“Bosnia and Herzegovina Conflict”

COURSE NUMBER & TITLE: PACS 411: PROTRACTED CONFLICT

PRESENTED BY ASSIGNED BY

MD SHARIAR HOSEN
DR. MD. TOUHIDUL ISLAM
ROLL NO: 61
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
19TH BATCH

DEPARTMENT OF PEACE AND DEPARTMENT OF PEACE AND CONFLICT

CONFLICT STUDIES STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA

Introduction: Between the years 1992 and 1995, the countries of Bosnia and Herzegovina were
the sites of an international military protracted conflict known as the Bosnian War or the Bosnia
Herzegovina Conflict. It is generally agreed that the conflict began on April 6, 1992, despite the
fact that there had been other violent occurrences prior to that date. The signing of the Dayton
Accords on December 14th, 1995, officially brought an end to the war. The primary combatants
in this conflict were the armed forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the
proto-states of Herzeg-Bosnia and Republika Srpska, which were directed and supported by
Croatia and Serbia, respectively. 1 Protracted social conflicts is a theory developed by Edward
Azar. The term refers to crisis situations that are marked by the continuous and frequently violent
battle for fundamental demands such as protection, respect, and acceptance by communal
groups, as well as fair access to political institutions and economic participation. 2 It is possible
to classify the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina as a protracted conflict. The fighting started in
the early 1990s and continued for a number of years until finally coming to an end with the
signing of a peace agreement in 1995. At this period of time, numerous sides were engaged in
the conflict. These groups included the Bosniak, Serb, and Croat people, in addition to the
Yugoslav army. The fundamental reasons for the battle were complicated and had long roots.
These reasons included historical grudges, economic and political competitiveness, and
competing territorial claims. The conflict led to enormous levels of violence, including the ethnic
cleansing of Bosniak and Croat populations at the hands of Bosnian Serb troops, which
culminated in the relocation of more than 2 million people. 3 The difficulty of the problems that
needed to be solved, in addition to the unwillingness of some parties to compromise, was a
barrier in the way of efforts to find a solution to the conflict. A peace accord was not established
until much later, after extensive international engagement, which included the deployment of
peacekeeping soldiers.4 In general, the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina was one that lasted for
a long time, had serious repercussions on the lives of civilians, and required the continued
participation of the international community in order to be resolved.

Understanding Protracted Conflict: Edward Azar defined protracted social conflict as hostile
interactions between communal groups that are rooted in deep-seated racial, ethnic, religious,
and cultural hatreds and that persist over long periods of time with intermittent outbreaks of
violence; when a group's identity is threatened or frustrated, intractable conflict is nearly
inevitable.5 Typically, protracted confrontations are the result of underlying causes, such as racial
or religious tensions, economic imbalances, or territorial disputes. These problems are frequently
interconnected and challenging to overcome by straightforward talks or actions. Protracted
conflicts frequently feature high degrees of violence, such as terrorism, war crimes, and
1
Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. Bloomington,
Indiana: Indiana University Press
2
Ramsbotham, Oliver. Contemporary Conflict Resolution, 2008: 84
3
Shrader, Charles R. (2003). The Muslim-Croat Civil War in Central Bosnia: A Military History, 1992–1994.
College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press.
4
Rothman, Jay and Marie L. Olson, "From Interest to Identities: Towards a New Emphasis in Interactive Conflict
Resolution." Journal of Peace Research, 2001.
5
Fisher 2001: 307. (Fisher, Ronald J. (2001) Cyprus: The Failure of Mediation and the Escalation of an Identity-
Based Conflict to an Adversarial Impasse. Journal of Peace Research 38(3), 307–26.
violations of human rights. Violence is frequently undertaken by several actors, including state
and non-state entities, and can result in substantial civilian deaths. Frequently, external actors
lend support to one or more of the sides involved in protracted confrontations. Assistance may
involve military, financial, and diplomatic aid, which can prolong the conflict by providing the
parties with the tools to continue fighting. It is frequently difficult to resolve protracted conflicts
through discussions or other methods of conflict resolution. The parties may have positions that
are well entrenched and the dispute may have become an integral element of their identities or
political power. Protracted conflicts frequently have severe humanitarian repercussions, such as
population relocation, famine, disease, and the destruction of infrastructure and resources. These
effects may persist after the conclusion of the conflict and have long-lasting effects on the
impacted populations.6

A Brief History of the Bosnia and Herzegovina Conflict: The conflict in Bosnia and
Herzegovina was one of the most complicated and drawn-out wars to take place in the Balkans
throughout the 1990s. It all started as a consequence of the disintegration of Yugoslavia, which
was accompanied by an increase in nationalism as well as competition for land and resources
among the countries that made up Yugoslavia. The war began in 1992, when Bosnia and
Herzegovina declared its independence from Yugoslavia. This sparked an armed confrontation
between the Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), Croats, and Serbs, who are the three largest ethnic
groups in the country. The Bosnian Serb community, backed by the government of Serbia,
fought against the declaration of independence and advocated for the establishment of their own
independent state within the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 7 The battle swiftly intensified,
with both sides engaged in violent attacks against civilians. These attacks included rapes,
murders, and other forms of torture against large numbers of people. Radovan Karadzic and
Ratko Mladic were in charge of the Bosnian Serb forces during the time of the ethnic cleansing
campaign that was carried out against the Bosniak and Croat populations by the Bosnian Serb
forces. This campaign involved forcibly removing the populations from their homes and either
killing or imprisoning thousands of them. An arms embargo was imposed by the United Nations
(UN) on all parties involved in the conflict, including the Bosnian government, which put the
Bosnian government at a disadvantage when fighting against the better-armed Bosnian Serb
forces. The international community initially had a difficult time responding to the conflict.
Almost 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were slaughtered by Bosnian Serb forces during the
Srebrenica massacre in 1995.8 This horrifying event shook the world and led to greater pressure
from the international community to bring an end to the conflict. The Dayton Accords, which
were negotiated by the United States of America and signed by the heads of state of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia in 1995, were ultimately responsible for bringing an end to the
conflict. The Accords provided for the deployment of international peacekeeping forces to
6
Malhotra, Deepak and Sumanasiri Liyanage (2005) Long-Term Effects of Peace Workshops in Protracted
Conflicts. Journal of Conflict Resolution 49(6), 908–24.
7
Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Russian and European Analysis (2002). Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military
History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995, Volume 1. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency.
8
 Nettelfield, Lara J. (2010). "Research and repercussions of death tolls: The case of the Bosnian Book of the
Dead". Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
monitor the ceasefire and established a federal state of Bosnia and Herzegovina with two entities,
the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Republika Srpska. Additionally, the Accords
established a federal state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Around 100,000 people were killed as a
direct result of the violence, while over 2 million others were forced to flee their homes as a
direct result of the fighting.9 In addition, it left significant wounds on the social and political
fabric of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a country that is still in the process of recuperating from the
trauma caused by the conflict. The following is a chronological order of some of the most
significant events that took place throughout the conflict:
1992: On April 6, Bosnia and Herzegovina issued a declaration that it was no longer a part of
Yugoslavia. On April 8, hostilities begin in Sarajevo, which is the capital city of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. On May 3, the United Nations places a ban on the sale of armaments to all of the
warring parties. On the 22nd of May, Bosnian Serbs make public their intention to establish an
independent republic within Bosnia and Herzegovina.10
1993: In the month of January, the United Nations designates six regions in Bosnia and
Herzegovina as safe zones. These zones include Srebrenica and Sarajevo. A no-fly zone is
established over Bosnia and Herzegovina by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in
the month of April. In the month of July, the Bosnian Serbs begin an onslaught aimed at the safe
zone established by the United Nations in Srebrenica. 11
1994: On 5 February 1994, Sarajevo saw the deadliest single strike of the whole siege with the
first Markale massacre, when a 120-millimeter mortar bomb hit in the center of the crowded
marketplace, killing 68 and wounded 144. On 6 February, UN Secretary-General Boutros
Boutros-Ghali formally requested confirmation from NATO that any future demands for
airstrikes would be executed swiftly.12 In the same month, Bosnian Serbs voiced their opposition
to a peace plan put forth by the United Nations. In June, The United Nations Security Council
approves the use of force to safeguard the safe areas; nevertheless, the United Nations
peacekeeping forces are not provided with adequate resources to adequately carry out their
mandate.
1995: Srebrenica is taken over by Bosnian Serb forces in July, and during this time, more than
8,000 Bosniak men and boys are murdered in what will ultimately be acknowledged as a
genocide. As a direct response to the massacre that took place in Srebrenica in August, NATO
begins conducting airstrikes against Bosnian Serb strongholds.13 November sees the signing of
the Dayton Accords in Ohio, United States of America, putting an end to the conflict. The
Accords provide for the deployment of international peacekeeping forces to monitor the ceasefire
and establish a federal state of Bosnia and Herzegovina with two entities: the Federation of

9
Burg, Steven L.; Shoup, Paul S. (1999). The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International
Intervention (2nd ed.). M.E. Sharpe.
10
"Washington Post - SERB FORCES VACATE GORAZDE AFTER 4-MONTH SIEGE". The Washington Post
11
Tanner, Marcus (2001). Croatia: A Nation Forged in War. New Haven: Yale University Press.
12
Bethlehem, Daniel; Weller, Marc (1997). The Yugoslav Crisis in International Law. Cambridge University Press.
13
"Appeals Chamber Judgement in the Case The Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstić" (PDF). International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. 19 April 2004.
Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. Additionally, the Accords establish a federal
state of Bosnia and Herzegovina.14
During the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, these are only some of the many events that took
place. These give only a summarized overview of the long-fought conflict that rattled the region
for a very long time and caused casualties numbers fall short to measure.

Why The Bosnia and Herzegovina Conflict is a Protracted Conflict: Complexity, length of
conflict, high levels of violence, involvement of other parties, and the challenge of reaching a
conclusion are the hallmarks of protracted conflicts. These can have calamitous effects on the
people and communities involved, and addressing and resolving them requires the consistent
efforts of members of the international community. The conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina was
a protracted conflict for a number of reasons, including the following:
Complex Ethnic and Nationalist Tensions: The conflict was precipitated by the complex
ethnic and nationalist tensions that had been building up in Yugoslavia for several decades.
Bosnia and Herzegovina was a multiethnic society with a history of tensions between its
Bosniak, Croat, and Serb communities, all of which had different political and territorial
aspirations. These tensions were exacerbated by the nationalist politics that were prevalent in the
country during the 1980s and 1990s.15
Military Capabilities of the Parties: The conflict was fought between a number of groups, each
of which possessed considerable military capabilities. These parties included the Bosnian Serb
forces, the Bosnian Croat forces, and the Bosniak forces.16 These parties were able to maintain
the fight thanks to the acquisition of weapons and resources, in addition to the backing they
received from countries that were geographically close to them.
Political and Military Support from Neighboring Countries: The war was driven by political
and military support from neighboring nations, with Serbia providing support to Bosnian Serb
forces and Croatia offering support to Bosnian Croat forces. This backing from the outside
helped to prolong the conflict, which in turn made it more challenging to seek a conclusion
through peaceful means.
Inadequate International Response: The international community, which was represented by
the United Nations (UN), responded slowly to the crisis and struggled to keep the violence under
control. The international community had a difficult time responding to the conflict at first. As a
result, the United Nations (UN) imposed a weapons embargo on all parties, which put the
Bosnian government at a disadvantage while competing against the better-armed Bosnian Serb
troops. In addition, the United Nations peacekeeping forces lacked the resources and the mission
necessary to protect people and successfully implement the ceasefire. 17

14
Says, P. Morra (14 December 2015). "A flawed recipe for how to end a war and build a state: 20 years since the
Dayton Agreement"
15
Bose, Sumantra (2009). Contested Lands. Harvard University Press.
16
Mulaj, Klejda (2008). Politics of Ethnic Cleansing: Nation-state Building and Provision of In/security in
Twentieth-century Balkans. Lexington Books.
Territorial Disputes: There were a number of complicated territorial conflicts, with each group
vying for control over certain regions and resources located within Bosnia and Herzegovina. This
resulted in a protracted struggle for dominance, during which each party attempted to enlarge its
area and strengthen its position of authority.18
War Crimes and Genocide: The conflict was marked by war crimes and acts of genocide,
particularly the massacre that took place in Srebrenica in July 1995, where more than 8,000
Bosniak men and boys were massacred by Bosnian Serb troops. This event is known as the
Srebrenica massacre.19 According to a study published by the UN and presided over by M. Cherif
Bassiouni, while all parties to the conflict committed war crimes, Serbian troops were
accountable for 90% of them, followed by Croatian forces for 6% and Bosniak forces for 4%. 20
These crimes increased the level of mistrust that existed between the various ethnic groups and
made it more difficult to arrive at a peaceful and sustainable resolution, resulting the long term
conflict.

Conclusion: The extensive conflict of Bosnia and Herzegovina had a profound influence on the
area and its inhabitants, and those repercussions are still evident today. With many refugees still
residing in camps and attempting to start over, the war caused a serious humanitarian disaster.
The conflict wreaked havoc on Bosnia's economy, destroying the nation's enterprises and
infrastructure and sharply lowering its GDP. A brain drain resulted after the war, with many
highly educated professionals leaving the nation. Bosnia's political climate was also significantly
impacted by the conflict, with simmering ethnic tensions and party splinters impeding efficient
governance. The intricate power-sharing structure established by the Dayton Peace Accords,
which put an end to the conflict, has contributed to political instability. Many communities are
still split along ethnic lines, and the process of healing and reconciliation following the conflict
has been slow and challenging. To hold those accountable for war crimes and crimes against
humanity, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was founded;
nevertheless, the procedure has come under fire for being cumbersome and not doing enough to
foster reconciliation. Though the involved nations have now come forward to apologize and
move forward together in the name of peace and prosperity, the scars of such a conflict takes
time to mend.

17
Economides, Spyros & Taylor, Paul (2007). "Former Yugoslavia" Mats Berdal & Spyro Economides
(eds), United Nations Interventionism, 1991–2004. New York: Cambridge University Press.
18
 S. Lobell; P. Mauceri (2004). Ethnic Conflict and International Politics: Explaining Diffusion and Escalation.
Palgrave Macmillan US.
19
Williams, Daniel. "Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist". The Washington Post.
20
Waller, James E. (2002). Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. Oxford
University Press.