);
Requires Nothing
191
Built-in Functions
Examples: x=0x45;
swap(x);
//x now is 0x54
Example Files: None
Also See: rotate_right(), rotate_left()
TAN()
See: SIN()
TANH()
See: SIN()
TOLOWER()
TOUPPER()
Syntax: result = tolower (cvalue)

result = toupper (cvalue)
Parameters: cvalue is a character
Returns: An 8 bit character
Function: These functions change the case of letters in the

alphabet.
TOLOWER(X) will return 'a'..'z' for X in 'A'..'Z' and all

other characters are unchanged. TOUPPER(X) will
return 'A'..'Z' for X in 'a'..'z' and all other characters are
unchanged.
Requires Nothing
192
Built-in Functions
Examples: switch( toupper(getc()) ) {

case 'R' : read_cmd(); break;
case 'W' : write_cmd(); break;
case 'Q' : done=TRUE; break;
}
Also See: None
WRITE_BANK()
Syntax: write_bank (bank, offset, value)
Parameters: bank is the physical RAM bank 1-3 (depending on the

device), offset is the offset into user RAM for that bank
(starts at 0), value is the 8 bit data to write
Returns: undefined
Function: Write a data byte to the user RAM area of the specified
memory bank. This function may be used on some
devices where full RAM access by auto variables is not
efficient. For example on the PIC16C57 chip setting
the pointer size to 5 bits will generate the most efficient
ROM code however auto variables can not be above
1Fh. Instead of going to 8 bit pointers you can save
ROM by using this function to write to the hard to reach
banks. In this case the bank may be 1-3 and the offset
may be 0-15.
Availability: All devices but only useful on PCB parts with memory
over 1Fh and PCM parts with memory over FFh.
Requires Nothing
Examples: i=0; // Uses bank 1 as a RS232 buffer

do {
c=getc();
write_bank(1,i++,c);
} while (c!=0x13);
193
Built-in Functions
Also See: See the "Common Questions and Answers" section for
more information.
WRITE_EEPROM()
Syntax: write_eeprom (address, value)
Parameters: address is a 8 bit int, the range is device dependent,

value is an 8 bit int
Returns: undefined
Function: Write a byte to the specified data EEPROM address.

This function may take several milliseconds to execute.
This works only on devices with EEPROM built into the
core of the device.
For devices with external EEPROM or with a separate

EEPROM in the same package (line the 12CE671) see
EX_EXTEE.c with CE51X.c, CE61X.c or CE67X.c.
Availability: This function is only available on devices with

supporting hardware on chip.
Requires Nothing
Examples: #define LAST_VOLUME 10 // Location in EEPROM
volume++;
write_eeprom(LAST_VOLUME,volume);
Example Files: ex_intee.c
Also See: read_eeprom(), write_program_eeprom(),

read_program_eeprom(), EX_EXTEE.c with CE51X.c,
CE61X.c or CE67X.c.
194
Built-in Functions
195
Built-in Functions
WRITE_EXTERNAL_MEMORY()
Syntax: write_external_memory( address, dataptr, count )

parts
adataptr is a pointer to one or more bytes
count is a 8 bit integer
Returns: undefined
Function: Writes count bytes to program memory from dataptr to

address. Unlike WRITE_PROGRAM_EEPROM and
WRITE_PROGRAM_EEPROM this function does not
use any special EEPROM/FLASH write algorithm. The
data is simply copied from register address space to
program memory address space. This is useful for
external RAM or to implement an algorithm for external
flash.
Availability: Only PCH devices.
Requires Nothing
Examples: for(i=0x1000;i<=0x1fff;i++) {
value=read_adc();
write_external_memory(i, value, 2);
delay_ms(1000);
}
Also See: write_program_memory(), read_external_memory()
196
Built-in Functions
WRITE_PROGRAM_EEPROM()
Syntax: write_program_eeprom (address, data)

parts, data is 16 bits. The least significant bit should
always be 0 in PCH.
Returns: undefined
Function: Writes to the specified program EEPROM area.
Requires Nothing
Examples: write_program_eeprom(0,0x2800);
//disables program
Example Files: ex_load.c, loader.c
Also See: read_program_eeprom(), read_eeprom(),

write_eeprom(), write_program_memory(),
erase_program_eeprom()
WRITE_PROGRAM_MEMORY()
Syntax: write_program_memory( address, dataptr, count );

parts. dataptr is a pointer to one or more bytes count
is a 8 bit integer
Returns: undefined
Function: Writes count bytes to program memory from dataptr to

address. This function is most effective when count is a
multiple of FLASH_WRITE_SIZE. Whenever this
function is about to write to a location that is a multiple
197
Built-in Functions
of FLASH_ERASE_SIZE then an erase is performed on

the whole block.
Requires Nothing
Examples: for(i=0x1000;i<=0x1fff;i++) {
value=read_adc();
write_program_memory(i, value, 2);
delay_ms(1000);
}
Also See: write_program_eeprom, erase_program_eeprom
198
Standard C Definitions
errno.h
errno.h
EDOM Domain error value
ERANGE Range error value
errno error value
float.h
float.h
FLT_RADIX: Radix of the exponent representation
FLT_MANT_DIG: Number of base digits in the floating point significant
FLT_DIG: Number of decimal digits, q, such that any floating
point number with q decimal digits can be rounded into
a floating point number with p radix b digits and back
again without change to the q decimal digits.
FLT_MIN_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX
raised to that power minus 1 is a normalized floating-
point number.
FLT_MIN_10_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
power is in the range of normalized floating-point
numbers.
FLT_MAX_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX
raised to that power minus 1 is a representable finite
floating-point number.
FLT_MAX_10_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
power is in the range representable finite floating-point
numbers.
FLT_MAX: Maximum representable finite floating point number.
FLT_EPSILON: The difference between 1 and the least value greater
than 1 that is representable in the given floating point
type.
FLT_MIN: Minimum normalized positive floating point number.
DBL_MANT_DIG: Number of base digits in the floating point significant
DBL_DIG: Number of decimal digits, q, such that any floating
199
DBL_MIN_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX

point number.
DBL_MIN_10_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
numbers.
DBL_MAX_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX
DBL_MAX_10_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
power is in the range of representable finite floating-
point numbers.
DBL_MAX: Maximum representable finite floating point number.
DBL_EPSILON: The difference between 1 and the least value greater
type.
DBL_MIN: Minimum normalized positive floating point number.
LDBL_MANT_DIG: Number of base digits in the floating point significant
LDBL_DIG: Number of decimal digits, q, such that any floating
LDBL_MIN_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX
point number.
LDBL_MIN_10_EXP: Minimum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
numbers.
LDBL_MAX_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that FLT_RADIX
LDBL_MAX_10_EXP: Maximum negative integer such that 10 raised to that
power is in the range of representable finite floating-
point numbers.
LDBL_MAX: Maximum representable finite floating point number.
LDBL_EPSILON: The difference between 1 and the least value greater
type.
LDBL_MIN: Minimum normalized positive floating point number.
200
limits.h
limits.h
CHAR_BIT: Number of bits for the smallest object that is not a bit_field.
SCHAR_MIN: Minimum value for an object of type signed char
SCHAR_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type signed char
UCHAR_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type unsigned char
CHAR_MIN: Minimum value for an object of type char(unsigned)
CHAR_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type char(unsigned)
MB_LEN_MAX: Maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character.
SHRT_MIN: Minimum value for an object of type short int
SHRT_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type short int
USHRT_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type unsigned short int
INT_MIN: Minimum value for an object of type signed int
INT_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type signed int
UINT_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type unsigned int
LONG_MIN: Minimum value for an object of type signed long int
LONG_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type signed long int
ULONG_MAX: Maximum value for an object of type unsigned long int
locale.h
locale.h
locale.h (Localization not supported)
lconv localization structure
SETLOCALE() returns null
LOCALCONV() returns clocale
setjmp.h
setjmp.h
jmp_buf: An array used by the following functions
setjmp: Marks a return point for the next longjmp
longjmp: Jumps to the last marked point
201
stddef.h
stddef.h
ptrdiff_t: The basic type of a pointer
size_t: The type of the sizeof operator (int)
wchar_t The type of the largest character set supported (char) (8 bits)
NULL A null pointer (0)
stdio.h
stdio.h
stderr The standard error stream (USE RS232 specified as stream or the
first USE RS232)
stdout The standard output stream (USE RS232 specified as stream last
USE RS232)
stdin The standard input stream (USE RS232 specified as stream last
USE RS232)
202
stdlib.h
Stdlib.h functions included just for compliance with ANSI C

div_t structure type that contains two signed integers(quot and
rem).
ldiv_t structure type that contains two signed longs(quot and rem
EXIT_FAILURE returns 1
EXIT_SUCCESS returns 0
RAND_MAX-
MBCUR_MAX- 1
SYSTEM() Returns 0( not supported)
Multibyte Multibyte characters not supported
character and
string functions:
MBLEN() Returns the length of the string.
MBTOWC() Returns 1.
WCTOMB() Returns 1.
MBSTOWCS() Returns length of string.
WBSTOMBS() Returns length of string.
203
Compiler Error Messages
#ENDIF with no corresponding #IF
Compiler found a #ENDIF directive without a corresponding #IF.
#ERROR
A #DEVICE required before this line

The compiler requires a #device before it encounters any statement or compiler
directive that may cause it to generate code. In general #defines may appear
before a #device but not much more.
A numeric expression must appear here

Some C expression (like 123, A or B+C) must appear at this spot in the code.
Some expression that will evaluate to a value.
Arrays of bits are not permitted

Arrays may not be of SHORT INT. Arrays of Records are permitted but the
record size is always rounded up to the next byte boundary.
Attempt to create a pointer to a constant

Constant tables are implemented as functions. Pointers cannot be created to
functions. For example CHAR CONST MSG[9]={"HI THERE"}; is permitted,
however you cannot use &MSG. You can only reference MSG with subscripts
such as MSG[i] and in some function calls such as Printf and STRCPY.
Attributes used may only be applied to a function (INLINE or SEPARATE)

An attempt was made to apply #INLINE or #SEPARATE to something other than
a function.
Bad expression syntax

This is a generic error message. It covers all incorrect syntax.
Baud rate out of range

The compiler could not create code for the specified baud rate. If the internal
UART is being used the combination of the clock and the UART capabilities
could not get a baud rate within 3% of the requested value. If the built in UART
is not being used then the clock will not permit the indicated baud rate. For fast
baud rates, a faster clock will be required.
BIT variable not permitted here

Addresses cannot be created to bits. For example &X is not permitted if X is a
SHORT INT.
205
Cannot change device type this far into the code

The #DEVICE is not permitted after code is generated that is device specific.
Move the #DEVICE to an area before code is generated.
Character constant constructed incorrectly

Generally this is due to too many characters within the single quotes. For
example 'ab' is an error as is '\nr'. The backslash is permitted provided the result
is a single character such as '\010' or '\n'.
Constant out of the valid range

This will usually occur in inline assembly where a constant must be within a
particular range and it is not. For example BTFSC 3,9 would cause this error
since the second operand must be from 0-8.
Define expansion is too large

A fully expanded DEFINE must be less than 255 characters. Check to be sure
the DEFINE is not recursively defined.
Define syntax error

This is usually caused by a missing or mis-placed (or) within a define.
Demo period has expired

Please contact CCS to purchase a licensed copy.
Different levels of indirection

This is caused by a INLINE function with a reference parameter being called with
a parameter that is not a variable. Usually calling with a constant causes this.
Divide by zero
An attempt was made to divide by zero at compile time using constants.
Duplicate case value

Two cases in a switch statement have the same value.
Duplicate DEFAULT statements

The DEFAULT statement within a SWITCH may only appear once in each
SWITCH. This error indicates a second DEFAULT was encountered.
Duplicate #define
The identifier in the #define has already been used in a previous #define. To
redefine an identifier use #UNDEF first. To prevent defines that may be included
from multiple source do something like:
206
· #ifndef ID
· #define ID text
· #endif
Duplicate function
A function has already been defined with this name. Remember that the
compiler is not case sensitive unless a #CASE is used.
Duplicate Interrupt Procedure

Only one function may be attached to each interrupt level. For example the
#INT_RB may only appear once in each program.
Duplicate USE
Some USE libraries may only be invoked once since they apply to the entire
program such as #USE DELAY. These may not be changed throughout the
program.
Element is not a member

A field of a record identified by the compiler is not actually in the record. Check
the identifier spelling.
ELSE with no corresponding IF

Compiler found an ELSE statement without a corresponding IF. Make sure the
ELSE statement always match with the previous IF statement.
End of file while within define definition

The end of the source file was encountered while still expanding a define. Check
for a missing ).
End of source file reached without closing comment */ symbol

The end of the source file has been reached and a comment (started with /*) is
still in effect. The */ is missing.
Expect ;
Expect }
Expect comma
Expect WHILE
Expecting :
Expecting =
Expecting a (
Expecting a , or )
Expecting a , or }
Expecting a .
207
Expecting a ; or ,
Expecting a ; or {
Expecting a close paren
Expecting a declaration
Expecting a structure/union
Expecting a variable
Expecting a ]
Expecting a {
Expecting an =
Expecting an array
Expecting an identifier
Expecting function name
Expecting an opcode mnemonic
This must be a Microchip mnemonic such as MOVLW or BTFSC.
Expecting LVALUE such as a variable name or * expression

This error will occur when a constant is used where a variable should be. For
example 4=5; will give this error.
Expecting a basic type

Examples of a basic type are INT and CHAR.
Expression must be a constant or simple variable

The indicated expression must evaluate to a constant at compile time. For
example 5*3+1 is permitted but 5*x+1 where X is a INT is not permitted. If X
were a DEFINE that had a constant value then it is permitted.
Expression must evaluate to a constant

The indicated expression must evaluate to a constant at compile time. For
example 5*3+1 is permitted but 5*x+1 where X is a INT is not permitted. If X
were a DEFINE that had a constant value then it is permitted.
Expression too complex

This expression has generated too much code for the compiler to handle for a
single expression. This is very rare but if it happens, break the expression up
into smaller parts.
Too many assembly lines are being generated for a single C statement. Contact
CCS to increase the internal limits.
208
Extra characters on preprocessor command line

Characters are appearing after a preprocessor directive that do not apply to that
directive. Preprocessor commands own the entire line unlike the normal C
syntax. For example the following is an error:
#PRAGMA DEVICE <PIC16C74> main() { int x; x=1;}
File cannot be opened

Check the filename and the current path. The file could not be opened.
File cannot be opened for write

The operating system would not allow the compiler to create one of the output
files. Make sure the file is not marked READ ONLY and that the compiler
process has write privileges to the directory and file.
Filename must start with " or <

The correct syntax of a #include is one of the following two formats:
#include "filename.ext"
#include <filename.ext>
This error indicates neither a " or < was found after #include.
Filename must terminate with " or; msg:' '

The filename specified in a #include must terminate with a " if it starts with a ". It
must terminate with a > if it starts with a <.
Floating-point numbers not supported for this operation

A floating-point number is not permitted in the operation near the error. For
example, ++F where F is a float is not allowed.
Function definition different from previous definition

This is a mis-match between a function prototype and a function definition. Be
sure that if a #INLINE or #SEPARATE are used that they appear for both the
prototype and definition. These directives are treated much like a type specifier.
Function used but not defined

The indicated function had a prototype but was never defined in the program.
Identifier is already used in this scope

An attempt was made to define a new identifier that has already been defined.
Illegal C character in input file

A bad character is in the source file. Try deleting the line and re-typing it.
209
Improper use of a function identifier

Function identifiers may only be used to call a function. An attempt was made to
otherwise reference a function. A function identifier should have a ( after it.
Incorrectly constructed label

This may be an improperly terminated expression followed by a label. For
example:
x=5+
MPLAB:
Initialization of unions is not permitted

Structures can be initialized with an initial value but UNIONS cannot be.
Internal compiler limit reached

The program is using too much of something. An internal compiler limit was
reached. Contact CCS and the limit may be able to be expanded.
Interrupt handler uses too much stack

Too many stack locations are being used by an interrupt handler.
Invalid conversion from LONG INT to INT

In this case, a LONG INT cannot be converted to an INT. You can type cast the
LONG INT to perform a truncation. For example:
I = INT(LI);
Internal Error - Contact CCS

This error indicates the compiler detected an internal inconsistency. This is not
an error with the source code; although, something in the source code has
triggered the internal error. This problem can usually be quickly corrected by
sending the source files to CCS so the problem can be re-created and corrected.
In the meantime if the error was on a particular line, look for another way to
perform the same operation. The error was probably caused by the syntax of the
identified statement. If the error was the last line of the code, the problem was in
linking. Look at the call tree for something out of the ordinary.
Invalid parameters to built in function

Built-in shift and rotate functions (such as SHIFT_LEFT) require an expression
that evaluates to a constant to specify the number of bytes.
210
Invalid ORG range

The end address must be greater than or equal to the start address. The range
may not overlap another range. The range may not include locations 0-3. If only
one address is specified it must match the start address of a previous #org.
Invalid Pre-Processor directive

The compiler does not know the preprocessor directive. This is the identifier in
one of the following two places:
#xxxxx
#PRAGMA xxxxx
Library in USE not found

The identifier after the USE is not one of the pre-defined libraries for the
compiler. Check the spelling.
Linker option not compatible with prior options

Conflicting linker options are specified. For example using both the EXCEPT=
and ONLY= options in the same directive is not legal.
LVALUE required
This error will occur when a constant is used where a variable should be. For
example 4=5; will give this error.
Macro identifier requires parameters

A #DEFINE identifier is being used but no parameters were specified, as
required. For example:
#define min(x,y) ((x<y)?x:y)
When called MIN must have a (--,--) after it such as:
r=min(value, 6);
Macro is defined recursively

A C macro has been defined in such a way as to cause a recursive call to itself.
Missing #ENDIF
A #IF was found without a corresponding #ENDIF.
Missing or invalid .CRG file

The user registration file(s) are not part of the download software. In order for
the software to run the files must be in the same directory as the .EXE files.
These files are on the original diskette, CD ROM or e-mail in a non-compressed
format. You need only copy them to the .EXE directory. There is one .REG file
for each compiler (PCB.REG, PCM.REG and PCH.REG).
211
Must have a #USE DELAY before a #USE RS232

The RS232 library uses the DELAY library. You must have a #USE DELAY
before you can do a #USE RS232.
No errors
The program has successfully compiled and all requested output files have been
created.
No MAIN() function found

All programs are required to have one function with the name main().
Not enough RAM for all variables

The program requires more RAM than is available. The symbol map shows
variables allocated. The call tree shows the RAM used by each function.
Additional RAM usage can be obtained by breaking larger functions into smaller
ones and splitting the RAM between them.
For example, a function A may perform a series of operations and have 20 local
variables declared. Upon analysis, it may be determined that there are two main
parts to the calculations and many variables are not shared between the parts. A
function B may be defined with 7 local variables and a function C may be defined
with 7 local variables. Function A now calls B and C and combines the results
and now may only need 6 variables. The savings are accomplished because B
and C are not executing at the same time and the same real memory locations
will be used for their 6 variables (just not at the same time). The compiler will
allocate only 13 locations for the group of functions A, B, C where 20 were
required before to perform the same operation.
Number of bits is out of range

For a count of bits, such as in a structure definition, this must be 1-8. For a bit
number specification, such as in the #BIT, the number must be 0-7.
212
Out of ROM, A segment or the program is too large

A function and all of the INLINE functions it calls must fit into one segment (a
hardware code page). For example, on the '56 chip a code page is 512
instructions. If a program has only one function and that function is 600
instructions long, you will get this error even though the chip has plenty of ROM
left. The function needs to be split into at least two smaller functions. Even after
this is done, this error may occur since the new function may be only called once
and the linker might automatically INLINE it. This is easily determined by
reviewing the call tree. If this error is caused by too many functions being
automatically INLINED by the linker, simply add a #SEPARATE before a function
to force the function to be SEPARATE. Separate functions can be allocated on
any page that has room. The best way to understand the cause of this error is to
review the call tree.
Parameters not permitted

An identifier that is not a function or preprocessor macro can not have a ( after it.
Pointers to bits are not permitted

Addresses cannot be created to bits. For example, &X is not permitted if X is a
SHORT INT.
Previous identifier must be a pointer

A -> may only be used after a pointer to a structure. It cannot be used on a
structure itself or other kind of variable.
Printf format type is invalid

An unknown character is after the % in a printf. Check the printf reference for
valid formats.
Printf format (%) invalid

A bad format combination was used. For example, %lc.
Printf variable count (%) does not match actual count

The number of % format indicators in the printf does not match the actual
number of variables that follow. Remember in order to print a single %, you must
use %%.
Recursion not permitted

The linker will not allow recursive function calls. A function may not call itself and
it may not call any other function that will eventually re-call it.
Recursively defined structures not permitted

A structure may not contain an instance of itself.
213
Reference arrays are not permitted

A reference parameter may not refer to an array.
Return not allowed in void function

A return statement may not have a value if the function is void.
STDOUT not defined (may be missing #RS 232)

An attempt was made to use a I/O function such as printf when no default I/O
stream has been established. Add a #USE RS232 to define a I/O stream.
Stream must be a constant in the valid range

I/O functions like fputc, fgetc require a stream identifier that was defined in a
#USE RS232. This identifier must appear exactly as it does when it was defined.
Be sure it has not been redefined with a #define.
String too long
Structure field name required

A structure is being used in a place where a field of the structure must appear.
Change to the form s.f where s is the structure name and f is a field name.
Structures and UNIONS cannot be parameters (use * or &)

A structure may not be passed by value. Pass a pointer to the structure using &.
Subscript out of range

A subscript to a RAM array must be at least 1 and not more than 128 elements.
Note that large arrays might not fit in a bank. ROM arrays may not occupy more
than 256 locations.
This linker function is not available in this compiler version.

Some linker functions are only available if the PCW or PCWH product is
installed.
This type cannot be qualified with this qualifier

Check the qualifiers. Be sure to look on previous lines. An example of this error
is:
VOID X;
Too many array subscripts

Arrays are limited to 5 dimensions.
214
Too many constant structures to fit into available space

Available space depends on the chip. Some chips only allow constant structures
in certain places. Look at the last calling tree to evaluate space usage. Constant
structures will appear as functions with a @CONST at the beginning of the name.
Too many elements in an ENUM

A max of 256 elements are allowed in an ENUM.
Too many fast interrupt handlers have been identified
Too many nested #INCLUDEs

No more than 10 include files may be open at a time.
Too many parameters

More parameters have been given to a function than the function was defined
with.
Too many subscripts

More subscripts have been given to an array than the array was defined with.
Type is not defined

The specified type is used but not defined in the program. Check the spelling.
Type specification not valid for a function

This function has a type specifier that is not meaningful to a function.
Undefined identifier
The specified identifier is being used but has never been defined. Check the
spelling.
Undefined label that was used in a GOTO

There was a GOTO LABEL but LABEL was never encountered within the
required scope. A GOTO cannot jump outside a function.
Unknown device type

A #DEVICE contained an unknown device. The center letters of a device are
always C regardless of the actual part in use. For example, use PIC16C74 not
PIC16RC74. Be sure the correct compiler is being used for the indicated device.
See #DEVICE for more information.
Unknown keyword in #FUSES

Check the keyword spelling against the description under #FUSES.
215
Unknown linker keyword

The keyword used in a linker directive is not understood.
Unknown type
The specified type is used but not defined in the program. Check the spelling.
Unprotected call in a #INT_GLOBAL

The interrupt function defined as #INT_GLOBAL is intended to be assembly
language or very simple C code. This error indicates the linker detected code
that violated the standard memory allocation scheme. This may be caused when
a C function is called from a #INT_GLOBAL interrupt handler.
USE parameter invalid

One of the parameters to a USE library is not valid for the current environment.
USE parameter value is out of range

One of the values for a parameter to the USE library is not valid for the current
environment.
Compiler Warning Messages

Assignment inside relational expression
Although legal it is a common error to do something like if(a=b) when it was
intended to do if(a==b).
This warning indicates there may be such a typo in this line.
Assignment to enum is not of the correct type

If a variable is declared as a ENUM it is best to assign to the variables only
elements of the enum. For example:
enum colors {RED,GREEN,BLUE} color;
...
color = GREEN; // OK
color = 1; // Warning 209
color = (colors)1; //OK
Code has no effect

The compiler can not discern any effect this source code could have on the
generated code. Some examples:
1;
a==b;
1,2,3;
216
Condition always FALSE

This error when it has been determined at compile time that a relational
expression will never be true. For example:
int x;
if( x>>9 )
Condition always TRUE

This error when it has been determined at compile time that a relational
expression will never be false. For example:
#define PIN_A1 41
...
if( PIN_A1 ) // Intended was: if( input(PIN_A1) )
Function not void and does not return a value

Functions that are declared as returning a value should have a return statement
with a value to be returned. Be aware that in C only functions declared VOID are
not intended to return a value. If nothing is specified as a function return value
"int" is assumed.
Operator precedence rules may not be as intended, use() to clarify

Some combinations of operators are confusing to some programmers. This
warning is issued for expressions where adding() would help to clarify the
meaning. For example:
if( x << n + 1 )
would be more universally understood when expressed:

if( x << (n + 1) )
Structure passed by value

Structures are usually passed by reference to a function. This warning is
generated if the structure is being passed by value. This warning is not
generated if the structure is less than 5 bytes.
For example:
void myfunct( mystruct s1 ) // Pass by value - Warning
myfunct( s2 );
void myfunct( mystruct * s1 ) // Pass by reference - OK
myfunct( &s2 );
void myfunct( mystruct & s1 ) // Pass by reference - OK
myfunct( s2 );
Unreachable code
Code included in the program is never executed. For example:
if(n==5)
goto do5;
goto exit;
if(n==20) // No way to get to this line
217
return;
Unsigned variable is never less than zero

Unsigned variables are never less than 0. This warning indicates an attempt to
check to see if an unsigned variable is negative. For example the following will
not work as intended:
int i;
for(i=10; i>=0; i--)
Variable never used

A variable has been declared and never referenced in the code.
Variable of this data type is never greater than this constant

A variable is being compared to a constant. The maximum value of the variable
could never be larger than the constant. For example the following could never
be true:
int x; // 8 bits, 0-255
if ( x>300)
218
Common Questions And Answers
How does one map a variable to an I/O port?
Two methods are as follows:
#byte PORTB = 6
#define ALL_OUT 0
#define ALL_IN 0xff
main() {
int i;
set_tris_b(ALL_OUT);
PORTB = 0;// Set all pins low
for(i=0;i<=127;++i) // Quickly count from 0
to 127
PORTB=i; // on the I/O port pin
set_tris_b(ALL_IN);
i = PORTB; // i now contains the portb value.
}
Remember when using the #BYTE, the created variable is treated like memory.
You must maintain the tri-state control registers yourself via the SET_TRIS_X
function. Following is an example of placing a structure on an I/O port:
struct port_b_layout
{int data : 4;
int rw : 1;
int cd : 1;
int enable : 1;
int reset : 1; };
struct port_b_layout port_b;
#byte port_b = 6
struct port_b_layout const INIT_1 = {0, 1,1,1,1};
struct port_b_layout const FOR_SEND = {0,0,0,0,0};
// All outputs
struct port_b_layout const FOR_READ =
{15,0,0,0,0};
// Data is an input
main() {
int x;
set_tris_b((int)FOR_SEND); // The constant
// structure is
219
Common Questions and Answers
// treated like
// a byte and
// is used to
// set the data
// direction
port_b = INIT_1;
delay_us(25);
port_b = INIT_2; // These constant

structures delay_us(25); // are used to set
all fields
port_b = INIT_3; // on the port with a single
// command
set_tris_b((int)FOR_READ);
port_b.rw=0;
// Here the individual
port_b.cd=1; // fields are accessed
port_b.enable=0; // independently.
x = port_b.data;
port_b.enable=0
}
220
Why is the RS-232 not working right?

1. The PIC® is Sending Garbage Characters.
A. Check the clock on the target for accuracy. Crystals are usually not a
problem but RC oscillators can cause trouble with RS-232. Make sure the
#USE DELAY matches the actual clock frequency.
B. Make sure the PC (or other host) has the correct baud and parity setting.
C. Check the level conversion. When using a driver/receiver chip, such as

the MAX 232, do not use INVERT when making direct connections with
resistors and/or diodes. You probably need the INVERT option in the #USE
RS232.
D. Remember that PUTC(6) will send an ASCII 6 to the PC and this may not
be a visible character. PUTC('A') will output a visible character A.
2. The PIC® is Receiving Garbage Characters.
A. Check all of the above.
3. Nothing is Being Sent.
A. Make sure that the tri-state registers are correct. The mode (standard,
fast, fixed) used will be whatever the mode is when the #USE RS232 is
encountered. Staying with the default STANDARD mode is safest.
B. Use the following main() for testing:
main() {
while(TRUE)
putc('U');
}
Check the XMIT pin for activity with a logic probe, scope or whatever you
can. If you can look at it with a scope, check the bit time (it should be
1/BAUD). Check again after the level converter.
4. Nothing is being received.
First be sure the PIC® can send data. Use the following main() for testing:
main() {
221
printf("start");
while(TRUE)
putc( getc()+1 );
}
When connected to a PC typing A should show B echoed back.

If nothing is seen coming back (except the initial "Start"), check the RCV pin
on the PIC® with a logic probe. You should see a HIGH state and when a
key is pressed at the PC, a pulse to low. Trace back to find out where it is
lost.
5. The PIC® is always receiving data via RS-232 even when none is being sent.
A. Check that the INVERT option in the USE RS232 is right for your level
converter. If the RCV pin is HIGH when no data is being sent, you should
NOT use INVERT. If the pin is low when no data is being sent, you need to
use INVERT.
B. Check that the pin is stable at HIGH or LOW in accordance with A above
when no data is being sent.
C. When using PORT A with a device that supports the

SETUP_ADC_PORTS function make sure the port is set to digital inputs.
This is not the default. The same is true for devices with a comparator on
PORT A.
6. Compiler reports INVALID BAUD RATE.
A. When using a software RS232 (no built-in UART), the clock cannot be
really slow when fast baud rates are used and cannot be really fast with slow
baud rates. Experiment with the clock/baud rate values to find your limits.
B. When using the built-in UART, the requested baud rate must be within
3% of a rate that can be achieved for no error to occur. Some parts have
internal bugs with BRGH set to 1 and the compiler will not use this unless
you specify BRGH1OK in the #USE RS232 directive.
222
How can I use two or more RS-232 ports on one PIC®?

The #USE RS232 (and I2C for that matter) is in effect for GETC, PUTC, PRINTF
and KBHIT functions encountered until another #USE RS232 is found.
The #USE RS232 is not an executable line. It works much like a #DEFINE.
The following is an example program to read from one RS-232 port (A) and echo
the data to both the first RS-232 port (A) and a second RS-232 port (B).
#USE RS232(BAUD=9600, XMIT=PIN_B0, RCV=PIN_B1)

void put_to_a( char c ) {
put(c);
}
char get_from_a() {
return(getc()); }
#USE RS232(BAUD=9600, XMIT=PIN_B2,RCV=PIN_B3)
void put_to_b( char b ) {
putc(c);
}
main() {
char c;
put_to_a("Online\n\r");
put_to_b("Online\n\r");
while(TRUE) {
c=get_from_a();
put_to_b(c);
put_to_a(c);
}
}
The following will do the same thing but is less readable:
#USE RS232(BAUD=9600, XMIT=PIN_B0, RCV=PIN_B1,

STREAM=COM_A)
#USE RS232(BAUD=9600, XMIT=PIN_B2, RCV=PIN_B3,
STREAM=COM_B)
main() {
char c;
fprintf(COM_A,"Online\n\r");
fprintf(COM_B,"Online\n\r");
while(TRUE) {
c = fgetc(COM_A);
223
fputc(c, COM_A);
fputc(c, COM_B);
}
}
How does the PIC® connect to a PC?

A level converter should be used to convert the TTL (0-5V_ levels that the PIC®
operates with to the RS-232 voltages (+/- 3-12V) used by the PIC®. The
following is a popular configuration using the MAX232 chip as a level converter.
224
What can be done about an OUT OF RAM error?
The compiler makes every effort to optimize usage of RAM. Understanding the
RAM allocation can be a help in designing the program structure. The best re-
use of RAM is accomplished when local variables are used with lots of functions.
RAM is re-used between functions not active at the same time. See the NOT
ENOUGH RAM error message in this manual for a more detailed example.
RAM is also used for expression evaluation when the expression is complex.
The more complex the expression, the more scratch RAM locations the compiler
will need to allocate to that expression. The RAM allocated is reserved during
the execution of the entire function but may be re-used between expressions
within the function. The total RAM required for a function is the sum of the
parameters, the local variables and the largest number of scratch locations
required for any expression within the function. The RAM required for a function
is shown in the call tree after the RAM=. The RAM stays used when the function
calls another function and new RAM is allocated for the new function. However
when a function RETURNS the RAM may be re-used by another function called
by the parent. Sequential calls to functions each with their own local variables is
very efficient use of RAM as opposed to a large function with local variables
declared for the entire process at once.
Be sure to use SHORT INT (1 bit) variables whenever possible for flags and
other boolean variables. The compiler can pack eight such variables into one
byte location. The compiler does this automatically whenever you use SHORT
INT. The code size and ROM size will be smaller.
Finally, consider an external memory device to hold data not required frequently.
An external 8 pin EEPROM or SRAM can be connected to the PIC® with just 2
wires and provide a great deal of additional storage capability. The compiler
package includes example drivers for these devices. The primary drawback is a
slower access time to read and write the data. The SRAM will have fast read
and write with memory being lost when power fails. The EEPROM will have a
very long write cycle, but can retain the data when power is lost.
225
Why does the .LST file look out of order?

The list file is produced to show the assembly code created for the C source
code. Each C source line has the corresponding assembly lines under it to show
the compiler’s work. The following three special cases make the .LST file look
strange to the first time viewer. Understanding how the compiler is working in
these special cases will make the .LST file appear quite normal and very useful.
1. Stray code near the top of the program is sometimes under what looks like a
non-executable source line.
Some of the code generated by the compiler does not correspond to any
particular source line. The compiler will put this code either near the top of the
program or sometimes under a #USE that caused subroutines to be generated.
2. The addresses are out of order.
The compiler will create the .LST file in the order of the C source code. The
linker has re-arranged the code to properly fit the functions into the best code
pages and the best half of a code page. The resulting code is not in source
order. Whenever the compiler has a discontinuity in the .LST file, it will put a *
line in the file. This is most often seen between functions and in places where
INLINE functions are called. In the case of an INLINE function, the addresses
will continue in order up where the source for the INLINE function is located.
3. The compiler has gone insane and generated the same instruction over and
over.
For example:
...........A=0;
03F: CLRF 15
*
46:CLRF 15
*
051: CLRF 15
*
113: CLRF 15
This effect is seen when the function is an INLINE function and is called from
more than one place. In the above case, the A=0 line is in an INLINE function
called in four places. Each place it is called from gets a new copy of the code.
Each instance of the code is shown along with the original source line, and the
result may look unusual until the addresses and the * are noticed.
226
How does the compiler determine TRUE and FALSE on

expressions?
When relational expressions are assigned to variables, the result is always 0 or
1.
For example:
bytevar = 5>0; //bytevar will be 1

bytevar = 0>5; //bytevar will be 0
The same is true when relational operators are used in expressions.
For example:
bytevar = (x>y)*4;
is the same as:
if( x>y )
bytevar=4;
else
bytevar=0;
SHORT INTs (bit variables) are treated the same as relational expressions.
They evaluate to 0 or 1.
When expressions are converted to relational expressions or SHORT INTs, the

result will be FALSE (or 0) when the expression is 0, otherwise the result is
TRUE (or 1).
For example:
bytevar = 54;
bitvar = bytevar; //bitvar will be 1 (bytevar ! =
O)
if(bytevar) //will be TRUE

bytevar = 0;
bitvar = bytevar; //bitvar will be 0
227
Why does the compiler use the obsolete TRIS?

The use of TRIS causes concern for some users. The Microchip data sheets
recommend not using TRIS instructions for upward compatibility. If you had
existing ASM code and it used TRIS then it would be more difficult to port to a
new Microchip part without TRIS. C does not have this problem, however; the
compiler has a device database that indicates specific characteristics for every
part. This includes information on whether the part has a TRIS and a list of
known problems with the part. The latter question is answered by looking at the
device errata.
CCS makes every attempt to add new devices and device revisions as the data
and errata sheets become available.
PCW users can edit the device database. If the use of TRIS is a concern, simply
change the database entry for your part and the compiler will not use it.
228
How does the PIC® connect to an I2C device?

Two I/O lines are required for I2C. Both lines must have pullup registers. Often
the I2C device will have a H/W selectable address. The address set must
match the address in S/W. The example programs all assume the selectable
address lines are grounded.
Instead of 800, the compiler calls 0. Why?

The PIC® ROM address field in opcodes is 8-10 Bits depending on the chip and
specific opcode. The rest of the address bits come from other sources. For
example, on the 174 chip to call address 800 from code in the first page you will
see:
BSF0A,3
CALL 0
The call 0 is actually 800H since Bit 11 of the address (Bit 3 of PCLATH, Reg 0A)
has been set.
229
Instead of A0, the compiler is using register 20. Why?

The PIC® RAM address field in opcodes is 5-7 bits long, depending on the chip.
The rest of the address field comes from the status register. For example, on the
74 chip to load A0 into W you will see:
BSF 3,5
MOVFW 20
Note that the BSF may not be immediately before the access since the compiler
optimizes out the redundant bank switches.
230
How do I directly read/write to internal registers?

A hardware register may be mapped to a C variable to allow direct read and write
capability to the register. The following is an example using the TIMER0 register:
#BYTE timer0 = 0x01
timer0= 128; //set timer0 to 128
while (timer0 ! = 200); // wait for timer0 to reach
200
Bits in registers may also be mapped as follows:

#BIT T0IF = 0x0B.2
.
.
.
while (!T0IF); //wait for timer0 interrupt
Registers may be indirectly addressed as shown in the following example:

printf ("enter address:");
a = gethex();
printf ("\r\n value is %x\r\n", *a);
The compiler has a large set of built-in functions that will allow one to perform the
most common tasks with C function calls. When possible, it is best to use the
built-in functions rather than directly write to registers. Register locations change
between chips and some register operations require a specific algorithm to be
performed when a register value is changed. The compiler also takes into
account known chip errata in the implementation of the built-in functions. For
example, it is better to do set_tris_A(0); rather than *0x85=0;
231
How can a constant data table be placed in ROM?

The compiler has support for placing any data structure into the device ROM as a
constant read-only element. Since the ROM and RAM data paths are separate
in the PIC®, there are restrictions on how the data is accessed. For example, to
place a 10 element BYTE array in ROM use:
BYTE CONST TABLE [10]= {9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0};
and to access the table use:

x = TABLE [i];
OR
x = TABLE [5];
BUT NOT
ptr = &TABLE [i];
In this case, a pointer to the table cannot be constructed.
Similar constructs using CONST may be used with any data type including
structures, longs and floats.
Note that in the implementation of the above table, a function call is made when
a table is accessed with a subscript that cannot be evaluated at compile time.
232
How can the RB interrupt be used to detect a button press?

The RB interrupt will happen when there is any change (input or output) on pins
B4-B7. There is only one interrupt and the PIC® does not tell you which pin
changed. The programmer must determine the change based on the previously
known value of the port. Furthermore, a single button press may cause several
interrupts due to bounce in the switch. A debounce algorithm will need to be
used. The following is a simple example:
#int_rb
rb_isr() {
byte changes;
changes = last_b ^ port_b;
last_b = port_b;
if (bit_test(changes,4 )&& !bit_test(last_b,4)){
//b4 went low
}
if (bit_test(changes,5)&& !bit_test (last_b,5)){
//b5 went low
}
.
.
.
delay_ms (100); //debounce
}
The delay=ms (100) is a quick and dirty debounce. In general, you will not want
to sit in an ISR for 100 MS to allow the switch to debounce. A more elegant
solution is to set a timer on the first interrupt and wait until the timer overflows.
Don’t process further changes on the pin.
233
What is the format of floating point numbers?

CCS uses the same format Microchip uses in the 14000 calibration constants.
PCW users have a utility PCONVERT that will provide easy conversion to/from
decimal, hex and float in a small window in Windows. See EX_FLOAT.C for a
good example of using floats or float types variables. The format is as follows:
Example Number
0 00 00 00 00
1 7F 00 00 00
-1 7F 80 00 00
10 82 20 00 00
100 85 48 00 00
123.45 85 76 E6 66
123.45E20 C8 27 4E 53
123.45 E-20 43 36 2E 17
234
Why does the compiler show less RAM than there really is?
Some devices make part of the RAM much more ineffective to access than the
standard RAM. In particular, the 509, 57, 66, 67,76 and 77 devices have this
problem.
By default, the compiler will not automatically allocate variables to the problem
RAM and, therefore, the RAM available will show a number smaller than
expected.
There are three ways to use this RAM:
1. Use #BYTE or #BIT to allocate a variable in this RAM. Do NOT create a

pointer to these variables.
Example:
#BYTE counter=0x30
2. Use Read_Bank and Write_Bank to access the RAM like an array. This works
well if you need to allocate an array in this RAM.
Example:
For(i=0;i<15;i++)
Write_Bank(1,i,getc());
For(i=0;i<=15;i++)
PUTC(Read_Bank(1,i));
3. You can switch to larger pointers for full RAM access (this takes more ROM).
In PCB add *=8 to the #device and in PCM/PCH add *=16 to the #device.
Example:
#DEVICE PIC16C77 *=16
or
#include <16C77.h>
#device *=16
235
What is an easy way for two or more PICs® to communicate?

There are two example programs (EX_PBUSM.C and EX_PBUSR.C) that show
how to use a simple one-wire interface to transfer data between PICs®. Slower
data can use pin B0 and the EXT interrupt. The built-in UART may be used for
high speed transfers. An RS232 driver chip may be used for long distance
operations. The RS485 as well as the high speed UART require 2 pins and
minor software changes. The following are some hardware configurations.
236
How do I write variables to EEPROM that are not a byte?

The following is an example of how to read and write a floating point number
from/to EEPROM. The same concept may be used for structures, arrays or any
other type.
• n is an offset into the eeprom.

• For floats you must increment it by 4.
• For example, if the first float is at 0 the second one should be at 4 and the third
at 8.
WRITE_FLOAT_EXT_EEPROM(long int n, float data) {

int i;
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++)

write_ext_eeprom(i + n, *(&data + i) ) ;
}
float READ_FLOAT_EXT_EEPROM(long int n) {

int i;
float data;
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++)

*(&data + i) = read_ext_eeprom(i + n);
return(data);
}
237
How do I get getc() to timeout after a specified time?

GETC will always wait for the character to become available. The trick is to not
call getc() until a character is ready. This can be determined with kbhit().
The following is an example of how to time out of waiting for an RS232 character.
Note that without a hardware UART the delay_us should be less than a tenth of a
bit time (10 us at 9600 baud). With hardware you can make it up to 10 times the
bit time. (1000 us at 9600 baud). Use two counters if you need a timeout value
larger than 65535.
short timeout_error;
char timed_getc() {
long timeout;
timeout_error=FALSE;
timeout=0;
while(!kbhit&&(++timeout<50000)) // 1/2 second
delay_us(10);
if(kbhit())
return(getc());
else {
timeout_error=TRUE;
return(0);
}
}
238
How can I pass a variable to functions like OUTPUT_HIGH()?

The pin argument for built in functions like OUTPUT_HIGH need to be known at
compile time so the compiler knows the port and bit to generate the correct code.
If your application needs to use a few different pins not known at compile time
consider:
switch(pin_to_use) {
case PIN_B3 : output_high(PIN_B3); break;
case PIN_A1 : output_high(PIN_A1); break;
}
If you need to use any pin on a port use:
#byte portb = 6
#byte portb_tris = 0x86 // **
portb_tris &= ~(1<<bit_to_use); // **
portb |= (1<<bit_to_use); // bit_to_use is 0-7
If you need to use any pin on any port use:
*(pin_to_use/8|0x80) &= ~(1<<(pin_to_use&7)); // **
*(pin_to_use/8) |= (1<<(pin_to_use&7));
In all cases pin_to_use is the normal PIN_A0... defines.
** These lines are only required if you need to change the direction register
(TRIS).
239
How do I put a NOP at location 0 for the ICD?

The CCS compilers are fully compatible with Microchips ICD debugger using
MPLAB. In order to prepare a program for ICD debugging (NOP at location 0
and so on) you need to add a #DEVICE ICD=TRUE after your normal #DEVICE.
For example:
#INCLUDE <16F877.h>
#DEVICE ICD=TRUE
How do I do a printf to a string?
The following is an example of how to direct the output of a printf to a string. We

used the \f to indicate the start of the string.
This example shows how to put a floating point number in a string.

main() {
char string[20];
float f;
f=12.345;
sprintf(string,"\f%6.3f",f);
}
240
How do I make a pointer to a function?

The compiler does not permit pointers to functions so that the compiler can know
at compile time the complete call tree. This is used to allocate memory for full
RAM re-use. Functions that could not be in execution at the same time will use
the same RAM locations. In addition since there is no data stack in the PIC®,
function parameters are passed in a special way that requires knowledge at
compile time of what function is being called. Calling a function via a pointer will
prevent knowing both of these things at compile time. Users sometimes will want
function pointers to create a state machine. The following is an example of how
to do this without pointers:
enum tasks {taskA, taskB, taskC};
run_task(tasks task_to_run) {
switch(task_to_run) {
case taskA : taskA_main(); break;
case taskB : taskB_main(); break;
case taskC : taskC_main(); break;
}
241
How much time do math operations take?
Unsigned 8 bit operations are quite fast and floating point is very slow. If
possible consider fixed point instead of floating point. For example instead of
"float cost_in_dollars;" do "long cost_in_cents;". For trig formulas consider a
lookup table instead of real time calculations (see EX_SINE.C for an example).
The following are some rough times on a 20 mhz, 14 bit PIC®. Note times will
vary depending on memory banks used.
8 bit add <1 us

8 bit multiply 9 us
8 bit divide 20 us
16 bit add 2 us
16 bit multiply 48 us
16 bit divide 65 us
32 bit add 5 us
32 bit multiply 138 us
32 bit divide 162 us
float add 32 us
float multiply 147 us
float divide 274 us
exp() 1653 us
ln() 2676 us
sin() 3535 us
242
How are type conversions handled?
The compiler provides automatic type conversions when an assignment is

performed. Some information may be lost if the destination can not properly
represent the source. For example: int8var = int16var; Causes the top byte of
int16var to be lost.
Assigning a smaller signed expression to a larger signed variable will result in the
sign being maintained. For example, a signed 8 bit int that is -1 when assigned
to a 16 bit signed variable is still -1.
Signed numbers that are negative when assigned to a unsigned number will
cause the 2's complement value to be assigned. For example, assigning -1 to a
int8 will result in the int8 being 255. In this case the sign bit is not extended
(conversion to unsigned is done before conversion to more bits). This means the
-1 assigned to a 16 bit unsigned is still 255.
Likewise assigning a large unsigned number to a signed variable of the same

size or smaller will result in the value being distorted. For example, assigning 255
to a signed int8 will result in -1.
The above assignment rules also apply to parameters passed to functions.
When a binary operator has operands of differing types then the lower order
operand is converted (using the above rules) to the higher. The order is as
follows:
• Float
• Signed 32 bit
• Unsigned 32 bit
• Signed 16 bit
• Unsigned 16 bit
• Signed 8 bit
• Unsigned 8 bit
• 1 bit
The result is then the same as the operands. Each operator in an expression is
evaluated independently. For example:
i32 = i16 - (i8 + i8)
243
The + operator is 8 bit, the result is converted to 16 bit after the addition and the -
is 16 bit, that result is converted to 32 bit and the assignment is done. Note that
if i8 is 200 and i16 is 400 then the result in i32 is 256. (200 plus 200 is 144 with a
8 bit +)
Explicit conversion may be done at any point with (type) inserted before the
expression to be converted. For example in the above the perhaps desired effect
may be achieved by doing:
i32 = i16 - ((long)i8 + i8)
In this case the first i8 is converted to 16 bit, then the add is a 16 bit add and the
second i8 is forced to 16 bit.
A common C programming error is to do something like:
i16 = i8 * 100;
When the intent was:

i16 = (long) i8 * 100;
Remember that with unsigned ints (the default for this compiler) the values are
never negative. For example 2-4 is 254 (in 8 bit). This means the following is an
endless loop since i is never less than 0:
int i;
for( i=100; i>=0; i--)
244
Example Programs
EXAMPLE PROGRAMS
A large number of example programs are included with the software. The
following is a list of many of the programs and some of the key programs are re-
printed on the following pages. Most programs will work with any chip by just
changing the #INCLUDE line that includes the device information. All of the
following programs have wiring instructions at the beginning of the code in a
comment header. The SIOW.EXE program included in the program directory
may be used to demonstrate the example programs. This program will use a PC
COM port to communicate with the target.
Generic header files are included for the standard PIC® parts. These files are in
the DEVICES directory. The pins of the chip are defined in these files in the form
PIN_B2. It is recommended that for a given project, the file is copied to a project
header file and the PIN_xx defines be changed to match the actual hardware.
For example; LCDRW (matching the mnemonic on the schematic). Use the
generic include files by placing the following in your main .C file:
#include <16C74.H>
LIST OF COMPLETE EXAMPLE PROGRAMS (in the EXAMPLES directory)
EX_14KAD.C
An analog to digital program with calibration for the PIC14000
EX_1920.C
Uses a Dallas DS1920 button to read temperature
EX_8PIN.C
Demonstrates the use of 8 pin PICs with their special I/O requirements
EX_92LCD.C
Uses a PIC16C92x chip to directly drive LCD glass
EX_AD12.C
Shows how to use an external 12 bit A/D converter
EX_ADMM.C
A/D Conversion example showing min and max analog readings
EX_CCP1S.C
Generates a precision pulse using the PIC CCP module
245
Example Programs
EX_CCPMP.C
Uses the PIC CCP module to measure a pulse width
EX_COMP.C
Uses the analog comparator and voltage reference available on some PICs
EX_CRC.C
Calculates CRC on a message showing the fast and powerful bit operations
EX_CUST.C
Change the nature of the compiler using special preprocessor directives
EX_FIXED.C
Shows fixed point numbers
EX_DNSLOOKUP.C
Example to perform a DNS lookup on the internet
EX_DPOT.C
Controls an external digital POT
EX_DTMF.C
Generates DTMF tones
EX_EMAIL.C
Program will send e-mail
EX_ENCOD.C
Interfaces to an optical encoder to determine direction and speed
EX_EXPIO.C
Uses simple logic chips to add I/O ports to the PIC
EX_EXSIO.C
Shows how to use a multi-port external UART chip
EX_EXTEE.C
Reads and writes to an external EEPROM
EX_FLOAT.C
Shows how to use basic floating point
246
Example Programs
EX_FREQC.C
A 50 mhz frequency counter
EX_GLINT.C
Shows how to define a custom global interrupt handler for fast interrupts
EX_ICD.C
Shows a simple program for use with Microchips ICD debugger
EX_INTEE.C
Reads and writes to the PIC internal EEPROM
EX_LCDKB.C
Displays data to an LCD module and reads data for keypad
EX_LCDTH.C
Shows current, min and max temperature on an LCD
EX_LED.C
Drives a two digit 7 segment LED
EX_LOAD.C
Serial boot loader program for chips like the 16F877
EX_LOGGER.C
A simple temperature data logger, uses the flash program memory for saving
data
EX_MACRO.C
Shows how powerful advanced macros can be in C
EX_MOUSE.C
Shows how to implement a standard PC mouse on a PIC
EX_MXRAM.C
Shows how to use all the RAM on parts will problem memory allocation
EX_PATG.C
Generates 8 square waves of different frequencies
EX_PBUSM.C
Generic PIC to PIC message transfer program over one wire
247
Example Programs
EX_PBUSR.C
Implements a PIC to PIC shared RAM over one wire
EX_PBUTT.C
Shows how to use the B port change interrupt to detect pushbuttons
EX_PGEN.C
Generates pulses with period and duty switch selectable
EX_PLL.C
Interfaces to an external frequency synthesizer to tune a radio
EX_PSP.C
Uses the PIC PSP to implement a printer parallel to serial converter
EX_PULSE.C
Measures a pulse width using timer0
EX_PWM.C
Uses the PIC CCP module to generate a pulse stream
EX_REACT.C
Times the reaction time of a relay closing using the CCP module
EX_RMSDB.C
Calculates the RMS voltage and dB level of an AC signal
EX_RTC.C
Sets and reads an external Real Time Clock using RS232
EX_RTCLK.C
Sets and reads an external Real Time Clock using an LCD and keypad
EX_SINE.C
Generates a sine wave using a D/A converter
EX_SISR.C
Shows how to do RS232 serial interrupts
EX_STISR.C
Shows how to do RS232 transmit buffering with interrupts
248
Example Programs
EX_SLAVE.C
Simulates an I2C serial EEPROM showing the PIC slave mode
EX_SPEED.C
Calculates the speed of an external object like a model car
EX_SPI.C
Communicates with a serial EEPROM using the H/W SPI module
EX_SQW.C
Simple Square wave generator
EX_SRAM.C
Reads and writes to an external serial RAM
EX_STEP.C
Drives a stepper motor via RS232 commands and an analog input
EX_STR.C
Shows how to use basic C string handling functions
EX_STWT.C
A stop Watch program that shows how to user a timer interrupt
EX_TANK.C
Uses trig functions to calculate the liquid in a odd shaped tank
EX_TEMP.C
Displays (via RS232) the temperature from a digital sensor
EX_TGETC.C
Demonstrates how to timeout of waiting for RS232 data
EX_TONES.C
Shows how to generate tones by playing "Happy Birthday"
EX_TOUCH.C
Reads the serial number from a Dallas touch device
EX_USB_HID.C
Implements a USB HID device on the PIC16C765 or an external USB chip
249
Example Programs
EX_USB_SCOPE.C
Implements a USB bulk mode transfer for a simple oscilloscope on an ext USB
chip
EX_VOICE.C
Self learning text to voice program
EX_WAKUP.C
Shows how to put a chip into sleep mode and wake it up
EX_WDT.C
Shows how to use the PIC watch dog timer
EX_WDT18.C
Shows how to use the PIC18 watch dog timer
EX_WEBSV.C
Shows how to implement a simple web server
EX_X10.C
Communicates with a TW523 unit to read and send power line X10 codes
LIST OF INCLUDE FILES (in the DRIVERS directory)
14KCAL.C
Calibration functions for the PIC14000 A/D converter
2401.C
Serial EEPROM functions
2402.C
2404.C
2408.C
24128.C
250
Example Programs
2416.C
24256.C
2432.C
2465.C
25160.C
25320.C
25640.C
25C080.C
68HC68R1
C Serial RAM functions
68HC68R2.C
Serial RAM functions
74165.C
Expanded input functions
74595.C
Expanded output functions
9346.C
9356.C
251
Example Programs
9356SPI.C
Serial EEPROM functions (uses H/W SPI)
9366.C
AD7705.C
A/D Converter functions
AD7715.C
AD8400.C
Digital POT functions
ADS8320.C
ASSERT.H
Standard C error reporting
AT25256.C
AT29C1024.C
Flash drivers for an external memory chip
CRC.C
CRC calculation functions
CE51X.C
Functions to access the 12CE51x EEPROM
CE62X.C
CE67X.C
CTYPE.H
Definitions for various character handling functions
252
Example Programs
DNS.C
Functions used to perform a DNS lookup on the internet
DS1302.C
Real time clock functions
DS1621.C
Temperature functions
DS1621M.C
Temperature functions for multiple DS1621 devices on the same bus
DS1631.C
DS1624.C
DS1868.C
Digital POT functions
ERRNO.H
Standard C error handling for math errors
FLOAT.H
Standard C float constants
FLOATEE.C
Functions to read/write floats to an EEPROM
INPUT.C
Functions to read strings and numbers via RS232
ISD4003.C
Functions for the ISD4003 voice record/playback chip
KBD.C
Functions to read a keypad
LCD.C
LCD module functions
253
Example Programs
LIMITS.H
Standard C definitions for numeric limits
LMX2326.C
PLL functions
LOADER.C
A simple RS232 program loader
LOCALE.H
Standard C functions for local language support
LTC1298.C
12 Bit A/D converter functions
MATH.H
Various standard trig functions
MAX517.C
D/A converter functions
MCP3208.C
A/D converter functions
NJU6355.C
Real time clock functions
PCF8570.C
Serial RAM functions
PIC_USB.H
Hardware layer for built-in PIC USB
RS485.C
Driver for a RS485 protocol implementation
S7600.H
Driver for Seiko S7600 TCP/IP chip
SC28L19X.C
Driver for the Phillips external UART (4 or 8 port)
SETJMP.H
254
Example Programs
Standard C functions for doing jumps outside functions
SMTP.H
e-mail functions
STDDEF.H
Standard C definitions
STDIO.H
Not much here - Provided for standard C compatibility
STDLIB.H
String to number functions
STDLIBM.H
Standard C memory management functions
STRING.H
Various standard string functions
TONES.C
Functions to generate tones
TOUCH.C
Functions to read/write to Dallas touch devices
USB.H
Standard USB request and token handler code
USBN960X.C
Functions to interface to Nationals USBN960x USB chips
USB.C
USB token and request handler code, also includes usb_desc.h and usb.h
X10.C
Functions to read/write X10 codes
255
Example Programs
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// EX_SQW.C ///
///This program displays a message over the RS-232 and ///
/// waits for any keypress to continue. The program ///
///will then begin a 1khz square wave over I/O pin B0. ///
/// Change both delay_us to delay_ms to make the ///
/// frequency 1 hz. This will be more visible on ///
/// a LED. Configure the CCS prototype card as ///
/// follows: insert jumpers from 11 to 17, 12 to 18, ///
/// and 42 to 47. ///
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#ifdef __PCB__
#include <16C56.H>
#else
#include <16C84.H>
#endif
#use delay(clock=20000000)
#use rs232(baud=9600, xmit=PIN_A3, rcv=PIN_A2)
main() {
printf("Press any key to begin\n\r");
getc();
printf("1 khz signal activated\n\r");
while (TRUE) {
output_high (PIN_B0);
delay_us(500);
output_low(PIN_B0);
delay_us(500);
}
}
256
Example Programs
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// EX_STWT.C ///
/// This program uses the RTCC (timer0) and ///
/// interrupts to keep a real time seconds counter. ///
/// A simple stop watch function is then implemented. ///
///Configure the CCS prototype card as follows, insert ///
/// jumpers from: 11 to 17 and 12 to 18. ///
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#include <16C84.H>
#use delay (clock=20000000)
#use rs232(baud=9600, xmit=PIN_A3, rcv=PIN_A2_
#define INTS_PER_SECOND 76 //(20000000/(4*256*256))
byte seconds; //Number of interrupts left
//before a second has elapsed
#int_rtcc //This function is called

clock_isr() { //every time the RTCC (timer0)
//overflows (255->0)
//For this program this is apx
//76 times per second.
if(--int_count==0) {
++seconds;
int_count=INTS_PER_SECOND;
}
}
main() {
byte start;
int_count=INTS_PER_SECOND;
set_rtcc(0);
setup_counters (RTCC_INTERNAL, RTCC_DIV_256);
enable_interrupts (INT_RTCC);
enable_interrupts(GLOBAL)
do {
printf ("Press any key to begin. \n\r");
getc();
start=seconds;
printf("Press any key to stop. \n\r");
getc();
printf ("%u seconds. \n\r", seconds-start);
} while (TRUE);
}
257
Example Programs
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/// EX_INTEE.C ///
///This program will read and write to the ’83 or ’84 ///
/// internal EEPROM. Configure the CCS prototype ///
///card as follows: insert jumpers from 11 to 17 and ///
/// 12 to 18. ///
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#include <16C84.H>
#use delay(clock-100000000)
#use rs232 (baud=9600, xmit=PIN_A3, rv+PIN_A2)
#include <HEX.C>
main() {
byte i,j,address, value;
do {
printf("\r\n\nEEPROM: \r\n") //Displays contents
for(i=0; i<3; ++i) { //entire EEPROM
for (j=0; j<=15; ++j) { //in hex
printf("%2x", read_eeprom(i+16+j));
}
printf("\n\r");
}
printf ("\r\nlocation to change: ");
address= gethex();
printf ("\r\nNew value: ");
value=gethex();
write_eeprom (address, value);

} while (TRUE)
}
258
Example Programs
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
///Library for a Microchip 93C56 configured for a x8 ///
/// ///
/// org init_ext_eeprom(); Call before the other ///
/// functions are used ///
/// ///
/// write_ext_eeprom(a,d); Write the byte d to ///
/// the address a ///
/// ///
/// d=read_ext_eeprom (a); Read the byte d from ///
/// the address a. ///
/// The main program may define eeprom_select, ///
/// eeprom_di, eeprom_do and eeprom_clk to override ///
/// the defaults below. ///
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#ifndef EEPROM_SELECT
#define EEPROM_SELECT PIN_B7

#define EEPROM_CLK PIN_B6
#define EEPROM_DI PIN_B5
#define EEPROM_DO PIN_B4
#endif
#define EEPROM_ADDRESS byte

#define EEPROM_SIZE 256
void init_ext_eeprom() {
byte cmd[2];
byte i;
output_low(EEPROM_DI);
output_low(EEPROM_CLK);
output_low(EEPROM_SELECT);
cmd[0]=0x80;
cmd[1]=0x9;
for (i=1; i<=4; ++i)

shift_left(cmd, 2,0);
output_high (EEPROM_SELECT);
for (i=1; i<=12; ++i) {
output_bit(EEPROM_DI, shift_left(cmd, 2,0));
output_high (EEPROM_CLK);
}
output_low(EEPROM_DI);
output_low(EEPROM_SELECT);
259
Example Programs
void write_ext_eeprom (EEPROM_ADDRESS address, byte data) {

byte cmd[3];
byte i;
cmd[0]=data;
cmd[1]=address;
cmd[2]=0xa;
for(i=1;i<=4;++i)
shift_left(cmd,3,0);
output_high(EEPROM_SELECT);
for(i=1;i<=20;++i) {
output_bit (EEPROM_DI, shift_left (cmd,3,0));
}
output_low (EEPROM_DI);
output_low (EEPROM_SELECT);
delay_ms(11);
}
byte read_ext_eeprom(EEPROM_ADDRESS address) {

byte cmd[3];
byte i, data;
cmd[0]=0;
cmd[1]=address;
cmd[2]=0xc;
for(i=1;i<=4;++i)
shift_left(cmd,3,0);
output_high(EEPROM_SELECT);
for(i=1;i<=20;++i) {
output_bit (EEPROM_DI, shift_left (cmd,3,0));
if (i>12)
shift_left (&data, 1, input (EEPROM_DO));
}
output_low (EEPROM_SELECT);
return(data);
}
260
SOFTWARE LICENSE AGREEMENT
By opening the software diskette package, you agree to abide by the following
provisions. If you choose not to agree with these provisions promptly return the
unopened package for a refund.
1. License- Custom Computer Services ("CCS") grants you a license to use the
software program ("Licensed Materials") on a single-user computer. Use of the
Licensed Materials on a network requires payment of additional fees.
2. Applications Software- Derivative programs you create using the Licensed

Materials identified as Applications Software, are not subject to this agreement.
3. Warranty- CCS warrants the media to be free from defects in material and
workmanship and that the software will substantially conform to the related
documentation for a period of thirty (30) days after the date of your purchase.
CCS does not warrant that the Licensed Materials will be free from error or will
meet your specific requirements.
4. Limitations- CCS makes no warranty or condition, either expressed or implied,

including but not limited to any implied warranties of merchantability and fitness
for a particular purpose, regarding the Licensed Materials.
Neither CCS nor any applicable licensor will be liable for an incidental or
consequential damages, including but not limited to lost profits.
5. Transfers- Licensee agrees not to transfer or export the Licensed Materials to

any country other than it was originally shipped to by CCS.
The Licensed Materials are copyrighted

© 1994, 2004 Custom Computer Services Incorporated
All Rights Reserved Worldwide
P.O. Box 2452
Brookfield, WI 53008
261

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C Compiler Reference Manual

How does the PIC® connect to a PC? ...........................................................224

The compilers have some limitations when compared to a more traditional C

The latest software can be downloaded via the Internet at:

PCB, PCM, and PCH Installation:

Invoking the Command Line Compiler

The command line compiler is invoked with the following command:

+P Keep compile status window up after compile

+Z Keep scratch files on disk after compile

A / character may be used in place of a + character. The default options are as

To download the latest version of MPLAB to go Microchip's web page at:

Direct Device Programming

Device Calibration Data

SIOW SIOW is a Windows utility (PCW only). SIOW is a

DEVEDIT DEVEDIT is a Windows utility (PCW only) that will edit

PCONVERT PCONVERT is a Windows utility (PCW only) that will

CCSC +Q This will list all devices in the compiler database.

New Creates a new file

Save As Prompts for a filename to save the currently selected

Save All All open files are saved to disk.

Close All Closes all files.

Print Prints the currently selected file.

Exit Terminates PCW

New Creates a new project. A project may be created manually or

New| This command will bring up a number of fill-in-the-blank forms

Include Dirs Allows the specification of each directory to be used to search

Undo Undoes the last deletion.

Copy Copies the selected text to the clipboard.

Paste Copies the clipboard contents to the cursor location.

Select All Highlight all text within the file.

Copy Copies the contents of a file to the cursor location.

Paste Pastes the selected text to a file.

Find Searches for a specified string in the file.

Replace Replaces a specified string with a new string.

Next Performs another Find or Replace.

Match Brace The text will be highlighted up to the corresponding } or ).

Indent Indents the highlighted text

Toggle Sets a bookmark (0-9) at the cursor location.

Goto Move the cursor to the specified bookmark (0-9).

Indent The selected area of code will be properly indented.

Editor When clicked the editor brings up a new Editor Properties

General Window Settings:

Auto Highlight brackets

Visible Right Margin

Left Margin Width

File Allows selection of the output file formats.

List Format Options

Object file extension The file extension for a HEX file

List file extension The file extension for a list file

Symbolic Includes C symbols within the

Object File Options

Error File Options

Include Allows the specification of each directory to be used to search

Debugger/ Allows the specification of the device programmer to be used

Global Allows the setting of #defines to be used in compiling. This is

0F4: DESCZ 08,F

Displays the RAM memory map for the program last

A (inline) will appear after inline procedures that begin

Device Selector This tool uses the device database to allow a