Skeletal muscles and skeleton are often

considered together as functional unit that permit body

movements and locomotion. Muscles are attached to the
bones by connective tissue called tendon. The broad, flat
and sheet-like tendon is called aponeurosis.
Skeletal muscles often have two points of
attachment. One point of attachment is fixed or

9
stationary, while the other point of attachment is
movable. The fixed point of attachment of the muscle is
called the anatomical origin, while the movable point of
attachment is called insertion. The part between the
origin and insertion of a muscle is sometimes referred to
as the belly of the muscle. In some instances, muscles
could have more than one origin. These are called
heads. When muscles have several insertions, these are
termed slips.
MUSCULAR Locating its anatomical origin and insertion can
facilitate identification of a muscle. Other clues to identify
SYSTEM muscle include the shape and relative size of the
muscles, direction of the muscle fibers, as well as the
action of the muscles. It is worthwhile to note that these
factors mentioned are also the bases for naming
muscles. Table below provide examples on how muscles
are named:

Bases for Muscle

Example
Musculature
Attachment (origin and Sternoradialis (sternum as
insertion) origin, radius as insertion)
Pectoralis muscles (located
Anatomical Location at the chest region)
Deltoid (triangular in
Shape shape), Trapezius
(trapezius)
Size and Action Adductor magnus (large)
External oblique, Rectus
Direction of Muscle Fibers abdominis

Several terminologies are commonly used to

describe the action of muscles:
a. Adductor- move a part towards the main
axis of the body
b. Abductor- move a part away from the main
axis of the body
c. Extensor- move jointed parts away from
each other
 d. Flexor- move jointed parts towards each other
e. Levator- raises a part
f. Depressor- lowers a part

In this activity, the skeletal muscles of the toad will be identified.

Objectives At the end of the meeting, the students should be able to:
1. Dissect the frog/toad to demonstrate major muscle groups.
2. Identify the major muscles in frog/toad.
3. Relate the action of the muscles based on their anatomical location and
attachment.

Materials
Preserved toad/frog
Dissecting pan
Dissecting set (must include forceps, pins, scissors, and scalpel)
Procedure

A. Skinning the specimen

1. Obtain a preserved frog/toad and rinse off excess formalin with tap water.
Place the specimen ventral side up on a dissecting pan.

2. With the use of a scissors, make a midventral slit on the skin of the
specimen from the anal region up to the tip of the lower jaw. Be sure that
the pointed ends of the scissors are directed upward while making the slit
to avoid injuring the underlying muscles.

3. Make a transverse cut around the body just above the hindlimbs, and
another one anterior to the forelimbs.

4. Carefully pull off the skin of the hindlimbs and forelimbs, inner side out.

5. Remove the skin of the head around the eyes. In toads, the skin covering
the head can be removed but with difficulty.

6. Notice the large spaces between the skin and muscles where the skin is
not attached. These are the subcutaneous lymph sacs.

B. Important hints for dissection to demonstrate the toad/frog muscles

1. Dissection of the muscles requires separating the muscle bundles from

each other. Separation of the muscles involves observing the direction of
the fibers and the extent of the muscle.
 2. Never use sharp instruments like scissors or scalpel in separating them.
Instead, use the blunt end of an instrument to loosen the muscle tissues.

3. DO NOT CUT the muscles unless instructed to do so. If it is necessary to

cut the superficial muscles to find deep muscles, cut through the belly of
the muscle.

C. Identification of the muscles

Locate and identify the muscles based on the description given. Confirm the
identification by finding the anatomical origin and insertion of each muscle. (NOTE:
Remember the origin, insertion, and action of each identified muscles for the
exam). The given description fits both for frog and toad. Nonetheless, anatomical
differences, if any, on specific muscles will be noted.

A. Ventral Muscles of the Head and Trunk

Place the toad ventral side up on the dissecting pan. Locate the following
muscles:

1. Submentalis- find this small transverse muscle located at the anterior tip
of the mandible

Origin Anterior tip of the mandible

Insertion Anterior angle of the lower jaw
Action Raises the tip of the lower jaw

2. Mylohyoid- locate the median longitudinal connective tissue on the ventral

of the lower jaw. This connective tissue called the median raphe. Lateral to
the median raphe is the thin, broad, transversely-oriented fibers
mylohyoid.

Origin Median surface of the mandible

Insertion Median raphe
Action Raises the floor of the mouth during breathing or
swallowing

3. Geniohyoid- cut the median raphe and deflect the mylohyoid laterally. A
pair of longitudinal flat muscles can be seen on the ventral midline, the
geniohyoid.

Origin Anterior angle of the lower jaw

Insertion Posterior cornua and thyroid processes of the hyoid
Action Draws the hyoid forward and upward

4. Sternoradialis- find this thick median pair of muscles which is partly

covered by the posterior rim of the mylohyoid.
 Origin Episternum and omosternum
Insertion Proximal end of the radius
Action Flexes the forearm

5. Cutaneous pectoralis- locate this most ventral, thin, pocket-like,

superficial muscle found posterior to the sternoradialis.

Origin Xiphisternum; from the anterior margin of the sheath

that covers the rectus abdominis
Insertion Dermis of the skin at the pectoral region
Action Tenses the skin that overlies the pectoral girdle

6. Pectoralis- deflect ventrally the cutaneous pectoralis and locate this group
of fan-shaped muscles that are also found posterior to the sternoradialis.
This group of muscles can be divided into three parts: anterior, medial,
and posterior pectoralis.

Origin Sternum
Insertion Humerus
Action Flexor, adductor, and rotator of the arm

7. Rectus abdominis- identify the thin connective tissue running at the

midventral portion of the abdomen. This is the linea alba. Lateral to the
linea alba is a longitudinal muscle called the rectus abdominis. The muscle
is subdivided by a series of transverse, tendinous inscriptions.

Origin Pubic border

Insertion Sternum
Action Support the abdominal viscera; hold the sternum in
place

8. External oblique- find this sheet-like muscle lateral to the rectus

abdominis. Notice that the direction of muscle fibers ran obliquely.

Origin Ilium; dorsal fascia of vertebrae

Insertion Linea alba
Action Help constrict the abdomen; support the viscera

9. Internal oblique- thin sheet of muscle closely applied to the external

oblique but differs in the direction of the fibers.

Origin Ilium; dorsal fascia; transverse process of vertebrae

Insertion Anterior portion of the same aponeurosis to which the
external oblique attaches
Action Help constrict the abdomen; support the viscera
B. Ventral Muscles of the Thigh and Shank

1. Sartorius- locate the flat strap-like muscle running obliquely along the
ventral side of the thigh.

Origin Pubis
Insertion Tibiofibula
Action Flexes the shank; adducts the thigh

2. Adductor longus- this muscle can be seen by cutting the belly of the
sartorius muscle

Origin Ilium
Insertion Femur
Action Adducts the thigh

3. Adductor magnus- find the thick muscle near the groin area. This is seen
as a triangle when the sartorius is in place. This is also the muscle
immediately posterior to the adductor longus.

Origin Pubic symphysis; ischial symphysis

Insertion Distal end of the femur
Action Adducts the thigh; flexes or extends the shank

4. Gracilis major- locate this large muscle with oblique fibers situated
posterior to the adductor magnus.

Origin Ischium
Insertion Tibiofibula
Action Adducts the thigh; flexes the shank

5. Gracilis minor- find this long strip, narrow muscle at the posterior margin
of gracilis major.

Origin Ischium
Insertion Tibiofibula
Action Adducts the thigh; flexes the shank

6. Semitendinosus- this is a deep muscle. In order to see this muscle,

separate gracilis major and the adductor magnus, and between the to
muscles is the semitendinosus.

Origin Ischium
Insertion Tibiofibula
Action Adducts the thigh; flexes the leg
7. Gastrocnemius- locate this large muscle situated at the back of the
shank. Observe the white tissues (fascia) surrounding the belly of this
muscle.

Origin Distal end of the femur; anterior portion of the knee

Insertion Ankle of the foot
Action Extensor of the foot

8. Tibialis posticus- find this long, narrow but thick muscle anterior to the
gastrocnemius and partly covered by it. This is seen attached to the
surface of the tibiofibula.

Origin Posterior surface of the tibiofibula

Insertion Proximal end of the astragalus
Action Extensor or flexor of the foot depending on the position
of the foot

9. Extensor cruris- locate this short, slender muscle at the anterior proximal
half of the tibiofibula. In the toad, this muscle is not well-defined.

Origin Distal end of the femur

Insertion Anterior surface of the proximal half of the tibiofibula
Action Extensor of the foot

10. Flexor tarsi anterior- find this narrow muscle distal to the extensor cruris.
In the toad, this muscle is not well-defined.

Origin Anterior surface of the middle and distal half of

tibiofibula
Insertion Proximal end of astragalus; fascia of the foot
Action Flexor of the foot

11. Tibialis anticus- locate the most anterior muscle of the shank which can
also be seen dorsally. This muscle splits into two slips distally.

Origin Femur
Insertion Distal end of the astragalus and calcaneus
Action Flexor of the foot
C. Ventral Muscles of the Forelimbs

1. Scapulohumeralis (Deltoid)- find this thick muscle that passes obliquely

ventral to the lateral portion of the sternoradialis.

Origin Scapula
Insertion Deltoid ridge
Action Adducts the forearm

2. Triceps brachii- locate this large muscle that is situated at the posterior
side of the upper arm which could be seen both dorsally and ventrally.

Origin Base of the scapula; shaft of the humerus

Insertion Proximal end of the radioulna
Action Extends the forearm

NOTE: Other muscles of the upper arm are too small to be traced.

D. Dorsal Muscles of the Head and Trunk

Turn the specimen dorsal side up and identify the following muscles.

1. Temporalis- locate a pair of stout muscles posterior to the eye and at

about the level of the tympanic membrane.

Origin Middorsal line of the skull

Insertion Posterior region of the mandible
Action Raises the lower jaw; closes the mouth

2. Depressor mandibulae- find this flattened muscle immediately posterior

to the temporalis muscle. In the toad, this muscle is a stout muscle
posterolateral to the temporalis muscle.

Origin Through the tough fascia in the middorsal line

Insertion Mandible
Action Depresses the jaw

3. Dorsalis scapulae- find this large, broad muscle underneath the

depressor mandibulae, which can be exposed by cutting the fascia of the
depressor mandibulae along the middorsal line. In the toad, this is a large
broad muscle immediately posterior to the depressor mandibulae and
concealed under the paratoid gland.

Origin Dorsal surface of suprascapula and scapula

Insertion Lateral side of the humerus
Action Abducts the arm
4. Cucullaris- locate this pair of narrow muscles medial to the dorsalis
scapulae and is found lying lateral to the middorsal line.

Origin Middorsal line

Insertion Portion of the pectoral girdle
Action Draws forelimbs upward

5. Latissimus dorsi- find this pair of large, flat, triangular muscles

immediately posterior to and partly covered anteriorly by the depressor
mandibulae. In the toad, this is a two-prong V-shaped muscle with dorsal
and ventral slips. The dorsal slip is found posterolateral to the cucullaris,
while the ventral slip is found posterior to the dorsalis scapulae.

Origin Lumbodorsal fascia

Insertion Lateral side of the proximal end of the humerus
Action Draws the forelimb upward and backward

6. Longissimus dorsi- find the mass of muscle posterior to the latissimus

dorsi lying alongside the middorsal line and tapering posteriorly.

Origin Anterior third of the urostyle

Insertion Posterior end of the skull; dorsal surfaces of the
vertebrae
Action Extends the back; elevates the head

7. Ilio-lumbaris- locate the muscle lateral to the longissimus dorsi. The

lateral or horizontal skeletogenous septum, a strong connective tissue,
separates the ilio-lumbaris from the lateral external oblique.

Origin Anterior part of the ilium

Insertion Transverse processes of the trunk vertebrae
Action Bends the back

8. Coccygeo-sacralis- find the pair of small V-shaped muscles immediately

posterior to the longissimus dorsi.

Origin Lateral side of the half of the urostyle

Insertion Transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae
Action Draws the back and urostyle nearer to each other
 9. Coccygeo-iliacus- locate a pair of large V-shaped muscles immediately
posterior to the coccygeo-sacralis and is situated between the ilia of the
pelvic girdle.

Origin Lateral side of the posterior half of the urostyle

Insertion Ilium
Action Extends the back; fixes the urostyle with respect to
the pelvic girdle

E. Dorsal Muscle of the Thigh and Shank

1. Triceps femoris- largest, three-headed muscles that cover the lateral

surface of the thigh. Locate the three heads which are:

a. Vastus externus- dorsally situated

b. Rectus femoris (Tensor fascia lata)- medially located
c. Vastus internus- ventrally located

Origin Vastus externus- crest of the ilium

Tensor fascia lata- ventral side of the ilium
Vastus internus- acetabulum
Insertion Front of tibia
Action Draws the hindlimb forward; extends the leg

2. Gluteus- find this small but thick muscle found anterior to the vastus
externus and medial to the rectus femoris.

Origin Ilium
Insertion Proximal end of the femur
Action Rotates the femur forward

3. Biceps femoris (Iliofibularis)- locate this slender muscle posterior to the

triceps femoris with the proximal end being covered by the vastus
externus.

Origin Posterior part of the ilium

Insertion Proximal end of the tibiofibula
Action Flexes the shank

4. Semimembranosus- find this large muscle situated to the biceps femoris.

Origin Posterior part of the ischium

Insertion Proximal end of the tibiofibula
Action Flexes or extends the shank
 5. Pyriformis- locate a slender, short muscle found between the proximal
end of the biceps femoris and the semimembranosus.

Origin Urostyle
Insertion Femur
Action Pulls the urostyle to one side; draws the femur dorsally

6. Gastrocnemius- as previously described

7. Peroneus- locate this muscle of the shank immediately anterior to the

gastrocnemius and partly covered by it.

Origin Distal end of the femur

Insertion Distal end of the tibiofibula; proximal end of calcaneus
Action Extensor or flexor of the foot

8. Tibialis anticus- as previously described

Muscles act by contraction. For effective action, muscles must be arranged in

antagonistic pairs. Examples of which are the gastrocnemius and the tibialis anticus. Try
to loosen the body of each muscle. Pull the gastrocnemius and observe. Now pull the
tibialis anticus and observe. See whether you can locate other antagonistic pairs.

Store the dissected toad in a container with 10% formalin. This will be used in the
next activity.

References

Duran, A.P. 1987. Laboratory Manual in General Zoology. A.P. Duran Enterprises.

Hickman, C.P., F.M. Hickman and L. Kats. 1997. Laboratory Studies in Integrated
Principles of Zoology. 9th edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 251-265.

Pahl, George, FSC. 1987. Principles of Zoology Investigations. De La Salle University

Press, Manila.