PRODUCTION OF 225MM SANDCRETE BLOCKS FOR CIVINNO

LECTURE THEATRE

ABDULRAFIU ABDULLAHI O. CV20180300340.

BEING A PROJECT SUBMITED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY,
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC EDE, OSUN STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY

JUNE, 2022
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research is carried out by ABDULRAFIU ABDULLAHI

OLALEKAN under the supervision of ENGR. A. AFOLAYAN in partial fulfillment of the
award of national diploma in Civil Engineering Technology, School of Engineering Technology,
Federal Polytechnic Ede, Osun State.

Engr. A. AFOLAYAN __________________________________

(Supervisor) (Signature and Date)

Engr. A. O. FAMILUSI _________________________________

(H.O.D) (Signature and Date)

ii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty GOD and all well-wishers.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises, adoration and glorification are due to nobody except the Almighty GOD, the
guidance upon our life, for giving us the wisdom and knowledge to end well, despite all the odds
of this academic programme.
I acknowledged and appreciated the Head, Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Engr.
A. O. Familusi.
My unreserved thank goes to our dynamic and intellectual amiable supervisor Engr. A. Afolayan
for his valuable ideas and suggestion, invaluable and constructive criticisms and also for his
through supervision, patience and guidance on this research.
I also acknowledged all staff members of the Department of Civil Engineering for their absolute
support and contributions toward the actualization of the programme.
I say thank you so much.

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 ABSTRACT

The durability of a building is determined to a great extent by the quality of materials used in its
construction. Sandcrete block is a major building material in Nigeria. This research involves the
production of 225mm sandcrete blocks for the construction of the Civinno Lecture Theater. This
project also assessed the quality of blocks produced in Ede metropolis, Nigeria. Six (6) block
factories were selected from the study area and the quality of their blocks were measured for
their compressive strengths and compared with the Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS)
specifications. Experimental findings revealed that the compressive strengths of the blocks which
range from 0.22N/mm2 to 0.40N/mm2 fall below the minimum specification of 2.5N/mm 2.
Inadequate mix ratio and material qualities are factors that resulted in the poor quality
sandcrete blocks produced in the area.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Problem of the Study

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study 2

1.4 Significance of the Study 3

1.5 Scope and Limitation of Study 3

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Blocks 4

2.1.1 Solid Block 4

2.1.2 Hollow Block 5

2.2 Advantages of Hollow Sandcrete Blocks 8

2.2.1 Environmentally Friendly 9

2.2.2 Conserves Space 9

2.2.3 Highly Durable 9

2.2.4 Better Insulation Properties 9

2.2.5 Low Maintenance 9

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 2.2.6 Cost-Efficient 10

2.2.7 Bonding of Mortar and Plaster 10

2.3 Quality of Sandcrete Blocks 10

2.3.1 Standardization and Regulation of the Quality 13

2.3.2 Standard Requirements of a Sandcrete Block 14

2.3.3 Molds, types and sizes 14

2.4 Constituents of a Sandcrete Block 16

2.4.1 Cement 16

2.4.2 Aggregates 19

2.4.3 Water 20

2.5 Parameters in Sandcrete Block 20

2.5.1 Mix Proportion 20

2.5.2 Strength Requirements 21

2.5.3 Molding 21

2.5.4 Compaction 22

2.6 Sand 23

2.6.1 Composition of sand 23

2.6.2 Sources of sand 25

2.6.3 Uses of sand 27

2.6.4 Harvards of sand 29

2.7 Sandcrete Blocks Manufacturing Process 30

2.7.1 Batching 30

2.7.2 Mixing Materials 30

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 2.7.3 Molding Sandcrete Blocks 30

2.7.4 Compaction 31

2.7.5 Curing Sandcrete Blocks 32

2.7.6 Stacking 33

2.8 Standard Production Methods 33

2.9 Tests on Sandcrete Constituent 35

2.9.1 Fine Aggregates Testing 35

2.9.2 Testing of Sandcrete Blocks 36

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials 38

3.1.1 Sharp sand 38

3.1.2 Portland cement (binder) 38

3.1.3 Water 38

3.2 Equipments 39

3.3 Mode of Production/Mix Ratio 39

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results 41

4.1.1 Fine Aggregate 41

4.1.2 Results on Coarse Aggregate 42

4.1.3 Strength Results on Sandcrete Block 44

4.2 Cost Analysis 45

4.3 Block Specifications According to NIS 45

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 47

viii
5.2 Recommendation 47

REFERENCES 49

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 2.1; Average Compressive Strengths of Blocks from Five (5) Block Industries 41

Table 4.1: Particle Size Distribution Test Result 41

Table 4.2: Moisture Content 42

Table 4.3: Silt Content 42

Table 4.4: Water Absorption Test Result 42

Table 4.5: Specific Gravity Test Result 43

Table 4.6: Impact and Crushing Test Result 43

Table 4.7: Particle Size Distribution Test Result 43

Table 4.8: Particle Size Distribution Test Result 44

Table 4.2: Cost Analysis 45

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Figure 2.1; 9 Inches Hollow Sandcrete Block 7

Figure 2.2; 9 Inches Block and its Manual Block Mould 15

Figure 2.3; Stacked Cement 19

Figure 2.4; Sand (Aggregate) 20

Figure 2.5; Machine Mould 22

Figure 2.6; Machine molding of Sandcrete Block 31

Figure 2.7; Removing Block from the Mold 32

Figure 2.8; Curing Sandcrete Block 33

Figure 4.1: Grading Curve for Fine Aggregate 41

Figure 4.2: Grading Curve for Coarse Aggregate 44

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The global concern across the world and in Nigeria in particular demands that materials

used for construction of buildings meet minimum requirement. In the year 2000, the Standard

Organization of Nigeria (SON) developed a reference document which prescribed the minimum

requirement and uses of different kinds of sandcrete blocks and other products, to prescribe the

quality of materials; methods and procedure to be applied for production and testing of the final

product in order to ensure compliance to prescribed standard. This first standard is known as NIS

87: 2000 and had been subsequently reviewed in 2004 and 2007 (Imam-Hamisu, & Mohammad,

2014). The structural properties of blocks of interest include compressive strength, flexural

strength, water absorption, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus and split tensile strength. Others

are density, fire resistance, durability and thermal conductivity. These properties are dependent

to a very large extent on the relative proportions of the constituents and the method of production

process. In Nigeria today, there is an increase in the cases of building collapse where many lives

were lost and properties were destroyed. One of the reasons for this is the lack of environmental

quality of materials being used in the construction of human settlements.

The properties of sandcrete block depends to a varying degree on the type and

proportions of the constituent materials, the process of manufacture, and duration of curing and

the form and size of block itself (Aiyewalehinmi & Tanimola, 2013; Baiden & Tuuli, 2004).

Sandcrete skin panels and blocks are sometimes used to provide aesthetics to buildings and serve

as control to moisture infiltration and wind action. This utility value of Sandcrete in comparison

to its cost and its adaptability to climatic factors is responsible for its wide application; most

1
especially in small to medium buildings in countries within tropical rainforests where a

considerable amount of precipitation and high average temperatures are predominant (Odeyemi

et al., 2015b). Sandcrete blocks can either be solid or hollow rectangular types with 450mm x

225mm x 225mm and 450mm x 150mm x 225mm being the most common sizes (Abdulwahab

& Tunde, 2016). Anosike & Oyebade (2012) reported that the NIS specified two types of blocks,

types A blocks which are load bearing and Type B blocks which are non–load bearing. Building

factories in Nigeria habitually produce two cell hollow sandcrete blocks (Agunwamba et al.,

2016). Sandcrete blocks are relatively cheap when compared to other construction materials.

They provide an excellent resistance to damage without the added cost of protection devices.

Sandcrete blocks do not rust, decay, or provide a home for damaging insects as other building

materials can. They do not contain any material that is harmful to the environment (Odeyemi,

2012). The minimum compressive strength of sandcrete stated in the Nigeria Industrial Standard

(NIS, 2000) ranges between 2.5N/mm2 to 3.45N/mm2 for non-load bearing and load bearing

walls respectively. This strength of sandcrete blocks can be greatly influenced by the production

method, duration of curing, sizes of blocks and the properties of constituent materials.

1.2 Problem of the Study

The filling and compaction of the foundation to Civil Lecture Theater is a necessity to

fully prepare the sub structure of the building, so as to enable it carry and evenly distribute the

loads coming from the super structure to the ground. This is also a necessity to prevent future

settlements in the ground.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to produce a 225mm sandcrete block. The aim of this study can

be achieved with the following objectives;

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 i. To determine the most suitable mode of production

ii. To produce a quality and economical sandcrete block,

iii. To inspect the quality of sandcrete blocks in some industries in Ede south metropolis.

1.4 Significance of the Study

With the alarming increase in the number of students admitted into the department of

Civil Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic Ede, and there is no enough lecture room.

Those ones available do not have enough capacity to accommodate the number of students in

many classes.

Construction of civil lecture theater in the department brings greater benefits as the

students will enjoy a more conducive learning environment which increases their comfort ability

and increase their interest in learning.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the work is the construction of Civil Lecture Theater in accordance to the

BS standard. The work is limited to the filling and compaction of laterite into the foundation.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Blocks

Concrete blocks are widely used in building construction. It is comparatively more

economical than the other types of partition walls. Concrete blocks have a comparatively good

shape and the change of making error during construction is minimal. Further, it has adequate

strength to use a load-bearing wall. Further, the ability to use minimum thickness for plastering

and wastage of material, really availability, speedy construction, etc has made the concrete

blocks more popular in the construction industry.

Blocks are constructed using concrete or cement. They may include a hollow core to

make them lighter and to improve their insulation properties. They have been in use since the

1930s when they were commonly used for the inner leaf of cavity walls. At this point they were

made from an aggregate of stone or industrial waste such as clinker or breeze, hence the term

‘breezeblock’. A  standard block is 440 mm x 215 mm, the equivalent of 3 bricks high and 2

long, the maximum size that one person can comfortably lift. They are available in a range of

widths from 50 mm to 300 mm.

The kind of block selected for a particular application will depend on its:

 Density.

 Load-bearing characteristics.

 Appearance.

 Weight and handling properties.

 Thermal characteristics, such as U-value or thermal mass.

4
 Mainly there are two types of concrete blocks depending on how they look like other than

the mechanical properties and they are;

 Solid blocks

 Hollow Blocks

2.1.1 Solid Block

Normally blocks have a rectangular solid shape. Usually, they are available in widths

100mm, 125mm, 150mm, and 200mm. Solid blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in

weight and manufactured from dense aggregate. They are very strong and provide good stability

to the structures. So for large work of masonry like for load bearing walls these solid blocks are

preferable. They are available in large sizes compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct

concrete masonry than brick masonry.

2.1.2 Hollow block

As the name implies, it is a hollow section with a regular shape. They are also available

in the same widths as solid blocks. Less weight, less cost of the structure, etc. has made the use

of this type of hollow block. There is no much to discuss the types of solid blocks. However,

there are many types of concrete blocks made as hollow blocks.

Sandcrete blocks and bricks are masonry units manufactured from a mixture of cement,

sand and water, and it plays a crucial role in the building construction. Sandcrete blocks are

largely used for load bearing and non-load bearing walls and foundations (The Constructor,

2022). Oyetola & Abdullahi (2006) argued that sandcrete has been in use throughout West

Africa for over 5 decades as a popular building material for preparation of building blocks and

bricks. They posit that it is predominantly used and suitable for load and non-load bearing walls,

or for foundations. The material constituents, their mix, presence of admixtures and the

5
manufacturing process are important factors that determine the properties of sandcrete blocks. In

Nigeria, 95% of walling materials in buildings are made of sandcrete blocks. Anwar et al. (2000)

put forward that Sandcrete walls have adequate strength and stability, provide good resistance to

weather and ground moisture, durable and easy to maintain. They also provide reasonable fire,

heat, airborne and impact sound resistance. As material for walls, its strength is less than that of

fired clay bricks, but sandcrete is considerably cheaper. Chandrasekhar et al. (2003) argued that

Sandcrete is the main building material used for the construction of walls of most

postindependent buildings in Nigeria. In many parts of Nigeria, Sandcrete hollow blocks are the

major cost component of the most common buildings. The blocks are usually manufactured with

the use of a vibrating machine (Cisse & Laguerbe, 2000).

Oyekan & Kamiyo (2011) opine that hollow sandcrete blocks as shown in Figure 2.1,

containing a mixture of sand, cement and water are used extensively in many countries of the

world especially in Africa. In many parts of Nigeria, sandcrete block is the major cost

component of the most common buildings. The high and increasing cost of constituent materials

of sandcrete blocks has contributed to the non-realization of adequate housing for both urban and

rural dwellers. Hence, availability of alternatives to these materials for construction is very

desirable in both short and long terms as a stimulant for socio-economic development. In

particular, materials that can complement cement in the short run, and especially if cheaper, will

be of great interest. Oyekan (2001) argued that over the past decade, the presence of mineral

admixtures in construction materials has been observed to impart significant improvement on the

strength, durability and workability of cementitious products. The author added that in the areas

prone to flood, hydrothermal properties of the buildings‘construction materials are of

6
importance. Also, energy requirements for residential and commercial buildings are known to be

influenced by building design and by the materials used.

Fig. 2.1: 9 Inches(225mm) Hollow Sandcrete Block

Types of hollow Sandcrete blocks

 Stretcher block; are used to join the corner in the masonry. Stretcher blocks are widely

used concrete hollow blocks in construction. They are laid with their length parallel to the

face of the wall.

 Corner block; are used at the ends or corners of masonry. The ends may be window or

door openings etc. they are arranged in a manner that their plane end visible to the

outside and other end is locked with the stretcher block.

 Pillar block; is also called as double corner block. Generally these are used when two

ends of the corner are visible. In case of piers or pillars these blocks are widely used.

7
  Jamb block; are used when there is an elaborated window opening in the wall. They are

connected to stretcher and corner blocks. For the provision of double hung windows,

jamb blocks are very useful to provide space for the casing members of window.

 Partition block; are generally used to build partition walls. Partition blocks have larger

height than its breadth. Hollow part is divided into two to three components in case of

partition blocks.

 Lintel block; or beam block is used for the purpose of provision of beam or lintel beam.

Lintel beam is generally provided on the top portion of doors and windows, which bears

the load coming from top. Concrete lintel blocks have deep groove along the length of

block as shown in figure. After placing the blocks, this groove is filled with concrete

along with reinforcement.

 Frogged brick block; contains a frog on its top along with header and stretcher like

frogged brick. This frog will help the block to hold mortar and to develop the strong bond

with top laying block.

 Bullnose block; are similar to corner blocks. Their duties also same but when we want

rounded edges at corner bullnose bricks is preferred.

2.2 Advantages of Hollow Sandcrete Blocks

Construction building blocks for walls are embedded with many gains

to construction that are too important to be ignored. Perhaps before you embark on your next

construction work, you may need to consider these advantages of using concrete hollow cellular

block masonry in buildings before making that important choice.

Rapid Execution of work made from molds that produce hollow cinder blocks of similar

shapes, sizes, and weight, it is easy to deploy hollow concrete blocks in construction works, all

8
that is needed is to fit the right hollow brick to the right place. Then, the same solid block size

and shape help quickly assemble them to form any particular shape required in a construction job

(Asanduff, 2022).

2.2.1 Environmentally Friendly

It does not pollute or have any known environmental nuisance it constitutes to the

system. In addition, hollow cement blocks are machine made and thus do not produce fumes,

which helps save the environment. This is the major hollow bricks advantages.

2.2.2 Conserves Space

The construction of thin walls with hollow cement blocks is very common. So, it helps to

reduced space used in construction and increases the floor area.

2.2.3 Highly Durable

Construction blocks compacted by high pressure and vibration make the building strong,

resilient, hardened to severe load and weight.

2.2.4 Better Insulation Properties

The air in the construction building block does not allow heat or cold in or out of the

building. No wonder hollow concrete blocks are insulated against heat, dampness, and sound.

Hollow blocks keep the house cool in summer and warm in winter.

2.2.5 Low Maintenance

To maintain hollow breeze blocks buildings is not expensive, compared to other building

materials that are available.

9
2.2.6 Cost-Efficient

It helps minimize building construction materials used at a construction site, though it

minimizes the cost of building block construction. For example, one concrete hollow masonry

block replaces five traditional bricks, which helps in reducing construction costs. Hollow block

constructions also helps to save labor hours by reducing both mortar and labor costs.

2.2.7 Bonding of Mortar and Plaster

Since the surfaces of construction blocks are rough, this provides for good bonding

between mortar and plaster.

2.3 Quality of Sandcrete Blocks

Quality is defined as ―fitness for purpose‖ or compliance with specification (Anosike,

2011). They authors argued further that it is the overall characteristics needed by a product or

service to satisfy stipulated and implied needs. ISO 8402-1986 standard defines quality as "the

totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated

or implied needs". In addition, the manufacturing business dictionary, defined quality as a

measure of excellence or a state of being free from defects, deficiencies, and significant

variations, brought about by the strict and consistent adherence to measurable and verifiable

standards to achieve uniformity of output that satisfies specific customer or user requirements.

Ogunsanmi et al. (2011) identified quality as one of the three key elements for developing risk

classification model for design and build projects. This therefore follows that quality is a

significant factor that cannot be undermined in the construction of projects. Nunnally (2007)

argued that quality management and quality assurance on the other hand have been adopted to

include all aspects of producing and accepting a construction project which meets all required

quality standards. He further asserts that quality management includes such activities as

10
specification development, process control, product acceptance, laboratory and technician

certification, training and communication. The author concluded that quality control, which is a

part of the quality management process, is primarily concerned with the process control function.

The Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) established through Act 56 in 1971 is the sole

statutory body that is vested with the responsibility of standardizing and regulating the quality of

all products in Nigeria including sandcrete blocks. The Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) for

sandcrete block is a standard reference document developed by the SON which prescribes the

minimum requirement and uses of sandcrete blocks.

Abdullahi (2005) reported that sandcrete blocks are widely used in Nigeria, and other

countries like Ghana, as walling units. The blocks are composed of cement, sand, and water,

molded into a variety of shapes and sizes. The quality of blocks, however, is inconsistent due to

the different production methods employed and the properties of the constituent materials used.

Blocks are those building units used in the construction of wall and partitions. They are of sizes

and weights that can be easily handled by bricklayers, with the facing surface layer than that of a

brick but conveniently dimensioned. A researcher opine that sandcrete blocks are available for

the construction of load bearing and non-load bearing structures. He argued that load bearing

blocks must conform to building regulations which stipulate the amount of solid mineral

contained in section—i.e., the total width of block. Sandcrete blocks are also used in the task of

transforming the actual load from the overlaying structural element to the foundation. However,

the load bearing wall are referred to those walls acting as supports for the whole structure to

transmit the weight to the ground surface underneath it for stability (NIS 87: 2000; Duncan et al.,

2012).

11
 Sandcrete blocks possess an intrinsic low compressive strength making then susceptible

to seismic activity. Previous research has shown dismal results in the production of sandcrete

blocks, which have exhibited compressive strength far below the standard requirement for the

construction of houses (Oyekan & Kamiyo, 2008). Sandcrete blocks have been used for a long

time throughout Nigeria (NIS 87:2000). The importance of the blocks as part of local building

materials in the building and construction industry cannot be overemphasized.

Bricks are alternatives to sandcrete blocks. However, the clay suitable for making high

strength bricks is not available everywhere in Nigeria and the clay bricks produced and presently

used in construction are not uniform in quality. Anosike & Oyebade (2012) put forward that the

rapid changes in the use of bricks to block in Nigeria have encouraged the investigations into the

use of sandcrete blocks to be more elaborate. It was also realized that in some places in Ondo

and Ekiti States in Nigeria were occupied by rivers, which make it easier to obtain river sand

rather than clay for making blocks.

Also, in Minna communities, sand is easily obtained from borrow pits and riverbeds

situated in the environment which enhance the use of sand for block making. The word

‗sandcrete‘ has no standard definition; what most workers have done was to define it in a way to

suit their own purpose. The word for it in some local dialect means brick earth and the name

‗sandcrete‘ is merely a translation of the use to which these blocks are put. Sandcrete blocks are

often too crude to reveal the nature and origin of sandcrete exhibiting the same physical

properties. Though sandcrete varies widely, one feature remains constant: the same amount of

combined silica in proportion to the alumina present, and it is in this respect that sandcrete differ

from clay (Baiden & Tuuli 2004).

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2.3.1 Standardization and Regulation of the Quality

In Nigeria, the fulcrum of Standardization and Regulation of quality for all products is

vested in the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON). Established by Act No. 56 of 1971 and

with three amendments in 1976, 1984 and 1990, SON as a corporate body have the sole

responsibility for National Policy on Standards, Standards Specification, Quality Control and

Metrology, Manufactured Industrial and imported products and services. The Act No. 20 of 1976

which amended the previous one conferred on the Honorable Minister of Industry the power to

declare Mandatory Industrial Standards in Respect of products or processes recommended by the

Nigerian Standards Council (UNESCO 2008). The Act No. 32 of 1984 changed the name of the

agency to Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) from Nigeria Standards Organization

(NSO). This was aimed at eliminating conflicting identity with the then Nigerian Security

Organization. Finally, the Act No. 18 of 1990 conferred on SON partial autonomy from the

Ministry of industry. This amendment gave far-reaching transformation to the Organization

succession and a common seal, and may sue or be sued in its corporate name. The statutory

functions of Standards Organization of Nigeria by section 3, subsections (1) of 1971 Act No. 56

are as follows:

 To compile Nigeria Industrial Standards.

 To compile an inventory of products requiring standardization.

 To organize test and do everything necessary to ensure compliance with standards

designated and approved by the Council.

 To compile and publish general scientific or other data.

 To ensure reference standards for calibration and verification of measures and measuring

instrument.

13
  To undertake investigations as necessary into the quality of facilities, materials and

products in Nigeria, and establish a quality assurance system including certification of

factories, products and laboratories.

 To establish and maintain such number of Laboratories or other institutions as may be

necessary for the performance of its functions under this Act.

 To foster interest in the recommendation and maintenance of acceptable standards by

industry and the general public.

 Register and regulate standard marks and specification.

 To undertake preparation and distribution of standard samples.

 To develop method for testing of materials, supplies and equipment including items

purchased for use of departments Government of the Federation or State and Private

establishment.

2.3.2 Standard Requirements of a Sandcrete Block

The Federal Building Code First edition, stipulates that the application of all materials

and components used in the construction of buildings must be such that will achieve aesthetics,

durability, functionality, character and affordability (Afolayan et al., 2008; Anosike, 2011).

Locally available building materials should be integrated for their additional advantages of

availability, identity, job creation and affordability.

2.3.3 Molds, types and sizes

Sandcrete blocks are molded using mainly metal molds: There are two main types of

blocks molded in Nigeria. They are solid and hollow blocks with sizes in length x breath x

height. The National Building Code stipulates as follows:

Sandcrete Blocks shall mean a composite material made up of cement, sharp sand and water.

14
 i. Blocks shall be molded for sandcrete using metal (wood) molds of:

450mm x 225mm x 225mm (hollow)

450mm x 150mm x 225mm (hollow)

450mm x 225mm x 225mm (Solid)

450mm x 150mm x 225mm (Solid)

450mm x 100mm x 225mm (Solid)

ii. They are usually joined by mortar which is a rich mix of sandcrete

The mould that is used to produce a hollow 450mm x 225mm x 225m block (9 inches

block) is as shown in Figure 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: 9 Inches Block and its Manual Block Mould

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2.4 Constituents of a Sandcrete Block

A Sandcrete block consists of the following constituents;

2.4.1 Cement

Cement, as shown in Figure 2.3 is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets,

hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own,

but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate

produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most

widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed

resource.

Types of cement

Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement

in general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate)

with other materials (such as clay) to 1,450 °C (2,640 °F) in a kiln, in a process known

as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to

form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other materials in

the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard

substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to

make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as

OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and most non-specialty grout.

The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Concrete is a composite material

made of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can

be cast in almost any shape, and once it hardens, can be a structural (load bearing) element.

Portland cement may be grey or white.

16
Other types of cements

Pozzolan-lime cements are mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime. These are the cements the

Romans used, and are present in surviving Roman structures like the Pantheon in Rome. They

develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that

produce strength are essentially the same as those in Portland cement.

Slag-lime cements—ground granulated blast-furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but is

"activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan

lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e., water-quenched, glassy slag) is

effective as a cement component.

Supersulfated cements contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag,

15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce

strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They

exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate. Calcium aluminate cements are

hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The active ingredients are

monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO · Al2O3 or CA in cement chemist notation, CCN)

and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO · 7 Al2O3, or C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to

calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature

resistant) concretes, e.g., for furnace linings.

Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite

(Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3S in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in

expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration

produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are

obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy

17
alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per

year are produced.[47][48] Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures

required for reaction, and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically

decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption

leads to a CO2 emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However,

SO2 emissions are usually significantly higher.

Natural cements corresponding to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, are produced by

burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the

limestone (around 30–35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late

strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts of

free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have highly variable properties.

Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates, and

aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.

Polymer cements are made from organic chemicals that polymerise. Producers often

use thermoset materials. While they are often significantly more expensive, they can give a water

proof material that has useful tensile strength.

Sorel Cement is a hard, durable cement made by combining magnesium oxide and a magnesium

chloride solution

Fiber mesh cement or fiber reinforced concrete is cement that is made up of fibrous materials

like synthetic fibers, glass fibers, natural fibers, and steel fibers. This type of mesh is distributed

evenly throughout the wet concrete. The purpose of fiber mesh is to reduce water loss from the

concrete as well as enhance its structural integrity.[49] When used in plasters, fiber mesh increases

18
cohesiveness, tensile strength, impact resistance, and to reduce shrinkage; ultimately, the main

purpose of these combined properties is to reduce cracking.

Fig. 2.3; Stacked Cement

2.4.2 Aggregates

These include both coarse and fine, from natural sources, blast furnace slag, crushed clay

and furnace clinker. The British Standard (BS-882) defined aggregate as a granular material

obtained by processing natural materials while Taylor (2002) defined aggregates as mineral filler

materials used in concrete. Aggregates are either natural or manufactured and occupy about 75%

of the volume of concrete. Sand, gravel, crushed rock and other mineral fillers are used as

aggregates. Aggregates are major components in the production of concrete (Otunyo &

Okechukwu, 2017). Sand, as shown in Figure 2.4 shall be of approved clean, sharp, fresh water

or pit sand, free from clay, loam, dirt, organic or saline water of any description and shall mainly

19
pass 4.70mm test sieve. If lagoon sand is used this must be properly washed to the approval of

the supervisor. The Sand is further discussed in 2.6.

Fig. 2.4; Sand (Fine Aggregate)

2.4.3 Water

Water reacts with cement to bring about hydration. The workability and strength of

sandcrete depends to a large extent on the amount of water used in mixing. Water to be used for

the production of concrete or sandcrete must be free of suspended particles, inorganic salts, acids

and alkalis, oil contamination and algae. Potable water that meets the NIS (2007) standard is

recommended for the production of sandcrete blocks.

2.5 Parameters in Sandcrete Block

The following are discussed;

2.5.1 Mix Proportion

Mix used for blocks shall not be richer than 1 part by volume of cement to 6 parts of fine

aggregate (sand) except that the proportion of cement to mix-aggregate may be reduced to 1:4 ½

(Where the thickness of the web of the block is one 25mm or less).

20
2.5.2 Strength Requirements

Sandcrete blocks shall possess resistance to crushing as stated below and the 28day

compressive strength for a load bearing wall of two or three story building shall not be less than:-

average strength of 6 blocks, lowest strength of individual block 2.00 N/mm2 (300psi),

1.75N/mm2 (250psi).

2.5.3 Molding

The 28 day compressive strength of a sandcrete block for load bearing wall of two or

three story buildings shall not be less than the values given above and shall comply with the

existing NIS specification for sandcrete blocks. However, the procedure for molding is as

follows: mixture is poured into mold, vibrated, rammed and de-molded immediately. Cure after

24 hours. The block molding machine used by the large scale producers is the Rosacometta type

which vibrates the block during filling and or compaction as shown in Figure 2.5. One block is

produced at a time. One bag of cement produces between forty and fifty blocks. Figure 4 shows

the machine mould, used in processing of block making.

21
 Fig. 2.5; Machine Mould

2.5.4 Compaction

Two methods of compaction are found to be used depending on the scale of production,

availability of tools and cost effectiveness of the production. The two methods to be applied

include approval (standard) machine compaction and metal mold (hand) compaction. Machine

compaction is employed for large scale and commercial production, while hand compaction is

used on small scale production for small scale projects.

22
2.6 Sand

Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. Sand

has various compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and

coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing

more than 85 percent sand-sized particles by mass (Ottawa, 2014).

The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but

the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal

settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

Calcium carbonate is the second most common type of sand, for example, aragonite,

which has mostly been created, over the past 500 million years, by various forms of life, like

coral and shellfish. For example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs

have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. Somewhat more rarely,

sand may be composed of calcium sulfate, such as gypsum and selenite, as is found in places like

White Sands National Park and Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge in the U.S.

Sand is a non-renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making

concrete is in high demand (Constable, 2017). Desert sand, although plentiful, is not suitable for

concrete. 50 billion tons of beach sand and fossil sand is used each year for construction

(Albarazi, 2019).

2.6.1 Composition of sand

The exact definition of sand varies. The scientific Unified Soil Classification System

used in engineering and geology corresponds to US Standard Sieves, and defines sand as

particles with a diameter of between 0.074 and 4.75 millimeters. By another definition, in terms

of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm (or 1⁄16

23
mm) a volume of approximately 0.00012 cubic millimetres, to 2 mm, a volume of approximately

4.2 cubic millimetres, the difference in volumes being 34,688 measures difference. Any particle

falling within this range of sizes is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel (with

particles ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm by the latter system, and from 4.75 mm up to 75 mm

in the former) and silt (particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm). The size

specification between sand and gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but

particle diameters as small as 0.02 mm were considered sand under the Albert Atterberg standard

in use during the early 20th century. The grains of sand in Archimedes' The Sand Reckoner

written around 240 BCE, were 0.02 mm in diameter. A 1938 specification of the United States

Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. A 1953 engineering standard published by the

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size

at 0.074 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. Silt, by comparison, feels like

flour.

ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium, and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to

0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories

based on size: very fine sand (1⁄16 – 1⁄8 mm diameter), fine sand (1⁄8 mm – 1⁄4 mm), medium

sand (1⁄4 mm – 1⁄2 mm), coarse sand (1⁄2 mm – 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm).

These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D; D being the particle

size in mm. On this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions

between sub-categories at whole numbers.

The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical

coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz, which, because

of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral resistant to

24
weathering. The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock

sources and conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings

are eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other organic or

organically derived fragmental material, suggesting that sand formation depends on living

organisms, too (Susanscott, 2002). The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Park in

New Mexico are famous for their bright, white color. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with

considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby) granitic

rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite, or gypsum. Sands rich in

magnetite are dark to black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian.

Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic

lava with high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern

Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color.

Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, including some small

gemstones.

2.6.2 Sources of sand

Rocks erode or weather over a long period of time, mainly by water and wind, and their

sediments are transported downstream. These sediments continue to break apart into smaller

pieces until they become fine grains of sand. The type of rock the sediment originated from and

the intensity of the environment give different compositions of sand. The most common rock to

form sand is granite, where the feldspar minerals dissolve faster than the quartz, causing the rock

to break apart into small pieces. In high energy environments rocks break apart much faster than

in more calm settings. In granite rocks this results in more feldspar minerals in the sand because

25
they don't have as much time to dissolve away. The term for sand formed by weathering is

"epiclastic." (Gilman, 2014).

Sand from rivers are collected either from the river itself or its flood plain and accounts

for the majority of the sand used in the construction industry. Because of this, many small rivers

have been depleted, causing environmental concern and economic losses to adjacent land. The

rate of sand mining in such areas greatly outweighs the rate the sand can replenish, making it a

non-renewable resource (Padmalal, 2014).

Sand dunes are a consequence of dry conditions or wind deposition. The Sahara Desert is

very dry because of its geographic location and proximity to the equator. It is known for its vast

sand dunes, which exist mainly due to a lack of vegetation and water. Over time, wind blows

away fine particles, such as clay and dead organic matter, leaving only sand and larger rocks.

Only 15% of the Sahara is sand dunes, while 70% is bare rock (CUP, 2000). The wind is

responsible for creating these different environments and shaping the sand to be round and

smooth. These properties make desert sand unusable for construction (The Hindu, 2015).

Beach sand is also formed by erosion. Over thousands of years, rocks are eroded near the

shoreline from the constant motion of waves and the sediments build up. Weathering and river

deposition also accelerate the process of creating a beach, along with marine animals interacting

with rocks, such as eating the algae off of them. Once there is a sufficient amount of sand, the

beach acts as a barrier to keep the land from eroding any further. This sand is ideal for

construction as it is angular and of various sizes (WorldAtlas, 2017).

Marine sand (or ocean sand) comes from sediments transported into the ocean and the

erosion of ocean rocks. The thickness of the sand layer varies, however it is common to have

more sand closer to land; this type of sand is ideal for construction and is a very valuable

26
commodity. Europe is the main miners of marine sand, which greatly hurts ecosystems and local

fisheries (Padmalal, 2014).

2.6.3 Uses of sand

The following are some aspect in which sands are mostly used.

 Abrasion: Before sandpaper, wet sand was used as an abrasive element between rotating

devices with elastic surface and hard materials such as very hard stone (making of stone

vases), or metal (removal of old stain before re-staining copper cooking pots).

 Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches, and peanuts,

and their excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable for intensive dairy

farming.

 Air filtration: Finer sand particles mixed with cloth was commonly used in certain gas

mask filter designs but have largely been replaced by microfibers.

 Aquaria: Sand makes a low-cost aquarium base material which some believe is better

than gravel for home use. It is also a necessity for saltwater reef tanks, which emulate

environments composed largely of aragonite sand broken down from coral and shellfish.

 Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new reefs.

 Artificial islands in the Persian Gulf.

 Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms, or

deliberate changes to the shoreline erode the original sand (NPR, 2007).

 Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials for

manufacturing bricks (Yong et al., 2011).

 Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.

 Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction material.

27
 Glass: Sand rich in silica is the principal component in common glasses.

 Hydraulic fracturing: A drilling technique for natural gas, which uses rounded silica

sand as a "proppant", a material to hold open cracks that are caused by the hydraulic

fracturing process.

 Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (golf courses would be an example).

 Mortar: Sand is mixed with masonry cement or Portland cement and lime to be used in

masonry construction.

 Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and ceilings or non-

slip floor surfaces.

 Railroads: Engine drivers and rail transit operators use sand to improve the traction of

wheels on the rails.

 Recreation: Playing with sand is a favorite beach activity. One of the most beloved uses

of sand is to make sometimes intricate, sometimes simple structures known as sand

castles, proverbially impermanent. Special play areas for children, enclosing a significant

area of sand and known as sandboxes, are common on many public playgrounds, and

even at some single-family homes. Sand dunes are also popular among climbers,

motorcyclists and beach buggy drivers.

 Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy conditions.

 Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers of animated films use

the same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or backlit glass.

 Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry sand and then

shape it into molds into which they pour molten material. This type of sand must be able

28
 to withstand high temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a uniform, small

grain size, and be non-reactive with metals.

 Sandbags: These protect against floods and gunfire. The inexpensive bags are easy to

transport when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local sand in

emergencies.

 Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing.

 Silicon: Quartz sand is a raw material for the production of silicon.

 Thermal weapon: While not in widespread use anymore, sand used to be heated and

poured on invading troops in the classical and medieval time periods.

 Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water. It is also commonly used by

many water treatment facilities, often in the form of rapid sand filters.

 Wuḍūʾ: an Islamic ritual wiping of parts of the body.

 Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians related to

corals and sea anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength,

which they need because they lack a true skeleton.

2.6.4 Harvards of sand

While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting require

precautions. Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to wear

respiratory protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Safety data sheets for silica

sand state that "excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a serious health concern" (Silica sand,

2006).

29
 In areas of high pore water pressure, sand and salt water can form quicksand, which is a

colloid hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a considerable barrier to escape

for creatures caught within, who often die from exposure (not from submersion) as a result.

2.7 Sandcrete Blocks Manufacturing Process

The manufacturing process of sandcrete blocks is as follows:

2.7.1 Batching

Measuring materials for sandcrete block production is called batching. There are two

methods for batching including weight and volume method.

2.7.2 Mixing Materials

Mixing materials is carried out after batching. It could be done either manually or

mechanically. The former method used for the production of large number of sandcrete blocks.

However, the latter is advised when small numbers of blocks are needed (The Constructor,

2022).

Cement and sand shall be blended sufficiently and then water is added to the mixture.

This process shall be done properly otherwise the block quality will be compromised.

Lastly, the addition of excessive water shall be prevented since it leads to shrinkage and

distortion of the blocks on drying.

2.7.3 Molding Sandcrete Blocks

After mixing, molds will be filled with materials as shown in Figure 2.6. Different

machines and molds are available for use in the production of sandcrete blocks. For example,

electric vibrating machine, hand press machine, and local steel/wooden hand mold.

30
 The quality of blocks produced by each molding machine is different due to variations in

the degree of compaction. The electric vibrating machine produces high quality and strength

blocks compared with other moulding methods (The Constructor, 2022).

Fig. 2.6: Machine Molding of Sandcrete Block

2.7.4 Compaction

After molds are filled, the material is compacted to eliminate voids inside the mixed

materials. Not only does the compaction process improve sandcrete block quality but also its

durability. The compacted blocks are then pushed out of the moulds onto a flat surface as shown

in Figure 2.7.

31
 Fig. 2.7: Removing block from the mold

2.7.5 Curing Sandcrete Blocks

It includes wetting of blocks with water as shown in Figure 2.8, so as to permit proper

hydration and hardening to take place and eventually achieve full strength.

The application may be done by watering can, rubber hose or buckets, or sprinkling water

on the blocks and covering with a tarpaulin or damp sacks (The Constructor, 2022).

32
 Fig. 2.8: Curing Sandcrete Block

2.7.6 Stacking

This is the arrangement of the blocks one on top of the other, ready for sale or use.

2.8 Standard Production Methods

Nunnally (2007) suggested that sandcrete blocks, usually hollow, are manufactured with

the use of a vibrating machine for large scale production and hand mold for small scale

production. Baiden and Tuuli (2004) added that the type of hollow sandcrete blocks commonly

produced and used for construction of buildings in Nigeria are made of a standard mix

proportion of 1:6 cement-sand ratio; that is, one part by volume of cement to six parts by volume

of coarse sand. The sizes of blocks produced are 225 x 225 x 450mm and 150 x 225 x 450mm

with one-third of their volume void, and the solid core blocks of size 100 x 225 x 450mm used

mainly as non-load bearing partition walls. In the manufacture of the blocks, hand mixing is

33
generally employed and the materials are turned over a number of times until an even color and

consistency are attained (Goncalves & Bergmann, 2007).

Water is usually added through a fire hose and it is further turned over to secure

adhesion. It is then rammed into the machine moulds, compacted and smoothed off with a steel

face tool. After removal from the machine molds, the blocks are left on pallets under cover in

separate rows, one block high and with a space between 2 blocks for the curing period. They are

kept wet during this period by watering daily. After curing, the blocks are stacked and stored

ready for transportation to project sites for use. Hydraform blocks are composed of soil and

mixed with 8-10% cement. In producing hydraform blocks, laterite soil or "Murrum" is

preferred. Generally you can use soil with 5-35% clay and silt content. It is advisable never to

use black cotton soil as it contains highly reactive clay and the blocks will crack when they dry.

Uzoamaka (1977) opine that black cotton soil also contains high amounts of organic material not

suitable for block production. Dashan & Kamang (1999) posit that the Hydraform 220mm block

is mostly dry-stacked (except for foundations, ring beam and lintels) and is suitable for any walls

in the structure. The Hydraform 140mm block is a semi dry-stacked block. Slurry is made from

fine sand and cement and poured into the cavities of the 140mm blocks. This locks the structure

together creating a firm wall. The most common application would be internal. The Hydraform

220mm block is mostly dry-stacked (except for foundations, ring beam and lintels) and is

suitable for any walls in the structure. The 140mm block functions similar to the 220mm block

as a dry-stacked block but can save you up to 15% in material costs. The disadvantage would be

the cornering, which must be plastered to achieve the required load strength (BSI 1992; Nair et

al., 2006; ASTM 2004). Hydraform walls creates a smooth finish that can be left as a face brick

finish for outside walls and plastered on internal walls. Hydraform recommends that outside face

34
brick walls are treated with a water repellent to protect the outer surface. Paint can be applied

directly to the smooth wall or to the plastered Hydraform wall. There are approximately 37

blocks in one square meter of wall. "Green" (fresh) Hydraform blocks are stacked and covered

with black plastic to avoid moisture loss.

The blocks are then watered daily to create a greenhouse effect, allowing the cement to

harden and the blocks to strengthen. Hydraform recommends 250micron black plastic for curing.

Cure your Hydraform blocks for a minimum of 7 days and allow the block to dry for another 7

days before building. This will ensure strong good quality blocks. Hydraform recommends that

blocks are cured under black plastic for a minimum of 7 days. Allow the blocks to dry for a

further 7 days before building. Blocks will achieve maximum strength after 28 days. Hydraform

recommends a minimum of 8% cement which once properly cured should yield a Min 7MPa

block. This means 12 parts soil to 1 part (UNESCO 2008).

2.9 Tests on Sandcrete Constituent

The following tests can be performed on sandcrete constituents;

2.9.1 Fine Aggregates Testing

Sand used for sandcrete block production shall be clean and free from deleterious

materials. Therefore, it is required to conduct tests on samples to ensure the suitability of the

sand prior to its utilization.

 Sieve Analysis; Sieve analysis may be performed based on Standard Test Method for

Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates (ASTM C136 / C136M – 14) or any other

applicable standards. It shows the suitability of sand for sandcrete blocks. For example, if

quantity of fine materials are high, then it is highly possible that block strength would be

compromised (The Constructor, 2022).

35
  Silt and Clay Content Test; This test can be conducted based on Standard Test Method

for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Fine-Grained Soils Using the Sedimentation

(Hydrometer) Analysis (ASTM D7928 – 17) and IS : 2386 ( Part II) 1963.

 Organic Content Test; Organic content test can be performed based on Standard Test

Methods for Moisture, Ash, and Organic Matter of Peat and Other Organic Soils (ASTM

D2974 – 14)

2.9.2 Testing of Sandcrete Blocks

The following tests can be performed on a sandcrete block;

 Bulk Density; This test begins by labeling and numbering samples. Then, weigh each

sample in dry states and record their masses. The dimensions (the length, breadth and

height) of each block is taken from which volume of samples are computed. Finally, the

bulk densities are calculated using the results.

 Dimension Test; It is the measure of block dimensions and compare it with applicable

standards.

 Water Absorption; Water absorption test on sandcrete block include weighing samples

in air, then fully immersed them in water for 24 hours. After that, the wet samples are

taken out and weighed. These values will be used to compute water absorption capacity

which is expressed as a percentage. Water absorption is equal to the block wet weight

minus dry weight divided by volume of block multiply by 100.

 Compressive Strength Test; This test is used to evaluate compressive strength of

sandcrete block. Compression strength is the ability of blocks to resist an axially applied

load on the edge or the bed face of the block. Compression testing machine is employed

to evaluate the compressive strength of blocks. The test is conducted on blocks at 28 days

36
of age and three samples are tested. The load is exerted on the block till it crushes; at this

point maximum compressive load will be recorded (The Constructor, 2022).

37
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials

There are different materials used in sandcrete block production. The sandcrete block is

made up of the following materials; sharp sand, cement and water

3.1.1 Sharp sand

Sand is used in sandcrete block as the principal component of aggregate used in their

production. Sand used for sandcrete block production shall be clean and free from deleterious

materials.

3.1.2 Portland cement (binder)

Portland cement to be used for the production of sandcrete blocks must comply with all

the prescribed requirements in BS 12 and NIS 444-1: 2003 respectively. The brand of Ordinary

Portland cement obtained from a major cement dealer in Ede Osun state was used for all the

production.

3.1.3 Water

The strength and workability of sandcrete depends greatly on the amount of water used in

mixing. Potable water conforming to the specification of EN 1008: (2002) was used for both

specimen preparations and curing.

Adequate mixing is necessary to achieve uniform colour and texture between block

batches, prevent variations in strength and minimize web cracks The material constituents, their

mix, presence of admixtures and manufacturing process are important factors that determine the

38
properties of sandcrete blocks and bricks. Cement, as a binder, is the most expensive input into the

production of sandcrete blocks.

3.2 Equipments

The equipments include:

i. 9 inches block mould

ii. Headpan

iii. Paint buckets

iv. Shovel

v. 300 × 500mm size of 1 × 12 inches wooden pallet.

3.3 Mode of Production/Mix Ratio

In the manufacture of the blocks, hand mixing is generally employed and the materials

are turned over a number of times until an even color and consistency are attained (Goncalves &

Bergmann, 2007). It was observed that batching by volume was adopted by most block

manufacturers. In the production of the 225mm sandcrete block, a mix of 1:7 was used i.e the mix

ratio varies from 1 bag of cement to 7 wheel barrows of sand. The amount of water required was

determined by trial and error because the sand itself contained little amount of water i.e it was

partially saturated. This ranges from 2 to 4 paint buckets of water. Manual method of mixing was

adopted. The general procedure for mixing was as follows.

i. Seven (7) wheel barrows of sand was measured unto a concrete platform on the ground.

ii. One (1) bag of Cement was mixed thoroughly with the sand until even colour was formed.

The mix was done with shovel for about three times.

iii. Water is added the fourth time and then the whole mix was mixed again for about two

times.

39
 iv. Then the mixture is poured into the 225mm (9 inches) mould and vibrated adequately by

hard tapping and hitting of the mould on the ground.

v. The mould, containing the mixture is then turned upside down on a wooden pallet at the

desired location where the blocks shall be moulded. NOTE: the desired location must be a

leveled ground.

vi. Then the removable steel plate resting at the bottom of the mould is then removed

alongside the whole mould, thus the 225mm sandcrete block is moulded.

vii. Steps i to vi is repeated 5 times, making it a total of 5 bags of cement that was used.

viii. After 24 hours of production, the blocks were removed from the wooden pallets with their

header face on the ground.

ix. Water are then sprinkled on the blocks every 12 hours for curing. This was done for 72

hours.

x. Then the blocks, having attained strength and well bonded, was stacked in an open space,

ready to be used.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA REPRESENTATION

4.1 Results

The following results were obtained from the samples.

4.1.1 Fine Aggregate

The grading test result (particle size distribution test result) is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Particle Size Distribution Test Result

Weight of %
Cumulative
aggregate aggregate %
Sieve No. retained %
retained Passing
(g) retained
(%)
4.75mm 206 24 24 76
2.36mm 236 27.5 51.51 48.48
1.18mm 339 38.46 89.97 10.02
600Nm 70 8.15 98.13 1.86
300Nm 15 1.75 99.88 0.11
150Nm 1 0.11 100 0.00
Pan 0 0 100 0.00

80
70
60
PERCENTAGE PASSING (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
1 10
PERTICLE SIZE (D) MM

41
 Figure 4.1: Grading Curve for Fine Aggregate

The gradation curve shown in Fig. 4.1, the values of D10, D30 and D60, are 1.15, 2.02 and
3.57 respectively. Percentage of clay fraction is 0%, silt 61% and that of sand was 5% and
classified as silt loam. From the gradation curve it was found that the soil is well graded. The
grain size analysis in Table 4.1 and figure 4.1 shows that the percentages passing No.200 BS
sieve is 8.03% for the soil sample. The soil can be further classified as A-2-7 under the
AASHTO classification
Tables 4.2 and 4.3 shows the moisture content and silt content of the soil respectively.

Table 4.2: Moisture Content

Amount of
Wt of dry China Wt of sample Wt of sample after
moisture in sample
Sample No. dish (W1) before drying (W2) drying (W3)
(W4)
g g g
g
1 10.98 1860 18.36 0.34

2 14.51 22.22 21.47 0.75

3 14.98 23.58 23.27 0.31

Table 4.3: Silt Content

Source of Type of Test Allowable Limits Evaluation
Test Result Value
Material Conducted (ASTM C33)
Sand from Geese Silt Content 2.44 Max 5% Fit

4.1.2 Results on Coarse Aggregate

Table 4.4 shows the Water Absorption test results.

Table 4.4: Water Absorption Test Result

S/N Determination No. I II III
1 Wt of saturated surface dried
2400 2380 2491
sample in g (A)
2 Wt of ovendried sample in g (B) 2404 2375 2486

42
 3 Water Absorption => 5
5 5 ×100=0.201 %
A−B × 100=0.208 % ×100=0.210
2486%
× 100 % 2404 2375
B

The specific gravity result is shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Specific Gravity Test Result

Item Sieve 4.75mm Sieve 12mm Sieve 19mm

Wt of oven dried sample in air 562.4 563.8 566.1

(g)
Wt of SSD sample in air (g) 564.2 565.3 567.5
Wt of sample in water 365.8 363.7 363.4
Bulk specific gravity (Dry) 2.80 2.79 2.76
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) 2.84 2.80 2.83
Apparent specific gravity 2.86 2.79 2.81
Absorption 0.73 0.59 0.57

Table 4.6 shows the impact and crushing test result for the coarse aggregate while Table

4.7 shows its particle distribution analysis.

Table 4.6: Impact and Crushing Test Result

Aggregate Type Impact Value Crushing Value

Granite 29 27
Sand stone 21 18
Gravel 14 16

The grading test result (particle size distribution test result) is shown in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Particle Size Distribution Test Result

Weight of %
Cumulative
aggregate aggregate %
Sieve No. retained %
retained Passing
(g) retained
(%)
20mm 697 18 18 82

43
 10mm 3026 78 96 4
5mm 165 4 100 0
Pan 0 0 100 0

100
PERCENTAGE PASSING (%)

80
60
40
20
0
1 10 100
PERTICLE SIZE (D) MM

Figure 4.2: Grading Curve for Coarse Aggregate

The gradation curve shown in Fig. 4.1, the values of D 10, D30 and D60, are 10.82, 14.21
and 17.37 respectively. Percentage of clay fraction is 0%, silt 2%, sand 35% and that of gravel
63%. From the gradation curve it was found that the soil is not well graded.

4.1.3 Strength Results on Sandcrete Block

The compressive strength results obtained is tabulated in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8: Particle Size Distribution Test Result

7 days 14 days 28 days
compressive compressive compressive
S/N strength strength strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 9.7 16.3 33.3

44
 2 9.5 16.5 24
3 8 15.5 20
4 7 13 17
5 5.5 9 15.5
6 5 8 12

Odeyemi et al., (2015b) reported the compressive strengths of manual and machine

compacted sandcrete blocks whose mix ratio conforms to NIS 87:2000. The result revealed the

28th day strength of manually compacted Sandcrete blocks made from Dangote cement and

Elephant cement as 2.83N/mm2 and 2.89N/mm2 respectively and the 28th day strength of

machine compacted Sandcrete blocks made from Dangote cement and Elephant cement as

2.96N/mm2 and 3.03N/mm2 respectively. (Odeyemi et al., 2015b).

4.2 Cost Analysis

The expenses that were involved in the production of sandcrete blocks are further listed

below;

Table 4.9; Cost Analysis

COST (per each)
S/N MATERIALS
(N)
1 One (1) tonne of sharp sand 4,400
2 1 bags of Portland cement 4,000
3 Workmanship (Bricklayer, per bag - manually) 1,000

4.3 Block Specifications According to NIS

Usage - Sandcrete blocks

Dimension - 450mm × 225mm

45
Height - 225mm

Type - Hollow

Volume - 0.0143m3

Absorbtion - 12%

Material - Fine aggregates and Cement

Features - They provide excellent resistance to damage, do not rust,

decay, or provide a home for damaging insects.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

At the end of this project, the following conclusions were reached;

 The block manufacturers did not conform to NIS standard specifications.

 The quality of blocks produced from the mix ratio adopted in most of the block

industries, were very poor. The poor quality of the blocks from the block industries can

be attributed to the poor mix ratios adopted by the factories.

 Other factors such as poor curing and bad production methods also play major role in the

low quality of blocks.

 Also, the fact that the correct moulds are not used in the block production affects the

density of the blocks produced.

5.1 Recommendations

The following recommendations were made;

 High quality of constituent materials in which the sand in some cases, are mixed with soft

sand (such as clay) to improve its binding ability.

 The Federal Government of Nigeria should empower the NIS to identify, blacklist and

mete out adequate sanctions on ill-equipped sandcrete blocks producers.

 They should also make it mandatory for all blocks manufacturers to register with The

Mandatory Conformity Assessment Programme (MANCAP) and obtain the necessary

training and MANCAP certification before embarking on the business.

47
 It is also recommended that the regulatory and enforcement bodies should be empowered

to check and control production processes, quality of the blocks and then recommend

manufacturers to be certified as well as blocks to be destroy and those to be certified.

48
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