Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

College of Arts and Sciences

BS Biology Program

JOURNAL ARTICLE CRITIQUE

Submitted by:

JAY AR A. TAMAYO
(BS Biology, III)

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in

BIOL 110 Evolutionary Biology (Lab)

Submitted to:
Aljon M. Borabo
Instructor

MARCH 10, 2023

BASIC DETAILS OF THE EVALUATED RESEARCH ARTICLE
Title of the article: On the rapidity of antibiotic resistance evolution facilitated by a
concentration gradient
Publishing Journal: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Volume No.: 109
Issue No.: 27
Print ISSN No.: 10775 – 10780
Electronic ISS No.: 92093-0374
Included Page: pp. 1-6
Corresponding Author: Rutger Hermsen, J. Barrett Deris, and Terence Hwa
Co-Author: Nigel Goldenfeld
 JOURNAL CRITIQUE

Contents of the Review

A. General Evaluation of the Article and the Research Problem/Introduction

Antibiotic resistance is a situation where bacteria develop defenses against antibiotic

actions, making these medicines useless for treating bacterial illnesses. One of the biggest
risks to global health is antibiotic resistance, an issue that is spreading across the globe.
There are numerous ways that antibiotic resistance might develop, including bacterial DNA
mutations that alter the structure of the target protein and horizontal gene transfer that
results in the acquisition of resistance genes. Antibiotic misuse and overuse can also
contribute to the emergence of antibiotic resistance because they create a selective
environment that encourages the development of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics.
Antibiotic resistance can result in the failure of antibiotic therapy, an increase in morbidity
and mortality, and lengthier hospital admissions, all of which have major implications for
human health. Moreover, it raises healthcare expenses and may have negative economic
and societal effects. Hence, it is imperative to create fresh approaches to tackle antibiotic
resistance, such as the creation of novel antibiotics, improved surveillance, and control
techniques, and increased public awareness of the proper use of antibiotics.

The full article by Hermsen, et. al. (2012), investigates how a concentration gradient
of antibiotics affects the rate of evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. The study was
conducted using a combination of experimental and theoretical approaches, with the aim
of understanding how bacteria adapt to changing concentrations of antibiotics in their
environment. In order to create an antibiotic concentration gradient, the experimental part
entailed cultivating E. coli bacteria in a microfluidic device. The authors then tracked how
quickly the bacteria developed an immunity to the antibiotic and how quickly the resistance
propagated across the population. The theoretical part of the study entailed creating
mathematical models to forecast how quickly antibiotic resistance will evolve under certain
circumstances. The degree of resistance selection, the pace of mutation, and the size of the
bacterial population were all considered in these models.

Overall, the study found that a concentration gradient of antibiotics can greatly
accelerate the rate of evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. The authors suggest that
this may have important implications for the development of antibiotic resistance in clinical
settings, where antibiotics are often administered in a non-uniform manner.
 B. Principles found in the article.

(1) Natural Selection

The article discusses how concentration gradients of antibiotics in the environment can act
as a selective pressure for bacteria to evolve resistance. Bacteria that have mutations conferring
antibiotic resistance are more likely to survive and reproduce in areas with higher
concentrations of antibiotics, leading to the evolution of resistant strains. This is an example
of natural selection, where organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and
pass on those traits to their offspring.

In the case of antibiotic resistance, bacteria that possess genetic mutations that confer
resistance to antibiotics have a survival advantage over those that do not. The study found that
concentration gradients of antibiotics can facilitate the selection of resistance mutants because
they allow resistant strains to evade competition and colonize compartments with higher drug
concentrations, where less resistant strains cannot subsist. This is consistent with the principles
of natural selection, as resistant strains are better adapted to the environment of antibiotic
exposure.

(2) Gene Expression

Biological principle incorporated in the paper is Gene expression. Gene expression is the
process by which information in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such
as a protein. In the case of antibiotic resistance, mutations in genes can confer resistance by
altering the expression of genes that code for proteins involved in drug uptake, efflux, or target
binding. The study did not explicitly investigate gene expression but implicitly assumed that
mutations confer resistance by altering the sensitivity of the growth rate to antibiotic
concentration, which can be considered a proxy for gene expression. The study found that the
speed of adaptation to concentration gradients depends on the sensitivity of the growth rate to
the antibiotic concentration, which they argue is a generic property of bacterial growth. This
supports the idea that mutations that alter gene expression can contribute to the evolution of
antibiotic resistance.

(3) Spatial Heterogeneity

Spatial heterogeneity refers to the variations in the environment, such as differences in

nutrient availability, temperature, and chemical concentrations, that can create distinct
microenvironments for organisms within a given area. In the case of bacteria, spatial
heterogeneity can play a critical role in the emergence of antibiotic resistance. The study shows
that the presence of concentration gradients in antibiotics can create selective pressures that
 enable resistant mutants to invade compartments with higher drug concentrations, where less
resistant strains cannot subsist. This mode of adaptation is impossible in uniform
environments, demonstrating the importance of spatial heterogeneity in the evolution of
antibiotic resistance.

(4) Ecological Niche

An ecological niche refers to the unique set of biotic and abiotic factors that define the
conditions under which a species can survive and reproduce. In the context of antibiotic
resistance, different bacterial strains may occupy different ecological niches within the body
based on their resistance to different antibiotics. The paper mentions that the model includes
multiple compartments with varying antibiotic concentrations, allowing different bacterial
strains to occupy different ecological niches. The model shows that concentration gradients
can create niches where resistant mutants can thrive, while less resistant strains cannot survive.
This highlights the importance of understanding the ecological context in which antibiotic
resistance evolves.

In summary, the paper incorporates the concepts of mutation rate and ecological niche to
demonstrate how concentration gradients can facilitate the evolution of antibiotic resistance.
The inclusion of these concepts helps to broaden our understanding of the complex processes
involved in antibiotic resistance evolution.

(5) Mutation Rate

The mutation rate is the frequency with which genetic mutations occur in a population over
time. In the context of antibiotic resistance, mutations that confer resistance to antibiotics can
occur spontaneously, allowing bacteria to adapt and survive in the presence of antibiotics. The
paper mentions that the model includes mutation as a stochastic process, meaning that
mutations occur randomly and infrequently. The model shows that even with a low mutation
rate, concentration gradients can facilitate the selection of resistant mutants and allow them to
outcompete less resistant strains. This highlights the importance of understanding the role of
mutation rates in the evolution of antibiotic resistance.
 C. Evaluation of the articles’ main parts

(1) COMMENTS ON THE RESEARCH ARTICLE'S TITLE

The author created an article/research that has a very simple yet descriptive title,
making it easy to comprehend its goal and reasons for being. Additionally, the title
incorporates all the important information and keywords that are included in the content of
the article.

(2) COMMENTS ON THE RESEARCH ARTICLE'S ABSTRACT

The authors of the research article provided a clear and concise abstract of their study
on the rapidity of antibiotic resistance evolution facilitated by a concentration gradient.
They provide an identified potential contribution of the heterogeneity of environments to
the emergence of bacterial strains resistant to multiple antibiotics. The authors described a
quantitative model of an environment subdivided into compartments with different
antibiotic concentrations, where bacteria evolve under stochastic processes. They
presented analytical and numerical results that demonstrate how concentration gradients
can facilitate the evolution of antibiotic resistance by enabling resistant mutants to evade
competition and invade compartments with higher drug concentrations.

The abstract is well-structured, and the language is technical but accessible to a broad
scientific audience. It effectively summarizes the main findings and implications of the
study.

(3) COMMENTS ON THE RESEARCH ARTICLE'S/ AUTHORS' INTRODUCTION

The author first briefly explained the antibiotic resistance. Then the author explained
the factors that Antibiotic resistance is anticipated to rapidly evolve. they explained that,
they investigated the possibility that spatial heterogeneity can promote the emergence of
antibiotic resistance. Different organs and tissues respond differently to antibiotic
treatment in humans and animals, as shown by pharmaco-kinetic parameters. Antibiotic
concentrations are not uniformly distributed in space as a result. Moreover, germs spread
between patients who are receiving treatment and those who are not, depending on their
level of immunological response. As a result, antibiotic resistance naturally develops in
many situations. Then in the introduction the author also included about the models
regarding environmental heterogeneity.
 The author presented the introduction quiet skillfully and is well structured. No
grammatical errors or repetitive choice of words. The flow of the article introduction was
like reading a story from a book because of its continuous flow.

(4) COMMENTS ON THE RESEARCH ARTICLE'S / AUTHORS' PRESENTATION OF

THE MATERIALS AND METHODS

Since the full materials and methods of the research are still not available online due to
the met hods being under review, they provide the materials and methods in another type
of research article that contains the same methodologies they used.

Based on the provided methods in the article, the authors of the article – main article
"On the rapidity of antibiotic resistance evolution enhanced by a concentration gradient"
investigated how concentration gradients affected the development of antibiotic resistance
in bacterial populations. They investigated the effects of many elements, including
mutation rate, population size, and growth rate, on the emergence and dissemination of
resistance in the presence of a concentration gradient using a combination of experimental
and mathematical modelling methodologies. On the other hand, the authors of the article
"Mutational route determines whether drug gradients accelerate evolution of drug-resistant
cells" – based research, put a lot of emphasis on how mutational pathways affect how
quickly and how far resistance evolves when there are drug gradients present. To examine
the impact of several mutational routes on the formation and dissemination of resistance in
bacterial populations, they combined experimental and computational methods.

Overall, both publications give a thorough and accurate account of the resources and
procedures employed in their investigations. They examine the intricate dynamics of
antibiotic resistance evolution, a significant and urgent subject in microbiology, using a
combination of experimental and computational methods.

(5) COMMENTS ON THE AUTHOR(S)' PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

The authors presented their findings on the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria
at various antibiotic concentrations, demonstrating that the rate of resistance evolution was
faster in environments with a steep antibiotic gradient than in environments with a uniform
antibiotic concentration. They also discussed the potential mechanisms that could explain
this observation, such as the role of mutation and genetic recombination in promoting the
rapid evolution of resistance. Furthermore, the authors discussed the implications of their
findings for the development of new antibiotic resistance strategies. They proposed that
 their findings could be used to develop more effective treatments that take advantage of
natural bacterial evolution mechanisms to slow the development of resistance.

To conclude, the authors of the article presented their results and discussions in a clear
and concise manner. They provided a detailed description of their experimental methods,
which included the use of a microfluidic device to create an antibiotic concentration
gradient and the use of fluorescently labeled bacteria to track their growth and movement
becoming the results and discussion more understandable.

(6) COMMENTS ON THE AUTHOR(S)' CONCLUSION

One of the disadvantages of this research is including the conclusion in the discussion
part, which makes it harder to find the conclusion. In contrast, they discussed the discussion
separately from the results. I have to suggest that the authors separate the discussion from
the conclusion.

Overall, they had constructed a brief yet precise conclusion. The choice of word
incorporated the entire idea of the research in a summary manner. The choice of wording
is excellent, making it not hard for a non-science reader to understand the entire context of
the article.

(7) COMMENTS ON THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The acknowledgement part contains the names of an individual who’s the authors
trying to express their gratitude. The acknowledgement is too short but is considered
because the paper is a published article and it make the article more precise and concise.

(8) COMMENTS ON THE REFERENCES

The authors used APA citations. Authors references are not organized, neither
alphabetically nor in flow with the research. Making the article/research not appealing to
its reader. This kind of reference formatting must not be considered and is not appropriate,
especially if the article had been published online. Overall, the article's acknowledgement
is wrong and at the same time very unorganized.
REFERENCES
Hermsen, R., Deris, J. B., & Hwa, T. (2012). On the rapidity of antibiotic resistance evolution
facilitated by a concentration gradient. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
109(27), 10775–10780. doi:10.1073/pnas.1117716109

Greulich, P., Waclaw, B., & Allen, R. J. (2012). Mutational Pathway Determines Whether Drug
Gradients Accelerate Evolution of Drug-Resistant Cells. Physical Review Letters, 109(8).
doi:10.1103/physrevlett.109.08810
 INTRODUCTION TO TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY : Four forests exist within the Valdivian T.F., including; (1) FOREST ECOSYSTEM
TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY – Land base ecosystem Pathagonian Andean Forests, (2) Northern Pathagonean Forests, The ECOSYSTEM comprises of all living organisms in an area
- Populations and communities of plants, animals, and microbes (3) Deciduous Forest, (4) Laurel Forest or the community of organisms and non-living abiotic factors
- Interaction with the atmosphere steams and ground water dealing with the community.
- Role and the cycling of energy, water, and the major GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM – Is an area where vegetation is TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM – is a land-based community of
biochemical element such as carbon and nitrogen dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. organisms and the interactions of biotic and abiotic components in
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS : - It is also called Transitional landscape because grasslands a given area.
(1) Terrestrial Ecosystem – (Land base ecosystem) ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the FOREST ECOSYSTEM – are areas of the landscape that are
1. Forest, 2. Grassland, 3. Desert, 4. Tundra Ecosystem area where there is not enough for a forest and too much of a forest. dominated by trees and consist of biologically integrated
(2) Aquatic Ecosystem – (Water base ecosystem) Tropical Grasslands – found mainly in the Sahel south of the communities of plants, animals and microbes, together with the
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM – Sahara, in East Africa, in East Africa, ad in Australia. local soils (substrates) and atmospheres (climates) with which they
- Is a land-based community of organisms and the interactions of Temperate Grasslands – Occur in North America, Argentina, and interact.
biotic and abiotic components in a given area. across a broad band from Ukraine to China. The biotic and abiotic factors are linked by two factors:
Biotic Factors: Bacteria, Fungi, Plant, Archea, Animals, Protists DESSERT – is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation (1) The flow of energy through the ecosystem
Abiotic Factors: Air, Salinity, Soil, Temp., Light, Water, pH occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant (2) The cycling of nutrients within the ecosystem.
THERE ARE 10 MAJOR TERRESTRIAL BIOMES: and animal life.
Tropical rainforest, Tropical dry forest, Savannas, Subtropical : Desserts cover more than one-fifth of the Earth’s land area, and
desserts, 5. Chaparral, Temperate grasslands, Temperate they are found on every continent FOREST ECOSYSTEM
rainforests, Boreal forests, Arctic tundra, Desserts Types of Desserts: FOREST ECOSYSTEM – Areas of the landscape that are
BIOMES – Are large scale environments that are distinguished by - Are rigid regions with especially low or high temperatures and dominated by trees and consists of biologically integrated
characteristic temperate ranges and amount of precipitation. limited vegetation. communities of:
(1) TUNDRA – Is the coldest of all the biomes. Tundra comes Based on the climate, deserts are classified into two types : Plant, Animal, Microbes, Soil, Atmospheres with which intact
from the Finnish word tunturi, meaning treeless plain. : (1) Hot Desserts, (2) Cold Desserts FOREST – Defined as a massive space of land lined by trees and
(2) TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM – Are treeless regions found in the LADAKH – is famously known as the cold desert of India. It is woody vegetation.
arctic and on the tops of mountains and windy, n rainfall is scant. found in the high altitudes of the temperate regions, which lie in : It plays a significant role in maintaining the variety and also the
- Tundra lands are covered with snow for much of the years, but the Great Himalayas within the eastern parts of Jammu and scheme of planet earth. They’re home to several wild species of
summer brings bursts of wildflowers Kashmir and located in the western Himalayas region, within animal, reptiles, and insects.
Few species of plants and animals that live in the harsh Himachal Pradesh in North India. ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
conditions of the tundra are essentially clinging to life. Different Desserts in the World: 1. Increase soil humus, 2. Water conservancy, Climate regulation,
- They are highly vulnerable to environmental stresses like: Great Basin, Mohave Dessert, Sahara, Atacama, Namib, Nutient Cycling, Soil Protection, CO2 fixation and O2 release,
(1) Reduced snow cover Patagonian Dessert, Kalahari, Australian Desert, Gobi, Arab Des. Pollutants decomposition,Winbreak and Sand Fixation
(2) Warmer temperatures brought by global warming FOREST ECOLOGY – The scientific study of the interrelated
(3) PERMAFROST – Is any type of ground – from soil to patters. Processes, flora, fauna and ecosystem in forests.
sediment to rock – that has been frozen continuously for a : The management of forests is known as Forestry, Silviculture,
minimum of two years and as many as hundreds of thousands of ad Forest Management
Permafrost is perennially frozen soil that covers about a quarter Why ferns are called epiphytes?
of and land in the N Hemisphere, particularly n CAN, RUS, ALA EPIPHYTE – Also called air pollutant, any plant that grow upon
- Much of its rich with the organic matter of long-dead plants… another plant or object merely for physical support.
(4) TAIGA – is a forest of the cold, subarctic region generally : Epiphytes have no attachment to the ground or other obvious
referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a nutrient source and are not parasitic on the supporting plants
biome characterized by coniferous forest consisting mostly of : Indicators of climate change
pines, spruces, and larches. Taiga or boreal forest has been called Epiphytes play a key role in the rainforest ecosystem:
the world’s largest land biome. Taiga Existed 12,000 years ago. : They provide nectar, pollen, fruit and seed for harvest
(5) TEMPERATE DECIDOUS FOREST – Is a biome that has : The moisture and nutrient retaining properties are essential to
many deciduous trees which will drop their leaves in the rainfall. many of the terrestrial invertebrates and lower vertebrates.
This forest also known as broad-leaf forests because the trees ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID – Also known as trophic pyramid,
have wide, flat leaves. Eltonian pyramid, Energy pyramid, Food pyramid.
Tropical rainforest is the most biologically diverse terrestrial : Is a graphical design to show the biomass or bio productivity at
ecosystem in the worlds. each trohic level in a given ecosystem
- Amazon Rainforest is the world largest tropical rainforest. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
Why tropical rain forest are important ecosystems? : Pyramid of Energy, Biomass, Number
: Rainforest called as lungs of the planet for their role in : Producers, Primary Consumers, Secondary C., Tertiary C.
absorbing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
: Rainforest also stabilize climate. A terrestrial environment dominated by trees growing in a
: Habitat of diverse plants and wildlife closed canopy – a FOREST, in other words.
: Produce nourishing rainfall all around the planet. : The organisms involved in a forest ecosystem definition are
10 LARGEST RAINFORESTS IN THE WORLDS: independent on one another for survival and can be broadly
(1) THE AMAZON – Covering the are of over 1.2 billion acres, classified according to their ecological role as producers,
largest in the worlds. This region is the home to 10% of the worlds consumers and decomposers.
known species and the represents over half of the rainforests. FOREST ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS
(2) THE CONGO RAINFOREST – This African rainforests FOREST PRODUCERS – Made up of organisms that can
stretches over 1.5 million square miles. Deforestation has turned manufacture their own energy from this solar input.
the region into one of the most endangered ecosystems in the : Green plants conducting photosynthesis serve as the producers
worlds. There are five national parks in the Congo rainforest of a forest ecosystem.
(3) BOSAWAS BIOSPHERE RESERVE – (northern nicaragua) The EMERGENT LAYER includes huge trees towering 165 feet
spans an area of over 5 million acres, making it one of the worlds or more that are spaced far apart. Beneath these emergent trees lies
largest rainforest. The region was designated as a UNESCO the main canopy, composed of closely spaced trees generally 65 to
biosphere reserve in 1997. 165 feet tall. They provide fruits, nectar and seeds for many
: 215 bird sp., 24 sp of mammals, 12 poisonous snakes, 11sp of creatures.
fish, 200,000sp of insects. : The understory supports few plants as it receives very little
: 22 ecosystem, 6 forest types, 270 plant sp. Have been identified sunlight. Almost nothing grows on the forest floor as it is devoid
: Generates 26Million tons of O2 per year in EUR and N AME. of sunlight.
(4) DAINTREE RAINFOREST – This ancient rainforest, which (1) EMERGENT LAYER – Top of the rainforest where trees,
was named after geologist and photographer Richard Daintree, is plants, and leaves obtain the most sunlight.
located on the coast of Queensland, Australia. (2) THE CANOPY LAYER – This layer is very dense. It is
: At over 165 million years old, it is thought to be the oldest roughly 20ft thick. This layer has the ability to block out sunlight,
tropical rainforest in the worlds. rain, and wind. This creates a darker and more humid environment
(5) SOUTHEAST ASIAN RAINFOREST – Stretching from for their layers below the canopy
India to Malaysia, these forest were once the most biodiverse (3) THE UNDERSTORY LAYER – relatively open layer with
regions of the world before much of the land was cleared for little light. Home to young trees and leafy plants that tolerate low
logging and farming. light.
- Most of Asia’s tropical rainforests are scattered across the island : The Understory layer -only receives about 5-10% of sunlight
of Indonesia. Experts believe that the rainforest of Malaysia : The understory is warm, wet, and shaded in which plants have
existed as far back as 100 million years. adapted to this specific environment.
(6) TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST UNDERSTORY PLATS – Evolve to live with less sunlight and
: Half of the TNF is covered in rainforest, and the other half is fewer nutrients than their canopy counterparts.
made up of rock, ice, water. (4) THE FOREST FLOOR – This layer only takes about 2% of
: The largest tress in Alaska are found here, and only about 15 the entire rainforest.
percent of these trees are protected. : his layer is very dark, hot, and damp
: This region covers 11,000 miles of coastline and is home to : Very little light reaches this layer. A thin layer of decomposing
about 75,000 people in 32 communities. leaves, seeds, fruits, and branches cover the forest floor
(7) KINABALU NATIONAL PARK – The first national part in : Few plants because of deep shade
Malaysia and was also the countries first world heritage site. : Nutrients quickly decomposed and absorbed by tree roots
: The 130-million-year-old rainforest is considered to be one of SURVIVAL: PLANT ADAPTATION
the most important biological sited in the worlds with thousands of : DRIP TIPS and GROOVED LEAVES – these help shed water
species of plants and animals. from leaves to prevent rotting
(8) MONTEVERDE CLOUD FOREST RESERVE – : OILY COATINGS – this also helps shed water from leaves to
Mountains of costa rica, this region was designated as a reserve in prevent rotting
1972 to protect the forest from logging : SMALL, LEATHERY LEAVES in UPPER CANOPY –
: This area is made of rivers, rainforests, and cloud forests, and is these leaves protect from dehydration in the intense sun
said to have some of the best bird watching in the worlds. : LARGE LEAVES in LOWER CANOPY – these leaves help
: This area is thought to contain ove 500 orchid sp. – more than understory plants absorb light in the shade.
any other area in the world. : DRIP TIPS – Help shed water
(9) SINHARAJA FOREST RESERVE – The national park in : LEAF STALK that TURN to follow the sun – maximize light
Sri Lanka was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the understory
in 1978. 60 percent of the park’s trees are endemic to the region : EPIPHYTES (Plants that grow on other plants) grow in upper
and many are considered to be extremely rare. canopy; orchids and bromeliads
(10) VALDIVIAN TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST – Located on : BUTTRESS or STILT ROOTS – anchor in shallow, wet soil
the west coast of south America, this ecoregion spans form Chile : MANY VINES
to Argentina. Major adaptations in the Understory Layer of the rainforest:
Anthocynin, Drip tips & Leave size, Waxy Cuticles
ANTHOCYANINS – Also called anthocyans, are water-soluble SPECIES COMPOSITION AND CARBON : The use of carbon dioxide as a raw material to produce
vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, SEQUESTRATION graphene, a technological material. Graphene is used to create
purple, blue, or black. SPECIES COMPOSITION refers to the biodiversity of an screens for smartphones and other tech devices.
What is the role of anthocyanins in plants? ecological system, including the variety of: : Graphene is a revolutionary material made up of a
: Anthocyanins protect leaves from the stress of photo inhibitory (1) genes, (2) species (3) communities, (4) ecosystems single layer of graphite atoms arranged as a single sheet.
light fluxes by absorbing the excess photons that would otherwise SPECIES COMPOSITION How is graphene manufactured?
be intercepted by chlorophyll b. - Refers to all plant species found in a stand or landscape, Scientists synthesize graphene through a process called chemical
Use a environmental pH indicator including trees, shrubs, forbs, and grasses. vapor deposition, in which they first heat a sample of copper foil
Anthocyanins may be used as pH indicators because their color - It also refers to forest communities at the stand or landscape and then deposit onto it a combination of carbon and other gases.
changes with pH; level whose canopies may be dominated by a single tree species or : (3.2) DIRECT AIR CAPTURE (DAC): A means by which to
: red or pink in acidic solutions (pH < 7) contain a mixture of species. capture carbon directly from the air using advanced technology
: purple in neutral solutions (pH ≈ 7) QUADRANT SAMPLING plants.
: greenish-yellow in alkaline solutions (pH > 7) (1) Random Sampling, (2) Systematic Samling The world's first large-scale plant is being built in the United
: colorless in very alkaline solutions, where the pigment is : Scientist select a small are of an ecosystem. States uses direct air capture such as;
completely reduced. : (1) Microsoft, (2) Shopify, (3) Swiss Re
What plant has drip tip leaves? MONOCULTURE vs POLYCULTURE How Bill Gates aims to clean up the planet?
: Most rainforest leaves are very green and have a waxy kind of : the cultivation of a single crop in a given area. "the replacement SWISS REINSURANCE COMPANY LTD – commonly known
coating to them. 90 percent of rainforest plant leaves have what is of natural forest with pine monoculture" as Swiss Re, is a reinsurance company based in Zurich,
called a "drip tip." The drip tip is the pointed end of the leaf. This EUCALYPTUS DEGLUPTA – is a species of tall tree, Switzerland. It is one of the world's largest reinsurers.
tip, along with the waxy covering makes it easier for water to run commonly known as the rainbow eucalyptus, Mindanao gum, or ENGINEERED MOLECULES
off the leaves. rainbow gum that is native to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua : Scientists are engineering molecules that can change shape by
New Guinea. creating new kinds of compounds capable of singling out and
The waxy cuticle is the outermost layer of understory plant : It was initially called the Mindanao gum and is known locally capturing carbon dioxide from the air.
leaves: as BAGRAS. Like many other eucalyptus trees, it grows quickly : The engineered molecules act as a filter, only attracting the
This layer consists of many important sunstances, such; to heights exceeding 60 meters (200 feet). element it was engineered to seek.
: 1. Cutin, 2. Polysaccharides, 3. Waxes, 4. Lipids : The tree sheds its bark, it bursts into a technicolor display of
Each of these substances contributes towards the protection of the oranges, blues, and greens.
understory plant leaves. POLYCULTURE – are two or more useful plants grown on the
same plot, usually at the same time.
: is the opposite of monoculture, in which only one plant or
animal species is cultivated together.
: can improve control of some pests, weeds, and diseases while
reducing the need for pesticides.
Forest Garden:
: Cherry, Apple, White Mulberry, Hazzlenut, Qunice, Plum, Fig
PERMACULTURE – is an approach to land management and
settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing
natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived
using whole-systems thinking
: can be understood as the growth of agricultural ecosystems in
a self-sufficient and sustainable way.
: Permaculture brings production of food closer to consumers
and the consumer’s wastes back into the cycle.
: Draws inspiration from nature to develop synergetic farming
systems based on:
1. crop diversity, 2. Resilience, 3. natural productivity 4.
sustainability
Whats the diff. between organic farming and permaculture?
: Organic Farming promotes the use of natural fertilizers, making
use of the natural carbon cycle so that waste from plants becomes
the food (fertilizer) of another.
: Minerals are being lost from the farm every time a truck load
of produce is carted to market.
PERMACULTURE FUNCTONS:
(1) PEST MANAGEMENT – Pests are less predominant in
polycultures than monocultures due to crop diversity. The reduced
concentration of a target species makes polycultures less appealing
to pests that have a strong preference towards that specific crop.
(2) DISEASE CONTROL – Plant diseases are less predominant
in polycultures than monocultures. The disease-diversity
hypothesis states that a greater diversity of plants leads to a
decreased severity of disease.
(3) WEED MANAGEMENT – Having a greater density of plants
reduces the available water, sunlight, and nutrient concentrations
in the environment. This level of competition makes polycultures
particularly inhospitable to weed

CARBON SEQUESTRATION – is the process of capturing and

storing atmospheric carbon dioxide.
: It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change.
What is carbon sequestration examples?
BIOLOGICAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION happens when
carbon is stored in the natural environment. This includes what are
known as 'carbon sinks', such as;
1. forests, 2. Grasslands, 3. Soil 4. Oceans and other bodies of
water.
TYPES OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION:
(1) BIOLOGICAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION
: Mangroves, seagrasses, and tidal marsh vegetation absorb
carbon from the air and water to photosynthesize. This carbon is
stored in their leaves, branches, and roots, which also hold
sediments in place – thus creating very efficient ‘carbon sinks’.
: Biological carbon sequestration is the natural ability of life
and ecosystems to store carbon.
BLUE CARBON – is the term for atmospheric carbon captured
by oceans and coastal wetland ecosystems.
COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS such as mangrove
forests, seagrass meadows, and tidal marshes capture and store a
huge amount of carbon.
: This is called ‘blue carbon’ to distinguish it from land-based
carbon sequestration.
(2) GEOLOGICAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION
: is the process of storing carbon dioxide (CO2) in underground
geologic formations.
: The CO2 is usually pressurized until it becomes a liquid, and
then it is injected into porous rock formations in geologic basins.
GEOLOGIC SEQUESTRATION – is recognized as the
injection and subsequent long-term trapping of gaseous, liquid, or
supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) in subsurface media, primarily
saline formations, depleted or nearly depleted oil and gas
reservoirs, and coal seams.
Two-types of reservoirs used for geological sequestration:
: (2.1) Injection into sandstone or another porous reservoir that
currently contains saltwater, termed “saline aquifer” storage.
: (2.2) Injection into hydrocarbon-bearing strata such as an oil
or gas reservoir, a gas shale, or a coal seam.
(3) TECHNOLOGICAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION
: Innovative technologies to remove carbon from the atmosphere
Examples of Technological Carbon Sequestration:
: (3.1) GRAPHENE PRODUCTION
 THE FOREST CANOPY STRUCTURE (5) Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE – the physical arrangement of various physical and Philippine Native Trees MANGROVES - are tropical trees that thrive in conditions most
biological components of an ecological system distribution: (1) Niog-Niogan (Ficus pseudopalma) timber could never tolerate — salty, coastal waters, and the
: 1. Evenness, 2. Density, 3. growth forms of plants in that (2) Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandifloras) interminable ebb and flow of the tide. With the ability to store vast
community (3) Tibig (Ficus nota) amounts of carbon, mangrove forests are key weapons in the fight
The Importance of Forest Canopy Structure (4) Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera against climate change.
A forest’s canopy structure is influenced by: (5) Mayapis (Shorea palosapis) MANGROVE MULTI FUNCTION
: (1) environmental and soil factors, and it also influences these (6) Kamagong (Diospyros blancoi (1) Barrier to solar radiation
factors in return. (7) Balinghasai (Buchanania arborescens) (2) Barrier to typhoons
: (2) The canopy structure is often overlooked, with most of the (8) Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpia) (3) Biodiversity habitat
focus being on biodiversity. IV. PRODUCES NICHES – The combination of environmental WITHOUT MANGROVE?
: (3) One of the reasons could be that the forest canopy structure conditions at various heights creates a myriad of microclimates, (1) Reduced biodiversity
is a more complex concept, which cannot be easily captured in a which provide specialized niches for other plants, animals, birds, (2) Eroded Coastlines
number. insects, etc. (3) Decrease Fish Stocks
Forest canopy structure can mean different things, it basically : For example, epiphytes grow in branch nooks, and most (4) Accelerated Climate Change
refers to the arrangement of tree crowns; it has two components: insects live in the crowns of trees. (5) Community infra damage-
: 1. the vertical structure, 2. the horizontal structure. : (IV.1) MICROCLIMATE - is a local set of atmospheric Note: Tsunami and Typhoon
(1) HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE – is created by the placement conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often MANGROVE IMPORTANCE
of trees and how close their crowns are to each other. slightly but sometimes substantially. (1) Ideal Breeding Ground
: distribution of communities across the landscape-gaps, : any climatic condition in a relatively small area, within (2) Most Productive Ecosystem on Earth
patchiness. a few meters or less above and below the Earth’s surface and (3) Support Large Biodiversity of Species
(2) VETICAL STRUCTURE – is formed because trees and within canopies of vegetation. (4) Local Community Beneficial
shrubs in a forest will have different heights. So, two or more : applies to the surfaces of terrestrial and glaciated (5) Prevent Coastal Erosion
layers of tree crowns can be found in forests. environments, but it could also pertain to the surfaces of oceans (6) Buffer Zones for Tsunamis and Storm surges
: These layers are called forest storeys or strata. and other bodies of water (7) No 1 Carbon Sequestration
: The topmost stratum is made of emergent trees : The term may refer to areas as small as a few square (8) Sustain a Large Number of Fish
below them are the canopy trees, which are usually present as a meters or smaller or as large as many square kilometers (9) High Economic Value
continuous layer. The microclimates of a region are defined by: MAJOR THREATS TO MANGROVE FOREST
: The tree strata below them are called the sub-canopy and the : 1. Moisture, 2. Temperature, 3. winds of the atmosphere near The following are the threats that may result in the destruction
understorey. the ground, 4. Vegetation, 5. Soil, 6. Latitude, 7. Elevation 8. of mangroves in the Philippines:
- pertains to the layers of vegetation; the top to bottom structure season. (1) Pollution from domestic, industrial, and agricultural
of a forest stand. A diverse stand would have multiple layers from TOPOGRAPHY – or surface features, can create a microclimate sources
tall to smaller trees, shrubs, forbs, grasses, mosses and coarse by affecting the path of air and, therefore, the humidity of an area. (2) Introduction of Exotic Species
woody debris. : For example, air moving up a mountain slope undergoes a (3) Incompatible Tourism Activities
What does a multi-layered canopies provide? decrease in pressure and often releases moisture in the form of rain (4) Mangrove conversion to other use
: Provide structural habitat for various birds that forage, nest and or snow. (5) Over-exploitation of resources
roost at intermediate heights V. STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY - Besides the microclimates, (6) Unsustainable resource use
: Intercept and retain snowfall/rainfall, resulting in lesser the forest canopy with its branches and arboreal connections (7) Overlapping and conflicting policies
accumulations of snow/water on the forest floor creates structural diversity which is vital for the survival of many (8) Climate Change
: Maintain moderate stand temperatures by reducing convective animals. For example, many tree-dwellers escape ground predators THREATS TO COASTLINE
and radiative heat loss. by staying and moving in the canopy. (1) Conservation of mangrove into fish-ponds and salt beds
: Provide an array of branches that are a substrate for invertebrates Forests are home to an amazing diversity of animals. (2) Reclamation of mangrove areas into warehouses, piers
and arboreal lichen growth. : Tree-dwelling animals are found mostly in the tree canopy and and houses
ROLE OF FOREST CANOPY STRUCTURE the layer of treetops that peek above the forest into the clouds (3) Construction of dikes that hinders the flow of water
: Forest canopy structure determines many of the environmental called the emergent layer. (4) Tidal inundation
factors and functions of a forest and is, therefore, important for all : GIANT CLOUD RATS – are primarily tree-dwelling, (5) Over exploitation / Utilization
the species living in a forest. spending most of their time high in the branches (6) Pests / Diseases like barnacles and tiny beetles
: This species is endemic to the island of Luzon in the (7) Typhoons caused flooding and coastal erosion
I. LIGHT INTERCEPTION – Light distribution within the Philippines, where it is found in the northern and central provinces. (8) Adverse effects of climate change
forest depends on the number of layers. IV. BIODIVERSITY- As a result of its influences, the forest
: The upper layers will get more light radiation, with little light canopy structure is necessary to maintain the biodiversity of a Mangrove needs FRESHWATER and SALTWATER to
coming through to the forest floor, if the canopy is dense. For this forest. Differing forest canopy structures of biomes increase the GROW and SURVIVE – SUPPLY NUTRIENTS
reason, there is little grass and herbs in well-developed and old overall biodiversity of the earth.
forests. BAKAUAN – BABAE (Rhizophora mucronata Lam.)
: The amount of light reaching the lower parts of a tree is also STILT MANGROVE
important as photosynthesis depends on it. So, there is more : tree of the mangrove swamps growing up to 12 meters high,
photosynthesis in the upper layers of a forest canopy. with numerous prop roots. Leaves are shining, oblong-elliptic, 8 to
II. MODERATE TEMPERATURE – Temperatures within a 16 centimeters long, 3.5 to 8 centimeters wide, and pointed at both
forest vary with height. ends.
: At the upper canopy layers, temperatures are extreme and BAKAUAN LALAKE LEAVES – The leaves of the bakauan
fluctuate more lalaki are dark, glossy, green, opposite, apex acuminate, ovate-
: In the forest interior, they are moderate and stable, making lanceolate, and 7.9 to 19 centimeters long and 3.9 to 8.8
forest floors preferred homes of large animals like ungulates. centimeters wide.
III. WIND AND RAIN PROTECTION – Forest canopies act as : Stipules and petioles are reddish or purplish.
a windbreak and intercept rainfall making the forest interior more
hospitable. The Philippines harbor 39 species of true mangroves belonging
WINDBREAK BENEFITS : Tree and shrub windbreaks are to the following genera:
valuable conservation tools with many functions. Their benefits : Acanthus, Camptostemon, Lumnitzera, Excoecaria, Pemphis,
include: Xylocarpus, Aegiceras, Osbornia, Nypa, Aegialitis, Bruguiera,
: (III.1) – REDUCED SOIL EROSION Ceriops, Kandelia, Rhizophora, Scyphiphora
: Windbreaks prevent wind erosion for 10 to 20 times
their height downwind. They also filter wind-blown soil particles
from the air
: (III.2) – CROP PROTECTION
: Windbreaks can increase crop yields by up to 44%.
Wind protection reduces crop water use, increases a plant’s ability
to make food, and may increase pollination.
: (III.3) – ENERGY CONSERVATION
: Windbreaks can reduce winter heating costs by 20 to
40% by reducing cold air infiltration into buildings. In summer
water evaporation from leaves directly cools the air.
: (III.4) – SNOW CONTROL
: Windbreaks can serve as “living snow fences”,
controlling drifts near roads, buildings, or livestock or distributing
snow evenly over large areas like crop fields.
: (III.5) – LIVESOTCK PROTECTION
: Windbreaks can be used as “outdoor barns,” sheltered
areas for feeding, calving, and other livestock-related activities.
: (III.6) – WILDLIFE HABITAT
: In open areas where windbreaks are needed for wind
reduction, they may also provide the only woody cover and food
necessary for some wildlife species.
: (III.7) – BEAUTY
: Trees provide visual screening and permanence in the
landscape that other types of plants can not.
: (III.8) – TREE PODUCTS
: Windbreaks can supply firewood or other products
while maintaining conservation functions.
Some examples of native typhoon-resilient trees found in the
Philippine islands are:
1. Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum)
2. Kamagong (Diospyros blancoi)
3. Katmon (Dillenia philippinensis)
4. Bignay (Antidesma bunius)
5. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus)
6. Pili (Canarium ovatum)
7. Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia)
Top 5 typhoon-resilient trees in an Urban settings
(1) Katmon (Dillenia philippinensis)
(2) Kamagong (Diospyros blancoi)
(3) Pili (Canarium ovatum)
(4) Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum)