3022 MATERIAL SCIENCE & METROLOGY

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

PART A
1. Define space lattice.
The three-dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting atoms is called the
space lattice.
2. Melting point of pure Fe is…….
Pure iron (Fe) has a fixed melting point of 1535 ° C,
3. Define Phase
Phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and
mechanically separable.
4. Machine used for Tensile testing is …
Universal testing machine (UTM)
5. Define span of a measuring instrument
The difference between the upper and the lower measuring range limit is called span.
6. …………is the ability of the measuring instrument to get the same value in
repeated measurements under different conditions
Repeatability
7. Name a mechanical Comparator
Dial indicator
8. Vernier depth gauge is used for measuring……
The depth of holes, recesses, slots and steps within the accuracy of 0.02 mm
9. Clinometer is used for measuring……
An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for measuring angles of slope,
elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity's direction.

PART B
1. Explain the purpose of alloying in steels
Alloy steel is a type of steel alloyed with several elements such as molybdenum,
manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and boron. These alloying elements
are added to increase strength, hardness, wear resistance, and toughness. The amounts
of alloying elements may vary between 1 and 50%.

2. Give the applications of wrought Iron

o It is used to make decor items like table base, candle holder, curtain rods etc.
o It is used in making pipes
o It is used in making fences and gates
o It is used in making nuts, bolts, rivets etc.
o It is used in making chains
o It is used in making crane hooks
o It is used in making plates
o It is used in making handrails
 o It is used in making carpenter tools
o It is used in general forging applications
o It is used in making railway couplings

3. Briefly explain the classification of Cast Iron

o Grey Cast Iron.
o White Cast Iron.
o Ductile Cast Iron.
o Malleable Cast Iron.

4. Name different failure mechanisms in engineering materials

Ductile Fracture, Brittle Fracture, Impact, Creep

5. Explain Annealing
Annealing may be defined as the process of heating the steel to austenite phase
(723°C) and then cooling slowly with in a closed furnace by putting-off the heat
supply. After annealing the steel becomes more ductile.
The purposes of Annealing are:
To relieve internal stress
To improve machinability
To refine the grains
To reduce the hardness

6. Explain the significance of measurement

o Measurement provides the fundamental basis for research & development as it
involves measurement of various quantities and parameters.
o Measurement is also considered as a method of inspection
o Establish the cost of products on the basis of amount of material, power, time
& labour, etc.
o Measurement is used to evaluate the performance.

7. Define Sensitivity and repeatability

Sensitivity
It is the ability of measuring devices to detect small differences in a quantity being
measured.
Sensitivity is the degree of response of an instrument to an incoming signal.
It is also defined as the ratio of change in output towards the change in input.
More sensitive instrument shows better response to slight changes in a quantity being
measured.
Repeatability
It is the ability of a measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the
measurements for the same quantity, when the measurement is carried out.
 8. Explain calibration in measurement
The process of comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a device with
known accurate standard to eliminate any variation in the device being checked is
called calibration.

9. Write a note on random errors in measurement

Systematic errors.
Systematic errors are also known as controllable errors.
They are consistent and similar form.
These errors can be determined and controlled.
Random Errors
Random errors are non-consistent.
These errors are those which are accidental, whose magnitude and sign cannot be
predicted from the knowledge of measuring system and conditions of measurement.
These occur randomly and specific causes of these errors cannot be determined.

10. Explain the importance of force measurement

o Protection of people and machinery
o Ensuring system stability and production safety
o Optimisation of production conditions
o Improving product quality and saving materials
o Ensuring quality

PART C
1. With the help of a neat sketch explain FCC and BCC crystal structure
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
• A crystal structure is defined as the particular repeating arrangement of atoms (molecules or
ions) throughout a crystal.
• Structure refers to the internal arrangement of particles and not the external appearance of the
crystal.
1. BCC (body-centered cubic)

• The body-centered cubic unit cell has atoms at each of the eight corners of a cube plus one
atom in the centre of the cube.
• Each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube so the corner atoms are shared among
eight-unit cells.
• Coordination Number: 8

2. FCC (face centered cubic)

• Atoms are arranged at the corners and centre of each cube face of the cell.
• Atoms are assumed to touch along face diagonals. 4 atoms in one unit cell.
• Atoms are arranged at the corners of the cube with another atom at the cube centre.
• Coordination Number: 12

3. HCP (hexagonal closely packed)

• It refers to layers of packed spheres such that spheres overlay each other in alternating layers.
• A slip framework, which is a close-packed structure, is hexagonal near packed.
• For elemental metals, the hcp structure is very general, including beryllium.
• Coordination Number: 12

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2. Draw and briefly explain iron carbon equilibrium diagram

Iron-Carbon binary diagram
• Also called the iron carbon phase diagram
• The Iron carbon equilibrium diagram is a graphic representation of the respective
microstructure states of the alloy iron – carbon (Fe-C) depending on temperature and carbon
content.
• The iron carbon phase diagram is commonly used to fully understand the various phases of
steel and cast iron.
• Steel and cast iron are both iron and carbon alloys. In addition, both alloys contain trace
elements in small amounts.
3. Explain the procedure for performing the Brinell hardness test
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
• In this test, a standard hardened steel ball (diameter -10mm) is pressed into the
surface of the specimen by gradually applied load which is maintained on the
specimen for definite time.
• A 3000 kgf load is used for testing ferrous alloys. When brass soft alloys are tested a
500kgf is used.
• The time of loading is specified between 10-30 seconds, depending upon the metal
being examined.

The impression is measured by a microscope and the brinel hardness number (B.H.N.)
is found out by following equation.
 (OR)
4. Explain magnetic particle inspection test
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
• It is used for the testing of ferromagnetic materials which can be easily magnetized.
• Capable of detecting flaws open to surface and just below the surface. .
• The MPI equipment is cheap, robust and can be handled by semiskilled personnel.
• MPI method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings,
forgings and weldments.
• Many different industries use MPI such as structural steel, automotive,
petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries.
• Underwater inspection is another area where MPI may be used to test items such as
offshore structures and underwater pipelines.
• The MPI equipment is cheap, robust and can be handled by semiskilled personnel.
• The first step in a magnetic particle testing is to magnetize the component that is to
be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a
leakage field.
After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet
suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part.
• The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a
visible indication that the inspector can detect.

Advantages
• High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
• Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
• Minimal surface preparation (no need for paint removal)
Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)

Disadvantages
• Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.
 • Only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.
• Relatively small area can be inspected at a time.
• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
• The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.

5. Explain the case hardening processes, nitriding and cyaniding

CASE HARDENING
A heat treatment process in which the composition of surface layers is altered to make
it hard and wear resistance is called case hardening.
Case hardening processes are classified as :
1. Carburising
2. Nitriding
3. Cyaniding
Carburising
Carburising consist of introducing carbon into surface of the steel.
Carburising is most widely used for securing hard, wear resistant surface.
Nitriding
Nitriding consists of introducing nitrogen into the surface of the steel.
Nitriding increases the wear resistance, corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of
the steel.
Cyaniding
Cyaniding is case hardening process in which both carbon and nitrogen are added to
the surface layers of the steel.

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6. Sketch and explain Austempering

AUSTEMPERING
In austempering the steel part is heated to hardening temperature range and then
quenched down to a temperature of 300oc. It is held there sufficient time to
decompose austenite into bainite, and then it is cooled at room temperature.

7. Explain primary and secondary standards of measurement

MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the act or result of comparison between an unknown quantity with a
known quantity.
The process of expressing anything (object, property. etc.) in terms of numbers or
obtaining quantitative information about anything is called as measurement.
 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
A standard is defined as something that is setup and established by authority as a rule
for measurement of quantity, weight, value or quality etc...
• Standards are the fundamental reference for which all other measuring devices are
compared.
Primary standards
A primary standard is precisely defined, whose value is fixed and does not change.
Primary standard is the only one material standard that preserved under most
careful conditions.
It has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered in engineering.
Primary standards are maintained by international bureau of weights and measures.
Secondary standards
The secondary standard is obtained by comparison with the primary standard.
Secondary standards are made as nearly possible exactly similar to primary
standards as regards to material, size and design.
In India these standards are maintained by national Physical laboratory.
Secondary standards are used for occasional comparison with tertiary standards.

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8. Write short note on systematic and random errors in measurement.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension, there is always some
error.
The error in measurement is the difference between the measured value and the true
value of the measured dimension.
Errors in measurement can be broadly classified as Systematic and Random errors.
Systematic errors.
• Systematic errors are also known as controllable errors.
• They are consistent and similar form.
• These errors tend to shift all measurements in a systematic way, so when a number
of measurements are taken, the mean value is constantly varies in a predictable way.
• These errors can be determined and controlled.
• Systematic errors result from improper conditions or procedures that are consistent
in action.
Random Errors
• Random errors are non-consistent.
• These errors are those which are accidental, whose magnitude and sign cannot be
predicted from the knowledge of measuring system and conditions of measurement.
• These occur randomly and specific causes of these errors cannot be determined.
• Few of the several causes are discussed below:
1. Small variations in the position of setting standard and work piece.
2. Operator error in scale reading.
3. Fluctuations in friction of measuring instrument.
4. Sight displacement of lever joints of measuring instruments.
5. Random errors may arise from outside disturbances to the measuring system, like
temperature variations or mechanical vibrations.
9. Write a note on the classification of comparators and their characteristics.
COMPARATORS
Comparators are instruments which derive their name from the fact that they are used
for simple and accurate comparison of parts as well as working gauges and
instruments with standard precision gauge blocks.
Most comparators indicate actual unit of measurement, but some only indicate
whether a dimension deviate within a given tolerance range.
Requirements/Characteristics of good comparators:
1. The instrument must be robust in design and construction.
2. The magnification of the instrument should be high.
3. It gives highly consistent results.
4. Comparator requires less skill of the operators.
5. The pointer of the comparator should require coming rapidly at the rest.
6. Indicator should be provided with the maximum compensation for temperature
effects.
Applications of comparator:
1. It is used to check the components and new gauges.
2. It is used for final inspection of gauges.
3. It is used as laboratory standards.
4. It is used as working gauges.
Classification of comparators
Comparators are classified according to the principle used for obtaining suitable
degrees of magnification.
1. Mechanical comparators
2. Electrical comparators
3. Optical comparators
4. Pneumatic comparators

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10. Explain the principle of working of an auto collimator.

Autocollimator (as per syllabus principle of working only)
An autocollimator is an optical instrument for non-contact measurement of small
angles with very high sensitivity.
It is an angle comparator based on the principle of reflection of light.
Principle of autocollimator

Imagine a converging lens with a point source of light O at its principle focus, as
shown in Figure (a). When a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting surface, a part of
the beam is absorbed and the other part is reflected back. If the angle of incidence is
zero, i.e. incident rays fall perpendicular to the reflecting surface, the reflected rays
retrace the original path. When the reflecting plane is tilted at a certain angle, the total
angle through which the light is deflected is twice the angle through which the mirror
is tilted. Thus, alternately, if the incident rays are not at the right angle to the
reflecting surface they can be brought to the focal plane of the light sources by tilting
the reflecting plane at an angle half the angle of reflection as shown in Figure (b).
Working
There are three main parts in auto-collimator.
1. Micrometre microscope.
2. Lighting unit and
3. Collimating lens.

The above figure shows a line diagram of a modern auto-collimator. A target is

positioned perpendicular to the optical axis. When the target is illuminated by a lamp,
rays of light diverging from the intersection point reach the objective lens via beam
splitter. From objective, the light rays are projected as a parallel ray to the reflector. A
flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the optical axis
reflects the parallel rays of light back along their original paths. They are then brought
to the target and exactly coincide with its intersection. A portion of the returned light
passes through the beam splitter and is visible through the eyepiece. If the reflector is
tilted through a small angle, the reflected beam will be changed its path at twice the
angle. It can also be brought to target but linearly displaced from the actual target by
the amount 2θ x f. linear displacement of the target image in the plane tilted angle of
eyepiece is directly proportional to the reflector. This can be measured by optical
micrometre. The photoelectric auto- collimator is particularly suitable for calibrating
polygons, for checking angular indexing and for checking small linear displacements.
11. Describe angle measurement using angle gauges.
Angle Gauges
Like slip gauges which are built up to use for linear dimensions, angle gauges are
built up to give a required angle.
A series of fixed angles are used for comparative assessment of the angle between
two surfaces.
These gauges were first developed by Dr.Tomilinson in 1939.
An angle gauge is a hardened steel block, seasoned to ensure permanence of
angular accuracy with its measuring faces lapped and polished to a high degree of
accuracy and flatness.
These are supplied in sets and can be wrung together to form the required angle.

There are thirteen gauges available in three series og degrees (10,30,90,270,and 410),
minutes (1‫׳‬9,‫׳‬3,‫׳‬and27‫)׳‬and seconds(0.5‫׳‬0.3,‫׳‬0.1,‫׳‬,and 0.5‫)׳‬.
There are two standard sets of gauges A and B available. A contains thirteen
gauges whereas b contains only 12 gauges.

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12. Explain the importance of machine tool testing and list the various tests
conducted.
Machine Tool Testing
The accuracy of manufactured parts depends on the accuracy of machine tools. The
quality of work piece depends on Rigidity and stiffness of machine tool and its
components. Alignment of various components in relation to one another Quality and
accuracy of driving mechanism and control devices.
Purpose of Machine Tool Testing
The dimensions of any work piece, its surface finishes and geometry depends on the
accuracy of machine tool for its manufacture. In mass production the various
components produced should be of high accuracy to be assembled on a non-sensitive
basis. The increasing demand for accurately machined components has led to
improvement of geometric accuracy of machine tools. For this purpose various checks
on different components of the machine tool are carried out.

Different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools are as follows:

Straightness:
Straightness ia an important geometrical parameter of the surfaces on the part of
machine. In case of shaping machine, tool must move on a straight path to perfectly
cut the material by having the surfaces of guide ways being straight.
Straightness is defined as the qualitative measure of a surface in terms of variation of
its geometry from a predefined straight line.
Squareness:
Two lines, two planes or a line and plane are said to be perpendicular when the error
of parallelism in relation to a standard square does not exceed a given value.
Coaxially:
It Measures the amount of misalignment between cylindrical surfaces.
Roundness:
Roundness is the measure of how closely the shape of an object approaches that of a
mathematically perfect circle.
Run out:
It is defined related to running of a job.
The job may be rotating with some another centre than its geometrical centre, the
distance of such centres is run out.