Inorganic Materials of Industrial Importance

Glass
Glassy state
• The state of matter of glass is neither equilibrium nor crystalline and although it appears solid for a short
period , it continuously relaxes towards the liquid state.
• Glasses combine some properties of crystals and some of liquids but are distinctly different from both.
• They have the mechanical rigidity of crystals, but the random disordered arrangement of molecules
characterizes liquids.
• They are usually formed by melting crystalline materials at very high temperatures. When the melt cools,
the atoms are locked into a random (disordered) state before they can form into a perfect crystal
arrangement.
• Interestingly, polymers have long-range order, glassy materials have some short range order.
• A glassy material does not have a specific melting point, although it slowly liquifies when heated
Glass
• Structurally, glassy materials can be made up of random selection of polyhedral molecules linked together
at their corners.
• Besides, their structure is similar to the super cooled liquids (SLC), and they spontaneously relaxes towards
SLC state.
• Glasses have widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, windowpanes,
tableware, and optoelectronics
• The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are "silicate glasses" based on
the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand.
• The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from
use as window glass and in glass bottles.
Glass
• Glass can be defined as a rigid super cooled liquid having no definite melting point and a high viscosity that
prevents crystallization.
• On heating glass softens slowly and finally liquefies. Any substance that has been solidified from the liquid
state without crystallization can be referred as glass.
• The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible transition in amorphous
materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline materials), from a hard and relatively brittle
"glassy" state into a viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased.
• An amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved by
supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification.
• The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of temperatures over which this
glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the
material, if one exists.
 Glass

Characteristics of glassy state Properties of glassy state

• Transparency • Mechanically strong
• Solid appearance • Hard
• Brittleness • Chemical corrosion resistant
• Molecules have no order structure • Thermal shock resistant
• Volume of the system is greater than that of a • Heat absorbent
crystalline system with same composition
• Optical properties
• Absorbs light
• Electrical insulating
Types of Glassy State
1. First type: It is characterized by cessation of the vibratory
movement of the rotation of the molecules in a defined
temperature region (critical). This results in stabilization
of the chain structure of rigidity associated polar
molecules.
2. Second type: It consist of organic glassy polymerization
products. These glass in the stabilized state have a fibrous
structure of rigid valency bonded carbon atom with small
lateral branches in the form of the hydrogen atom or
more complex radicals.
3. Third type: it is most extensively used glassy state. It
consists of refractory inorganic compounds of multivalent
elements. These glasses in the stabilized state of three-
dimensional atomic valency-bonded spatial network.
Glass
Main Ingredients of glass
1. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass.
2. Sodium oxide (Na2O) generally obtained from Na2CO3, "soda", which lowers the glass-transition
temperature.
3. Lime (CaO, calcium oxide) generally obtained from limestone, CaCO3.
4. Magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability.
5. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime
glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.
Manufacturing of glass

1. Collection of raw materials: The raw materials such as silica in the form of white sand or quartz (SiO2), soda
ash (Na2CO3), limestone (CaCO3) and cullet (broken pieces) are ground separately and mixed in proper
proportion. The fusion of cullet or broken glass is to bring down melting point to make the process
economical.
2. Preparation of batch: The raw materials, cullet and decolorizer are finely powdered in grinding machines.
These materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed together. The mixing
of these materials is carried out in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is obtained. Such a uniform
mixture is known as the batch or frit and it is taken for further process of melting in a furnace.
Note: The batch of the starting materials (is called a charge) to be melted and loading it into the furnace is
called charging the furnace. The intimate homogeneous mixture of raw materials is called batch.
3. Melting or Heating of charge: The Glass batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank/ open hearth
furnace or in a furnace made of fireclay or platinum. The heating is continued until the evolution of carbon
dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other gases stops.
Manufacturing of glass

• Heating is done by burning producer gas mixed with air over the charge. The cullet (or broken glass) melts
first and helps in the fusion of the rest of the charge. A high temperature of 1500 – 1800 °C is maintained to
reduce the viscosity of glass melt and to obtain a homogeneous liquid.
• The following reactions take place in the manufacture of glass:

• Heating is continued till the glass melt is free from gas bubbles like CO2, SO2 etc. Undecomposed raw
materials and impurities form a scum called glass gall which is skimmed off. The clear liquid is now allowed
to cool after adding the necessary decolorizers or coloring agents. It is cooled to 700- 1200 °C, so that it will
have the proper viscosity for shaping.
Manufacturing and processing of glass

Pot furnace:
Small scale preparation of high grade glass is carried
out in a pot furnace. Glass of uniform quality is
possible in a pot furnace. These pots are placed in
specially prepared holes in the furnace. The charging
and collecting doors are kept projecting outside so that
raw materials may be added and molten glass may be
taken out conveniently. The pots are filled with raw
materials. The furnace is heated by means of producer
gas. When the mass has melted down, it is removed
from the pot and it is taken for the next operation of
fabrication. The melting of glass by pot furnace is an
intermittent process. It is used to melt small quantities
of glass at a time or to prepare special types of glass.
Manufacturing of glass

Tank Furnace: It is constructed with reinforced

masonry. The batch is heated in large compartment
and it contains somewhat impure glass. It flows
through opening of bridge into small compartment.
The gall or floating impurities are collected at the top
of large compartment. The refractory lining is provided
to the interior surface of tank. The tank is filled with
raw materials. The furnace is heated by allowing
producer gas through ports. The charging of raw
materials and taking out of molten mass are
simultaneous. This is a continuous process and it is
adopted to melt large quantities of glass at a time.
Processing of glass

1. Shaping: The molten glass is run into moulds and automatic machines turn them into desired shapes such as
sheets, tubes, rods, wires etc. The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this stage. It can either be done
by hand or by machine. The hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and machine fabrication is
adopted for large scale production.
2. Annealing: After shaping, the glass articles need to be cooled gradually and slowly. Rapid cooling causes
fracture. Annealing is carried out in special chambers, where temperature is brought down slowly. The entire
process of annealing may require a few days glass may crystalline if cooled very slowly. The glass articles, after
being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and gradually. This process of slow and homogeneous
cooling of glass articles is known as the annealing of glass. The annealing of glass is a very important process. If
glass articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial layer of glass cools down first as glass is a bad
conductor of heat. The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it is therefore in a state of strain. Hence,
such glass articles break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances.
3. Finishing: After annealing the glass articles are subjected to finishing such as cleaning, grinding, polishing
and cutting etc. Certain decolorizing agents such as cerium oxide, neodymium oxide etc., are added to neutralize
an undesired colour present in glass.
Types of Glass

Glasses are classified based on other ingredients which change its properties. The following is a list of the more
common types of silicate glasses and their ingredients, properties, and applications:

1. Soda-lime-silica glass or soda glass or soft glass or

window glass: Silica (SiO2) + sodium oxide (Na2O) +
lime (CaO) + Magnesia (MgO) + Alumina (Al2O3). Is
transparent, easily formed and most suitable for window
glass. It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance
to heat (500–600 °C). Container glass is a soda-lime
glass that is a slight variation on flat glass, which uses
more alumina and calcium, and less sodium and
magnesium, which are more water soluble. This makes it
less susceptible to water erosion. Used for making food
or beverage containers. It is used for windows, some
low-temperature incandescent light bulbs, and lamp
envelopes and tableware.
Types of Glass

2. Borosilicate glass or Pyrex glass: silica (SiO2) +

boron trioxide (B2O3) + soda (Na2O) + alumina (Al2O3).
Stands heat expansion much better than window glass.
Used for chemical glassware, cooking glass, car head
lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex, Duran) have
as main constituents’ silica and boron trioxide.
They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion as
compared to a typical soda-lime glass, making them
more dimensionally stable. The lower coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) also makes them less subject to
stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable
to cracking from thermal shock.
They are commonly used for making reagent bottles,
industrial equipment, exterior lighting, laboratory wares,
optical components and household cookware.
Types of Glass

3. Lead-oxide glass or crystal glass or lead glass: silica

(SiO2) + lead oxide (PbO) from red lead Pb3O4+
potassium oxide (K2O) from K2CO3+ soda (Na2O) from
Na2CO3+ zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina (Al2O3).
Because of its high density (resulting in a high electron
density), it has a high refractive index, high dispersion,
high electrical resistance, high homogeneity, does not
undergo devitrification, cut off harmful UV radiation.
making the look of glassware more brilliant (called
"crystal", though of course it is a glass and not a crystal).
It also has a high elasticity, making glassware "ring".
It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand
heating very well. This kind of glass is also more fragile
than other glasses and is easier to cut. Used for making
lenses, neon-sign tubings, cathode ray tubes, optical
instruments, spectral prisms, etc.
Types of Glass

4. Safety glass: It is classified into laminated safety glass

and heat strengthened or tempered safety glass.
Laminated safety glass is made by bonding two sheets of
ordinary glass with a thin layer of vinyl plastic between
them. Poly vinyl butyral (PVB) is used as a bonding
agent between two or more layers of glass. An important
property of safety glass is that when it is broken, the
fragments are held in place by the interlayer. The glass
pieces do not fly off that is it is shatter-proof.
Tempered safety glass is obtained by heating a single
sheet of glass to just below its fusion point and then
quenching in oil, air or molten salt.
It does not get fractured easily and is capable of
withstanding mechanical and thermal shocks. If the outer
surface breaks the pieces does not fly and the broken
pieces have no sharp edges.
Safety glass is used for the manufacture of doors, windows shields of automobiles, ships, aeroplanes and furnaces.
A sandwich effect is produced where in the outer surface cools rapidly and is in a state of compression.
Types of Glass

5. Armored glass: It is also known as bullet resistant

glass or bullet-proof glass. It is obtained by pressing
together several layers of glass with vinyl resins in an
alternate layers.
A thickness of 12-76 mm is common. It is usually 70-76
mm thick. More is the thickness more is its resistance.
Glasses of different thickness are needed to withstand
penetration from different types of bullets.
When a bullet strikes an armored glass, its energy
spreads outside through the layers. Because the energy is
divided between many different pieces of glass and
plastic and spread over a large area, it is quickly
absorbed. The bullet slows down so much that it has no
longer enough energy to pierce through it. Although, the
glass panes do break the plastic layer stop them from
flying apart.
Types of Glass

6. Fluorosilicate glass: It is composed of mainly fluorite

and silica. They have good mechanical properties. It has
low dielectric constant and used in semiconductor
fabrication. They have good resistance to chemicals and
can be used in microwave ovens.
Fluorosilicate glass has a low dielectric constant and is
used in between copper metal layers during the silicon
integrated circuit fabrication process.
Types of Glass

7. Coloured glass: Colored glasses are made by the

addition of appropriate amounts of a coloring agent to the
batch. Coloured glass is used for making coloured glass
articles, house-hold articles, sheets, bottles, beautification
etc.
Types of Glass

8. Photosensitive glass: it is a type of glass that belongs

to the family of lithium-silicate glasses in which an
image can be captured by microscopic metallic particles
in the glass when it is exposed to short wave radiations
such as U.V light.
It contains microscopic metallic particles. These
microscopic metallic nanoparticles are made of gold or
silver which is responsible for the refractive index
change. Photosensitive glass is similar to photographic
film.
It has high strength, good stability, accurate
reproducibility. It is used in printing, and reproducing
process. It finds its use in military. It is possible to burn
images and words that are hidden in photosensitive glass
by heating at high temperatures
 Types of Glass

9. Aluminosilicate glass: silica (SiO2) + alumina (Al2O3) This glass is famous for making part of mobile devices,
+ lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + barium oxide (BaO) its properties are ideal to withstand scratches that are
+ boric oxide (B2O3). common on mobile.
It has comparable properties to borosilicate glass but is Besides, it is also used for fiberglass, used for making
glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.) and for
more heat resistant, tolerating temperatures up to 800o C, halogen bulb glass.
and has a better chemical resistance. Aluminosilicate
glasses are also resistant to weathering and water erosion.
It also often undergoes an ionization process to make it
more scratch-resistant. This process involves the glass
being bathed in a molten salt solution at around 400°C. It
creates an exchange of smaller sodium ions for larger
potassium ions. Once the glass is cooled, the large
potassium ions squeeze together, which creates a greater
surface strength.
 Types of Glass

10. Germanium-oxide glass: alumina (Al2O3) +

germanium dioxide (GeO2).
It shows show high transmission for infrared light with
wavelengths shorter than 2.9 μm.
Extremely clear glass, used for fiberoptic waveguides in
communication networks. Light loses only 5% of its
intensity through 1 km of glass fiber.
 Types of Glass

11. Fused quartz or fused-silica glass or vitreous-silica

glass: Silica (SiO2) in vitreous or glass form. Its
molecules are disordered and random, without crystalline
structure. It is technically the purest glass as it consist of
almost pure silica.
It has very low thermal expansion, is very hard, and
resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C). It has high
transparency from ultraviolet to infrared spectral range
It is also the most resistant against weathering that
caused in other glasses by alkali ions leaching out of the
glass, while staining it. Fused quartz is used for high-
temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting
tubes, melting crucibles, etc.
 Types of Glass

13. Optical Fiber: An optical fiber is a single, hair-fine Both the core and the cladding of an optical fiber are
filament drawn from molten silica glass. Basically, the made of highly purified silica glass. An optical fiber is
optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and coating. manufactured from silicon dioxide by either of two
methods. The first, the crucible method, in which
The light travels down the core, which is protected by the
powdered silica is melted, produces fatter, multimode
cladding that stops the light from escaping – this is total
fibers suitable for short-distance transmission of many
internal refraction/reflection. Because of the properties of
light wave signals. The second, the vapor deposition
silica, the light bounces inside the core instead of
process, creates a solid cylinder of core and cladding
escaping, as if reflecting off a mirror. The coating is
material that is then heated and drawn into a thinner,
added to protect from damage and moisture.
single-mode fiber for long-distance communication.
Optical fiber is used to transmit telephone signals,
Internet communication and cable television signals.
They are also used for data transmission in high-level
data security fields of military and aerospace
applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft,
hydrophones for SONARs.
 Types of Glass

14. Glass Wool: The typical composition of glass wool Glass Wool is an environmentally friendly material, as it
is roughly 70% recycled glass, 0.5 to 7% binder (on a is completely natural mineral wool.
phenolic resin basis) and 0.5% mineral oil to avoid
It has good tensile strength, in the sense, it will be a
dusting. The other components are derived from the
durable material. The most astonishing characteristic of
usual glass manufacturing, i.e. quartz and limestone.
glass wool is that it can resist fire up to 300o C.
These are melted, spun into fibers and mixed with
Glass Wool has various applications in many types of
organic resins before curing into products. The mineral
industries as an insulation material.
raw materials are melted at approximately 1400 to 1500
°C. An aqueous binder is sprayed onto the fibers during It is not only used in commercial buildings such as
the spinning process. The fibers cool down fast and cinemas where great soundproofing performance is
stiffen glassily. required, but also used in other areas where optimal
sound absorption is needed.
The fiber of the loose wool is 50 ~ 150 mm in length and
12 × 10- 3 mm in diameter.
 Photosensitive glass Photochromic glass

• Photosensitive glass is a transparent glass in • Photochromic glass, used for sunglasses,

the lithium-silicate family of glasses. darkens when exposed to bright light and
• An image can be captured in it by the becomes. more transparent again when the
formation of microscopic metallic particles in light is less bright.
the glass, following exposure to
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet • Early photochromic glasses were usually made
light. of glass and contained small crystals of silver
halides (e.g., silver chloride) that darkened
• If the glass is exposed to UV light of
wavelength 280–320 nm, a latent image is when exposed to light, just like old
formed. photographic films.
• It has high potential in an extensive range of • Modern photochromic glasses, however, are
applications as it can be applied in both high usually made of plastic, rather than glass, and
temperature and corrosive environments. contain carbon-based (organic) molecules
instead of silver compounds.
Photo chromic glasses temporarily change color when exposed to strong light. Photosensitive glasses, on the
other hand, develop an invisible "latent image"; subsequent heat treatment develops this image, resulting in
permanent structural or color changes-or both-in the glass.
 What are Silicate Minerals?

Silicate minerals are minerals composed of silicate There are different types of silicate minerals that can be
groups. The silicate group is composed of one silicon found naturally. Some of these types are Nesosilicates or
atom bonded to four oxygen atoms. It is given as SiO44-. Orthosilicates, Sorosilicates, Cyclosilicates, etc. These
The structure of this silicate group is known as a silicon- minerals are different from each other according to the
oxygen tetrahedron. arrangement of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. However,
the silicate minerals fall into four major groups.
This is because the oxygen atoms around the silicon atom
are in the shape of a tetrahedron. Silicate minerals are the 1. Isolated Tetrahedra – Olivine
rock-forming minerals
2. Chains of Tetrahedra – Pyroxenes, Amphiboles
3. Sheets – Mica, Clay
4. Framework – Quartz, Feldspar
Quartz is a common mineral that can be found on the
earth surface. For example, rocks, sandstones are all
made out of quartz.
 What are Nonsilicate Minerals?

• Nonsilicate minerals are minerals that are not Six Major Classes of Nonsilicate Minerals
composed of silicate groups.  Oxides – Oxides are composed of various types of
cations bonded to oxide anion
• These minerals may contain oxygen atoms but not in
combination with silicon.  Sulfides – Sulfides are composed of various types of
cations bonded to sulfide anions
• Nonsilicate minerals are less complex than silicate
minerals.  Carbonates – Carbonates are composed of various
types of cations bonded to carbonate anions
• One abundant non-silicate mineral is pyrite, or "fool's
gold," a compound of iron and sulfur well known for  Sulfates – Sulfates are composed of various types of
its deceptive metallic luster. cations bonded to sulfate anions
• Others include calcite, from which limestone and  Halides – Halides are composed of various types of
marble are formed, hematite, corundum, gypsum and cations bonded to chloride and fluoride anions
magnetite, an iron oxide famed for its magnetic
 Phosphates – Phosphates are composed of various
properties.
types of cations bonded to phosphate anions
Difference between Silicate and Nonsilicate Minerals

Silicate minerals Nonsilicate minerals

Silicate minerals are composed of silicate Nonsilicate minerals do not contain silicate
groups. groups.
Nonsilicate minerals have less complex
Silicate minerals have highly complex
structures when compared to silicate
structures.
minerals.

Silicate minerals can be divided into four Nonsilicate minerals can be found in six
major groups: different types as
isolated tetrahedra, chains of tetrahedra, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides,
sheets, and framework. phosphates, and carbonates.
 Classification of Glasses

• We know that glass is formed by cooling molten liquid

and there is no ordered arrangement of molecules. • Non-oxide glasses: these do not contain oxygen

• Based on the composition glasses are classified as 1. Heavy metal fluorides- fluorides of Zr, Ba, La, Al,
Na (ZBLAN). They are used in telecommunication
fibers, since they have relatively low optical loss.
They are extremely difficult to form and have poor
chemical durability.
Silicate glass 2. Glassy metals- they are formed by high-speed
Oxide glass quenching of fluid metals. It is used in flexible
Glass magnetic shielding and power transformers.
Non-silicate glass
Non-oxide glass 3. Semiconducting solids (Chalcogenides)- they are
formed by melting together the S, Se or Te (16 gp
elements) with elements of gp 15 and 14 (As, Sb,
 High-pressure cooling procedure called "quenching." Ge). They are used in memory switching devices and
in xerography. Amorphous Si and Ge are used in
photovoltaic application, solar cells etc.
 Classification of Glasses

• Oxide glasses :
1. Non-silicate glasses- they do not contain SiO2, they are generally phosphates and borates.

• Oxide glasses :
2. Silicate glasses- they are commercially important types of glasses. They are made up of SiO2 or vitreous silica
 Ceramics
• Ceramics include all articles which are essentially silicates.
• The term ceramic is derived from a Greek word Keramos, meaning
pottery.
• Ceramics can be defined as heat-resistant, non-metallic, inorganic
solids that are (generally) made up of compounds formed from
metallic and non-metallic elements.
• Ceramics is that branch of technology which deals with
manufacture of ceramic articles, their technical characterization
and raw material used.
• In general ceramics are corrosion- resistant and hard, but
brittle. Most ceramics are also good insulators and can withstand
high temperatures.
• Glass is sometimes considered a type of ceramic. However, glasses
and ceramics differ in that ceramics have a crystalline structure
while glasses contain impurities that prevent crystallization.
You'll often see ceramic insulators (the stacks of round discs) protecting overhead power lines. They're made from
porcelain, glass, or other ceramics.

High-temperature superconductors made from ceramics could allow electricity to flow

through things with little or no resistance, making possible technologies like superfast
computers and "floating" Maglev trains.

Ceramic tiles helped to protect the Space Shuttle from

heat when it came back into Earth's atmosphere.
 Ceramics Products
• Clay construction products - bricks, clay pipe, and building tile.
• Refractory ceramics - ceramics capable of high temperature applications such
as furnace walls and crucibles
• Cement used in concrete - used for construction and roads
• Whiteware products - pottery, stoneware, fine China, porcelain, and other
tableware, based on mixtures of clay and other minerals
• Glass - bottles, glasses, lenses, window pane, and light bulbs
• Abrasives - aluminium oxide and silicon carbide
Ceramic abrasives
• Cutting tool materials - tungsten carbide, aluminium oxide, and cubic boron
nitride
• Ceramic insulators - applications include electrical transmission components,
spark plugs, and microelectronic chip substrates
• Magnetic ceramics – example: computer memories
• Bioceramics - artificial teeth and bones

Ceramic cutting tools

 Basic groups of ceramics
Ceramic materials and wares can be divided into following basic groups according to their main field of use:
1. Structural ceramics: Mainly used in constructing building and other structures. Common example are
bricks, hollow tiles, roof tiles, drain tiles etc. Rock goods such as clinker brick, ceramic slabs for floor, sewer
pipe etc.
2. Facing materials: articles used for internal and external facing of building and structures. Examples- facing
bricks and slabs and oven tiles.
3. Refractories: materials which retain their mechanical properties at 1000ᴼC or high temperature. They are
also used in making various parts of industrial furnaces, ovens and apparatus for operating at high
temperature.
4. Fine ceramics- porcelain wares are glazed pottery are included under this. They are used domestically as
dishes, wash basins, sinks, decorative articles, and in laboratory as chemical wares and apparatus.
5. Special ceramics- A group of articles with specific properties utilized in radio industry, aviation, instrument
manufacture etc.
 Types of ceramics
Ceramic materials can be divided two classes:
1. Heavy clay products: these products consist mainly of clay with only small amount of other raw materials.
Examples-Common bricks, roofing tiles, hollow tiles, sewer pipes, stoneware and refractories
2. Pottery products: they are made up of materials such as terracotta, earthen ware, porcelain, bone china
and vitreous china. These include earthen ware, wall tiles, electrical insulations made of porcelain. Along
with sanitary ware, glazed wall, electrical wares and refractory goods. In general, they can further be
classified into 4 groups:
a. Terracotta- it includes all pottery wares made from common clays, which are porous and not
covered with a glaze. It is not subjected to higher temperatures to allow the body of the ware to become
impermeable to liquids. The color varies from light yellow to reddish brown. For e.g- common bricks, hollow
wares made my kumhars.
b. Earthenware- they are permeable and porous, made from red burning clays and white clays and
coated with a glaze. It is harder than terra cota because it is fired at higher temperature.
c. Stoneware- they are impermeable to liquids during firing. It is ceramic ware with slightly greyish
or brownish boy. They are dense and often glazed with salt glaze. Drain ware pipes, carboys for keeping
liquids, sanitary wares such as wash basin etc.
 Types of ceramics
d. Porcelain : Porcelain is a pottery with a white, translucent and impermeable body. They are the
best type of potteries, and the composition of the body is so adjusted that when subjected to high
temperatures, it becomes completely translucent to light.
Commercially ceramics may be classified into two groups :
1. Rough wares are made from coarse - grained ceramic drought and have a porous biscuit of non uniform
structure. Examples : building materials and refractories.
2. Fine wares are sintered or fine pore items with a uniform structure of the biscuit. Examples are porcelain,
glazed pottery and special ceramics.
Porcelain
• Porcelain is a hard, tough ceramic that is less
brittle than the ceramics that preceded it. Its
strength allows it to be fashioned into beautiful
vessels with walls so thin they can even be
translucent.
• It is made from kaolin mixed with China stone, and
the mixture is heated to a very high temperature
(1,300°C). Porcelain was developed in China
around C.E. 600
• Bone china has a composition similar to that of
porcelain, but at least 50 percent of the material is
finely powdered bone ash. Like porcelain, bone
china is strong and can be formed into dishes with
very thin, translucent walls.
 Three Basic Categories of Ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics - clay products such as pottery and bricks, common abrasives, and cement.
2. New ceramics - more recently developed ceramics based on oxides, carbides, etc., and generally
possessing mechanical or physical properties superior or unique compared to traditional ceramics
3. Glasses - based primarily on silica and distinguished by their non-crystalline structure, Additionally,
there are Glass ceramics, glasses transformed into a largely crystalline structure by heat treatment
Physical properties of ceramics
• Density – in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers
• Melting temperatures - higher than for most metals. Some ceramics decompose rather than melt.
• Electrical and thermal conductivities - lower than for metals; but the range of values is greater, so some
ceramics are insulators while others are conductors
• Thermal expansion - somewhat less than for metals, but effects are more damaging because of brittleness
Traditional Ceramics
• Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides found in nature.
• Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware, brick, and tile), cement, and natural abrasives such as
alumina.
• Mineral silicates, such as clays of various compositions, and silica, such as quartz, are among the most
abundant substances in nature and constitute the principal raw materials for traditional ceramics.
• Another important raw material for traditional ceramics is alumina.
• Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicate. Most common clays are based on the mineral
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4).
• When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic substance that is formable and moldable.
• When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature (firing ), clay fuses into a dense, strong material. Thus,
clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and then fired to obtain the final hard product
New Ceramics
Ceramic materials developed synthetically over
the last several decades Oxide ceramics: most common oxide ceramic is
alumina. Although it comes under traditional
• The term also refers to improvements in ceramics, it can be produced synthetically from
processing techniques that provide greater bauxite, using an electric furnace method.
control over structures and properties of
ceramic materials It has good hot hardness, low thermal
conductivity, and good corrosion resistance.
• In general, new ceramics are based on
compounds other than variations of It is used in abrasives, bio ceramics, electrical
aluminum silicate, which form most of the insulators etc.
traditional ceramic materials.
• New ceramics are usually simpler chemically
than traditional ceramics; for example,
oxides, carbides, nitrides, and borides
New Ceramics
Carbides ceramics: some common examples Nitride ceramics: The important nitride
are Silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC), ceramics are silicon nitride (Si3N4), boron nitride
titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), (BN), and titanium nitride (TiN).
and chromium carbide (Cr3C2).
They are hard, brittle, high melting
WC, TiC, and TaC are valued for their hardness temperatures, usually electrically insulating, TiN
and wear resistance in cutting tools. being an exception.
Silicon nitride: components for gas turbines,
rocket engines, and melting crucibles
Boron nitride and titanium nitride: cutting tool
material and coatings

SiC ceramics
Boron Nitride ceramics
Properties of Ceramics
Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for a multitude of applications. In general,
most ceramics are:
1. Hard,
2. wear-resistant,
3. brittle,
4. refractory,
5. thermal insulators,
6. electrical insulators,
7. nonmagnetic,
8. oxidation resistant,
9. prone to thermal shock, and chemically stable.
Applications of Ceramics
1. Insulators: prevents the flow of charge or heat. Ceramics make good insulators because the ionic and
covalent bonding restricts electron and ion mobility.
2. Capacitors: store electrical energy by virtue of separating oppositely charged plates with an insulator (also
called a dielectric) in between. An example of a ceramic material used as the dielectric for a capacitor is
Barium Titanate, Ba2TiO3
3. Semiconductors: have an intermediate value of electrical conductivity. The most commonly used ceramic
semiconducting materials are sintered oxides of Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, and Cu. By varying the amounts of these
oxides in the material the desired value of the electrical conductivity can be obtained.
4. Ferroelectrics: have behavior similar to a ferromagnetic material.
5. Piezoelectric: have the distinct property whereby an applied stress induces an electrical voltage.
6. Abrasives
7. Refractory