11Precipitation and Related Phenomena

Introduction vapour varies with place and region.

The phenomenon of falling off any liquid or
frozen water that is created in the atmosphere
is called precipitation. Rain, sleet and snow are
different types of precipitation. Evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation are three
components of the global water cycle.

Water Vapour
⚫ The formation of water vapour starts
when the water becomes too hot and gets
converted into water vapour, and rises
up in the upper parts of the atmosphere.
This process continuously goes on; hence
it is rightly said that water is continuously
cycling through the atmosphere.
⚫ The water cycle starts with the
condensation of water in the clouds.
The movement of clouds occurs under the
influence of wind, and eventually, in the
form of snow or rain, water comes back
to Earth. This is an important step in the
transmission of heat, and energy from the
Earth’s surface into the atmosphere.
⚫ It is a well-known fact that watervapour
acts as one of the most significant
greenhouse gases within the atmosphere.
The water vapours in the lower part of the
atmosphere absorb the heat, which is
radiated from the Earth’s surface, and in
turn, they radiate heat in all directions.
Though, some of the heat comes back to
the surface hence, water vapour acts as a
secondary source of heat at the Earth’s
surface.

Importance of Water Vapour

⚫ Water vapour directly affects the energy
balance of the Earth. It plays a significant
role in radiative balance, and the
hydrological cycle. It transports latent heat
and absorbs solar radiation when it
condenses into clouds. In the lower
atmosphere, the concentration of water

Precipitation and Related Phenomena 1

⚫ It is one of the most variable gas
substances, constituting between 2% to
4% of the total volume in a cold and
dry humid climate, respectively. More
than 90% of the water vapour
concentration is found within 6Km of
the lower part of the atmosphere.
⚫ Water vapour absorbs long-wave
terrestrial radiation from the Earth’s
radiation, which is emitted during the
night.
⚫ Upon condensation, water vapour
releases latent heat of evaporation,
hence it is a source of precipitation and
clouds.

Water Cycle
⚫ A water cycle is a path followed by
the water in all forms, and these
forms move from one state to another
state around the Earth. Let’s
understand the mechanism as liquid
water is present in the ocean, rivers,
lakes, streams, even groundwater
sources and the snow cover found in
the glaciers and both poles.
⚫ When water gets evaporated and
released as gas in the atmosphere, the
sun’s heat makes glaciers melt and get
converted into a liquid state, the same
melted water flows into the oceans,
lakes, and through the soil, it reaches
underground. This water cycle is
continuous in nature, and this process
makes water a renewable resource.
⚫ Glaciers are the most important
source of freshwater, and they are the
biggest storage for the same. But with
increasing the pressure of global
warming, these glaciers are melting
down and resulting in the discharge of
the same water in the oceans, which
consequently increases ocean water
level.
⚫ The water gets into the atmosphere in
two ways, first is by evaporation due to
the sun where the liquid water in water
bodies is evaporated and reaches the
atmosphere. The second is through
the process of

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 Fig. 11.1: The Water Cycle

“ĒranspiraĒion”, where water from the flora Forcalculatingrelativehumidity,a

enters the atmosphere. hygrometer is used; it is made of wet and
dry bulb thermometers. They are placed
Humidity side by side on a Stevenson screen. At
⚫ The dampness of the atmosphere is night the upper limit capacity is low, so the
measured in terms of humidity. The relative humidity will be higher.
humidity varies across places and times. ⚫ The relative humidity is inversely
⚫ Absolute humidity is the actual amount of proportional to temperature. It is highest
water vapour available in the atmosphere. at the equator, and decreases towards
It is measured in grams per cubic meter. the poles. It is minimum in subtropical
The relative humidity is more important anticyclones.
than absolute humidity as the former holds ⚫ The proportional variation in the
more utility in the study of weather. temperature has a direct bearing on the
⚫ At a given temperature, the ratio capacity to retain moisture within the
between the actual amount of water air, and this decides the volume of water
vapour, and the total amount of water vapour within a parcel of the air. The
vapour that air can hold is called relative relative humidity is always higher in the
humidity. It is expressed in terms of oceans than over the continent.
percentage. Condensation
⚫ When relative humidity reaches 100%, then
it is said that air is saturated, and the air
temperature is at the “dew poinĒ”. If ⚫ Through this mechanism, water vapour
the water cools further, it turns into water turns into liquid, and it is completely
vapour and forms clouds, and this leads to opposite to the evaporation mechanism
rainfall. where liquid water turns into the vapour

Precipitation and Related Phenomena 3

 of water. The condensation occurs either Dew Point
when air gets cooled at the dew point, or ⚫ Dew point is the temperature that air
when the saturation level reaches the requires to be cooled to (at constant
state where it cannot hold any more pressure) in order to reach a relative
water. humidity (RH) of 100%.
⚫ Dew points suggest that air is now unable
Saturation to carry more water in gaseous form. If the
⚫ When more and more water droplets come air is cooled, even more, water vapour
together, they become saturated to form would have to come out of the atmosphere
clouds, or it can be said that clouds are in the liquid state, usually as fog or
saturated forms of water droplets. The precipitation.
density of water molecules increases when
the clouds get saturated and are unable Frost
to hold any more water. Hence, vapour
⚫ The water vapour or water in gaseous form
condenses to form rain.
that solidifies is called frost. Severe frosts
⚫ The case with the cold air is different
are formed in regions of intense fog, and
compared to the warm air as cold air is
they are formed over solid objects like
incapable of holding much water vapour.
windows, cars and plants.
This is the reason why the warm climate
⚫ When the temperature of the surface is
is more humid than the cold climatic
past the dew point, the formation of frost
regions. Instead of condensing into the
starts. The liquid freezes when it comes in
rain, the water vapours are held in the air.
contact with the surface.
Condensation of water vapour takes place
⚫ They are mostly formed in low-lying
easily in the cold climate; hence it is more
regions, and also in the valley when the
likely to have rain.
cool air descends from the mountains, and
accumulates in the valley.
Hygroscopic Nuclei
Water seeking nuclei are hygroscopic nuclei as Types of Frost
they help water droplets accumulate together,
The Frosts are of the Following Types
and become large enough to fall on the Earth.
⚫ Radiation frost: They are formed in the
The nuclei of microscopic dust, salt, and other
shape of tiny crystals, which can be seen
water absorption particles offer a good surface
on the ground, and uncovered objects.
for the water droplets or vapours to condense
Deposits of ice crystals on the objects
upon. There is an instant condensation of
exposed to air are hoarfrost, which can be
water vapour on a hygroscopic substance
seen in refrigerators and freezers.
when relative humidity gets more than 100
⚫ Advection frost: When the cold wind blows
percent. Dust particles, various other solid
over the poles, branches of trees and any
materials, which are floating in the
other surface, advection frosts are formed.
atmosphere and have the capacity to absorb
It is an accumulation of ice spikes.
water, are called hygroscopic nuclei.
⚫ Rime: This type of frost is formed in cold,
Latent Heat wet climates and windy weather. Rime
covers the exposed part of a ship that
Without a change in temperature, the amount
travels through cold places. Rime can also
of energy absorbed or released by a substance
be seen as solid ice
when the change of physical state appears
⚫ Haze: Haze is the mixture of smoke, and
is called latent heat. Usually, it is expressed
dust particles. In industrial regions, smoke
as the amount of heat (In units of joules or
and dust particles are profoundly present. It
calories) per mole or unit of mass of substance
can also be found due to uneven refraction
undergoing a state of change.

Precipitation and Related 21

 of light in the lower part of the anthropogenic emission is higher both
atmosphere. The lower visibility in regions
with lower humidity (typically less than
75%.) indicates haze. It is said that if
visibility is less than
1.4 miles, haze is present.
o Brown haze constitutes black carbon,
ash, sulphates, nitrates, mineral dust-
75% of the cloud is man-made.

Mist
⚫ Mist is defined as a cloud that is formed of
small water drops in the air. The suspension
of water vapour in the air causes mist to
occur. The water vapour in the air causes
small drops of water to hover about,
forming clouds at the ground level called
‘mist’.
⚫ Mist is significantly dense, and causes a
huge reduction in visibility to about 1000
meters. Mist is found in those areas
where the air is wet and relative humidity
is above 75%.

Fog
⚫ Fog is formed when water gets condensed
on dust particles and other smoke
particles of households and industries. It is
formed within the lower atmospheric part
like sort dense clouds. Visibility in fog is
reduced to less than 1000 meters.
⚫ In industrial areas, thick smoky fog is
formed, which is called smog, and this
causes very limited visibility. Hill fogs
appear on the hills and are very common
in the morning, and disappear after sunrise.

Types of Smog
Photochemical Smog
⚫ It is formed from the pollutants like
nitrogen
oxides and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and they react in sunlight, forming
a brown haze above cities. Photochemical
smog mostly occurs during the summer
months because of the ample amount of
available sunlight.
⚫ While nitrogen oxides and VOCs are
generated biogenically (in nature),

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 pollutants. Natural emissions tend to regional concerns like changes in patterns
span over large areas, reducing their of rainfall along with the
effects, but man-made emissions
tend to be concentrated close to their
source, such as a city.

Asian Brown Cloud

These clouds are region-specific and
found as slums of air pollution that
consist of a significant amount of the tiny
particles of the shoot, sulphates, fly ash
and many other pollutants. Asian Brown
Cloud has now become the ABC’s. Brown
clouds have been seen all around the
world, including in Europe, the US, India
and China. The absorption and scattering
of solar radiation take place by fly ash,
soil dust particles, anthropogenic black
carbon, and nitrogen dioxide gas. This
causes the occurrence of brown colour in
the column of ABC’s.
The main hotspots of ABC’s are across the East
Asia, Southeast Asia, Indo-Gangetic Plain
in South Asia, Southern Africa, and the
Amazon Basin.
⚫ Causes of ABC’s: Forest fires,
factories, inefficient cooking fuels, and
motor vehicle use.
⚫ Effects:
o Significant decline of solar radiation
to the surface by as much as 15%.
o Altered regional monsoon paths
(less sea evaporation from sunlight
means less rain)
o Lesser rain in northwest India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western
China by as much as 40% and more
rain and flooding in other areas.
o Decline in photosynthesis (drop in
agricultural productivity)
o Acid deposition and plant damage
o Respiratory ailments

Impacts
⚫ A study conducted in 2002 indicates
that in India, due to symptoms related
to brown clouds, around two million
people die annually. The second
assessment study of 2008 brought

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 monsoon. The drought in Northern China frequently called ‘mare’s tails’. This
and simultaneous flooding in southern type of cloud gives a glimpse of fair
China are influenced by the clouds. Even weather and often gives a brilliant
the weakening of the Indian monsoon is Sunset.
associated with Asian Brown Clouds. o Cirrocumulus (Cc): These are white
o Due to the cooling of air over East globular masses of clouds forming
Asia, the thermal equator, is displaced ripples in the mackerel sky.
towards the south. Hence, there is a o Cirrostratus (Cs): The Sun or Moon gives
shift of monsoon towards the south, a characteristic halo when they shine
which is responsible for heavy rain in through these clouds. This cloud looks
these areas. like a veil or white sheet.
o A cumulative warming impact of ⚫ Medium clouds: Mainly, alto or middle
greenhouse gases, and the Asian Brown height clouds, found at 7000–20000 m
Cloud is responsible for increasing air o Altocumulus (Alt-Cu): They usually
temperature, which can be witnessed in indicate fair weather. They resemble
regions. The increased concentration of waves and are arranged in layers, and
black carbon decreases the reflection appear woolly and bumpy.
aggravates. o Altostratus (Alt-St): Owing to their
o The ABCs are significantly responsible fibrous or striated structures, the Sun’s
for the melting of the glaciers, which rays shine faintly through them. These
is the main reason behind the water are dense, grey in colour and have a
scarcity and floods affecting millions watery look.
of people who are living downstream ⚫ Low clouds: These are mainly, stratus or
of rivers or dams. The water scarcity sheet clouds below 7000 feet.
results in a decrease in crop production o Stratocumulus (St-Cu): It also has
and also increased ozone concentration waves like Altocumulus, but more
in the lower part of the atmosphere, pronounced. The bright and the shaded
which is affecting crop yields, and this part have stark differences. They are
impact can be seen crop-specific. rough, and bumpy in appearance.
o Stratus (St): They are found at low
Clouds elevations and have uniform grey
Clouds are the accumulation of very small colour. Their thickness appears like a
drops of water floating in the sky. Due to low ceiling or a highland fog. Their
the increase in the concentration of water presence results in dull weather and
vapour, condensation takes place within light drizzle, and low visibility of
the atmosphere when the air reaches the aircraft.
dew point. For the metrological purpose, the o Nimbostratus (Ni-St): It brings rain,
amount of cloud cover in the sky is expressed snow and sleet, hence called “rain
in the eighths or oktas. On maps, the places cloud”. It is a dark and dull cloud.
joining equal degrees of cloudiness are ⚫ Cloud With great vertical extent:
joined by lines which are known as o Cumulus (Cu): Cumulus clouds are also
“isonephs”. known as vertical clouds, and have a
rounded top and horizontal base. They
Types of Clouds are commonly found in humid tropical
⚫ High clouds extend from 6-20km: Mainly, regions, and are associated with rising
cirrus of feathery form at 20000-40000 m convection currents. White globular
above ground. masses of the cloud may look grey
o Cirrus (Ci): This type of cloud appears against the Sun, but it is a fair-weather
fibrous and wisps in the blue sky. It is cloud.
o Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): These can be

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found at the height of 2000 feet
up to

Precipitation and Related 22

 Fig. 11.2: Types of Clouds

30,000 feet. They are black and white the temperate summers. For conventional
in colour, usually appear like globular rainfall to take place, the surface of the
masses, and can take a wide variety of Earth is heated due to conduction
shapes. It appears in tropical afternoons consequently; water vapour rises with air.
and are called “Thunder Cloud” as they Later, when the air descends, the vapour
are responsible for “convenĒional rain”. gets condensed into cumulonimbus
They are accompanied by lightning clouds, having a great vertical extent.
and thunder. They are often called o The convection reaches its optimum
“overgrown cumulus clouds”. in the afternoon, and this convectional
system is at its peak during this time.
What is the Rainfall The hot air has enough capacity to
When water is pouring from the sky in liquid hold moisture, and this air reaches the
form, it is called rainfall. Millions of water saturation point, “ĒorrenĒial downpour”
droplets come together and become clouds. occurs accompanied by thunder and
These clouds get saturated with water droplets lightning.
and fall on the Earth’s surface; this is known o During the summer season, temperate
as precipitation. When these millions of water regions experience heavy rainfall, and
droplets collide with each other and grow occasional thunderstorms. This rainfall
bigger and bigger. With this, they become is not fully useful for agriculture
heavier and heavier, consequently, droplets because the rain is so intense that it
cannot float in the air; hence it falls on the does not sink, or the soil does not
ground as precipitation. Rainfall also has other absorb it properly, and almost all water
forms of precipitation: snow, sleet and hails. is drained out.

Types of Rainfall
Orographic or Relief Rain
Convectional Rainfall
⚫ Orographic rainfall occurs when
⚫ It occurs when during the daytime, there moisture- laden onshore winds force to
is excessive heating, like in the tropics or ascend against the mountain barrier. This

22 Precipitation and Related

wind sheds most of its moisture on
this side of

Precipitation and Related 22

 Fig. 11.3: Convectional Rainfall

the mountains, hence the windward side

of the mountain, gets a huge amount of OROGRAPHIC EFFECT
WINDWARD SIDE LEEWARD SIDE

rainfall. In this rain type, the moisture-laden RAIN SHADOW

air is compelled to rise and get cool down

with the expansion of air once they reach Condensing Water Vapor

higher latitude, and consequently reduces

Dry,

atmospheric pressure. Further ascending Descending Air

results in cool and fully saturated air.

Condensation occurs after the formation of
clouds, and eventually results in rain. Water Vapor

o Since relief of the region is responsible WARM OCEAN

for this rain, it is also called relief rain.

For example, western ghats, and Assam Fig. 11.4: Orographic
hills of India, west Malaysia etc. Rain
o This air descending towards the leeward shadow region”. For example, the
side experiences an increase in pressure eastern side of the western ghats is
and temperature, eventually becoming called rain shadow areas.
warm. This results in a decrease in
moisture and humidity drops. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
Therefore, the leeward side of these It is accompanied by cyclonic activity, and
mountains increases evaporation and independent of any relief or any convectional
less rainfall; hence this region is called current. It occurs either in temperate regions
the “rainfall

22 Precipitation and Related

(depressions) or tropical regions (cyclones). an irregular frozen lump or separately.
On the convergence of two different air Hailstones are ¼ inch (5 mm) or bigger
masses having different temperatures, warm in diameter. Severe thunderstorms are
air rises due to the light mass, but cold air indicated when hailstones are of a size of
naturally remains on the ground due to its more than 1 inch.
dense, and heavy nature. The warm air cools ⚫ Small hail (Snow Pellets): Small hails
down by condensation, and a light shower are the precipitation of the white, and
occurs, known as frontal or cyclonic rainfall.
The heavier and colder air mass pushes
warmer air further upward, and the sky is clear
again.

Types of Precipitation
Drizzle
It is light rain with small drops which have
uniform precipitation. Along with air current,
it flows in the air. Fog differs from drizzles in
the fact that fog falls on the ground, whereas
drizzles float in the air. Fog and drizzle occur
together quite frequently. Fig. 11.6: Sleet (Ice Pellets)

Ice Pellets (Sleet)

⚫ They are transparent or translucent
pellets of ice that precipitate in the form
of a mixture of rain and snow. They are
composed of frozen raindrops or refrozen
snowflakes. They can be irregular hard
grain or spherical in shape.

Hail
⚫ It is precipitation that has solid ice, which
is formed inside a thunderstorm. Ice
precipitates in the form of fragmented
ice or small balls. They either fall like Fig. 11.7: Hail

Fig. 11.5: Drizzle Fig. 11.8: Small Hails

Precipitation and Related 22

 opaque grains of ice that are spherical, widely separated, unlike drizzles, they are
or sometimes conical and have diameters considered as raindrops.
less than ¼ inch (5 mm).
World Distribution of Rainfall
Snow
⚫ As we move from the equator towards
⚫ Precipitation of snow crystals that are the poles, a decrease in the amount of
majorly branched, and in the shape of six- rainfall is observed.
pointed stars. ⚫ As compared to the interior part of the
⚫ Snow grains: It is a frozen drizzle and continents, the coastal regions receive
precipitation of small, white, and opaque more rainfall.
ice grains. ⚫ Due to ample sources of moisture Oceans
⚫ Ice crystals: They are also called ‘diamond get more rain, when compared with the
dusĒ’, and are found in very cold regions. land.
They are in the shape of needles, columns ⚫ In between 350 to 400, NS of the equator,
or plates. When they are illuminated with the eastern coastal margins of continents
light, they give a ‘lighĒ pillar’ optical effect. receive more rain, and it decreases as we
move towards the western side.
Rain
⚫ Due to the effect of westerlies, between
⚫ Raindrops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch 450-650 NS of the equator, the rainfall is first
/ received at the western coastal margins
0.5 mm or more) are most common and of continents. A decreasing trend is
are considered rain. If small drops are observed when we move towards the
east.

Fig. 11.11: Ice Crystals

Fig. 11.9: Snow

Fig. 11.10: Snow Grains Fig. 11.12: Rain

22 Precipitation and Related

⚫ The occurrence of rain is more on coastal role in determining economic, and social
plains in regions, where the mountains life in any region. For example, in high
run parallel to the coast. It decreases on rainfall areas, tropical fruits and vegetables
moving towards the leeward side. are taken as primary economic activities.
⚫ So, it is rightly said that precipitation Anthropogenic pressure on all these
and other related phenomena are very phenomena has increased nowadays, which
significant from the weather, climate, and brings destruction to agriculture and other
human life’s point of view. They play a key economic activities.

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