MAT1141 Notes 2023 PDF

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL
AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES
Differential Calculus
MAT1141
Compiled by V Makhoshi
January 2023
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Contents
0.1 The Lecturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

0.2 Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
0.3 General Information on the Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
0.4 Purpose of the Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
0.5 Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
0.6 Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
0.7 Support Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
0.8 Rules and procedure regarding deferred (aegrotat) assessment opportunities vii
0.9 General Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
1 Preliminaries 1
1.0.1 Review of Elementary Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.2 Piecewise Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.0.3 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.0.4 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.0.5 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.0.6 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.0.7 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.0.8 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.0.9 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.0.10 Combinations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Limits 11
2.1 The Limit of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Two sided limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Vertical and horizontal asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 Oblique Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 The Precise Definition of the Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Differentiation 35
3.1 Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 The Derivative as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Calculating Derivatives from the Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 Differentiable Functions are continuous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
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CONTENTS CONTENTS
3.3.1 Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.3.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.1 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.7 Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.7.1 Exponential and Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.7.2 Natural Logarithmic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7.3 The Derivatives of ax and au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.5 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Applications 61
4.1 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.1 The Indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1.2 The Indeterminate Forms 00 , ∞0 and 1∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3 Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 First Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.6 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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Learning Guide
0.1 The Lecturer

• Lecturer: Mr. Makhoshi VT
• Office: y (Faculty of Science,engineering and Agriculture, Department of

Mathematical and Computational Sciences)
• Telephone: 015 962 8916
• Cell: 072 715 6222
• email: vuledzani.makhoshi@univen.ac.za
0.2 Foreword
We provide you with important information regarding this module, Differential Calculus.
It is compalsory that you attend all contact and virtual lectures, pay attention and ask
questions where you do not understand. Always keep in mind that the module lecturer is
your primary source of information. Where possible, form study groups and invest at least
one hour per day in studying and practicing calculus.
0.3 General Information on the Module

• NQF Level: 5
• NQF Credits: 8
• Type of module: 1st Semester
• Notional Hours: 80
0.4 Purpose of the Module

To provide you with a firm foundation which will support some of your future learning.
This will be done by studying the limit of a function and a special class of functions called
continuous functions. We will use the notion of the limit of a function to introduce the
derivative of a function and invest most of our time exploring various rules of
differentiation, culminating our study by discussing the applications of differential
calculus in solving real life problems.
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0.5. OUTCOMES CONTENTS
0.5 Outcomes
Critical Cross Field Outcomes
Students should be able to:
i. Identify and solve problems
ii. Work in a team
iii. Reflect on and explore effective learning strategies
Specific Outcomes At the end of this module, students should be able to:
a. Define and interpret elementary functions.
b. Give an intuitive explanation of the process of taking a limit and compute basic
limits of functions at a point numerically and algebraically using appropriate
techniques.
c. Verify the value of a limit of a function at a point using the precise definition of the
limit,
d. Define continuity of a function at a point and in an interval. Find and classify points
of discontinuity for functions. Understand the consequences of the Intermediate
Value Theorem for continuous functions.
e. Explain the relation between limits and the process of differentiation, state the
definition of the derivative as the limit of the difference quotient and compute the
derivative of a simple function directly using limits.
f. Derive the expression for the derivative of elementary functions from the limit,
differentiate composite functions using the chain rule, perform implicit
differentiation on relations, compare and contrast the ideas of continuity and
differentiability.
g. Use the differential to determine the error of approximations. Understand the
consequences of Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem for differentiable
functions. Use differentiation for curve sketching and analysis thereof, identify the
extrema of a function on an interval and classify them as minima, maxima or
saddles using the first derivative test. Compute Taylor’s polynomial of specified
degree about a given point for a given function and use basic Taylor series for
computation. Use L’Hǒpital’s rule to evaluate limits.
0.6 Assessments
Formative assessment
Students may be divided into groups. Should that be the case, each student will be
expected to belong to exactly one group.
2 (major) tests may be written per semester and the marks obtained will be used to
calculate the student’s Semester mark.
Calculation of Semester Mark: 40 % (Class tests and Assignments) and 60% Major
Tests.
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CONTENTS 0.7. SUPPORT RESOURCES
To qualify to write the examination a student must get an average of at least 40% in the
formative assessments.
Summative Assessment A three hour examination paper out of 100 marks is written at
the end of the semester.
Pass Requirements The final Pass Mark is 50%
Final Mark Compilation: Semester Mark +Examination Mark 60% + 40% A student
must get a subminimum mark of 40% in the examination.
Assessment Dates (To be announced)
0.7 Support Resources

Recommended Books
• Stewart, James (2021), Calculus. 9th Edition. Brooks/ Cole Publishing Company.
(Any edition will do)
• Soo T, Tan. (2010). Calculus. Brooks/ Cole Publishing Company. (Any edition will
do)
• Salas; Hille; Etgen(2007) Calculus, One and Serveral Variables. John Wiley and
Sons,Inc (Any edition will do)
• Thomas B, George; Wier D, Maurice and Hass R, Joel (2010). Thomas’ Calculus.
Pearson Education. (Any edition will do)
• Any other standard Calculus book.
0.8 Rules and procedure regarding deferred (aegrotat)

assessment opportunities
0.8.1 A student may be granted a special assessment opportunity if he/she applies in
writing within 5 working days subsequent to the original date of assessment missed,
this must be handed over to your own lecturer in person where possible or otherwise
via email.
0.8.2 Reason for absence
• Illness: Medical certificate, completed by the medical practitioner with an

official stamp must accompany the application as proof.
• Compassionate reasons: (Immediate family only) Relevant documentation
such as death certificate etc. and a letter detailing circumstances and the
student’s details must accompany the application.
• Legitimate reasons: An affidavit signed and stamped by a commissioner of
oaths, accompanied by a letter, detailing the specific circumstances and the
student’s details.
The discretion of the lecturer will play a major role in the making of the final
decision.
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0.9. GENERAL RULES CONTENTS
0.9 General Rules

• ALL CONTACT and VIRTUAL LECTURES are COMPULSORY.
• Noise (or any form of disturbance) will NOT be tolerated during contact or virtual
lectures.
• Students are to be punctual at all times.
• Due dates for tasks must be respected.
• Test dates and venues will be announced during lectures, on Moodle andor shared
via Whatsapp.
• A student who copies other student’s work or allows others to copy (tests,
assignments, etc.) his/her work will be given a zero.
• Students are strongly discouraged from hiring people to write assignments for
them.
• Cell phones are strictly prohibited during tests and examination.
• Students are expected to be honest and responsible at all times.
"When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must
be the truth." - Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
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Chapter 1
Preliminaries
1.0.1 Review of Elementary Mathematics

We give a review of the terminology, notation, and some formulas of elementary
mathematics.
Sets
A set is a collection of distinct objects. The objects in a set are called the elements or
members of the set. We shall denote sets by capital letters A, B,C, ... and use lowercase
letters a, b, c, ... to denote elements. We say
the object x is in the set A x ∈ A

the object x is not in the set A x ∈
/A
the set of all x which satisfy the property P {x : P}
the empty set 0.
/
Real Numbers R
positive integers Z+ 1, 2, 3, ...

natural numbers N 1, 2, 3, ...
integers Z ... − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
p
rational numbers Q, such that , p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0
q
√
irrational numbers R \ Q 2, π, e
Order Properties
i. Either a < b, b < a, or a = b.
ii. If a < b and b < c then a < c.
iii. If a < b, then a + c < b + c, ∀c ∈ R.
iv. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.
v. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.
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CHAPTER 1. PRELIMINARIES
Boundedness
A set S of real numbers is said to be:
i. Bounded above if ∃ M ∈ R such that x ≤ M ∀ x ∈ S such a number M is called an
upper bound for S.
ii. Bounded below if ∃ m ∈ R such that m ≤ x ∀ x ∈ S such a number m is called a
lower bound for S.
iii. Bounded if it is bounded above and below.
Factorials
Let n be a positive integer. By n factorial, denoted n!, we mean the product of all the
natural numbers from n down to 1:
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) · · · 3· 2· 1
In particular
1! = 1,
2! = 2· 1 = 2
4! = 4· 3· 2· 1 = 24
For convinience we define
0! = 1.
Powers and Roots
a real, p a positive integer : a1 = a,

p factors
p
a = a· a· a · · · a
z }| {
a 6= 0 : a0 = 1, a p = 1/a p
laws of exponents a p+q = a p aq , a pq = a p aq , (aq ) p = a pq
a real, q odd a1/q , called the qth root of a, is the number b such that bq = a
a nonnegative, q even a1/q is the nonnegative number b such that bq = a
√ √
notation a1/q can be written q a (a1/2 is written a)
rational exponents a p/q = (a1/q ) p
Basic Formulas
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
2
Quadratic Equations
The roots of a quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
are given by the general quadratic formula

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
If b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation has two real roots, if b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation has one real
root; if b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation has no real roots but it has two complex roots.
Definition 1 A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one
element, called f (x), in a set E.
For our purposes, we shall consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real
numbers. y = f (x) is the value of f at x and is read "y equals f of x”. The set D of all
possible input values is called the domain of the function. The range of f is the set of all
output values of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain D. A symbol that represents an
arbitrary number in the domain of a function f is called an independent variable. A
symbol that represents a number in the range is called a dependent variable. Functions
are tools for describing the real world in Mathematical terms. A function can be
represented by an equation, a graph, a numerical table, or verbal description.
1.0.2 Piecewise Defined Functions

Sometimes a function is defined by using different formulas on different parts of its
domain. One example is the absolute value function

x x≥0
|x| =
−x x < 0,
whose graph is as shown. The right-hand side of the equation means that the function
Figure 1.1: Absolute-value function
equals x if x ≥ 0 and the left-hand side means the function equals −x if x < 0. For
example, |5| = 5, |−5| = −(−5) = 5, |π − 5| = −(π − 5) (which is positive).
Geometric interpretation
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• |a| = distance between a and 0. (Distance is always positive or zero, so |a| ≥ 0.)
• |a − c| = distance between a and c.
The following characterizations are helpful:

Let a and c be two real constants, then
• |a| = max{a, −a}

√
• |a| = a2 .
• |x| ≤ c implies that −c ≤ x ≤ c
• |x| ≥ c implies that x ≤ −c or x ≥ c
Example 2 Let h be a function is defined by

2x + 1 if x < 0
h (x) =
x2 if x ≥ 0,
Evaluate h (−2) , h (2) and h (0) and sketch the graph.
Solution 3 Since −2 < 0, we have h (−2) = 2(−2) + 1 = −3.

Since 2 ≥ 0,we have h (2) = (2)2 = 4.
Since 0 ≥ 0, we have h (0) = (0)2 = 0
To draw the graph we observe that for x < 0, h(x) = 2x + 1 which is a straight line and
and for x ≥ 0, we have a parabola h (x) = x2 .
Figure 1.2: Piecewise defined function
Example 4 A function f is defined by

1 − x, x ≤ −1
f (x) =
x2 , x > −1
Evaluate f (−2) , f (−1) , and f (0) and sketch the graph.
Example 5 Draw a sketch graph of the function given by


 −x, x < 0
f (x) = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
1, x>1

4
Solution 6 Exercise.
Example 7 The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less or
equal to x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is
denoted by bxc. Observe that
b2.4c = 2 b1.9c = 1
b2c = 2 b−0.3c = −1
Example 8 The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer greater or
equal to x is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is denoted
by dxe. Observe that
d2.4e = 3 d0.7e = 1
d1.8e = 2 d−0.8e = 0
1.0.3 Symmetry
Definition 9 A function y = f (x) is an
even function of x if f (−x) = f (x)
odd function of x if f (−x) = − f (x)
for every x in the function’s domain.
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y−axis. A reflection about the
y−axis leaves the graph unchanged.
Figure 1.3: An even function
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. A rotation of the graph of f
through π radians (180◦ ) about the origin leaves the graph unchanged.
Figure 1.4: An odd function
Example 10 Determine whether each of the following functions is even , odd or neither
even or odd.
(a) f (x) = x7 + x (b) g (x) = 1 − x8 (c) h (x) = 4x − x4
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1.0.4 Polynomials
A function P is called a polynomial if
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
n
= ∑ ak xk
k=0
where n is a positive integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , · · · an are constants called the
coefficients of the polynomial. The domain of any polynomial is R = (−∞, ∞) . If the
leading coefficient an 6= 0, then the degree of the polynomial is n.
1.0.5 Rational Functions

A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
P (x)
f (x) =
Q (x)
where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consist of all values of x such that Q (x) 6= 0.
1.0.6 Algebraic Functions

A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations ( such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots),
starting with polynomials. Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.
x4 − 12x2 √
For example g (x) = √ + (x − 3) 3 x + 1.
x+ x
1.0.7 Trigonometric Functions

In calculus the convention is that radian measure is always used (except when indicated
otherwise) to measure angles.
Definition 12 Radian Measure of an Angle
If s is the length of the arc subtended by a central angle θ in a circle of radius r, then
s
θ=
r
is the radian measure of θ .
Since the circumference of a unit circle is 2π and the central angle subtended by one
complete revolution is 360◦ , we see that
2π radians (rad) = 360◦
or ◦
180
1 rad =
π
and
π
1◦ = rad or π radians = 180◦
180◦
Converting degrees and radians
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Figure 1.5: Radian measure of an angle
π
• To convert degrees to radians, multiply by .
180◦
180◦
• To convert radians to degrees, multiply by .
π
The table below shows the equivalence between degree and radian measures for some
special angles.
Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦ 150◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
Radians 0 π 2π
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2
We recall the six basic trigonometric ratios, see figure 1.6
Figure 1.6: Right angled triangle
opp hyp
sine: sin θ = cosecant: csc θ =
hyp opp
ad j hyp
cosine: cos θ = secant: sec θ =
hyp ad j
opp ad j
tangent: tan θ = cotangent: cot θ =
ad j opp
Notice that whenever the quotients are defined,

sin θ cos θ 1
tan θ = cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ tan θ
1 1
sec θ = csc θ =
cos θ sin θ
7
We list the following identities:

(1 + cos 2x)
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 cos2 x = sin (x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y
2
(1 − cos 2x)
tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x sin2 x = cos (x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y
2
cot2 x + 1 = csc2 x
Double angle
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x
Length of a Circular Arc
s = rθ
Area of a Circular Sector
1
A = r2 θ
2
1.0.8 Exponential Functions

Exponential functions are functions of the form
f (x) = ax
where the base a is a positive constant. Revise the exponential laws.
1.0.9 Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic functions
f (x) = loga x,
where the base a is a positive constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential
functions.Later we shall discuss the natural exponential and natural logarithmic
functions where the base is a special irrational number e = 2.718181828 · · · .
1.0.10 Combinations of Functions

Two functions f and g can be combined to form new functions in a manner similar to the
way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The sum, difference, product
and quotient functions are given by
( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)

( f − g) (x) = f (x) − g (x)
( f g) (x) = f (x) g (x)

f f (x)
(x) =
g g (x)
Definition 13 Given two functions f and g, the composite function f ◦ g (called the
composition of f and g ) is defined by
( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x))
The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g (x) is in the domain of
f.
8
√ √
Example 14 If f (x) = x and g (x) = 2 − x, find each function and its domain.
(a) f ◦ g (b) g ◦ f (c) f ◦ f (d) g ◦ g
√ p√ √
Solution 15 (a) ( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x)) = f 2−x = 2−x = 4 2−x
Domain of f ◦ g is {x|2 − x ≥ 0} = {x|x p ≤ 2} = (−∞, 2]
√ √ √
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x) = g ( f (x)) = g ( x) = 2 − x. For x to be defined we must have x ≥ 0.
p √ √ √
For 2 − x to be defined we must have 2 − x ≥ 0, that is x ≤ 2 or x ≤ 4. Thus we
have 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, so the domain of g ◦ f is the closed interval [0, 4] . (c) and (d) are left as
an exercise.
Exercise 16 .
1. Find the domain of the function

x+4 1 u+1
(a) f (x) = 2 (c) h(x) = √ (e) f (u) =
x −9 4 2
x − 5x 1
√ 1+
u+1
3
p
(b) g(t) = 2t − 1 (d) y = |x|
2. Determine f + g, f − g, f · g, f /g and give the domain of each

√ √
(a) f (x) = 2x − 3, g(x) = 2 − x (c) f (x) = x − 1, f (x) = x − x + 1
(b) f (x) = x2 − 1, g(x) = x + 1/x (d) f (x) = sin2 x, g(x) = cos 2x
3. Graph the following functions

1 − x; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 x, 0≤x≤1
(a) g(x) = (d) f (x) =
2 − x; 1 < x ≤ 2 2 − x, 1 < x ≤ 2
√

√−x, −4 ≤ x ≤ 0
2x + 1; x ≤ 0 (e) f (x) =
(b) f (x) = x 0<x≤4
x2 − x; x > 0 
 −x − 1 if x < −1
1/x, x < 0 (f) g(x) = 0 if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(c) h(x) =
x, 0≤x x+1 if x > 1

4. Solve for x in the given interval [0, 2π]
(a) sin x = 1/2 (c) cos x = −1/2

√
(b) sin 2x = − 3/2 (d) tan(x/2) = 1
5. Form the composition f ◦ g and give the domain

√
(a) f (x) = 2x + 5, g(x) = x2 (c) f (x) = 1 − x2 , g(x) = cos 2x
√
(b) f (x) = x, g(x) = x2 + 5 (d) f (x) = 1/x, g(x) = (x − 2)/x.
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6. Form the composition f ◦ g ◦ h
(a) f (x) = 4x, g(x) = x − 1, h(x) = x2

(b) f (x) = x − 1, g(x) = 4x, h(x) = x2
1 1
(c) f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) = x2
x 2x + 1
x+1 1
(d) f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) = x2 .
x 2x + 1
10
Chapter 2
Limits
2.1 The Limit of a function

2.1.1 Two sided limits
The notion of a limit permiates much of our work in calculus. We begin with the intuitive
introduction to the limits. We use limits to describe the way a function varies. Some
functions vary continuously; small changes in x produce only small changes in f (x) .
Definition 17 Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a, with the

possible exception of a itself. Then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is the number L,
written
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if f (x) can be made arbitrarly close to L ( as close as we like) by taking x to be

sufficiently close to a (on either side of a ) but not equal to a.
An alternative notation for

lim f (x) = L
x→a
is f (x) → L as x → a.
Example 18 . Use the graph of the function f shown in the figure to find the given limit,
if it exists,
a. lim f (x) c. lim f (x) e. lim f (x)
x→1 x→5 x→10
b. lim f (x) d. lim f (x)
x→3 x→7
Figure 2.1
11
2.1. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
Solution 19 a. The values of f can be made as close to 2 as we please by taking x to be

sufficiently close to 1. So lim f (x) = 2
x→1
b. Exercise
c. No matter how close x is to 5, there are values of f , corresponding to values of x
smaller than 5, that are close to 1; and there are values of f , corresponding to values of x
greater than 5, that are close to 4. In other words, there is no unique number that f (x)
approaches as x approaches 5. Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist. Observe that f (5) = 1,
x→5
but this has no bearing on the existence or nonexistence of the limit.
d. Exercise
e. Exercise
Example 20 Find lim f (x) if it exists, where f is a piecewise-defined function
x→2

4x + 8 if x 6= 2
f (x) =
4 if x = 2
Figure 2.2
Solution 21 From the graph we see that lim f (x) = 16.

x→2
Example 22 Draw a sketch graph and discuss the behaviour of the following functions,
explaining why their limit as x → 0 does not exist.

0, x<0
(a) u(x) =
1, x≥0
1
(
, x 6= 0
(b) g(x) = x
0, x=0
Solution 23 (a) The function jumps: The unit step function u (x) has no limit as x → 0
because its values jump at x = 0. For the negative values of x arbitrarly close to zero,
u (x) = 0.
For positive values of x arbitrarly close to zero, u (x) = 1. There is no single value L
approached by u (x) as x → 0.
(b) The function grows too "large " to have a limit: g (x) has no limit as x → 0 because the
values of g grow arbitrarly large in absolute value as x → 0 and therefore do not stay close
to any fixed real number. We say the function is not bounded.
12
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.1. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
2.1.2 One-Sided Limits

Definition 24 Let f be a function defined for all values of x close to but greater than a.
Then the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if f (x) can be made as close to L as we please by taking x to be sufficiently close to but

greater than a.
Definition 25 Let f be a function defined for all values of x close to but less than a. Then
the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if f (x) can be made as close to L as we please by taking x to be sufficiently close to but

less than a.
The above two limits are often refered to as one sided limits whereas lim f (x) is a two
x→a
sided limit.
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a, with the possible exception
of a itself. Then
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a+ x→a−
Thus the (two sided) limit exists if and only if the one-sided limits exist and are
equal.
13
Example 26 Sketch the graph of f defined by


 3−x if x < 1
f (x) = 1 √ if x = 1
2 + x − 1 if x > 1

Use the graph to find lim f (x) , lim f (x) and lim f (x) .
x→1+ x→1− x→1
Solution 27 Exercise
|x|
Example 28 Find lim .
x→0 x
Figure 2.5
Solution 29
|x| x
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
x→0+ x x→0+ x x→0+
|x| −x
lim = lim = lim −1 = −1
x→0− x x→0− x x→0−
|x|
Since the right- and left-hand limits are different, it follows that lim does not exist.
x→0 x
Example 30 If √
x − 4 if x > 4
f (x) =
8 − 2x if x < 4
determine whether lim f (x) exists.
x→4
2.1.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

Limit Laws Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a
exist. Then
1. lim [ f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
14
2. lim [ f (x) − g (x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
3. lim [c f (x) ] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
4. lim [ f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
lim f (x)
f (x) x→a
5. lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
If we use the Product Law repeatedly with g (x) = f (x) , we obtain the following law.
h in
6. lim [ f (x)]n = lim f (x) where n is a positive integer
x→a x→a
In applying these six limit laws, we need to use two special limits:
7. lim c = c
x→a
8. lim x = a
x→a
Direct Substitution Property If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the

domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
Fuctions with Direct Substitution Property are called continuous at a and will be
studied in more details later. However, not all limits can be evaluated by direct
substitution.
2
x −2
Example 32 Find lim √ √
x→ 2 x − 2
Solution 33 We factor the numerator as the difference of squares:

√ √
2
x −2
x − 2 x + 2
lim
√ √ = lim
√ √
x→ 2 x − 2 x→ 2 x− 2
√ √ √ √
= lim √ x+ 2 = 2+ 2 = 2 2
x→ 2
√
x2 − 2
NOTE We computed the limit above by replacing the given function f (x) = √ by
√ x − 2
a simpler function, g (x) = x +√ 2 with the same limit. This is valid because
f (x) = g (x) except when x = 2, and in computing a limit
√ as x approaches 1 we
don’t consider what happens when x is actually equal to 2. In general we have the
following fact:
If f (x) = g (x) when x 6= a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x) , provided the limit exist.
x→a x→a
Example 34 Find lim g (x) where

x→1

x + 1 if x 6= 1
g (x) =
π if x = 1
15
Example 36 Evaluate
(3 + h)2 − 9
lim
h→0 h
Example 38 Find √
x2 + 100 − 10
lim
x→0 x2
Theorem 40 The Squeeze Theorem If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) when x is near a (except
possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h (x) = L
x→a x→a
then
lim g (x) = L
x→a
The Squeeze Theorem is sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching
Theorem.
Figure 2.6
Example 41 Show that

1
lim x2 sin = 0.
x→0 x
Solution 42 Because the sine of any number lies between −1 and 1, we can write
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1
x
Any inequality remains true when multiplied by a positive number. We know that x2 ≥ 0
for all x and so, multiplying each side of the inequality by x2 , we get
1
−x2 ≤ x2 sin ≤ x2
x
as illustrated in figure 2.7. We know that
lim x2 = 0 and lim (−x2 ) = 0

x→0 x→0
16
Figure 2.7
1
Taking f (x) = −x2 , g (x) = x2 sin , and h (x) = x2 in the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain
x
1
lim x2 sin =0
x→0 x
Theorem 43
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
Proof.
π
First, suppose that 0 < x < . Figure 2.8 shows a sector with radius 1, length PB = sin x,
2
length OB = cos x and length OA = 1. Also OAQ is a right triangle, we have length
Figure 2.8
1 sin x
QA = tan x. Now, Area ∆OAP = (1) sin x = Area sector
2 2
1 x 1 sin x
OAP = (1)2 x = Area ∆OAQ = (1) tan x = . Since
2 2 2 2 cos x
∆OAP ⊆ sector OAP ⊆ ∆OAQ,
17
we have ,
sin x x sin x
< <
2 2 2 cos x
x 1
1 < <
sin x cos x
sin x
cos x < <1
x
We can apply Squeeze Theorem. Since
lim cos x = 1 and lim 1 = 1

x→0 x→0
we can conclude that

sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
Now you can show that

1 − cos x
lim = 0.
x→0 x
Example 44 Find
lim x cot 3x
x→0
Example 45 Find
sin 2x
lim
x→0 5x
Exercise 46 .
Evaluate the limit, if it exists
1. lim x2 − 1 x2 − 81

11. lim (|x| − 2)
x→−2 6. lim √ x→−3
x→9 x − 3
√ √
2. lim (x3 − 2x2 + 4x + 8) 9−t 12. lim 3
2x − 2x
x→−2 7. lim √ x→2
t→9 3 − t
3. lim (8 − 3s) (2s − 1)
s→2/3 (3 + h)−1 − 3−1 13. lim (5 − y)4/3
8. lim y→−3
h→0 h
y+3
4. lim 5y3 + 8y2 sec 2x
y→3 y2 − 6y + 6 9. lim 14. lim √
y→0 3y4 − 16y2 x→0 x + 4

1 1 2x − 6 √
5. lim √ − 10. lim 15. lim x2 + 2x + 1
x→0 x 1 + x x x→3 x − 3 x→4

1, x 6= 0 3x, x < 1
16. lim f (x); f (x) = 17. lim f (x); f (x) =
x→0 3, x = 0 x→1 x + 2, x ≥ 1
18
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.2. INFINITE LIMITS

3x, x < 1 x
18. lim f (x); f (x) = 21. lim
x→1 3, x > 1 x→0 (x + 2)2 − (x − 2)2
1 1
1, x 6= 0 +
19. lim f (x); f (x) =
x→0 3, x = 0 22. lim x − 1 x + 1
x→0 x
√ √ √
w + 1 − w2 + 4 x2 + 8 − 3
20. lim 23. lim
w→0 (w + 2)2 − (w + 1)2 x→−1 x+1
24. lim sin2 x 1 + x + sin x 4−x
x→0 26. lim 28. lim √
x→2 3 cos x x→4 5 − x2 + 9
25. lim sec x 27. lim (2 sin x − 1)

x→0 x→0
sin θ
Using lim = 1, find the following limits:
θ →0 θ
√
sin 3θ sin2 3x 1 − cos x
29. lim √ 36. lim 43. lim
θ →0 3θ x→0 5x2 x→π/4 x
sin 3t sin kt
30. lim 37. lim x2 − 2x
t→0 sin 2t t→0 t 44. lim
x→0 sin 3x
sin 3y 1 − sec2 2x
31. lim 38. lim
y→0 4y x→0 x2 2x2 + x
45. lim
sin2 x2 x→0 sin x
h
32. lim 39. lim
h→0− sin 3h x→0 x2
sin θ
sin (x − 1) 46. lim
tan 2x 40. lim 2 θ →0 sin 2θ
33. lim x→1 x + x − 2
x→0 x
sec x − 1
sin 4x sin2 x 47. lim
34. lim 41. lim x→0 x sec x
x→0 sin 6x x→0 x(1 − cos2 x)
sin 3x sin 5x cos x − 1 sin (sin θ )

35. lim 42. lim 48. lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x θ →0 sin θ
2.2 Infinite Limits

1
Example 47 Find lim if it exists.
x→0 x2
1
Solution 48 As x becomes close to 0, x2 also becomes close to 0, and becomes very
x2
large. In fact from the graph of f (x) = 1/x2 the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarly
large by taking x close enough to 0. The values of f (x) does not approach a number so
1
lim 2 does not exist and as such we write
x→0 x
1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Note that ∞ is not a number.
19
2.2. INFINITE LIMITS CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
Figure 2.9
Definition 49 Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself.

Then
lim f (x) = ∞.
x→a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarly large (as large as we please) by
taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Figure 2.10
Definition 50 Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself.

Then
lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarly large negative (as large as we
please) by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Figure 2.11
Similar definitions can be given for one sided infinite limits
lim f (x) = ∞. lim f (x) = ∞.

x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞. lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a− x→a+
20
2.2.1 Vertical and horizontal asymptotes

Definition 51 The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at
least one of the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞. lim f (x) = ∞.

x→a x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞. lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a x→a− x→a+
2x 2x
Example 52 Find lim and lim .
x→3+ x−3 x→3 x − 3
−
Solution 53 If x is close to 3 but larger than 3, then the denominator x − 3 is a small

positive number and 2x is close to 6. So the quotient is a large positive number. Thus
2x
lim =∞
x→3+ x−3
Likewise if x is close to 3 but smaller than 3, then x − 3 is a small negative number but 2x
2x
is still a positive number. So is a numerically large negative number. Thus.
x−3
2x
lim = −∞
x→3− x − 3
Figure 2.12
2x
This shows that the line x = 3 is a vertical asymptote of the curve y = .
x−3
Definition 54 Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞) . Then
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarly close to L by taking x sufficiently
large.
The geometric illustrations of the above definition are shown in the figure below. Notice
that there are many ways for the graph of f to approach the line y = L (which is called the
horizontal asymptote ) as we look to the far right of each graph. The general definition is
21
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.13: Horizontal asymptotes
as follows. Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a) . Then
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarly close to L by taking x sufficiently
large negative.
Figure 2.14
Theorem 55 If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim =0
x→∞ xr
If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all x, then

1
lim =0
x→−∞ xr
Example 56 Evaluate
3x2 − x − 2
lim
x→∞ 5x2 + 3x + 1
ans indicate which properties of limits are used at each stage.
Solution 57 As x becomes large, both numerator and denominator become large, so it

isn’t obvious what happens to the ratio. We need to do some preliminary algebra. To
evaluate the limit at infinity of any rational function, we first divide both the numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the denominator. ( We may
22
assume that x 6= 0, since we are interested only in large values of x.) In this case the
highest power of x in the denominator is x2 , so we have
3x2 − x − 2 1 2
3x2 − x − 2 2
3− − 2
lim = lim 2 x = lim x x
x→∞ 5x2 + 3x + 1 x→∞ 5x + 3x + 1 x→∞ 4 1
5+ + 2
x 2 x x

1 2 1 2
lim 3 − − 2 lim 3 − − 2
x→∞ x x x→∞ x x
= =
4 1 4 1
lim 5 + + 2 lim 5 + + 2
x→∞ x x x→∞ x x
1 2
lim 3 − lim − lim 2 3−0−0 3
x→∞ x x→∞ x
= x→∞ = =
4 1 5+0+0 5
lim 5 + lim + lim 2
x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
3
A similar calculation shows that the limit as x → −∞ is also . The figure below illustrate
5
the results of these calculations by showing how the graph of the given rational function
3
approaches the horizontal asymptote y = .
5
Figure 2.15
Definition 58 A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if

either
lim f (x) = b or lim f (x) = b.
x→∞ x→−∞
Definition 59 A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if

either
lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞.
x→a+ x→a−
Example 60 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of

8
f (x) = −
x2 − 4
Solution 61 We are interested in the behaviour as x → ±∞ and as x → ±2, where the
denominator is zero. Notice that f is an even function of x, so its graph is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis.
23
(a) The behaviour as x → ±∞. Since lim f (x) = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal
x→∞
asymptote of the graph to the right. By symmetry it is an asymptote to the left as
well.(see the figure below).
(b) The behaviour as x → ±2. Since
lim f (x) = −∞ and lim f (x) = ∞

x→2+ x→2−
the line x = 2 is the vertical asymptote both from the right and from the left. By
symmetry, the line x = −2 is also a vertical asymptote.
Figure 2.16: Vertical asymptotes
Example 62 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the graph of the function
√
2x2 + 1
f (x) =
3x − 5
Solution 63 Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by x and using the
properties of limits, we have
r
√ 1 √ √
2 2+ 2
2x + 1 x 2+0 2
lim = lim = = .
x→∞ 3x − 5 x→∞ 5 3 − 5.0 3
3−
x
√
Therefore the line y = 2/3 is a horizontal asymptote of the √
graph of f . In computing the
limit as x → −∞, we must remember that for x < 0, we have x2 = |x| = −x. So when we
divide the numerator by x, for x < 0 we get
r
1p 2 1 p 2 1
2x + 1 = − √ 2x + 1 = − 2 + 2
x x2 x
Therefore r
√ 1 √
− 2+ 2
2x2 + 1 x 2
lim = lim =−
x→−∞ 3x − 5 x→−∞ 5 3
3−
x
24
√
2
Thus the line y = − is also the horizontal asymptote. A vertical asymptote is likely to
3
5 5 5
occur when the denominator 3x − 5, is 0, that is when x = . If x is close to and x > ,
3 √ 3 3
then the denominator is close to 0 and 3x − 5 is positive. The numerator 2x2 + 1 is
always positive, so f (x) is positive. Therefore
√
2x2 + 1
lim =∞
x→(5/3)+ 3x − 5
5 5
If x is close to but x < , then 3x − 5 < 0 and so f (x) is large negative. Thus
3 3
√
2x2 + 1
lim = −∞
x→(5/3)− 3x − 5
5
The vertical asymptote is x = . All three asymptotes are shown in the figure below.
3
Figure 2.17
Example 64 Compute p
lim x2 + 2x + 1 + x
x→−∞
Solution 65 We first multiply numerator and denominator by conjugate radical:

p p √x2 + 2x + 1 − x
lim x2 + 2x + 1 + x = lim x2 + 2x + 1 + x √
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2 + 2x + 1 − x
x2 + 2x + 1 − x2
= lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 2x + 1 − x
2x + 1
= lim √
2
x→−∞ x + 2x + 1 − x
√
(since x → −∞, we must remember that for x < 0, we have x2 = |x| = −x).
1
−2 −
= lim r x = −1
x→−∞ 2 1
1+ + 2 +1
x x
25
2.2.2 Oblique Asymptotes

If the degree of the numerator of a rational function is 1 greater than the degree of the
denominator, the graph has an oblique or slant line asymptote. We find an equation for the
asymptote by dividing numerator by denominator to express f as a linear function plus a
remainder that goes to zero as x → ±∞.
Example 66 Find the oblique asymptote of the graph of
x2 − 3
f (x) =
2x − 4
67 We are interested in the behaviour as x → ±∞. We divide (2x − 4) into
Solution
2
x − 4 using long division to get
! !
x2 − 3 x 1
f (x) = = +1 +
2x − 4 |2 {z } − 4}
|2x{z
linear g(x) remainder
As x → ±∞, the remainder, whose magnitude gives the vertical distance between the
graphs of f and g, goes to zero making the slanted line
x
g (x) = + 1
2
An asymptote of the graph of f as shown below.
Figure 2.18: Oblique asymptote
Exercise 68sFind the limit if it exists

1/3
8x2 − 3 x2 + x − 1

(a) lim (b) lim
x→∞ 2x2 + x x→∞ 8x2 − 3
√ √
2 x + x−1 3
x − 5x + 3
(c) lim (d) lim
x→∞ 3x − 7 x→∞ 2x√+ x2/3 − 4
x−3 x2 + 1
(e) lim √ (f) lim
x→∞ 4x2 + 25 x→−∞ x + 1
√ √
3
x− 5 x x−1 + x−4
(g) lim √ √ (h) lim −2
x→∞ 3 x + 5 x x→∞ x − x−3
√ √ √
(i) lim x+9− x+4 (j) lim x2 + 3 + x
x→∞ x→−∞
√ √ √
(k) lim 2 2
x + 25 − x − 1 (l) lim 2
9x − x − 3x
x→∞ x→∞
√ √ √
(m) lim 2x + 4x2 + 3x − 2 (n) lim x2 + 3x − x2 − 2x
x→−∞ x→−∞
26
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.3. THE PRECISE DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT
2.3 The Precise Definition of the Limit

Definition 69 Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number
a, except possibly at a itself. Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L,
and we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if for every number ε > 0 , we can find a number δ > 0 such that
| f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ
The definition of the limits says that if any small interval (L − ε, L + ε) is given around L,
then we can find an interval (a − δ , a + δ ) around a such that f maps all points in
(a − δ , a + δ ) into the interval (L − ε, L + ε) . Another geometric intepretation of limits
Figure 2.19
can be given in terms of the graph of a function. If ε > 0 is given, then we can draw
horizontal lines y = L + ε and y = L − ε and the graph of f . If lim f (x) = L, then we can
x→a
find a number δ > 0 such that if we restrict x to lie in the interval (a − δ , a + δ ) and take
x 6= a then the curve y = f (x) lie between the lines y = L − ε and y = L + ε.
Figure 2.20
Example 70 Prove that lim (3x − 5) = 4.

x→3
Given ε > 0, we seek δ > 0 such that |(3x − 5) − 4| < ε whenever 0 < |x − 3| < δ .
Finding δ :
Now |(3x − 5) − 4| = |3x − 9| = 3 |x − 3| < 3δ .
ε ε
That is |x − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 3| < δ . This suggests we should choose δ = .
3 3
ε
Proof: Given ε > 0, choose δ = . Suppose 0 < |x − 3| < δ then
3 ε
|(3x − 5) − 4| = |3x − 9| = 3 |x − 3| < 3δ = 3 = ε. Thus |(3x − 5) − 4| < ε
3
whenever 0 < |x − 3| < δ . Therefore by definition of the limit,
lim (3x − 5) = 4.
x→3
27
2.3. THE PRECISE DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
Example 71 Prove that

lim x2 = 25
x→5
Finding δ :
Let ε > 0 be given. We seek a δ > 0 such that
2
x − 25 < ε whenever 0 < |x − 5| < δ .
But
2
x − 25 = |(x + 5) (x − 5)|
= |x + 5| |x − 5|
Notice that if we can find a positive constant C such that |x + 5| < C, then
|x + 5| |x − 5| < C |x − 5|
To find C, we restrict x to lie in some interval centered at 5. It is reasonable to
assume that x lies within a distance 1 from 5, that is ,
|x − 5| < 1
then
−1 < x − 5 < 1
4 < x<6
so
9 < x + 5 < 11
Thus we have
|x + 5| < 11
and so C = 11 is the reasonable choice. But there are two restrictions on |x − 5| ,
namely
ε ε
|x − 5| < 1 and |x − 5| < =
C 11
So we choose n ε o
δ = min 1,
11
Proof:
n ε o
Given ε > 0, choose δ = min 1, . Suppose 0 < |x − 5| < δ , then
11
|x − 5| < 1 =⇒ −1 < x − 5 < 1
4 < x < 6 =⇒ |x + 5| < 11
We also have
ε
|x − 5| <
11
so
x − 25 = |x + 5| |x − 5| < 11 · ε = ε
2
11
This shows that
lim x2 = 25.
x→5
28
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.3. THE PRECISE DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT
Alternative Method of finding δ

Given ε > 0, we seek a δ > 0 such that
2
x − 25 < ε whenever 0 < |x − 5| < δ
We note that whenever

0 < |x − 5| < λ < 1, then |x − 5|n < λ for n ∈ N
Then

x − 25 = (x − 5)2 + 10x − 50
2

2
= (x − 5) + 10 (x − 5)

≤ |x − 5|2 + 10 |x − 5| (Triangle Inequality)

< λ + 10λ = 11λ
ε
Now 11λ < ε requires λ < .
n 11ε o
Thus we choose δ = min 1,
11
Proof: n ε o
Given ε > 0, choose δ = min 1, . Suppose 0 < |x − 5| < δ , then
11
|x − 5| < 1 =⇒ −1 < x − 5 < 1
4 < x < 6 =⇒ |x + 5| < 11
We also have
ε
|x − 5| <
11
so
x − 25 = |x + 5| |x − 5| < 11 · ε = ε
2
11
This shows that
lim x2 = 25.
x→5
and the limit is established.
Example 72 Show that √
lim x=5
x→25
Solution 73 Given ε > 0, we seek δ > 0 such that

√
x − 5 < ε whenever 0 < |x − 25| < δ .
Finding δ :
√
√ √

x − 5 = x − 5 . (√x + 5)

( x + 5)
√

x − 25
= √ Note that x + 5 is greater than 5, so
x+5
|x − 25|
< <ε
5
Thus |x − 25| < 5ε and so δ = 5ε.
29
2.4. CONTINUITY CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
Proof: Given ε > 0. Choose δ = 5ε. Suppose 0 < |x − 25| < δ , then
√
√ √

( x + 5)
x − 5 = x − 5 . √
( x + 5)

x − 25
= √
x + 5
1 1
< |x − 25| < .5ε = ε
5 5
√
Thus lim x = 5.
x→25
Exercise 74 Use the precice definition of the limit to prove the following :
(a) lim 3x = 6 (b) lim (2x + 3) = −1
x→2 x→−2
(c) lim x2 = 4 (d) lim 2x2 − 7 = −5

x→2 x→1 √
(e) lim (x2 − 3x + 5) = 3 (f) lim x = 2
x→2 √ x→4
(g) lim 3x − 5 = 2 (h) lim x3 = 8
x→3 x→2
2.4 Continuity
Priviously, we noticed that the limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found
simply by calculating the value of a function at a. Functions with this property are called
continuous functions.
Definition 75 A function f is continuous at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a
Notice that the definition implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a :
1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
2. lim f (x) exists

x→a
3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a
A continuous function has the property that a small change in x produces only a small
change in f (x) . If f is defined near a ( in other words, f is defined on an open interval
containing a, except perhaps at a) we say that f is discontinuous at a (or f has a
discontinuity at a) if f is not continuous at a.
Example 76 Figure 2.21 (b) shows the graph of a function f . At which numbers is f
discontinuous? Why?
Solution 77 It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a = 1 because the graph has a

break there. The official reason that f is discontinuous at 1 is that f (1) is not defined. The
graph also has a break at a = 3, but the reason for discontinuity is different. Here f (3) is
defined, but lim f (x) does not exist because the left and right limits are different. So f is
x→3
30
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.4. CONTINUITY
(b)
(a)
Figure 2.21: Continuity and discontinuity
dicontinuous at 3. What about a = 5? Here, f (5) is defined and lim f (x) exists (because
x→5
the left and right limits are the same). But
lim f (x) 6= f (5)

x→5
So f is discontinuous at 5.
Example 78 Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
x2 − x − 2
(a) f (x) =
x−2
1
(
if x 6= 0
(b) f (x) = x2
1 if x = 0

 x2 − x − 2
(c) f (x) = if x 6= 2
 1 x−2 if x = 2
Solution 79 .
(a) Notice that f (2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at 2.
(b) Here f (0) = 1 is defined but

1
lim f (x) = lim
x→0 x→0 x2
does not exist. So f is discontinuous at 0.
(c) Here f (2) = 1 is defined and
x2 − x − 2 (x − 2) (x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2
exists. But
lim f (x) 6= f (2)
x→2
31
The figure below shows the graphs of the functions in the above example. In each case the
graph can’t be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper because a hole or break or
jump occurs in the graph. The kind of discontinuity illustrated in parts (a) and (c) is called
removable because we could remove the discontinuity by redefining f at just the single
number 2. [The function g(x) = x + 1 is continuous]. The discontinuity in part (b) is
called an infinite discontinuity.
(a) (c)
(b)
Figure 2.22: Discontinuity
Definition 80 A function y = f (x) is continuous at an interior point a of its domain if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a
A function y = f (x) is continuous at a left endpoint a or continuous at a right endpoint

b of its domain if
lim f (x) = f (a) or lim f (x) = f (b) , respectively.

x→a+ x→b−
Definition 81 A function f is continuous on an inteval if it is continuous at every number

in the interval. (If f is defined only on one side of the endpoint of the interval, we
understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous
from the left.)
√
Example 82 Show that the function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is continuous on the interval
[−1, 1] .
Solution 83 If −1 < a < 1, then using the limit laws, we have

p
lim f (x) = lim 1 − 1 − x2
x→a x→a
p
= 1 − lim 1 − x2
x→a
q
= 1 − lim (1 − x2 )
x→a
p
= 1 − 1 − a2 = f (a)
32
CHAPTER 2. LIMITS 2.4. CONTINUITY
Thus f is continuous at a if −1 < a < 1. Similar calculations show that
lim f (x) = 1 = f (−1) and lim f (x) = 1 = f (1)

x→−1+ x→1−
so f is continuous from right at −1 and continuous from left at 1.
Theorem 84 If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following

functions are also continuous at a :
1. f ± g
2. c f
3. f g
4. f /g if g (a) 6= 0
5. f n , n a positive integer
√
6. n f , provided it is defined on an open interval containing c, where n is a positive
integer.
7. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere, that is it is continuous on R = (−∞, ∞) .
8. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is it is continuous on

its domain.
It is worth noting that all six trigonometric functions are continuous wherever they are
defined.
Theorem 85 If f is continuous at a and g is continuous at f (a) , then the composite g ◦ f

is continuous at c.
Theorem 86 (The Intermediate Value Theorem) Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b]

and let N be any number between f (a) and f (b) , where f (a) 6= f (b) . Then there exists a
number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.
Exercise 87 Continuous Functions
1. Find the numbers if any where the function is discontinouos.

1
(a) f (x) = 2x3 − 3xx + 4 (b) f (x) =
x−2
x2 − 3x + 2

2x − 1 if x ≤ 0
(c) f (x) = 2
(d) f (x) =
x − 2x 1 if x > 0
2. Find the value of k that will make f continuous on (−∞, ∞)


 x2 − 4
f (x) = if x 6= −2
 kx + 2 if x = −2
33
3. Let
x + 2 if x ≤ 1
f (x) =
kx2 if x > 1
Find the value of k that will make f continuous on (−∞, ∞) .
4. Let 
 ax + b if x < 1
f (x) = 4 if x = 1
2ax − b if x > 1

Find the values of a and b that will make f continuous on (−∞, ∞) .
5. For what value of the constant c is the function f continuous on (−∞, ∞)?
2
cx + 2x if x < 2
f (x) =
x3 − cx if x ≥ 2
6. Find the value of a and b that make the function f continuous everywhere.

2
 x −4

 if x<2
f (x) = x−2
2
ax − bx + 3 if 2≤x<3


2x − a + b if x≥3

7. Find the value of c that will make f continuous on (−∞, ∞) .
sin 2x
(
if x 6= 0
f (x) = x
c if x = 0
8. For what values of A is

A2 x 2

if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
(1 − A) x if x > 2
continuous at 2?
9. Find the value of k that will make f continuous on (−∞, ∞)

kx + 1 if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
kx2 − 3 if x > 2
10. Find the value of c that will make f continuous at x = 0

x cot kx if x < 0
f (x) =
x2 + c if x ≥ 0
34
Chapter 3
Differentiation
The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the velocity
of an object both involve finding the same limit. This special type of limit is called the
derivative.
3.1 Tangents
If a curve C has equation y = f (x) and we want to find the tangent line to C, at a point
P (a, f (a)) , then we consider a nearby point Q (x, f (x)) where x 6= a, and compute the
slope of a secant line PQ :
f (x) − f (a)
m pq =
x−a
Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a. If m pq approaches a
number m, then we define the tangent t to be the line through P with slope (gradient) m.
This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the secant line PQ
as Q approaches P.
Figure 3.1
Definition 88 The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line
through P with slope (gradient)
f (x) − f (a)
m pq = mT = lim
x→a x−a
provided that this limit exists.
35
3.2. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Example 89 Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the point
P (1, 1) .
Solution 90 Here we have a = 1 and f (x)= x2 , so the slope is
f (x) − f (1) x2 − 1
m = lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x − 1
(x − 1) (x + 1)
= lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1 x−1 x→1
Using the point slope form of the equation of a straight line we find that the equation of
the tangent line at (1, 1) is
y − 1 = 2 (x − 1) = 2x − 1.
Another more convinient way of expressing the slope (gradient) of a secant line is
f (a + h) − f (a)
m pq =
h
where h = x − a and x = a + h. As such the slope (gradient) of a tangent line in the
definition above becomes
f (a + h) − f (a)
mT = lim
h→0 h
Figure 3.2
3
Example 91 Find the equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y = at the point
x
(3, 1) .
3.2 The Derivative as a Function

We now investigate the derivative as a function derived from f by considering the limit at
each point x in the domain of f .
36
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.2. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION
Definition 93 The derivative of a function f (x) with respect to the variable x is the
function f 0 whose value at x is
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
provided the limit exists.
By writing z = x + h so that h = z − x, we have an altenative definition for the derivative

which is sometimes more convinient to use when finding a derivative of a function.
f (z) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
z→x z−x
3.2.1 Calculating Derivatives from the Definition

The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation.
f (x + h) − f (x)
Example 94 Use the definition f 0 (x) = lim to find the derivative of
h→0 h
x 1−x
f (x) = and f (x) =
x−1 2+x
f (z) − f (x)
Example 96 Use the altenative definition f 0 (x) = lim to find the derivative
√ z→x z−x
of f (x) = x.
1. Differentiate the function by forming the the difference quotient
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
and taking the limit as h tends to 0.
√
(a) f (x) = 2 − 3x (b) f (x) = x−1
1 1
(c) f (x) = 2 (d) f (x) = √
x √ x
(e) f (x) = x + x
2. Use the formula

f (z) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
z→x z−x
to find the derivative of the function
1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = x2 − 3x + 4
x +√2
x
(c) g (x) = 1 + x (d) f (x) =
x−1
37
3.2. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Notation 98 There are many ways to denote the derivative of a function y = f (x) where
the independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y. Some common notations for
the derivative are
dy d f d
f 0 (x) = y0 = = = f (x) = D ( f ) (x) = Dx f (x) = ẏ
dx dx dx
The symbols D and d/dx are called differentiation operators because they indicate the
operation of differentiation.
dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative in Leibniz natation at a specific number
dx
dy
a, we use the notation which is a synonym for f 0 (a) .
dx x=a
Definition 99 A function f is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an

open interval (a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)] if it is differentiable at every
number in the interval.
Example 100 Show that the function y = |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.
3.2.2 Differentiable Functions are continuous.

A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative.
Theorem 102 If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. Given that f 0 (a) exists, we must show that
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a
or equivalently that
lim f (a + h) = f (a)
h→0
If h 6= 0, then
f (a + h) = f (a) + ( f (a + h) − f (a))
f (a + h) − f (a)
= f (a) + · h.
h
Now take the limits as h → 0
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim f (a + h) = lim f (a) + lim · lim h
h→0 h→0 h→0 h h→0
0
= f (a) + f (a) · 0
= f (a) .
38
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.3. DIFFERENTIATION RULES
HOW CAN A FUNCTION FAIL TO BE DIFFERENTABLE?

In general, if the graph of a function f has a "corner" or a "kink" in it, then the graph of f
has no tangent at this point and f is not differentiable there.
3.3 Differentiation Rules

3.3.1 Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences
A simple rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is zero.
Figure 3.3
Derivative of a Constant Function

df d
If f has the constant value f (x) = c, then = (c) = 0
dx dx
d
Example 103 (3) = 0
dx
Power Rule (General Version)

d
If n is any real number, then xn = nxn−1 for all x where xn and xn−1 are defined.
dx
Example 104 .
d 4
(a) x = 4x3
dx
dy
(b) If y = x100 , then = 100x99
dx
√3 2 dy
(c) If y = x , find .
dx
dy 2 2
y = x2/3 and so, = x2/3−1 = x−1/3
dx 3 3
√
(d) Find the derivative of y = x2+π . The solution is left as an exercise.
Example
√ 105 Find the equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve
y = x x at the point (1, 1) .
39
3.3. DIFFERENTIATION RULES CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
√
Solution 106 The derivative of y = f (x) = x x = x · x1/2 = x3/2 is
dy 3 3√
= f 0 (x) = x1/2 = x
dx 2 2
3
So the slope of the tangent line at (1, 1) is f 0 (1) = . Therefore the equation of the
2
tangent line is
3 3 1
y − 1 = (x − 1) or y = x −
2 2 2
The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line, so its slope is the negative reciprocal
3 −2
of , that is . Thus the equation of the normal line is
2 3
2 2 5
y − 1 = − (x − 1) or y = − x +
3 3 3
The Constant Multiple Rule
d
If f is a differentiable function and c is a constant, then [c f (x)] = c · f 0 (x)
dx
The sum/ Difference Rule
If f and g are both differentiable functions of x, then
d d d
[ f (x) ± g (x)] = f (x) ± g (x)
dx dx dx
Example 107
d 8 d 8 d 5 d 4
x + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5 = x + 12 x −4 x
dx dx dx dx
d 3 d d
+10 x − 6 (x) + (5)
dx dx 3 dx
= 8x + 12 5x − 4 4x + 10 3x2 − 6 + 0
7 4

= 8x7 + 60x4 − 16x3 + 30x2 − 6

Does
y = x4 − 2x2 + 2
have any horizontal tangents? If so where?
dy
Solution 108 The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the gradient = 0.
dx
We have
dy
= 4x3 − 4x
dx
dy
Now solve the equation = 0 for x :
dx
4x3 − 4x = 0
4x x2 − 1 = 0

x = 0, −1, 1.
The curve
y = x4 − 2x2 + 2
has horizontal tangents at x = −1, x = 0 and x = 1.
40
Theorem 109 (The Product Rule) If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d d
[ f (x) · g (x)] = f (x) [g (x)] + g (x) [ f (x)]
dx dx dx
Proof. We form the difference quotient
f (x + h) g (x + h) − f (x) g (x)
h
f (x + h) g (x + h) − f (x + h) g (x) + f (x + h) g (x) − f (x) g (x)
=
h
and write it as

g (x + h) − g (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x + h) + g (x)
h h
Since f is differentiable at x, we know that f is continuous at x and thus
lim f (x + h) = f (x)
h→0
Since
g (x + h) − g (x)
lim = g0 (x)
h→0 h
and
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim = f 0 (x)
h→0 h
we obtain

g (x + h) − g (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
lim f (x + h) lim + g (x) lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h
d d
= f (x) [g (x)] + g (x) [ f (x)]
dx dx
Theorem 110 (The Quotient Rule) If f and g are differentiable functions and g (x) 6= 0,
then
g (x) f 0 (x) − f (x) g0 (x)

d f (x)
=
dx g (x) [g (x)]2
Proof.
f (x + h) f (x)
 
−
d f (x)  g (x + h) g (x) 
= lim  
dx g (x) h→0  h 

f (x + h) f (x) 1
lim − ·
h→0 g (x + h) g (x) h

g (x) f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) 1
= lim ·
h→0 g (x) g (x + h) h
41
Subtract and add g (x) f (x) in the numerator to get,

d f (x) g (x) f (x + h) − g (x) f (x) + g (x) f (x) − f (x) g (x + h) 1
= lim ·
dx g (x) h→0 g (x) g (x + h) h

f (x + h) − f (x) g (x + h) − g (x) 

 g (x)

 − f (x) 
h h 
= lim
h→0  g (x) g (x + h) 

 
Taking the limits in the numerator and the denominator now gives the Quotient Rule.
Example 111 Find the derivative of
y = x2 + 1 x3 + 3

d dv du
Solution 112 We use the product rule : (uv) = u + v .
dx dx dx
dy
= x2 + 1 3x2 + x3 + 3x (2x)

dx
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 6x
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 6x
t2 − 1
y=
t3 + 1
d u v · u0 − u · v0
Solution 114 We use quotient rule: = .
dx v v2
t 3 + 1 (2t) − t 2 − 1 3t 2

dy
= 2
dt (t 3 + 1)
2t 4 + 2t − 3t 4 + 3t 2
= 2
(t 3 + 1)
−t 4 + 3t 2 + 2t
= 2
(t 3 + 1)
We summarise the rules dicussed above as follows:
d d n
(c) = 0 (x ) = nxn−1
dx 0 dx 0
( f · g) = f g0 + g f 0 (c f ) = c f 0
0
f g f 0 − f g0
( f ± g)0 = f 0 ± g0 =
g g2
Higher Order Derivatives
42
If y = f (x) is a differentiable function, then its derivative f 0 (x) is also a function. If f 0 is

also differentiable, we get a new function of x denoted by f 00 which is called the second
derivative of f . It is written in serveral ways:
d2y dy0

00 d dy
f (x) = 2 = = = y00 = D2x f (x) = ...
dx dx dx dx
Higher order derivatives may also be found
f 0 (x) , f 00 (x) , f 000 (x) , f (4) (x) , · · · , f (n) (x)
1. Differentiate the function.

(a) f (x) = x3 − 4x + 6 (b) f (x) = −4x10
(c) f (x) = x2 (1 − 2x) (d) f (x) = (x − 2) (2x + 3)
√
(e) S (p) = p − p (f) y = x5/3 − x2/3
x2 + 4x + 3 √ 1 2

(g) y = √ (h) v = x+ √3
x √x
x3 3
v − 2v v
(i) y = (j) y =
1 − x2 v
x x3 + 3x
(k) f (x) = c (l) y = 2
x+ x −1
x
1 ax − b
(m) g (x) = 9x8 − 8x9 x +

(n) f (x) =
x cx − d
2. Find f 0 (0) and f 0 (1) .
1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = x2 (x + 1)
x−2
2x2 + x + 1 ax + b
(c) f (x) = 2 (d) f (x) =
x + 2x + 1 cx + d
3. Find f 0 (0) given that h (0) = 3 and h0 (0) = 2
x
(a) f (x) = xh (x) (b) f (x) = h (x) +
h (x)
4. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (c, f (c))
x
f (x) = ; c = −4
x+2
5. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of
2x2 + 1 x3 − 1

f (x) =
x2 + 4
at the point where x = 1.
6. Find the indicated derivatives

d 2t 3 + 1

d
(a) (3x − e) (b)
dx dt t4
Higher Order Derivatives
43
7. Find the second derivative

x2 − 3π
(a) f (x) = 7x4 − 6x5 (b) y=
x
3
(c) y = x2 x + (d) f (y) = y−1 + 3y−3
x
d3y
8. Find .
dx3
1 1 1
(a) y = x3 + x2 + x + 1 (b) y = x3 −
3√ 2 2 x3
x4 − 2
(c) y = 5 + 5x (d) y=
x
3.3.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

From our discussion on trigonometric functions, we recall that
sin (x + h) = sin x cos h + cos x sin h

cos(x + h) = cos x cos h − sin x sin h
sin x
lim = 1
x→0 x
cos x − 1
lim = 0
x→0 x
Theorem 115 (Derivative of sin x)
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
Proof. . Let f (x) = sin x. Then
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin (x + h) − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x (cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0
h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x · + lim cos x ·
h→0 h h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= sin x · 0 + cos x · 1
= cos x.
d
Exercise 116 Show that (cos x) = − sin x.
dx
44
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.4. THE CHAIN RULE
Derivatives of the six trigonmetric ratios are given below:
d d
(sin x) = cos x (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx
d d
(cos x) = − sin x (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
(tan x) = sec2 x (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx
sec x
Example 117 Differentiate y =
1 + tan x
d d
dy (1 + tan x)(sec x) − sec x (1 + tan x)
= dx dx
dx (1 + tan x)2
(1 + tan x) sec x tan x − sec x sec2 x
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x tan x + tan2 x − sec2 x

=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x (tan x − 1)
= .
(1 + tan x)2
Exercise 118
1. Differentiate
√
(a) f (x) = 3x2 − 2 cos x (b) y= x sin x
1
(c) y = sin x + cot x (d) y = 2 sec x − csc x
2 cos x
(e) h (θ ) = θ csc θ − cot θ (f) y=
1 − sin x
1 − sec x
(g) y = (h) y = x2 sin x tan x
tan x
2. Prove using the definition of the derivative, that if f (x) = cos x, then f 0 (x) = − sin x.
3.4 The Chain Rule

Suppose we wish to differentate
120
F (x) = x2 + 1
We may view F as a composition of
g (x) = x120 and f (x) = x2 + 1.

120
F (x) = (g ◦ f ) (x) = g [ f (x)] = [ f (x)]120 = x2 + 1
45
3.4. THE CHAIN RULE CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Theorem 119 (The Chain Rule) If f (u) is differentiable at the point u = g (x) and g (x)
is differentiable at x, then the composite function
( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x))
is differentiable at x and
( f ◦ g)0 (x) = f 0 [g (x)] · g0 (x)
In Leibniz’s notation, if
y = f (x)
and
u = g (x)
then
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
dy
where is evaluated at u = g (x) .
du
NOTE: Label the composite function
”Inside
f unction”
z }| {
h (x) = f [g (x)]
|{z}
”Outside
f unction”
then h0 (x) is just the derivative of the "outside function" evaluated at the "inside function"
times the derivative of the "inside function".
Example 120 Differentiate

120
y = x2 + 1
Solution 121
dy 119 d 2 119
= 120 x2 + 1 x + 1 = 240x x2 + 1

·
dx dx
du dy
NOTE: If we let u = x2 + 1 and y = u120 , then = 2x and = 120u119 . So
dx du
dy dy du h
2
119 i 119
= = 2x 120 x + 1 = 240x x2 + 1 .
dx du dx
Example 122 Find the derivative
√
(a) F (x) = x2 + 1
(b) y = sin 2x3
(c) y = sin3 2x
46
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.5. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
As observed in the previous example, we can in general combine the Power Rule with the
Chain Rule to get:
If n is any number and u = g (x) is differentiable, then

d n du
(u ) = nun−1
dx dx
Alternately,
d
[g (x)]n = n [g (x)]n−1 · g0 (x)
dx
x−2 9

0
Example 124 Find f (x) if f (x) =
2x + 1
dy 1
Example 125 Find if y = √
3 2
dy x +x+1
Example 126 Differentiate y = sin (cos (tan x))
Exercise 127
Find the Derivative of the Function √

1. y = (2x + 4)3 2. f (x) = x + cos x
−3 1
3. f (t) = 2t 3 − t 4. g (x) = 5
(x3 − 2x2 + 1)
2 6

3
5. y = t + 6. h (x) = (2x − 1)2 x2 + 1
t
−2
√ √
2
x +3
7. g (t) = t − 2 + 4 − t 8. f (x) =
x
x √ 5
9. y= √ 10. y (s) = 1 + 1 + s2
x2 − x − 2
2 1/3
2x − 1
11. g (x) = 12. f (x) = sin3 x
2x + 5
y = cot2√ 2 x2 + x

13. (sin θ ) 14. g (x) = tan
√
15. f (x) = sin 2x − cos 2x 16. f (x) = 2 + 3 tan 2x
1 p
17. y = x sin 18. y = sin (cos 2x)
x s
√ s2 + 1
q p
19. y = x+ x+ x 20. f (s) =
s2 + 4
1 − cos 2x 4

2
2
21. y= 22. y = cos x − 3x + 1 + tan
1 + cos 2x x
3.5 Implicit Differentiation

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x.
47
3.5. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
dy dy
2. Collect the terms with (or y0 ) on one side of the equation and solve for (or
dx dx
y0 ).
dy
Example 128 Find if y2 = x2 + sin xy.
dx
Solution 129
d 2 d 2 d
y = x + (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (sin xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + (cos xy) y + x
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + y (cos xy) + x (cos xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y − x (cos xy) = 2x + y (cos xy)
dx dx
dy
[2y − x (cos xy)] = 2x + y (cos xy)
dx
dy 2x + y cos xy
=
dx 2y − x cos xy
dy
1. Find by implicit differentiation
dx
(a) xy2 + yx2 − 2 = 0 (b) x2 y + 2xy2 −x + 3 = 0
√ √
(c) px + y = 1 (d) tan2 x3 + y3 = xy
(e) 1 + cos2 y = xy (f) 1 + x = sin(xy2 )
y5 +x2y3 = 1 + x4 y (h) y sin x2 = x sin y2

(g)
x y
(i) tan = x+y (j) tan (x − y) =
y 1 + x2
3.5.1 Higher Order Derivatives

Implicit differentiation can be used to find higher derivatives.
d2y
Example 130 Find if 2x3 − 3y2 = 8
dx2
Solution 131
d d
2x3 − 3y2 =

(8)
dx dx
6x2 − 6yy0 = 0
x2
y0 = , when y 6= 0
y
48
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.6. DIFFERENTIALS
We apply the Quotient Rule to find y00 .

d x2 2xy − x2 y0 2x x2 0

00
y = = = − 2 ·y
dx y y2 y y
x2
Finaly, we substitute y0 = to express y00 in terms of x and y.
y
2x x2 x2 2x x4

00
y = − 2 = − 3 when y 6= 0
y y y y y
d2y x2
1. Show that = −48 if x4 + y4 = 16
dx2 y7
d2y
2. Find 2
dx
(a) xy + x3 = 4
(b) x3 − y3 = 8
(c) sin x + cos y = 1
(d) tan y − xy = 0
3.6 Differentials
To find a quick way of estimating the change in y, ∆y, due to small change in x, ∆x, let us
look at the graph below.
Figure 3.4
The tangent line T lies close to the graph of f near the point of tangency at P. Therefore,
if ∆x is small, the y-coordinate of the point R on T is a good approximation of f (x + ∆x) .
Equivalently, the quantity dy is a good approximation of ∆y. Now consider the right
triangle ∆PQR. We have
dy
= tan θ
∆x
or dy = (tan θ ) ∆x. But the derivative of f gives the slope of the tangent line T, so we have
tan θ = f (x) . Therefore,
dy = f 0 (x) ∆x
The quantity dy is called the differential of y.
49
3.7. TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION
Definition 132 (Differential) Let y = f (x) where f is a differentiable function. Then
1. The differential dx of the indepenent variable x is dx = ∆x, where ∆x is an

increment in x.
2. The differential dy of the dependent variable y is
dy = f 0 (x) ∆x = f 0 (x) dx.
π
Example 133 Find the differential of the f (x) = 2 sin x + 3 cos x at x =
4
Solution 134 dy = f 0 (x) ∆x = f 0 (x) dx
f 0 (x) = 2 cos x − 3 sin x
dy = (2 cos x − 3 sin x) dx √
π π π 2
at x = , dy = 2 cos − 3 sin =− dx
4 4 4 2
3.7 Transcendental Functions

Functions which are not algebraic like trigonometric functions, exponential functions,
logarithmic functions, hyperbolic functions etc. are examples of transcendental functions.
3.7.1 Exponential and Logarithmic functions

Definition 135 An (common) exponential function is a function of the form
f (x) = ax
where a is a positive constant.
Definition 136 A (common) logarithmic function is a function of the form
f (x) = loga x
where the base a is a positive constant. It is an inverse of the exponential function.
The number e is an irrational number and has the approximation e = 2.718181828 · · · .

Later, it will be shown that
1 x

lim 1 + = e.
x→∞ x
The Natural Exponential Function may be denoted by
exp (x) = ex .
Theorem 137 Exponential Laws and Properties

Let x and y be real numbers. Then
(a) ex · ey = ex+y
ex
(b) = ex−y
ey
50
CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION 3.7. TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
(c) (ex )y = exy
(d) ln ex = x for x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
(e) eln x = x, for x ∈ (0, ∞)
Theorem 138 (The Derivative of Exponential Function) Let u be a differentiable

function of x. Then
d x
(a) (e ) = ex
dx
d u du
(b) (e ) = eu .
dx dx
√
(a) y = e x+1
Solution 140
dy √ d
= e x+1 (x + 1)1/2
dx dx
√

x+1 1
= e (x + 1)−1/2 (1)
2
√
e x+1
= √
2 x+1
3.7.2 Natural Logarithmic function

loge x = ln x
Laws of Logarithms
Theorem 141 Let A and B be positive numbers and let n be a rational number. Then
(a) ln 1 = 0
(b) ln AB = ln A + ln B
A
(c) ln = ln A − ln B
B
(d) ln An = n ln A
Definition 142 The natural exponential function denoted by exp x is the function that
satify the following conditions:
1. ln(exp x) = x, ∀x ∈ (−∞, ∞) i.e ln ex = x
2. exp (ln x) = x, ∀x ∈ (0, ∞) i.e. eln x = x
51
Definition 143 If x is any real number, then
ex = y ⇐⇒ ln y = x
Example 144 Expand the expression.
x2 + 1
(a) ln √
x
x3 cos2 πx
(b) ln √
x2 + 3
Using Chain Rule, we see that if u is a differentiable function of x, then
d 1 du
ln u = , u > 0.
dx u dx
or equivalently,
d f 0 (x)
ln [ f (x)] =
dx f (x)
(i) f (x) = ln 2x2 + 1

(ii) g(x) = x2 ln 2x
√
(iii) f (x) = ln x2 + 1
" 3 #
x2 2x2 + 1
(iv) y = ln √
5 − x2
(v) y = sec [ln (2x + 3)]

√ !
sin θ cos θ
(vi) y = ln
1 + 2 ln θ
Logarithmic Differentiation
This method is especially useful for differentiating functions involving, products,
quotients and/or powers that can be simplified using logarithms.
y = xcos x
52
Solution 149 We introduce the natural logarithm on both sides of the equation:
ln y = ln xcos x
ln y = cos x ln x
1 dy cos x
= − sin x ln x +
y dx x
dy h cos x i
= xcos x − sin x ln x
dx x
Example 150 Differentiate
(2x − 1)3
(a) y = √
3x + 1
s
x (x + 1) (x − 2)
(b) y = 3 2
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
Exercise
Differentiate the function.
1. f (x) = ln 1 − x2

2. g(x) = ln x2 + 4
2 √
7. f (x) = ln x + x2 − 1
ln x
3. f (x) = x (ln x)2 4. y = f (t) = t sin
x+1
8. (lnt) .
r
x cos x sint + 1
5. u = ln 6. f (x) = ln(ln x) 9. g(t) = ln
(2x + 1)3 cost + 2
Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative

√ of the function.
2
x 2x − 4
2 3
10. y = 1 − x2 3x2 − 4

11. y =
r (x + 1)2
x−1
12. f (x) = 3 2 13. Find y00 if y = xx
x +1
sin2 x
14. y = 2 √
x 1 + tan x sin x
15. Find y0 if y = x2 + 2
dy
Use implicit differentiation to find .
dx
16. ln y − x ln x = −1 17. ln(x + y) − cos y − x2 = 0
18. y = ln(x2 + y2 ) 19. xy = yx
x
20. ln + x − y2 = 0
y
3.7.3 The Derivatives of ax and au

Definition 152 Let a be a positive real number with a 6= 1. The exponential function with
base a is the function f defined by
f (x) = ax = ex ln a
for every real number x.
53
The usual exponential laws apply.
Theorem 153 (Derivatives of ax and au ) Let a be a positive number with a 6= 1, and let
u be adifferentiable function of x. Then
d x
(a) (a ) = ax ln a
dx
d u du
(b) (a ) = au ln a
dx dx

√
(a) f (x) = 3 x
(b) y = 10cos 2x
Logarithmic Function With Base a
Definition 155 Logarithmic function with base a denoted by loga , is a function satisfying
the relationship
y = loga x ⇐⇒ x = ay (3.1)
Change of base formula :
ln x
loga x = a > 0 and a 6= 1
ln a
Theorem 156 Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then
d 1
(a) loga |x| = , x 6= 0
dx x ln a
d 1 du
(b) loga |u| = , u 6= 0
dx u ln a dx
(a) y = log2 3x2 + 1

(b) y = log3 |tan x|
(c) f (x) = x2 log e2x + 1

Exercise 159
54
Differentiate:
1. y = e−2x 2. y = e2x+1
x ln √x
√
3. y = e4 ln x 4. y = e
y = x2 − 2x + 2 ex f (x) = ln(cos e2x )

5. 6.
1 − eex

7. y = cos 8. f (t) = sin(et ) + esint
1 + e2x
3/2 2
9. y = e2x − ln 3x 10. y = x2 ex − xex
3 e2x − 1
11. y = (3 − 2e−x ) 12. y =
e2x + 1
2
13. h(t) = t 3 − 3t f (x) = ecos x tan e2x + x

14.
15. y = 3−2x 16. y = 42x+1
√ x
17. y = ( cos x) 18. y = 10tan θ
x2
19. y = log2 (e−x cos πx) 20. y = 23
2 2x
21. y = xx 22. g(x) = √ x
3 +1
23. y = (sin x)tan x
3.7.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Generally speaking, the trigonometric functions, being periodic are not one-to-one and
therefore do not have inverse functions. For example the graph of y = sin x is not
one-to-one as it fails the horizontal
h π π iline test. By restricting the domain of the function
f (x) = sin x to the interval − , we observe that f (x) becomes one-to-one and has an
2 2 h π πi
inverse function with domain [−1, 1] and range − , . This function is called the
2 2
inverse sine function or the arcsine function. Thus
π π
y = sin−1 x ⇐⇒ sin y = x where − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤y≤
2 2
55
Figure 3.5
Definition 160 (Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

Domain
−1
y = sin x ⇐⇒ x = sin y [−1, 1]
−1
y = cos x ⇐⇒ x = cos y [−1, 1]
−1
y = tan x ⇐⇒ x = tan y (−∞, ∞)
y = cot−1 x ⇐⇒ x = cot y (−∞, ∞)
−1
y = sec x ⇐⇒ x = sec y (−1, 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
−1
y = csc x ⇐⇒ x = csc y (−1, 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Theorem 161 (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions) .
Let u be a differentiable function of x. Then

d 1 du
sin−1 u = √

(a)
dx 1 − u2 dx
d −1 du
cos−1 u = √

(b)
dx 1 − u2 dx
d 1 du
tan−1 u =

(c)
dx 1 + u2 dx
d −1 du
cot−1 u =

(d)
dx 1 + u2 dx
d 1 du
sec−1 u = √

(e)
dx |u| u − 1 dx
2
d −1 du
csc−1 u = √

(f)
dx |u| u2 − 1 dx
Proof. Exercise.
(a) f (x) = cos−1 3x
(b) y = sec−1 e−2x

√
(c) g (x) = tan−1 2x + 3
56
Exercise
Find the derivatives of the function. Simplify where possible.
√
1. f (x) = arctan x 2. g(x) = ex sin−1 (x)
√
3. f (x) = arctan 2x 4. y = sec−1 (2 + cos x)
x x
5. y = sin[sec−1 (ln x)] 6. y= √ − arcsin
√ c2 − x2 c
7. y = tan−1 x2 − 1 + csc−1 x 8. y = tan−1 (ln |x|)
√
r
1−x
9. y = x sin−1 x + 1 − x2 10. f (x) = arctan
1+x
√
r
−1
x x−a
11. y = tan + ln 12. y = tan−1 x − 1 + x2
√a x+a
14. y = cos−1 e2x

13. y = arcsin x
3.7.5 Hyperbolic Functions

Certain even and odd combinations of exponential functions ex and e−x arise so frequently
in Mathematics and its applications that they deserve to be given specific names. These
functions have the same relationship to the hyperbola that trigonometric functions have to
the circle, as such they are collectively called Hyperbolic Functions and individualy called
hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine and so on.
DEFINITION OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

ex − e−x 1
sinh x = csch x =
2 sinh x
ex + e−x 1
cosh x = sech x =
2 cosh x
sinh x cosh x
tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x
HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES
sinh (−x) = − sinh x

cosh x − sinh2 x
2
= 1
cosh (−x) = cosh x
1 = tanh2 x + sec h2 x
Example 164 Show that cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1
57
DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Let u be a differentiable function of x, then
d du d du
(sinh u) = cosh u (csch u) = −csch u coth u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
(cosh u) = sinh u (sech u) = −sech u tanh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
(tanh u) = (sech u)2 (coth u) = −(csch u)2
dx dx dx dx
Example 166 Differentiate p
y = coth x2 + 1
Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the natural exponential functions, it
seems natural that the inverse hyperbolic functions should be expressible in terms of
natural logarithmic functions.
√
sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 , x ∈ R
√
cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 , x ≥ 1

−1 1 1+x
tanh x = ln , −1 < x < 1
2 1−x
√
Example 168 Show that sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .
Solution 169 Let y = sinh−1 x. Then

ey − e−y
x = sinh y =
2
so
ey − 2x − e−y = 0
or
(ey )2 − 2x(ey ) − 1 = 0.
This is a quadratic equation in terms of ey . From the quadratic formula, we get
√
2x ± 4x2 + 4 p
ey = = x ± x2 + 1
2
√ √
We observe that ey > 0, but x − x2 + 1 < 0 (because x < x2 + 1). Thus
p
ey = x + x2 + 1.
Therefore p
y = ln (ey ) = ln (x + x2 + 1)
Which shows that p
sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 .
The other two are left as exercises.
58
DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Let u be a differentiable function of x, then

d 1 du d −1 du
sinh−1 u = √ csc h−1 u = √

dx u + 1 dx dx
2 |u| u + 1 dx
2
d 1 du d −1 du
cosh−1 u = √ sec h−1 u = √

dx u − 1 dx
2 dx u 1 − u2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
tanh−1 u = coth−1 u =

dx 1 − u2 dx dx 1 − u2 dx
y = x2 sech−1 3x
Exercise 172 Find the derivative and simplify where possible.
1. y = ex cosh x
√
2. y = tanh x
√
3. y = x tanh−1 x + ln 1 − x2
4. y = tanh2 3x
5. y = (cosh x)1/x
sinh x
6. f (x) = x2 + 1
r
d 4 1 + tanh x 1 x/2
7. Show that = e .
dx 1 − tanh x 2
59
60
Chapter 4
Applications
4.1 L’Hôpital’s Rule

Theorem 173 Suppose that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I that contains
c with the possible exception of c itself, and g0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I. If
f (x)
lim
x→c g (x)
0 ∞
is an indeterminate form of type or , then
0 ∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→c g (x) x→c g (x)
provided that the limit on the right hand side exists or is infinite.
Example 174 Evaluate

ex − 1
lim
x→0 2x
0
Solution 175 We have an indeterminate form of the type . Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule,
0
we obtain
d x
ex − 1 (e − 1) ex 1
lim = lim dx = lim =
x→0 2x x→0 d x→0 2 2
(2x)
dx

ln x
lim
x→∞ x
61
4.1. L’HÔPITAL’S RULE CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
4.1.1 The Indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ and 0 · ∞

If lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g (x) = ∞ then the limit
x→c x→c
lim [ f (x) − g (x)]

x→c
is said to be an indeterminate form of the type ∞ − ∞. An indeterminate form of this type

0 ∞
can often be expressed as one of the type or by algebraic manipulation.
0 ∞

1 1
lim − x
x→0+ x e −1
Solution 179 We have indeterminate form of the type ∞ − ∞. By writting the expression in
0
the parenthesis as a single fraction, we obtain an indeterminate form of the type .
0
ex − x − 1

1 1 0
lim − x = lim Type
x→0+ x e −1 x→0+ x (ex − 1) 0
x
e −1
= lim x (Apply L’Hôpital’s Rule)
x→0+ (e − 1 + xex )
ex 1
= lim x
=
x→0+ (x + 2) e 2

lim (x ln x)
x→0+
Solution 181 We have an indeterminate form of the type 0 · ∞. By writting
ln x
x ln x =
1
x
∞
the given limit can be cast in an indeterminate form of the type . Then by applying
∞
L’Hôpital’s Rule, we obtain
 
 ln x  ∞

lim (x ln x) = lim  Type
x→0+ x→0+ 1  ∞
 x 
1
 x 
= lim 
x→0+ 1
− 2
x
= lim (−x) = 0.
x→0+
62
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.1. L’HÔPITAL’S RULE
4.1.2 The Indeterminate Forms 00 , ∞0 and 1∞

The limit
lim [ f (x)]g(x)
x→c
is said to be an indeterminate form of the type
00 if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g (x) = 0

x→c x→c
0
∞ if lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g (x) = 0
x→c x→c
1∞ if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g (x) = ±∞
x→c x→c

lim xx
x→0+
Solution 183 We have an indeterminate form of the type 00 . Let
y = xx
Then
ln y = x ln x
From the last example we obtain
lim ln y = lim x ln x = 0
x→0+ x→0+
Finally, using the identity

y = eln y
and the continuity of the exponential function, we have
lim ln y
lim xx = lim y = lim eln y = ex→0+ = e0 = 1
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+

sin x
1
lim
x→0+ x
Solution 185 We have an indeterminate form of the type ∞0 . Let

sin x
1
y=
x
Then sin x
1 1
ln y = ln = sin x ln
x x
and
1
lim ln y = lim (sin x) ln
x→0+ x→0+ x
63
4.1. L’HÔPITAL’S RULE CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
which is an indeterminate form of the type 0 · ∞. By writting

1
ln
1 x
sin x ln =
x 1
sin x
∞
we can transform it into an indeterminate form of the type and hence use L’Hôpital’s
∞
Rule. We have
 
1
ln
 x 
lim ln y = lim  
x→0+ x→0+  1 
sin x
 
 − ln x 
= lim 
x→0 + 1 
 sin x 
1
−
= lim  cos
 x 
x→0 + x
− 2
sin x
2
sin x
= lim
x→0 x cos x
+

sin x
= lim (tan x) = (1) · (0) = 0
x→0+ x
Therefore,
sin x
1 lim ln y
lim = lim y = lim eln y = ex→0+ = e0 = 1
x→0+ x x→0+ x→0+
Since the exponential function is continuous.

1 x

lim 1 +
x→∞ x
Solution 187 We have the indeterminate form of the type 1∞ . Let
1 x

y = 1+
x
Then
1 x

1
ln y = ln 1 + = x ln 1 +
x x
so
1
lim ln y = lim x ln 1 +
x→∞ x→∞ x
64
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.2. TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN POLYNOMIALS
has an indeterminate form of the type 0 · ∞. Rewritting and using L’Hôpital’s Rule, we
obtain

1
lim ln y = lim x ln 1 +
x→∞ x→∞ x
 
1
 ln 1 + x 
= lim  
x→∞  1 
x
  

 1  1 
− 2 
1

x 
 
 1+ 
= lim 
 x 
1

x→∞ 
− 2

 
 x 
 
1
= lim =1
x→∞ 1
1+
x
Therefore,
1 x

lim ln y
lim 1 + = lim y = lim eln y = ex→∞ = e1 = e
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞
since the exponential function is continuous.

Exercise 188 Find the Limits
sin−1 5x ln x x2x
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→0 x x→1 x − 1 x→0 2x − 1
ln (x + 1) (1 + ex )
4. lim 5. lim (ln 2x − ln (x + 1)) 6. lim
x→∞ log2 x x→∞ x→∞ x2
7. lim x2 e−x 8. lim (1 + 2x)1/(2 ln x) 9. lim xx

x→∞ x→∞ x→0+
x
x+2
10. lim 11. lim x2 ln x 12. lim x (ln x)2
x→∞ x−1 x→0+ x→0+
1 x

13. lim 1 + 14. lim x1/(x−1) 15. lim x1/ ln x
x→0+ x x→1+ x→∞
4.2 Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials

Definition 189 (nth Taylor and Maclaurin Polynomials) If f has derivatives at a, then
the polynomial
f 00 (a) f 000 (a)
Pn (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a) (x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3
2! 3!
f (4) (a) f (n) (a)
+ (x − a)4 + · · · + (x − a)n
4! n!
65
4.2. TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN POLYNOMIALS CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
is called the nth Taylor polynomial for f at a. If a = 0, then
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4 f (n) (0) n

Pn (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0) x + x + x + x +···+ x
2! 3! 4! n!
is called the nth Maclaurin polynomial for f .
Example 190 Find the Maclaurin polynomial for f (x) = sin x
f (x) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
f 00 (x) = − sin x f 00 (0) = 0
f 000 (x) = − cos x f 000 (0) = −1
f (4) (x) = sin x f (4) (0) = 0
f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4 f (n) (0) n

Pn (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0) x + x + x + x +···+ x
2! 3! 4! n!
1 x5 x7 f (n) (0) n
= x − x3 + − + · · · + x
3! 5! 7! n!
∞
(−1)n 2n+1
= ∑ x
n=0 (2n + 1)!
Example 191 Find the Taylor polynomials P0 , P1 , P2 , P3 and P4 for f (x) = ln x centered at
a = 1.
f (x) = ln x f (1) = 0
1
f 0 (x) = f 0 (1) = 1
x
1
f 00 (x) = − f 00 (1) = −1
x2
2!
f 000 (x) = f 000 (1) = 2
x3
3!
f (4) (x) = − 4 f (4) (1) = −6
x
Therefore, the Taylor polynomials are as follows,
P0 (x) = f (1) = 0
P1 (x) = f (1) + f 0 (1) (x − 1) = (x − 1)
f 00 (1) 1
P2 (x) = f (1) + f 0 (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 = (x − 1) − (x − 1)2
2! 2
f 00 (1) f 000 (1)
2
P3 (x) = f (1) + f 0 (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1) + (x − 1)3
2! 3!
1 2 1 3
= (x − 1) − (x − 1) + (x − 1)
2 3
66
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.3. MAXIMA AND MINIMA
f 00 (1) f 000 (1) f (4) (1)

P4 (x) = f (1) + f 0 (1) (x − 1) + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)4
2! 3! 4!
1 1 1
= (x − 1) − (x − 1)2 + (x − 1)3 − (x − 1)4
2 3 4
Exercise 192 Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree n for the function
1. f (x) = e−x , n = 3
2. f (x) = e3x , n = 4
3. f (x) = ln(1 + x), n = 4
Find the Maclaurin series for
4. f (x) = cos x
5. f (x) = ex
6. f (x) = sinh x
Find the nth Taylor polynomial centered at a

1
7. f (x) = , n = 4, a = 1
x
8. f (x) = ln x, n = 4, a = 1
4.3 Maxima and Minima

Definition 193 Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f . Then f (c) is the
• absolute maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ D.
• absolute minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ D.
Figure 4.1: Extrema: Abs min f (a), abs max f (d), loc min f (c), f (e), loc max f (b), f (d)
An absolute maximum or minimum is sometimes called a global maximum or minimum.

The maximum or minimum values of f are called extreme values of f .
Definition 194 The number f (c) is a
• local maximum value of f if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x is near c.
• local minimum value of f if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is near c.
67
4.3. MAXIMA AND MINIMA CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Theorem 195 (Extreme Value Theorem) If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] ,

then f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) and an absolute minimum value f (d) at
some numbers c and d in [a, b] .
Figure 4.2: Functions continuous on a closed interval always attain extreme values.
A function need not possess extreme values if either hypotheses (continuity or closed
interval) is omitted from the Extreme Value Theorem.
Figure 4.3: The first function has a minimum value f (2) = 0, but has no maximum value
wheras the second function has no maximum or minimum value.
Example 196 Find the extrema of the function if any by examining the given graphs.
(a) f (x) = x2 .
(b) g(x) = −x2 .

1
(c) h(x) = .
x
x
(d) k(x) = √ .
x2 + 7
(a) min at 0 (c) no extrema (d) no extrema

(b) max at 0
Figure 4.4
(a) f has a minimum value of 0 at 0. Since the values of f are not bounded above, f
has no maximum value.
68
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.3. MAXIMA AND MINIMA
(b) g has a maximum value of 0 at 0. Also, because the values of g are not bounded
below, g has no minimum value.
(c) The values of h are neither bounded above nor bounded below, so h has no absolute
extrema.
(d) As x gets larger and larger, k(x) gets closer and closer to 1 but the value is never
attained; that is a real number c does not exist such that k(c) = 1. Therefore k has
no maximum value. Similarly k has no minimum value.
The Extreme Value Theorem says that a continuous function on a closed interval has a
maximum value and a minimum value, but it does not tell us how to find these extreme
values. We note that at the maximum and minimum points the tangent lines are horizontal
and thus each has a gradient (slope) equal to 0.
Theorem 197 (Fermat’s Theorem) If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if

f 0 (c) exists, then f 0 (c) = 0.
Fermat’s Theorem suggests that we should at least start to look for extreme values of f at
the number c where f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
Definition 198 A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such
that either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
Example 199 Find the critical numbers of f (x) = x3/5 (4 − x) .
Solution 200 The product rule gives

0 3/5 3 −2/5
f (x) = x (−1) + (4 − x) x
5
3 (4 − x) −5x + 12 − 3x 12 − 8x
= −x3/5 + = =
5x2/5 5x2/5 5x2/5
3
Therefore f 0 (x) = 0 if 12 − 8x = 0, that is x = , and f 0 (x) does not exist when x = 0.
2
3
Thus the critical numbers are and 0.
2
Example 201 Find the critical number(s) if any, of f (x) = x − 3x1/3 .
If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f .

THE CLOSED INTERVAL METHOD To find the absolute maximum and minimum
(extreme) values of a continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b] :
1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b) .
2. Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
3. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the
smallest of these is the absolute minimum value.
69
4.3. MAXIMA AND MINIMA CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Example 203 Find the extreme values of the function f (x) = 2 cos x − x on [0, 2π]
Solution 204 The function f is continuous everywhere, in particular it is continuous on

the closed interval [0, 2π]]. Therefore the Extreme Value Theorem is applicable. First we
find the critical numbers of f in (0, 2π). We have
f 0 (x) = − sin x − 1
Observe that f 0 is continuous on (0, 2π). Setting f 0 (x) = 0 gives
−2 sin x − 1 = 0
1
sin x = −
2
Reference angle:
−1 1 π
α = sin = .
2 6
π 7π
But sin α is negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants. Thus x = π + α = π + = or
6 6
π 11π
x = 2π − = .
6 6
Next we compute the values of f at these critical numbers as well as at the end points 0
and 2π.
7π 11π
x 0 2π
6 6
f (x) 2 −5.40 −4.03 −4.28
From the table we see that f attains the absolute maximum value of 2 at 0 and the
absolute minimum value of approximately −5.4 at 7π/6.
Exercise 205 Find the extreme (absolute maximum and absolute minimum) values, if any,
of the function.
1. f (x) = x2 − x − 2 on [0, 2] 2. f (x) = 2x4 − 83 x3 − 8x2 + 12 on [−2, 3]
x
3. f (x) = 2 on [−1, 2] 4. f (x) = 2 + 3 sin 2x on [0, π2 ]
x +1
5. The average speed of traffic flow from Sibasa to Thohoyandou between 6 A.M. and
10 A.M. on a typical weekday is approximated by the function
√
f (t) = 20t − 40 t + 50 0≤t ≤4
where f (t) is measured in kilometers per hour and t is measured in hours, with
t = 0 corresponding to 6 A.M. At what time in the morning is the average speed of
traffic flow highest? At what time in the morning is it lowest?
6. A body of mass m moves in an elliptical path with a constant angular speed ω. The
force acting on the body is always directed toward the origin and has the magnitude
given by p
F = mω 2 a2 cos2 ωt + b2 sin2 ωt t ≥0
where a and b are constants with a > b. Find the points on the path where the force
is greatest and where it is smallest.
70
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.4. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM
4.4 The Mean Value Theorem
We shall prove the main result of this chapter. To do so we need the following result.
Theorem 206 (Rolle’s Theorem) Let f be a funtion that satisfies the following three
hypotheses:
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] .
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) .
3. f (a) = f (b) .
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Example 207 Let f (x) = x3 − x for x ∈ [−1, 1] .
1. Show that f satisfies the hypothethes of Rolle’ Theorem on [−1, 1].
2. Find the numbers c in (−1, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0 as guaranteed by Rolle’s

Theorem.
Theorem 208 (The Mean Value Theorem) Let f be a function that satisfies the
following hypothethes:
71
4.4. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
1. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] .
2. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) .
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
or equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c) (b − a) .
Figure 4.7
Proof. From the figure above, the gradient of the secant line AB is given by
f (b) − f (a)
b−a
The equation of the secant line AB is :
f (b) − f (a)
y − f (a) = (x − a)
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
y = (x − a) + f (a)
b−a
Let h (x) be the difference between f (x) and y.
h (x) = f (x) − y
This implies that

f (b) − f (a)
h (x) = f (x) − (x − a) + f (a)
b−a
72
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.5. FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST
But
h (a) = h (b) = 0
Furthermore, because f is differentiable, h is also differentiable on (a, b) , and we apply
Rolle’s Theorem to the function h. Thus the exist a number c in (a, b) such that h0 (c) = 0.
Since
0 0 f (b) − f (a)
h (x) = f (x) −
b−a
we have
0 0 f (b) − f (a)
h (c) = f (c) −
b−a
Since
h0 (c) = 0,
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
Example 209 Find the number(s) c that satiesfies the conclusion of the MVT on the given
interval
f (x) = x3 − x, [0, 2]
Solution 210 Since f is a polynomial it is continuous and differentiable for all x, so it is

certainly continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2) . By the MVT there is a number c
in (0, 2) such that
f (2) − f (0) = f 0 (c) (2 − 0)
Now f (2) = 6, f (0) = 0, and f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 1, so the equation becomes
6 = 3c2 − 1 2 = 6c2 − 2

4 2 2
which gives c2 = , that is c = ± √ . But c must lie in (0, 2) , so c = √ .
3 3 3
4.5 First Derivative Test

Definition 211 A function f is increasing on an interval I, if for every pair of numbers x1
and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
f is decreasing on I, if for every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I,
x1 < x2 implies that f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
f is monotonic on I, if it is either increasing or decreasing on I,
73
4.5. FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
Increasing /DecreasingTest
(a) If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
(b) If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
The First Derivative Test Suppose that c is a critical number of

a continuous function f .
(a) If f 0 changes from the positive to negative at c,
then f has a local maximum at c.
(b) If f 0 changes from the negative to positive at c,
then f has a local minimum at c.
(c) If f 0 does not change sign at c (e.g. f 0 is positive on
both sides of c or negative on both sides),
then f has no local maximum or minimum at c
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
74
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.6. CURVE SKETCHING
Definition 212 If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is
called concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is
called concave downward on I.
Figure 4.10
Concavity Test
(a) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
(b) If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x on I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
Definition 213 A point P on the curve y = f (x) is called an inflection point if f is

continuous there and the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or
from concave downward to concave upward at P.
Definition 214 (The Second Derivative Test) Suppose f 00 is continuous near c,

(a) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c,
(b) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
4.6 Curve Sketching

Guidelines for Curve Sketching
1. Find the domain of f .
2. Find the x− and y− intercepts of f .
3. Determine whether the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y− axis or the
origin.
4. Determine the behaviour of f for large absolute values of x.
5. Find the asymptotes of the graph of f .
6. Find the intervals where f is increasing and where f is decreasing.
7. Find the relative extrema of f .
8. Determine the concavity of the graph of f .
9. Find the inflection points of f .
75
4.6. CURVE SKETCHING CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
10. Sketch the graph of f .
x2
Example 215 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = .
x2 − 1
1. The denominator of the rational function is equal to zero if

x2 − 1 = (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0, that is if x = −1 or x = 1. Therefore, the domain of f is
(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
2. Setting x = 0 gives 0 as y− intercept. Next setting f (x) = 0 gives x = 0 as the x−

intercept.
(−x)2 x2
3. f (−x) = = = f (x) and this shows that f is an even function and
(−x)2 − 1 x2 − 1
thus the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y− axis.
x2 x2
4. lim = lim = 1. Thus y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote.
x→−∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ x2 − 1
5. Because the denominator of f (x) is equal to 0 at −1 and 1, the lines x = −1 and

x = 1 are candidates of the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f . Since
x2 x2
lim = ∞ and lim 2 = −∞
x→−1− x2 − 1 x→1− x − 1
we see that x = −1 and x = 1 are the vertical asymptotes.

2 − 1 (2x) − x2 (2x)

x 2x
6. f 0 (x) = 2
=− 2
. Notice that f 0 is continuous
2
(x − 1) 2
(x − 1)
everywhere except at ±1 and that it has a zero when x = 0. The sign diagram of f 0
is shown below.
Figure 4.11
From the diagram we see that f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (−1, 0) and
decreasing on (0, 1) and on (1, ∞) .
7. From the results of part (6) we see that 0 is a critical number of f . The numbers −1
and 1 are not in the domain of f , and therefore, are not critical numbers of f . Also,
from the sign diagram we see that f has a relative maximum at x = 0. Its value is
f (0) = 0.
76
CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS 4.6. CURVE SKETCHING
" #
00 d −2x 2(3x2 + 1)
8. f (x) = 2
= 3
. Notice that f 00 is continuous everywhere
dx (x − 1)
2 2
(x − 1)
except at ±1 and that f has no zeros. From the sign diagram of f 00 we see that the
00
graph of f ion.is concave upward on (−∞, −1) and on (1.∞) and concave
downward on (−1, 1) .
Figure 4.12
9. f has no inflection points. Remember that −1 and 1 are not in the domain of f .
10. The following table summarizes this information
Domain (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

Intercepts x−and y−intercepts: 0
Symmetry With respect to y−axis
Asymptotes Vertical: x = −1 and x = 1
Horizontal: y = 1
x2 x2
End Behaviour lim 2 = lim 2 =1
x→−∞ x − 1 x→∞ x − 1
Intervals where f is % or & % on (−∞, −1) and (−1, 0) ; &on (0, 1) and (1, ∞)
Relative extrema Rel max at (0, 0)
Concavity ↓ on (−1, 1) ; ↑ on (−∞0 − 1) and on (1, ∞)
Point of inflrection None
(a) (b)
x2
Figure 4.13: Graph of f (x) = x2 −1
Exercise 216 Use the guidelines given above to sketch the graphs of the following
functions
77
4.6. CURVE SKETCHING CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS
1. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 12

x
2. f (x) =
x+1
8
3. f (x) = −
x2 − 4
x2 − 4
4. y =
x2 − 2x
√
5. y = x2 + x − 2
6. y = sin3 x
78

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DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL

AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

0.1 The Lecturer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

3.3.1 Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

0.1 The Lecturer

• Office: y (Faculty of Science,engineering and Agriculture, Department of

• Telephone: 015 962 8916

• Cell: 072 715 6222

0.3 General Information on the Module

• Type of module: 1st Semester

0.4 Purpose of the Module

0.7 Support Resources

• Any other standard Calculus book.

0.8 Rules and procedure regarding deferred (aegrotat)

0.8.2 Reason for absence

• Illness: Medical certificate, completed by the medical practitioner with an

0.9 General Rules

• Students are to be punctual at all times.

• Due dates for tasks must be respected.

• Cell phones are strictly prohibited during tests and examination.

• Students are expected to be honest and responsible at all times.

1.0.1 Review of Elementary Mathematics

the object x is in the set A x ∈ A

positive integers Z+ 1, 2, 3, ...

ii. If a < b and b < c then a < c.

iii. If a < b, then a + c < b + c, ∀c ∈ R.

iv. If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.

v. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.

Powers and Roots

a real, p a positive integer : a1 = a,

are given by the general quadratic formula

1.0.2 Piecewise Defined Functions

Figure 1.1: Absolute-value function

• |a − c| = distance between a and c.

The following characterizations are helpful:

• |a| = max{a, −a}

Example 2 Let h be a function is defined by

Solution 3 Since −2 < 0, we have h (−2) = 2(−2) + 1 = −3.

Figure 1.2: Piecewise defined function

Example 4 A function f is defined by

Example 5 Draw a sketch graph of the function given by

Figure 1.3: An even function

Figure 1.4: An odd function

1.0.5 Rational Functions

1.0.6 Algebraic Functions

1.0.7 Trigonometric Functions

Figure 1.5: Radian measure of an angle

We recall the six basic trigonometric ratios, see figure 1.6

Figure 1.6: Right angled triangle

Notice that whenever the quotients are defined,

We list the following identities:

1.0.8 Exponential Functions

where the base a is a positive constant. Revise the exponential laws.

1.0.9 Logarithmic Functions

1.0.10 Combinations of Functions

( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)

1. Find the domain of the function

2. Determine f + g, f − g, f · g, f /g and give the domain of each

3. Graph the following functions