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Slackware Linux Essentials

Alan Hicks

Chris Lumens

David Cantrell

Logan Johnson
Copyright © 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 Slackware Linux, Inc.

Slackware Linux is a registered trademark of Patrick Volkerding and Slackware Linux, Inc.

Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.

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countries.

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Business Machines Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both.

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of Intel Corporation or its subsidiaries in the United States and other countries.

Microsoft, IntelliMouse, MS-DOS, Outlook, Windows, Windows Media and Windows NT are either
registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries.

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countries.

XFree86 is a trademark of The XFree86 Project, Inc.

Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as
trademarks. Where those designations appear in this document, and Slackware Linux, Inc. was aware of the
trademark claim, the designations have been followed by the “™” or the “®” symbol.

1-57176-338-4
[ Split HTML / Single HTML ]

Table of Contents
Preface

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1 An Introduction to Slackware Linux

1.1 What is Linux?

1.1.1 A Word on GNU
1.2 What is Slackware?
1.3 Open Source and Free Software
2 Help
2.1 System Help

2.1.1 man
2.1.2 The /usr/doc Directory
2.1.3 HOWTOs and mini-HOWTOs

2.2 Online Help

2.2.1 The Official Website and Help Forums
2.2.2 E-mail Support
2.2.3 Non-Official Websites and Help Forums
3 Installation
3.1 Getting Slackware
3.1.1 The Official Disc and Box Sets
3.1.2 Via the Internet
3.2 System Requirements
3.2.1 The Software Series
3.2.2 Installation Methods
3.2.3 Boot Disk
3.2.4 Root Disk
3.2.5 Supplemental Disk
3.2.6 Making the Disks
3.3 Partitioning
3.4 The setup Program
3.4.1 HELP
3.4.2 KEYMAP
3.4.3 ADDSWAP
3.4.4 TARGET
3.4.5 SOURCE
3.4.6 SELECT
3.4.7 INSTALL
3.4.8 CONFIGURE
4 System Configuration
4.1 System Overview
4.1.1 File System Layout
4.1.2 Finding Files
4.1.3 The /etc/rc.d Directory
4.2 Selecting a Kernel
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4.2.1 The /kernels Directory on the Slackware CD-ROM

4.2.2 Compiling a Kernel from Source
4.2.3 Using Kernel Modules
5 Network Configuration
5.1 Introduction: netconfig is your friend.
5.2 Network Hardware Configuration
5.2.1 Loading Network Modules
5.2.2 LAN (10/100/1000Base-T and Base-2) cards
5.2.3 Modems
5.2.4 PCMCIA
5.3 TCP/IP Configuration
5.3.1 DHCP
5.3.2 Static IP
5.3.3 /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf
5.3.4 /etc/resolv.conf
5.3.5 /etc/hosts
5.4 PPP
5.4.1 pppsetup
5.4.2 /etc/ppp
5.5 Wireless
5.5.1 Hardware Support
5.5.2 Configure the Wireless Settings
5.5.3 Configure the Network
5.6 Network File Systems
5.6.1 SMB/Samba/CIFS
5.6.2 Network File System (NFS)
6 X Configuration
6.1 xorgconfig
6.2 xorgsetup
6.3 xinitrc
6.4 xwmconfig
6.5 xdm

7 Booting
7.1 LILO
7.2 LOADLIN
7.3 Dual Booting
7.3.1 Windows
7.3.2 Linux
8 The Shell
8.1 Users
8.1.1 Logging In

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8.1.2 Root: The Superuser

8.2 The Command Line
8.2.1 Running Programs
8.2.2 Wildcard Matching
8.2.3 Input/Output Redirection and Piping
8.3 The Bourne Again Shell (bash)
8.3.1 Environment Variables
8.3.2 Tab Completion
8.4 Virtual Terminals
8.4.1 Screen
9 Filesystem Structure
9.1 Ownership
9.2 Permissions
9.3 Links
9.4 Mounting Devices
9.4.1 fstab
9.4.2 mount and umount
9.5 NFS Mounts
10 Handling Files and Directories
10.1 Navigation : ls, cd, and pwd
10.1.1 ls
10.1.2 cd
10.1.3 pwd
10.2 Pagers: more, less, and most
10.2.1 more
10.2.2 less
10.2.3 most

10.3 Simple Output: cat and echo

10.3.1 cat
10.3.2 echo
10.4 Creation: touch and mkdir
10.4.1 touch
10.4.2 mkdir
10.5 Copy and Move
10.5.1 cp
10.5.2 mv

10.6 Deletion: rm and rmdir

10.6.1 rm
10.6.2 rmdir

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10.7 Aliasing files with ln

11 Process Control
11.1 Backgrounding
11.2 Foregrounding
11.3 ps
11.4 kill
11.5 top
12 Essential System Administration
12.1 Users and Groups
12.1.1 Supplied Scripts
12.1.2 Changing Passwords
12.1.3 Changing User Information
12.2 Users and Groups, the Hard Way
12.3 Shutting Down Properly
13 Basic Network Commands
13.1 ping
13.2 traceroute
13.3 DNS Tools
13.3.1 host
13.3.2 nslookup
13.3.3 dig
13.4 finger
13.5 telnet
13.5.1 The other use of telnet
13.6 The Secure shell
13.7 email
13.7.1 pine
13.7.2 elm
13.7.3 mutt
13.7.4 nail
13.8 Browsers
13.8.1 lynx
13.8.2 links
13.8.3 wget
13.9 FTP Clients
13.9.1 ftp
13.9.2 ncftp
13.10 Talking to Other People
13.10.1 wall
13.10.2 talk
13.10.3 ytalk

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14 Security
14.1 Disabling Services
14.1.1 Services started from inetd
14.1.2 Services started from init scripts
14.2 Host Access Control
14.2.1 iptables
14.2.2 tcpwrappers
14.3 Keeping Current
14.3.1 slackware-security mailing list
14.3.2 The /patches directory
15 Archive Files
15.1 gzip
15.2 bzip2
15.3 tar
15.4 zip

16 Vi
16.1 Starting vi
16.2 Modes
16.2.1 Command Mode
16.2.2 Insert Mode
16.3 Opening Files
16.4 Saving Files
16.5 Quitting vi
16.6 vi Configuration
16.7 Vi Keys

17 Emacs
17.1 Starting emacs

17.1.1 Command Keys

17.2 Buffers
17.3 Modes

17.3.1 Opening files

17.4 Basic Editing
17.5 Saving Files
17.5.1 Quitting Emacs

18 Slackware Package Management

18.1 Overview of Package Format
18.2 Package Utilities

18.2.1 pkgtool
18.2.2 installpkg
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18.2.3 removepkg
18.2.4 upgradepkg
18.2.5 rpm2tgz/rpm2targz
18.3 Making Packages
18.3.1 explodepkg
18.3.2 makepkg
18.3.3 SlackBuild Scripts
18.4 Making Tags and Tagfiles (for setup)
19 ZipSlack
19.1 What is ZipSlack?

19.1.1 Advantages
19.1.2 Disadvantages
19.2 Getting ZipSlack

19.2.1 Installation
19.3 Booting ZipSlack

Glossary
A. The GNU General Public License

A.1. Preamble
A.2. TERMS AND CONDITIONS
A.3. How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
List of Tables
2-1. Man Page Sections
3-1. Slackware Linux, Inc. Contact Information
3-2. System Requirements
3-3. Software Series
9-1. Octal Permission Values
13-1. ftp commands
16-1. Movement
16-2. Editing
16-3. Searching
16-4. Saving and Quitting
17-1. Basic Emacs Editing Commands
18-1. installpkg Options
18-2. removepkg Options
18-3. Tagfile Status Options

List of Figures
4-1. Kernel Configuration Menu
6-1. xorgconfig Mouse Configuration
6-2. xorgconfig Horizontal Sync
6-3. xorgconfig Vertical Sync
6-4. xorgconfig Video Card
6-5. Desktop Configuration with xorgconfig
7-1. liloconfig
7-2. liloconfig Expert Menu
11-1. Basic ps output
13-1. Telnetting to a webserver
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13-2. The Pine main menu

13-3. Elm main screen
13-4. Mutt main screen
13-5. Lynx default start page
13-6. Links, with the file menu open
13-7. Two users in a talk session
13-8. Two users in a ytalk session
16-1. A vi session.
18-1. Pkgtool's main menu.
18-2. Pkgtool view mode

List of Examples
8-1. Listing Environment Variables with set

Preface
Intended Audience
The Slackware Linux operating system is a powerful platform for Intel-based computers. It is
designed to be stable, secure, and functional as both a high-end server and powerful workstation.

This book is designed to get you started with the Slackware Linux operating system. It's not meant
to cover every single aspect of the distribution, but rather to show what it is capable of and give
you a basic working knowledge of the system.

As you gain experience with Slackware Linux, we hope you find this book to be a handy reference.
We also hope you'll lend it to all of your friends when they come asking about that cool Slackware
Linux operating system you're running.

While this book may not an edge-of-your-seat novel, we certainly tried to make it as entertaining as
possible. With any luck, we'll get a movie deal. Of course, we also hope you are able to learn from
it and find it useful.

And now, on with the show.

Changes from the First Edition

This second edition is the culmination of years of hard work by the dedicated members of the
Slackware Documentation Project. The following are the major changes in this new edition:

Chapter 3, Installation, has been modified with new screenshots of the installer, and
reflects changes in disk-sets, and CD installation.

Chapter 4, System Configuration, has been updated with new information about Linux
2.6.x kernels.

Chapter 5, Network Configuration, has been expanded with further explanation of

Samba, NFS, and DHCP. A section on wireless networking has also been added. This
chapter now reflects major changes in how Slackware handles network setup.

Chapter 6, X Window System, has been substantially rewritten for Xorg based systems.
This chapter now also covers the xdm graphical login manager.
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Chapter 13, Basic Network Commands, has been enhanced with information about
additional network utilities.

Chapter 14, Security, is a new chapter with this edition. It explains how to keep a
Slackware Linux system secure.

Chapter 17, Emacs, is a new chapter with this edition. It describes how to use Emacs, a
powerful editor for Unix.

Chapter 18, Package Management, has been updated with information about SlackBuild
scripts.

There are many other changes, both minor and major, to reflect changes in Slackware as
it has matured.

Organization of this Book

Chapter 1, Introduction

Provides introductory material on Linux, Slackware, and the Open Source and Free Software
Movements.

Chapter 2, Help

Describes the help resources available on a Slackware Linux system and online.

Chapter 3, Installation

Describes the installation process step-by-step with screenshots to provide an illustrative

walk-through.

Chapter 4, System Configuration

Describes the important configuration files and covers kernel recompilation.

Chapter 5, Network Configuration

Describes how to connect a Slackware Linux machine to a network. Covers TCP/IP,

PPP/dial-up, wireless networking, and more.

Chapter 6, The X Window System

Describes how to setup and use the graphical X Window System in Slackware.

Chapter 7, Booting

Describes the process by which a computer boots into Slackware Linux. Also covers dual-
booting with Microsoft Windows operating systems.

Chapter 8, The Shell

Describes the powerful command line interface for Linux.

Chapter 9, Filesystem Structure

Describes the filesystem structure, including file ownership, permission, and linking.

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Chapter 10, Handling Files and Directories

Describes the commands used to manipulate files and directories from the command line
interface.

Chapter 11, Process Control

Describes the powerful Linux process management commands used to manage multiple
running applications.

Chapter 12, Essential System Administration

Describes basic system administration tasks such as adding and removing users, shutting
down the system properly, and more.

Chapter 13, Basic Network Commands

Describes the collection of network clients included with Slackware.

Chapter 14, Security

Describes many different tools available to help keep your Slackware system secure,
including iptables and tcpwrappers.

Chapter 15, Archive Files

Describes the different compression and archive utilities available for Linux.

Chapter 16, vi

Describes the powerful vi text editor.

Chapter 17, Emacs

Describes the powerful Emacs text editor.

Chapter 18, Slackware Package Management

Describes the Slackware package utilities and the process used to create custom packages
and tagfiles.

Chapter 19, ZipSlack

Describes the ZipSlack version of Linux that can be used from Windows without requiring
an installation.

Appendix A, The GNU General Public License

Describes the license terms under which Slackware Linux and this book can be copied and
distributed.

Conventions used in this book

To provide a consistent and easy to read text, several conventions are followed throughout the
book.

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Typographic Conventions
Italic

An italic font is used for commands, emphasized text, and the first usage of technical terms.

Monospace

A monospaced font is used for error messages, commands, environment variables, names of
ports, hostnames, user names, group names, device names, variables, and code fragments.

Bold

A bold font is used for user input in examples.

User Input

Keys are shown in bold to stand out from other text. Key combinations that are meant to be typed
simultaneously are shown with `+' between the keys, such as:

Ctrl+Alt+Del

Meaning the user should type the Ctrl, Alt, and Del keys at the same time.

Keys that are meant to be typed in sequence will be separated with commas, for example:

Ctrl+X, Ctrl+S

Would mean that the user is expected to type the Ctrl and X keys simultaneously and then to type
the Ctrl and S keys simultaneously.

Examples

Examples starting with E:\> indicate a MS-DOS® command. Unless otherwise noted, these
commands may be executed from a “Command Prompt” window in a modern
Microsoft® Windows® environment.

D:\> rawrite a: bare.i

Examples starting with # indicate a command that must be invoked as the superuser in Slackware.
You can login as root to type the command, or login as your normal account and use su(1) to gain
superuser privileges.

# dd if=bare.i of=/dev/fd0

Examples starting with % indicate a command that should be invoked from a normal user account.
Unless otherwise noted, C-shell syntax is used for setting environment variables and other shell
commands.

% top

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Acknowledgments
This project is the accumulation of months of work by many dedicated individuals. It would not
have been possible for me to produce this work in a vacuum. Many people deserve our thanks for
their selfless acts: Keith Keller for his work on wireless networking, Joost Kremers for his great
work in single-handedly writing the emacs section, Simon Williams for the security chapter, Jurgen
Phillippaerts for basic networking commands, Cibao Cu Ali G Colibri for the inspiration and a
good kick in the pants. Countless others have sent in suggestions and fixes. An incomplete list
includes: Jacob Anhoej, John Yast, Sally Welch, Morgan Landry, and Charlie Law. I'd also like to
thank Keith Keller for hosting the mailing list for this project, as well as Carl Inglis for the initial
web hosting. Last but not least, I'd like to thank Patrick J. Volkerding for Slackware Linux, and
David Cantrell, Logan Johnson, and Chris Lumens for Slackware Linux Essentials 1st Edition.
Without their initial framework, none of this would have ever happened. Many others have
contributed in small and large ways to this project and have not been listed. I hope they will forgive
me for a poor memory.

Alan Hicks, May 2005

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Slackware

Linux
1.1 What is Linux?
Linus Torvalds started Linux, an operating system kernel, as a personal project in 1991. He started
the project because he wanted to run a Unix-based operating system without spending a lot of
money. In addition, he wanted to learn the ins and outs of the 386 processor. Linux was released
free of charge to the public so that anyone could study it and make improvements under the
General Public License. (See Section 1.3 and Appendix A for an explanation of the license.) Today,
Linux has grown into a major player in the operating system market. It has been ported to run on a
variety of system architectures, including HP/Compaq's Alpha, Sun's SPARC and UltraSPARC,
and Motorola's PowerPC chips (through Apple Macintosh and IBM RS/6000 computers.)
Hundreds, if not thousands, of programmers all over the world now develop Linux. It runs
programs like Sendmail, Apache, and BIND, which are very popular software used to run Internet
servers. It's important to remember that the term “Linux” really refers to the kernel - the core of the
operating system. This core is responsible for controlling your computer's processor, memory, hard
drives, and peripherals. That's all Linux really does: It controls the operations of your computer and
makes sure that all of its programs behave. Various companies and individuals bundle the kernel
and various programs together to make an operating system. We call each bundle a Linux
distribution.

1.1.1 A Word on GNU

The Linux kernel project began as a solo endeavor by Linus Torvalds in 1991, but as Isaac Newton
once said, “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” When Linus
Torvalds began the kernel the Free Software Foundation had already established the idea of
collaborative software. They entitled their effort GNU, a recursive acronym that means simply
“GNU's Not Unix”. GNU software ran atop the Linux kernel from day 1. Their compiler gcc was
used to compile the kernel. Today many GNU tools from gcc to gnutar are still at the basis of every

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major Linux distribution. For this reason many of the Free Software Foundation's proponents
fervently state that their work should be given the same credit as the Linux kernel. They strongly
suggest that all Linux distributions should refer to themselves as GNU/Linux distributions.

This is the topic of many flamewars, surpassed only by the ancient vi versus emacs holy war. The
purpose of this book is not to fan the fires of this heated discussion, but rather to clarify the
terminology for neophytes. When one sees GNU/Linux it means a Linux distribution. When one
sees Linux they can either be referring to the kernel, or to a distribution. It can be rather confusing.
Typically the term GNU/Linux isn't used because it's a mouth full.

1.2 What is Slackware?

Slackware, started by Patrick Volkerding in late 1992, and initially released to the world on July 17,
1993, was the first Linux distribution to achieve widespread use. Volkerding first learned of Linux
when he needed an inexpensive LISP interpreter for a project. One of the few distributions
available at the time was SLS Linux from Soft Landing Systems. Volkerding used SLS Linux,
fixing bugs as he found them. Eventually, he decided to merge all of these bugfixes into his own
private distribution that he and his friends could use. This private distribution quickly gained
popularity, so Volkerding decided to name it Slackware and make it publicly available. Along the
way, Patrick added new things to Slackware; a user friendly installation program based on a
menuing system, as well as the concept of package management, which allows users to easily add,
remove, or upgrade software packages on their systems.

There are many reasons why Slackware is Linux's oldest living distribution. It does not try to
emulate Windows, it tries to be as Unix-like as possible. It does not try to cover up processes with
fancy, point-and-click GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces). Instead, it puts users in control by letting
them see exactly what's going on. Its development is not rushed to meet deadlines-each version
comes out when it is ready.

Slackware is for people who enjoy learning and tweaking their system to do exactly what they
want. Slackware's stability and simplicity are why people will continue to use it for years to come.
Slackware currently enjoys a reputation as a solid server and a no-nonsense workstation. You can
find Slackware desktops running nearly any window manager or desktop environment, or none at
all. Slackware servers power businesses, acting in every capacity that a server can be used in.
Slackware users are among the most satisfied Linux users. Of course, we'd say that. :^)

1.3 Open Source and Free Software

Within the Linux community, there are two major ideological movements at work. The Free
Software movement (which we'll get into in a moment) is working toward the goal of making all
software free of intellectual property restrictions. Followers of this movement believe these
restrictions hamper technical improvement and work against the good of the community. The Open
Source movement is working toward most of the same goals, but takes a more pragmatic approach
to them. Followers of this movement prefer to base their arguments on the economic and technical
merits of making source code freely available, rather than the moral and ethical principles that
drive the Free Software Movement.

At the other end of the spectrum are groups that wish to maintain tighter controls over their
software.

The Free Software movement is headed by the Free Software Foundation, a fund-raising
organization for the GNU project. Free software is more of an ideology. The oft-used expression is
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“free as in speech, not free as in beer”. In essence, free software is an attempt to guarantee certain
rights for both users and developers. These freedoms include the freedom to run the program for
any reason, to study and modify the source code, to redistribute the source, and to share any
modifications you make. In order to guarantee these freedoms, the GNU General Public License
(GPL) was created. The GPL, in brief, provides that anyone distributing a compiled program which
is licensed under the GPL must also provide source code, and is free to make modifications to the
program as long as those modifications are also made available in source code form. This
guarantees that once a program is “opened” to the community, it cannot be “closed” except by
consent of every author of every piece of code (even the modifications) within it. Most Linux
programs are licensed under the GPL.

It is important to note that the GPL does not say anything about price. As odd as it may sound, you
can charge for free software. The “free” part is in the liberties you have with the source code, not in
the price you pay for the software. (However, once someone has sold you, or even given you, a
compiled program licensed under the GPL they are obligated to provide its source code as well.)

Another popular license is the BSD license. In contrast to the GPL, the BSD license gives no
requirement for the release of a program's source code. Software released under the BSD license
allows redistribution in source or binary form provided only a few conditions are met. The author's
credentials cannot be used as a sort of advertisement for the program. It also indemnifies the author
from liability for damages that may arise from the use of the software. Much of the software
included in Slackware Linux is BSD licensed.

At the forefront of the younger Open Source movement, the Open Source Initiative is an
organization that solely exists to gain support for open source software, that is, software that has
the source code available as well as the ready-to-run program. They do not offer a specific license,
but instead they support the various types of open source licenses available.

The idea behind the OSI is to get more companies behind open source by allowing them to write
their own open source licenses and have those licenses certified by the Open Source Initiative.
Many companies want to release source code, but do not want to use the GPL. Since they cannot
radically change the GPL, they are offered the opportunity to provide their own license and have it
certified by this organization.

While the Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative work to help each other, they
are not the same thing. The Free Software Foundation uses a specific license and provides software
under that license. The Open Source Initiative seeks support for all open source licenses, including
the one from the Free Software Foundation. The grounds on which each argues for making source
code freely available sometimes divides the two movements, but the fact that two ideologically
diverse groups are working toward the same goal lends credence to the efforts of each.

Chapter 2 Help
Often there are times when you might need help with a specific command, setting up a program, or
getting a piece of hardware to work. Maybe you simply want to understand a given command
better, or see what other options are available to use with it. Luckily, there are a variety of ways
that you can get the help you're looking for. When you install Slackware you have the option of
installing packages from the “F” series which includes FAQs and HOWTOs. Programs also come
with help about their options, configuration files, and usage.

2.1 System Help

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2.1.1 man
The man command (short for “manual”) is the traditional form of online documentation in Unix and
Linux operating systems. Comprised of specially formatted files, the “man pages”, are written for
the vast majority of commands and are distributed with the software itself. Executing man
somecommand will display the man page for (naturally) the command specified, in our example this
would be the imaginary program somecommand.

As you might imagine, the amount of man pages can quickly add up, becoming overly confusing
and seriously complicated, even for an advanced user. So, for this reason, man pages are grouped
into enumerated sections. This system has been around for a very long time; enough so that you
will often see commands, programs, and even programming library functions referred to with their
man section number.

For example:

You might see a reference to man(1). The numbering tells you that “man” is documented in section 1
(user commands); you can specify that you want the section 1 man page for “man” with the
command man 1 man. Specifying the section that man should look in is useful in the case of
multiple items with the same name.

Table 2-1. Man Page Sections

Section Contents
Section 1 user commands (intro only)
Section 2 system calls
Section 3 C library calls
Section 4 devices (e.g., hd, sd)
Section 5 file formats and protocols (e.g., wtmp, /etc/passwd, nfs)
Section 6 games (intro only)
Section 7 conventions, macro packages, etc. (e.g., nroff, ascii)
Section 8 system administration (intro only)

In addition to man(1), there are the commands whatis(1) and apropos(1) available to you, whose
shared purpose is to make it easier to find information in the man system.

The command whatis gives a very brief description of system commands, somewhat in the style of
a pocket command reference.

Example:

% whatis whatis
whatis (1) - search the whatis database for complete words

The command apropos is used to search for a man page containing a given keyword.

Example:

% apropos wav
cdda2wav (1) - a sampling utility that dumps CD audio data into wav sound files
netwave_cs (4) - Xircom Creditcard Netwave device driver
oggdec (1) - simple decoder, Ogg Vorbis file to PCM audio file (WAV or RAW)
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wavelan (4) - AT&T GIS WaveLAN ISA device driver
wavelan_cs (4) - AT&T GIS WaveLAN PCMCIA device driver
wvlan_cs (4) - Lucent WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 device driver

If you'd like further information on any of these commands, read their man pages for the details. ;)

2.1.2 The /usr/doc Directory

The source for most packages that we build comes with some sort of documentation: README
files, usage instructions, license files, etc. Any sort of documentation that comes with the source is
included and installed on your system in the /usr/doc directory. Each program will (usually) install
its own documentation in the order of:

/usr/doc/$program-$version

Where $program is the name of the program you are wanting to read about, and $version is
(obviously) the appropriate version of software package installed on your system.

For example, to read the documentation for the command man(1) you would want to cd to:

% cd /usr/doc/man-$version

If reading the appropriate man page(s) doesn't provide you with enough information, or address
what you're looking for in particular, the /usr/doc directory should be your next stop.

2.1.3 HOWTOs and mini-HOWTOs

It is in the truest spirit of the Open Source community that brings us to the HOWTO/mini-HOWTO
collection. These files are exactly what they sound like - documents and guides describing how to
do stuff. If you installed the HOWTO collection, the HOWTOs will be installed to
/usr/doc/Linux-HOWTOs and the mini-HOWTOs to /usr/doc/Linux-mini-HOWTOs.

Also included in the same package series is a collection of FAQs, which is an acronym which
stands for

Frequently
Asked
Questions

These documents are written in a “Question and answer” style for (surprise) Frequently Asked
Questions. The FAQs can often be a very useful place to look if you're just looking for a “Quick
Fix” to something. If you decide to install the FAQs during setup, you will find them installed to
the /usr/doc/Linux-FAQs directory.

These files are well worth reading whenever you're not quite sure how to proceed with something.
They cover an amazing range of topics, more often than not in a surprisingly detailed manner.
Good stuff!

2.2 Online Help

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In addition to the documentation provided and installable with the Slackware Linux Operating
System, there are a vast multitude of online resources available for you to learn from as well.

2.2.1 The Official Website and Help Forums

The Official Slackware Website

The Official Slackware Linux website is sometimes out of date, but still contains information
relevant to the latest Slackware versions. At one time an active help forum existed there before a
horde of trolls, troublemakers, and whiners descended on the forum. Maintaining the forum was
beginning to be too much work, and so Pat shut it down. One can find that old forum back up and
running complete with searchable archives of the old data at http://www.userlocal.com/phorum/.

After the forums were taken down on http://slackware.com, several other sites sprang up that
offered forum support for Slackware. After much thought, Pat chose to endorse
www.linuxquestions.org as the official forum for Slackware Linux.

2.2.2 E-mail Support

Everyone who purchases an official CD set is entitled to free installation support via e-mail from
the developer. That having been said, please keep in mind that we, the developers, (and a vast
majority of users) of Slackware are of “The Old School”. That means that we prefer to help those
who have a sincere interest and are willing to help themselves in the process. We will always do
our best to help everyone who emails us with support questions. However, Please check your
documentation and the website (especially the FAQs and maybe some of the forums listed below)
before e-mailing. You may get a faster answer that way, and the less e-mail we have to answer,
obviously the sooner we will be of assistance to those that need it.

The e-mail address for technical support is: support@slackware.com. Other e-mail addresses and
contact information are listed on the website.

2.2.2.1 Slackware Linux Project Mailing Lists

We have several mailing lists, available in digest and normal forms. Check the instructions for how
to subscribe.

To subscribe to a mailing list, email:

majordomo@slackware.com

with the phrase “subscribe [name of list]” in the body of the email. The list choices are described
below (use one the names below for the name of the list).

Archives of the mailing list can be found on Slackware's website at:

http://slackware.com/lists/archive/

slackware-announce

The slackware-announce mailing list is for announcements of new versions, major updates
and other general information.

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The slackware-security mailing list is for announcements relating to security issues. Any
exploits or other vulnerabilities directly pertaining to Slackware will get posted to this list
immediately.

These lists are also available in digest format. This means that you get one large message per day
instead of several messages throughout the day. Since the slackware mailing lists do not allow
users to post, and the lists are such low traffic, most users find little advantage in the digest lists.
Still, they are available if you want them by subscribing to slackware-announce-digest or
slackware-security-digest.

2.2.3 Non-Official Websites and Help Forums

2.2.3.1 Websites

Google

The Kung-Fu Master of Search Engines. When you absolutely, positively gotta find every
last kernel of information on a subject: Accept no substitutes.

Google:Linux

Linux-Specific searches

Google:BSD

BSD-Specific searches. Slackware is so generic as a Unix work-a-like operating system that

one can as often as not find very detailed information that is almost 100% relevant to
Slackware here. Many times a BSD search reveals far more technical information than the
often PR-related Linux searches.

Google:Groups

Search through decades of Usenet posts for your pearls of wisdom.

http://userlocal.com

A virtual treasure-trove of knowledge, good advice, first-hand experience and interesting

articles. Often the first place you'll hear about new developments in the world of Slackware.

2.2.3.2 Web-based Resources

linuxquestions.org

The officially sanctioned web-forum for Slackware users.

LinuxISO.org Slackware Forum

“A place to download and get help with Linux.”

alt.os.linux.slackware FAQ

Another FAQ

2.2.3.3 Usenet Groups (NNTP)

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Usenet has long been a place for geeks to gather and help one another. There are few newsgroups
dedicated to Slackware Linux, but they tend to be filled with very knowledgeable people.

alt.os.linux.slackware

alt.os.linux.slackware, better known as aols (not to be confused with AOL®!) is one of the most
active places to find technical help with Slackware problems. Like every Usenet newsgroup, a few
unhelpful participants (“trolls”) can mar the experience with constant arguing. Learning to ignore
the trolls and identifying the truly helpful people is key to making the most of this resource.

Chapter 3 Installation
Before you can use Slackware Linux, you'll have to obtain and install it. Getting Slackware is as
easy as purchasing it or downloading it for free over the Internet. Installing it is also easy as long as
you have some basic knowledge about your computer and are willing to learn a few other things.
The installation program itself is very much a step-by-step process. Because of this, you can be up
and running very quickly. In fact, Slackware boasts one of the lowest installation times of any full-
featured Linux distribution.

3.1 Getting Slackware

3.1.1 The Official Disc and Box Sets
The official Slackware Linux CD set is available from Slackware Linux, Inc. The CD set consists
of 4 discs. The first disk contains all the software needed for a basic server install, and the X
window system. The second cd is a “live” cd; that is, a bootable cd that installs into RAM and
gives you a temporary installation to play around with or do a data or machine rescue. This cd also
contains a few packages such as the KDE and GNOME desktop environments. A few other goodies
are included on the second cd including many non-vital packages in the “extra” folder. The third
and fourth CDs contain the source code to all of Slackware, along with the original edition of this
book.

One may also purchase a boxed set that includes the 4 discs and a copy of this book, as well as lots
of neat Slackware gear to show off your geek pride. CD subscriptions are available at a reduced
rate also.

The preferred method for shopping for Slackware merchandise is online at the Slackware store.

http://store.slackware.com

You can also call or e-mail your order in.

Table 3-1. Slackware Linux, Inc. Contact Information

Method Contact Details

Telephone 1-(925) 674-0783
Website http://store.slackware.com
Email orders@slackware.com
Postal 1164 Claremont Drive, Brentwood, CA 94513

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3.1.2 Via the Internet

Slackware Linux is also freely available over the Internet. You may email in your support
questions, but higher priority will be given to those who have purchased the official CD set. With
that said, we get a lot of e-mails and our time is rather limited. Before e-mailing for support
consider reading Chapter 2 first.

The official Slackware Linux Project website is located at:

http://www.slackware.com/

The primary FTP location for Slackware Linux is:

ftp://ftp.slackware.com/pub/slackware/

Bear in mind that our ftp site, while open for general use, does not have unlimited bandwidth.
Please consider using a mirror near you to download Slackware. An incomplete list of mirrors can
be found on our site at http://www.slackware.com/getslack.

3.2 System Requirements

An easy Slackware installation requires, at minimum, the following:

Table 3-2. System Requirements

Hardware Requirement
Processor 586
RAM 32 MB
Disk Space 1GB
Media Drive 4x CD-ROM

If you have the bootable CD, you will probably not need a floppy drive. Of course, it stands to
reason that if you don't possess a CD-ROM drive, you will need a floppy drive to do a network
install. A network card is required for an NFS install. See the section called NFS for more
information.

The disk space requirement is somewhat tricky. The 1GB recommendation is usually safe for a
minimal install, but if you do a full install, you will need around two gigabytes of available hard
disk space plus additional space for personal files.. Most users don't do a full install. In fact, many
run Slackware on as little as 100MB of hard disk space.

Slackware can be installed to systems with less RAM, smaller hard drives, and weaker CPUs, but
doing so will require a little elbow grease. If you're up for a little work, take a look at the
LOWMEM.TXT file in the distribution tree for a few helpful hints.

3.2.1 The Software Series

For reasons of simplicity, Slackware has historically been divided into software series. Once called
“disk sets” because they were designed for floppy-based installation, the software series are now
used primarily to categorize the packages included in Slackware. Today, floppy installation is no
longer possible.

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The following is a brief description of each software series.

Table 3-3. Software Series

Series Contents
The base system. Contains enough software to get up and running and have a text editor
A
and basic communication program.
AP Various applications that do not require the X Window System.
Program development tools. Compilers, debuggers, interpreters, and man pages are all
D
here.
E GNU Emacs.
F FAQs, HOWTOs, and other miscellaneous documentation.
GNOME The GNOME desktop environment.
K The source code for the Linux kernel.
The K Desktop Environment. An X environment which shares a lot of look-and-feel
KDE features with MacOS and Windows. The Qt library, which KDE requires, is also in this
series.
KDEI Internationalization packages for the KDE desktop.
L Libraries. Dynamically linked libraries required by many other programs.
N Networking programs. Daemons, mail programs, telnet, news readers, and so on.
T teTeX document formatting system.
TCL The Tool Command Language. Tk, TclX, and TkDesk.
X The base X Window System.
X Applications that are not part of a major desktop environment (for example,
XAP
Ghostscript and Netscape).
Y BSD Console games

3.2.2 Installation Methods

3.2.2.1 Floppy

While it was once possible to install all of Slackware Linux from floppy disks, the increasing size
of software packages (indeed, of some individual programs) has forced the abandonment of the
floppy install. As late as Slackware version 7.1 a partial install was possible using floppy disks.
The A and N series could be nearly entirely installed, providing a base system from which to install
the rest of the distribution. If you are considering a floppy install (typically on older hardware), it is
typically recommended to find another way, or use an older release. Slackware 4.0 is still very
popular for this reason, as is 7.0.

Please note that floppy disks are still required for a CD-ROM install if you do not have a bootable
CD, as well as for an NFS install.

3.2.2.2 CD-ROM

If you have the bootable CD, available in the official disc set published by Slackware Linux, Inc.
(see the section called Getting Slackware), a CD-based installation will be a bit simpler for you. If
not, you will need to boot from floppies. Also, if you have special hardware that makes usage of
the kernel on the bootable CD problematic, you may need to use specialized floppies.

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As of Slackware version 8.1, a new method is used for creating the bootable CDs, which does not
work as well with certain flaky BIOS chips (it is worth noting that most all Linux CDs suffer from
this these days). If that is the case, we recommend booting from a floppy disk.

Section 3.2.3 and Section 3.2.5 provide information on choosing and creating floppies from which
to boot, should this be necessary.

3.2.2.3 NFS

NFS (the Network File System) is a way of making filesystems available to remote machines. An
NFS install allows you to install Slackware from another computer on your network. The machine
from which you are installing needs to be configured to export the Slackware distribution tree to
the machine to which you're installing. This, of course, involves some knowledge of NFS, which is
covered in Section 5.6.

It is possible to perform an NFS install via such methods as PLIP (over a parallel port), SLIP, and
PPP (though not over a modem connection). However, we recommend the use of a network card if
available. After all, installing an operating system through your printer port is going to be a very,
very slow process.

3.2.3 Boot Disk

The boot disk is the floppy you actually boot from to begin the installation. It contains a
compressed kernel image which is used to control the hardware during installation. Therefore, it is
very much required (unless you're booting from CD, as is discussed in the section called CD-
ROM). The boot disks are located in the bootdisks/ directory in the distribution tree.

There are more Slackware boot disks than you can shake a stick at (which is to say about 16). A
complete list of boot disks, with a description of each, is available in the Slackware distribution
tree in the file bootdisks/README.TXT. However, most people are able to use the bare.i (for IDE
devices) or scsi.s (for SCSI devices) boot disk image.

See Section 3.2.6 for instructions on making a disk from an image.

After booting, you will be prompted to insert the root disk. We recommend that you just humor the
boot disk and play along.

3.2.4 Root Disk

The root disks contain the setup program and a filesystem which is used during installation. They
are also required. The root disk images are located in the directory rootdisks in the distribution tree.
You'll have to make two root disks from the install.1 and install.2 images. Here you can also
find the network.dsk, pcmcia.dsk, rescue.dsk, and sbootmgr.dsk disks.

3.2.5 Supplemental Disk

A supplemental disk is needed if you are performing an NFS install or installing to a system with
PCMCIA devices. Supplemental disks are in the rootdsks directory in the distribution tree, with the
filenames network.dsk and pcmcia.dsk. Recently other supplemental disks such as rescue.dsk and
sbootmgr.dsk have been added. The rescue disk is a small floppy root image that runs in a 4MB
RAM drive. It includes some basic networking utilities and the vi editor for quick fixes on busted
machines. The sbootmgr.dsk disk is used to boot other devices. Boot off this disk if your bootable
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CD-ROM drive doesn't want to boot the Slackware CDs. It will prompt you for different things to
boot and may offer a convenient way to work around a buggy BIOS.

The root disk will instruct you on the use of supplemental disks when it is loaded.

3.2.6 Making the Disks

Once you've selected a boot disk image, you need to put it on a floppy. The process is slightly
different depending on which operating system you're using to make the disks. If you're running
Linux (or pretty much any Unix-like OS) you'll need to use the dd(1) command. Assuming bare.i
is your disk image file and your floppy drive is /dev/fd0, the command to make a bare.i floppy is:

% dd if=bare.i of=/dev/fd0

If you're running a Microsoft OS, you'll need to use the RAWRITE.EXE program, which is included in
the distribution tree in the same directories as the floppy images. Again assuming that bare.i is
your disk image file and your floppy drive is A:, open a DOS prompt and type the following:

C:\ rawrite a: bare.i

3.3 Partitioning
After booting from your preferred media, you will need to partition your hard disk. The disk
partition is where the Linux filesystem will be created and is where Slackware will be installed. At
the very minimum we recommend creating two partitions; one for your root filesystem (/) and one
for swap space.

After the root disk finishes loading, it will present you with a login prompt. Log in as root (there is
no password). At the shell prompt, run either cfdisk(8) or fdisk(8). The cfdisk program provides a
more user-friendly interface than the regular fdisk program, but does lack some features. We will
briefly explain the fdisk program below.

Begin by running fdisk for your hard disk. In Linux, the hard disks do not have drive letters, but
are represented by a file. The first IDE hard disk (primary master) is /dev/hda, the primary slave is
/dev/hdb, and so on. SCSI disks follow the same type system, but are in the form of /dev/sdX. You
will need to start fdisk and pass it your hard disk:

# fdisk /dev/hda

Like all good Unix programs, fdisk gives you a prompt (thought you were getting a menu, right?).
The first thing you should do is examine your current partitions. We do that by typing p at the fdisk
prompt:

Command (m for help): p

This will display all sorts of information about your current partitions. Most people pick a free
drive to install to and then remove any existing partitions on it to create room for the Linux

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partitions.

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT YOU BACK UP ANY INFORMATION YOU WANT TO

SAVE BEFORE DESTROYING THE PARTITION IT LIVES ON.

There is no easy way to recover from deleting a partition, so always back up before playing with
them.

Looking at the table of partition information you should see a partition number, the size of the
partition, and its type. There's more information, but don't worry about that for now. We are going
to delete all of the partitions on this drive to create the Linux ones. We run the d command to delete
those:

Command (m for help): d

Partition number (1-4): 1

This process should be continued for each of the partitions. After deleting the partitions we are
ready to create the Linux ones. We have decided to create one partition for our root filesystem and
one for swap. It is worth noting that Unix partitioning schemes are the subject of many flame wars,
and that most users will tell you the best way to do it. At a minimum, you should create one
partition for / and one for swap. Over time, you'll develop a method that works well for you.

I use two basic partition schemes. The first is for a desktop. I make 4 partitions, /, /home,
/usr/local, and swap. This lets me re-install or upgrade the entire installation under / without
wiping out my data files under /home or my custom compiled applications under /usr/local. For
servers, I often replace the /usr/local partition with a /var partition. Many different servers store
information on that partition and having it kept separate from / has certain performance benefits.
For now, we're sticking with just two partitions: / and swap.

Now we create the partitions with the n command:

Command (m for help): n

Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
p
Partition number (1-4):1
First cylinder (0-1060, default 0):0
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (0-1060, default 1060):+64M

You need to make sure you create primary partitions. The first partition is going to be our swap
partition. We tell fdisk to make partition number 1 a primary partition. We start it at cylinder 0 and
for the ending cylinder we type +64M. This will give us a 64 megabyte partition for swap. (The
size of the swap partition you need actually depends on the amount of RAM you have. It is
conventional wisdom that a swap space double the size of your RAM should be created.) Then we
define primary partition number 2 starting at the first available cylinder and going all the way to
the end of the drive.

Command (m for help):n

Command action
e extended

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p primary partition (1-4)
p
Partition number (1-4):2
First cylinder (124-1060, default 124):124
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (124-1060, default 1060):1060

We are almost done. We need to change the type of the first partition to type 82 (Linux swap). Type
t to change the type, select the first partition, and type 82. Before writing your changes to the disk,
you should look at the new partition table one last time. Use the p in fdisk to display the partition
table. If everything looks good, type w to write your changes to the disk and quit fdisk.

3.4 The setup Program

Once you have created your partitions, you are ready to install Slackware. The next step in the
installation process is running the setup(8) program. To do so, simply type setup at the shell
prompt. setup is a menu-driven system for actually installing the Slackware packages and
configuring your system.

The setup process goes something like this: You step through each option in the setup program, in
the order they are listed. (Of course, you are free to do things in almost any order you choose, but
chances are it isn't going to work out very well.) Menu items are selected using the up and down
arrow keys, and the “Okay” and “Cancel” buttons can be chosen by using the left and right arrow
keys. Alternatively, each option has a corresponding key, which is highlighted in the option name.
Options which are flaggable (those indicated with a [X]) are toggled using the spacebar.

Of course, all of that is described in the “help” section of setup, but we believe in giving our
readers their money's worth.

3.4.1 HELP

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If this is your first time installing Slackware, you might want to take a look at the help screen. It
will give a description of each part of setup (much like the one we're writing now, but less
involved) and instructions for navigating the rest of the install.

3.4.2 KEYMAP
If you require a keymap other than the United States “qwerty” layout, you may want to take a look
at this section. It offers a number of alternate layouts for your keyboarding enjoyment.

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3.4.3 ADDSWAP

If you created a swap partition (back in Section 3.3), this section will allow you to enable it. It will
autodetect and display the swap partitions on your hard drive, allowing you to select one to format
and enable.

3.4.4 TARGET

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The target section is where your other (non-swap) partitions are formatted and mapped to
filesystem mount points. A list of the partitions on your hard disk will be displayed. For each
partition, you will be given the option of whether to format that partition or not. Depending on the
kernel used, you can choose between reiserfs (the default), ext3, ext2, jfs, and xfs. Most people use
either reiserfs or ext3. In the near future we may see support for reiserfs4 slip in.

The first option in the target section is the selection of a partition on which to install your root (/)
filesystem. After that, you will be able to map other partitions to filesystems as you choose. (For
instance, you may want your third partition, say /dev/hda3, to be your home filesystem. This is just
an example; map the partitions as you see fit.)

3.4.5 SOURCE

The source section is where you select the source media from which you are installing Slackware.
Currently there are four sources to choose from. These are CD-ROM, NFS, or a premounted
directory.

The CD-ROM selection enables a CD-ROM based installation. It will offer the option of scanning
for a CD-ROM drive or displaying a list from which you can pick your drive type. Make sure you
have the Slackware CD in your drive before allowing it to scan.

The NFS selection prompts for your network information and the network information for your
NFS server. The NFS server must be set up in advance. Also note that you cannot use hostnames,
you must use the IP addresses for both your machine and the NFS server (there is no name resolver
on the setup disk). Naturally you must have used the network.dsk floppy to add support for your
network controller.

The premounted directory offers the most flexibility. You can use this method to install from things
such as Jaz disks, NFS mounts over PLIP, and FAT filesystems. Mount the filesystem to a location
of your choosing before running setup, then specify that location here.

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3.4.6 SELECT
The select option allows you to select the software series that you wish to install. These series are
described in Section 3.2.1. Please note that you must install the A series to have a working base
system. All other series are optional.

3.4.7 INSTALL

Assuming that you have gone through the “target”, “source”, and “select” options, the install
option will allow you to select packages from your chosen software series. If not, it will prompt
you to go back and complete the other sections of the setup program. This option allows you to
select from six different installation methods: full, newbie, menu, expert, custom, and tag path.

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The full option will install every package from all the software series that you chose in the “select”
section. There is no further prompting. This is the easiest installation method, since you do not
need to make any decisions on the actual packages to install. Of course, this option also takes up
the most hard drive space.

The next option is newbie. This option installs all of the required packages in the selected series.
For all other packages, it offers a prompt where you can select “Yes”, “No”, or “Skip”. Yes and No
do the obvious, while Skip will go ahead to the next software series. Additionally, you will see a
description and size requirement for each package to help you decide if you need it. We
recommend this option for new users, as it ensures that you get all the required packages installed.
However, it is a little slow because of the prompting.

Menu is a faster and more advanced version of the newbie option. For each series, a menu is
displayed, from which you can select all the non-required packages you want to install. Required
packages are not displayed on this menu.

For the more advanced user, install offers the expert option. This allows you complete control over
what packages get installed. You can deselect packages that are absolutely required, resulting in a
broken system. On the other hand, you can control exactly what goes onto your system. Simply
select the packages from each series that you want installed. This is not recommended for the new
user, as it is quite easy to shoot yourself in the foot.

The custom and tag path options are also for advanced users. These options allow you to install
based upon custom tag files that you created in the distribution tree. This is useful for installing to
large numbers of machines fairly quickly. For more information on using tag files, see Section
18.4.

After selecting your installation method, one of a few things will happen. If you selected full or
menu, a menu screen will appear, allowing you to select the packages to be installed. If you
selected full, packages will immediately start getting installed to the target. If you selected newbie,
packages will be installed until an optional package is reached.

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Note that it is possible to run out of space while installing. If you selected too many packages for
the amount of free space on the target device, you will have problems. The safest thing to do is to
select some software and add more later, if you need it. This can easily be done using Slackware's
package management tools. For this information, see Chapter 18.

3.4.8 CONFIGURE

The configure section allows you to do some basic system configuration, now that the packages
have been installed. What you see here depends in large part upon which software you have
installed. You will, however, always see the following:

3.4.8.1 Kernel selection

Here you will be asked to select a kernel to install. You can install the kernel from the boot disk
you used to install, the Slackware CD-ROM, or from another floppy which you (always thinking
ahead) have prepared. Or you can elect to skip, in which case the default kernel will be installed
and play will continue to the dealer's left.

3.4.8.2 Make a boot disk

Making a boot disk for future use is probably a good idea. You will have the option of formatting a
floppy and then creating one of two types of boot disk. The first type, simple, simply (go figure)
writes a kernel to the floppy. A more flexible (and highly recommended) option is lilo, which will
of course create a lilo boot disk. See LILO in Section 7.1 for more information. Of course, you
may also choose to simply continue, in which case no boot disk will be made.

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3.4.8.3 Modem

You will be prompted for modem information. More specifically, you will be asked whether you
have a modem, and if so, what serial port it is on.

These next configuration subsections may or may not appear, depending on whether or not you
installed their corresponding packages.

3.4.8.4 Timezone
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This one's pretty straightforward: you will be asked what time zone you are in. If you operate on
Zulu time, we are very sorry; the (extremely long) list is alphabetically ordered, and you're at the
bottom.

3.4.8.5 Mouse

This subsection simply asks what kind of mouse you have, and whether you want gpm(8) console
mouse support enabled on bootup.

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3.4.8.6 Hardware clock

This subsection asks if your computer's hardware clock is set to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC
or GMT). Most PCs are not, so you should probably say no.

3.4.8.7 Font

The font subsection allows you to choose from a list of custom console fonts.

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3.4.8.8 LILO

Here you are prompted for installation of LILO (the LInux LOader; see Section 7.1 for more
information).

If Slackware is to be the only operating system on your computer, simple should work just fine for
you. If you are dual-booting, the expert option is a better choice. See Section 7.3 for more
information on dual-booting. The third option, do not install, is not recommended unless you know
what you're doing and have a very good reason for not installing LILO. If you are performing an
expert install, you will be given a choice as to where LILO will be put. You may place LILO in the
MBR (Master Boot Record) of your hard drive, in the superblock of your root Linux partition, or
on a floppy disk.

3.4.8.9 Network

The network configuration subsection is actually netconfig. See Section 5.1 for more information.

3.4.8.10 X Window Manager

This subsection will allow you to choose a default window manager for X. See Chapter 6 for more
details on X and window managers.

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No matter which packages you installed, the last thing configure will do is ask you whether you
want to go ahead and set a root password. For security reasons, this is probably a good idea;
however, like almost everything else in Slackware, this is your call.

Chapter 4 System Configuration

Before you can configure the more advanced parts of your system, it's a good idea to learn how the
system is organized and what commands can be used to search for files and programs. It's also
good to know if you need to compile a custom kernel and what the steps for doing that are. This
chapter will familiarize you with system organization and configuration files. Then, you can move
on to configuring the more advanced parts of the system.

4.1 System Overview

It's important to understand how a Linux system is put together before diving into the various
configuration aspects. A Linux system is significantly different from a DOS, Windows, or
Macintosh system (with the exception of the Unix-based Mac OS X), but these sections will help
you get acquainted with the layout so that you can easily configure your system to meet your
needs.

4.1.1 File System Layout

The first noticeable difference between Slackware Linux and a DOS or Windows system is the
filesystem. For starters, we do not use drive letters to denote different partitions. Under Linux,
there is one main directory. You can relate this to the C: drive under DOS. Each partition on your
system is mounted to a directory on the main directory. It's kind of like an ever-expanding hard
disk.

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We call the main directory the root directory, and it's denoted with a single slash (/). This concept
may seem strange, but it actually makes life easy for you when you want to add more space. For
example, let's say you run out of space on the drive that has /home on it. Most people install
Slackware and make one big root drive. Well, since a partition can be mounted to any directory,
you can simply go to the store and pick up a new hard drive and mount it to /home. You've now
grafted on some more space to your system. And all without having to move many things around.

Below, you will find descriptions of the major top level directories under Slackware.

bin

Essential user programs are stored here. These represent the bare minimum set of programs
required for a user to use the system. Things like the shell and the filesystem commands (ls,
cp, and so on) are stored here. The /bin directory usually doesn't receive modification after
installation. If it does, it's usually in the form of package upgrades that we provide.

boot

Files that are used by the Linux Loader (LILO). This directory also receives little
modification after an installation. The kernel is stored here as of Slackware 8.1. In earlier
releases of Slackware, the kernel was simply stored under / , but common practice is to put
the kernel and related files here to facilitate dual-booting.
dev

Everything in Linux is treated as a file, even hardware devices like serial ports, hard disks,
and scanners. In order to access these devices, a special file called a device node has to be
present. All device nodes are stored in the /dev directory. You will find this to be true across
many Unix-like operating systems.
etc

This directory holds system configuration files. Everything from the X Window
configuration file, the user database, to the system startup scripts. The system administrator
will become quite familiar with this directory over time.

home

Linux is a multiuser operating system. Each user on the system is given an account and a
unique directory for personal files. This directory is called the user's home directory. The
/home directory is provided as the default location for user home directories.

lib

System libraries that are required for basic operation are stored here. The C library, the
dynamic loader, the ncurses library, and kernel modules are among the things stored here.

mnt

This directory contains temporary mount points for working on hard disks or removable
drives. Here you'll find mount points for your CD-ROM and floppy drives.

opt

Optional software packages. The idea behind /opt is that each software package installs to
/opt/software-package, which makes it easy to remove later. Slackware distributes some
things in /opt (such as KDE in /opt/kde), but you are free to add anything you want to /opt.

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proc

This is a unique directory. It's not really part of the filesystem, but a virtual filesystem that
provides access to kernel information. Various pieces of information that the kernel wants
you to know are conveyed to you through files in the /proc directory. You can also send
information to the kernel through some of these files. Try doing cat /proc/cpuinfo.
root

The system administrator is known as root on the system. root's home directory is kept in
/root instead of /home/root. The reason is simple. What if /home was a different partition
from / and it could not be mounted? root would naturally want to log in and repair the
problem. If his home directory was on the damaged filesystem, it would make it difficult for
him to log in.
sbin

Essential programs that are run by root and during the system bootup process are kept here.
Normal users will not run programs in this directory.
tmp

The temporary storage location. All users have read and write access to this directory.

usr

This is the big directory on a Linux system. Everything else pretty much goes here,
programs, documentation, the kernel source code, and the X Window system. This is the
directory to which you will most likely be installing programs.

var

System log files, cache data, and program lock files are stored here. This is the directory for
frequently-changing data.

You should now have a good feel for which directories contain what on the filesystem. More
detailed information about the filesystem layout is available in the hier(7) man page. The next
section will help you find specific files easily, so you don't have to do it by hand.

4.1.2 Finding Files

You now know what each major directory holds, but it still doesn't really help you find things. I
mean, you could go looking through directories, but there are quicker ways. There are four main
file search commands available in Slackware.

4.1.2.1 which

The first is the which(1) command. which is usually used to locate a program quickly. It just
searches your PATH and returns the first instance it finds and the directory path to it. Take this
example:

% which bash
/bin/bash

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From that you see that bash is in the /bin directory. This is a very limited command for searching,
since it only searches your PATH.

4.1.2.2 whereis

The whereis(1) command works similar to which, but can also search for man pages and source
files. A whereis search for bash should return this:

% whereis bash
bash: /bin/bash /usr/bin/bash /usr/man/man1/bash.1.gz

This command not only told us where the actual program is located, but also where the online
documentation is stored. Still, this command is limited. What if you wanted to search for a specific
configuration file? You can't use which or whereis for that.

4.1.2.3 find

The find(1) command allows the user to search the filesystem with a rich collection of search
predicates. Users may specify a search with filename wildcards, ranges of modification or creation
times, or other advanced properties. For example, to search for the default xinitrc file on the
system, the following command could be used.

% find / -name xinitrc

/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc

find will take a while to run, since it has to traverse the entire root directory tree. And if this
command is run as a normal user, there will be permission denied error messages for directories
that only root can see. But find found our file, so that's good. If only it could be a bit faster...

4.1.2.4 slocate

The slocate(1) command searches the entire filesystem, just like the find command can do, but it
searches a database instead of the actual filesystem. The database is set to automatically update
every morning, so you have a somewhat fresh listing of files on your system. You can manually run
updatedb(1) to update the slocate database (before running updatedb by hand, you must first su to
the root user). Here's an example of slocate in action:

% slocate xinitrc # we don't have to go to the root

/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc
/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc.fvwm2
/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc.openwin
/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc.twm

We got more than what we were looking for, and quickly too. With these commands, you should be
able to find whatever you're looking for on your Linux system.

4.1.3 The /etc/rc.d Directory

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The system initialization files are stored in the /etc/rc.d directory. Slackware uses the BSD-style
layout for its initialization files as opposed to System V init scripts, which tend to make
configuration changes much more difficult without using a program specifically designed for that
purpose. In BSD-init scripts, each runlevel is given a single rc file. In System V, each runlevel is
given its own directory, each containing numerous init scripts. This provides an organized structure
that is easy to maintain.

There are several categories of initialization files. These are system startup, runlevels, network
initialization, and System V compatibility. As per tradition, we'll lump everything else into another
category.

4.1.3.1 System Startup

The first program to run under Slackware besides the Linux kernel is init(8). This program reads
the /etc/inittab(5) file to see how to run the system. It runs the /etc/rc.d/rc.S script to prepare
the system before going into your desired runlevel. The rc.S file enables your virtual memory,
mounts your filesystems, cleans up certain log directories, initializes Plug and Play devices, loads
kernel modules, configures PCMCIA devices, sets up serial ports, and runs System V init scripts (if
found). Obviously rc.S has a lot on its plate, but here are some scripts in /etc/rc.d that rc.S will
call on to complete its work:

rc.S

This is the actual system initialization script.

rc.modules

Loads kernel modules. Things like your network card, PPP support, and other things are
loaded here. If this script finds rc.netdevice, it will run that as well.
rc.pcmcia

Probes for and configures any PCMCIA devices that you might have on your system. This is
most useful for laptop users, who probably have a PCMCIA modem or network card.
rc.serial

Configures your serial ports by running the appropriate setserial commands.

rc.sysvinit

Looks for System V init scripts for the desired runlevel and runs them. This is discussed in
more detail below.

4.1.3.2 Runlevel Initialization Scripts

After system initialization is complete, init moves on to runlevel initialization. A runlevel

describes the state that your machine will be running in. Sound redundant? Well, the runlevel tells
init if you will be accepting multiuser logins or just a single user, whether or not you want
network services, and if you will be using the X Window System or agetty(8) to handle logins. The
files below define the different runlevels in Slackware Linux.

rc.0

Halt the system (runlevel 0). By default, this is symlinked to rc.6.

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rc.4

Multiuser startup (runlevel 4), but in X11 with KDM, GDM, or XDM as the login manager.

rc.6

Reboot the system (runlevel 6).

rc.K

Startup in single user mode (runlevel 1).

rc.M

Multiuser mode (runlevels 2 and 3), but with the standard text-based login. This is the
default runlevel in Slackware.

4.1.3.3 Network Initialization

Runlevels 2, 3, and 4 will start up the network services. The following files are responsible for the
network initialization:

rc.inet1

Created by netconfig, this file is responsible for configuring the actual network interface.

rc.inet2

Runs after rc.inet1 and starts up basic network services.

rc.atalk

Starts up AppleTalk services.

rc.httpd

Starts up the Apache web server. Like a few other rc scripts, this one can also be used to stop
and restart a service. rc.httpd takes arguments of stop, start, or restart.
rc.news

Starts up the news server.

4.1.3.4 System V Compatibility

System V init compatibility was introduced in Slackware 7.0. Many other Linux distributions make
use of this style instead of the BSD style. Basically each runlevel is given a subdirectory for init
scripts, whereas BSD style gives one init script to each runlevel.

The rc.sysvinit script will search for any System V init scripts you have in /etc/rc.d and run
them, if the runlevel is appropriate. This is useful for certain commercial software packages that
install System V init scripts

4.1.3.5 Other Files

The scripts described below are the other system initialization scripts. They are typically run from
one of the major scripts above, so all you need to do is edit the contents.
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rc.gpm

Starts up general purpose mouse services. Allows you to copy and paste at the Linux
console. Occasionally, gpm will cause problems with the mouse when it is used under X
windows. If you experience problems with the mouse under X, try taking away the
executable permission from this file and stopping the gpm server.

rc.font

Loads the custom screen font for the console.

rc.local

Contains any specific startup commands for your system. This is empty after a fresh install,
as it is reserved for local administrators. This script is run after all other initialization has
taken place.

To enable a script, all you need to do is add the execute permissions to it with the chmod command.
To disable a script, remove the execute permissions from it. For more information about chmod, see
Section 9.2.

4.2 Selecting a Kernel

The kernel is the part of the operating system that provides hardware access, process control, and
overall system control. The kernel contains support for your hardware devices, so picking one for
your system is an important setup step.

Slackware provides more than a dozen precompiled kernels that you can pick from, each with a
standard set of drivers and additional specific drivers. You can run one of the precompiled kernels
or you can build your own kernel from source. Either way, you need to make sure that your kernel
has the hardware support your system needs.

4.2.1 The /kernels Directory on the Slackware CD-ROM

The precompiled Slackware kernels are available in the /kernels directory on the Slackware CD-
ROM or on the FTP site in the main Slackware directory. The available kernels change as new
releases are made, so the documentation in that directory is always the authoritative source. The
/kernels directory has subdirectories for each kernel available. The subdirectories have the same
name as their accompanying boot disk. In each subdirectory you will find the following files:

File Purpose
System.map The system map file for this kernel
bzImage The actual kernel image
config The source configuration file for this kernel

To use a kernel, copy the System.map and config files to your /boot directory and copy the kernel
image to /boot/vmlinuz. Run /sbin/lilo(8) to install LILO for the new kernel, and then reboot
your system. That's all there is to installing a new kernel.

The kernels that end with a .i are IDE kernels. That is, they include no SCSI support in the base
kernel. The kernels that end with .s are SCSI kernels. They include all the IDE support in .i kernels,
plus SCSI support.

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4.2.2 Compiling a Kernel from Source

The question “Should I compile a kernel for my system?” is often asked by new users. The answer
is a definite maybe. There are few instances where you will need to compile a kernel specific to
your system. Most users can use a precompiled kernel and the loadable kernel modules to achieve a
fully working system. You will want to compile a kernel for your system if you are upgrading
kernel versions to one that we do not currently offer in Slackware, or if you have patched the
kernel source to get special device support that is not in the native kernel source. Anyone with an
SMP system will definitely want to compile a kernel with SMP support. Also, many users find a
custom compiled kernel runs much faster on their machine. You may find it useful to compile the
kernel with optimizations for the specific processor in your machine.

Building your own kernel is not that hard. The first step is to make sure you have the kernel source
installed on your system. Make sure that you installed the packages from the K series during the
installation. You will also want to make sure you have the D series installed, specifically the C
compiler, GNU make, and GNU binutils. In general, it's a good idea to have the entire D series
installed if you plan on doing any kind of development. You can also download the latest kernel
source from http://www.kernel.org/mirrors.

4.2.2.1 Linux Kernel version 2.4.x Compilation

% su -
Password:
# cd /usr/src/linux

The first step is to bring the kernel source into its base state. We issue this command to do that
(note, you may wish to back-up the .config file as this command will delete it without warning):

# make mrproper

Now you can configure the kernel for your system. The current kernel offers three ways of doing
this. The first is the original text-based question and answer system. It asks a bunch of questions
and then builds a configuration file. The problem with this method is that if you mess up, you must
start over. The method that most people prefer is the menu driven one. Lastly, there is an X-based
kernel configuration tool. Pick the one you want and issue the appropriate command:

# make config (text-based Q&A version)

# make menuconfig (menu driven, text-based version)
# make xconfig (X-based version, make sure you are in X first)

Figure 4-1. Kernel Configuration Menu

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New users will probably find menuconfig to be the easiest to use. Help screens are provided that
explain the various parts of the kernel. After configuring your kernel, exit the configuration
program. It will write the necessary configuration files. Now we can prepare the source tree for a
build:

# make dep
# make clean

The next step is to compile the kernel. First try issuing the bzImage command below.

# make bzImage

This may take a while, depending on your CPU speed. During the build process, you will see the
compiler messages. After building the kernel image, you will want to build any parts of the kernel
that you flagged as modular.

# make modules

We can now install the kernel and modules that you compiled. To install the kernel on a Slackware
system, these commands should be issued:

# mv /boot/vmlinuz /boot/vmlinuz.old
# cat arch/i386/boot/bzImage > /vmlinuz
# mv /boot/System.map /boot/System.map.old
# cp System.map /boot/System.map
# make modules_install

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You will want to edit /etc/lilo.conf and add a section to boot your old kernel in case your new
one does not work. After doing that, run /sbin/lilo to install the new boot block. You can now
reboot with your new kernel.

4.2.2.2 Linux Kernel Version 2.6.x

The compilation of a 2.6 kernel is only slightly different from a 2.4 or a 2.2 kernel, but it is
important that you understand the differences before delving in. It's no longer necessary to run make
dep and make clean. Also, the kernel compilation process is not as verbose in the 2.6 kernel series.
This results in a build process that is easier to understand, but has some short comings as well. If
you have trouble building the kernel, it's highly recommended that you turn verbosity back up. You
do this simply by appending V=1 to the build. This allows you to log more information that could
help a kernel developer or other friendly geek aid you in resolving the issue.

# make bzImage V=1

4.2.3 Using Kernel Modules

Kernel modules are another name for device drivers that can be inserted into a running kernel.
They allow you to extend the hardware supported by your kernel without needing to pick another
kernel or compile one yourself.

Modules can also be loaded and unloaded at any time, even when the system is running. This
makes upgrading specific drivers easy for system administrators. A new module can be compiled,
the old one removed, and the new one loaded, all without rebooting the machine.

Modules are stored in the /lib/modules/kernel version directory on your system. They can be
loaded at boot time through the rc.modules file. This file is very well commented and offers
examples for major hardware components. To see a list of modules that are currently active, use the
lsmod(1) command:

# lsmod
Module Size Used by
parport_pc 7220 0
parport 7844 0 [parport_pc]

You can see here that I only have the parallel port module loaded. To remove a module, you use the
rmmod(1) command. Modules can be loaded by the modprobe(1) or insmod(1) command. modprobe is
usually safer because it will load any modules that the one you're trying to load depends on.

A lot of users never have to load or unload modules by hand. They use the kernel autoloader for
module management. By default, Slackware includes kmod in its kernels. kmod is a kernel option
that enables the kernel to automatically load modules as they are requested. For more information
on kmod and how it is configured, see /usr/src/linux/Documentation/kmod.txt. You'll have
needed to have the kernel source package, or downloaded kernel source from http://kernel.org.

More information can be found in the man pages for each of these commands, plus the rc.modules
file.

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Chapter 5 Network Configuration

5.1 Introduction: netconfig is your friend.
When you initially installed Slackware, the setup program invoked the netconfig program.
netconfig attempted to perform the following functions for you:

It asked you for the name of your computer, and the domain name for your computer.

It gave a brief explanation of the various types of addressing schemes, told when they
should be used, and asked you which IP addressing scheme you wished to use to
configure your network card:

Static-IP

DHCP

Loopback

It then offered to probe for a network card to configure.

netconfig will generally take care of about 80% of the work of configuring your LAN network
connection if you will let it. Note that I would strongly suggest that you review your config file for
a couple of reasons:

1. You should never trust a setup program to properly configure your computer. If you use
a setup program, you should review the configuration yourself.

2. If you are still learning Slackware and Linux system management, viewing a working
configuration can be helpful. You'll at least know what the configuration should look
like. This will allow you to correct problems due to misconfiguration of the system at a
later date.

5.2 Network Hardware Configuration

Having decided that you wish to bring your Slackware machine on to some form of network, the
first thing you'll need is a Linux-compatible network card. You will need to take a little care to
ensure that the card is truly Linux-compatible (please refer to the Linux Documentation Project
and/or the kernel documentation for information on the current status of your proposed network
card). As a general rule, you will most likely be pleasantly surprised by the number of networking
cards that are supported under the more modern kernels. Having said that, I'd still suggest referring
to any of the various Linux hardware compatibility lists (such as The GNU/Linux Beginners Group
Hardware Compatibility Links and The Linux Documentation Project Hardware HOWTO) that are
available on the Internet before purchasing your card. A little extra time spent in research can save
days or even weeks trying to troubleshoot a card that isn't compatible with Linux at all.

When you visit the Linux Hardware Compatibility lists available on the Internet, or when you refer
to the kernel documentation installed on your machine, it would be wise to note which kernel
module you'll need to use to support your network card.
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5.2.1 Loading Network Modules

Kernel modules that are to be loaded on boot-up are loaded from the rc.modules file in /etc/rc.d
or by the kernel's auto module loading started by /etc/rc.d/rc.hotplug. The default rc.modules
file includes a Network device support section. If you open rc.modules and look for that section,
you'll notice that it first checks for an executable rc.netdevice file in /etc/rc.d/. This script is
created if setup successfully autoprobes your network device during installation.

Below that “if” block is a list of network devices and modprobe lines, each commented out. Find
your device and uncomment the corresponding modprobe line, then save the file. Running
rc.modules as root should now load your network device driver (as well as any other modules that
are listed and uncommented). Note that some modules (such as the ne2000 driver) require
parameters; make sure you select the correct line.

5.2.2 LAN (10/100/1000Base-T and Base-2) cards

This heading encompasses all of the internal PCI and ISA networking cards. Drivers for these cards
are provided via loadable kernel modules as covered in the previous paragraph. /sbin/netconfig
should have probed for your card and successfully set up your rc.netdevice file. If this did not
occur, the most likely problem would be that the module that you're attempting to load for a given
card is incorrect (it is not unheard of for different generations of the same brand of card from the
same manufacturer to require different modules). If you are certain that the module that you're
attempting to load is the correct one, your next best bet would be to refer to the documentation for
the module in an attempt to discover whether or not specific parameters are required during when
the module is initialized.

5.2.3 Modems
Like LAN cards, modems can come with various bus support options. Until recently, most modems
were 8 or 16 bit ISA cards. With the efforts of Intel and motherboard manufacturers everywhere to
finally kill off the ISA bus completely, it is common now to find that most modems are either
external modems that connect to a serial or USB port or are internal PCI modems. If you wish for
your modem to work with Linux, it is VITALLY important to research your prospective modem
purchase, particularly if you are considering purchasing a PCI modem. Many, if not most, PCI
modems available on store shelves these days are WinModems. WinModems lack some basic
hardware on the modem card itself: the functions performed by this hardware are typically
offloaded onto the CPU by the modem driver and the Windows operating system. This means that
they do not have the standard serial interface that PPPD will be expecting to see when you try to
dial out to your Internet Service Provider.

If you want to be absolutely sure that the modem you're purchasing will work with Linux, purchase
an external hardware modem that connects to the serial port on your PC. These are guaranteed to
work better and be less trouble to install and maintain, though they require external power and tend
to cost more.

There are several web sites that provide drivers and assistance for configuring WinModem based
devices. Some users have reported success configuring and installing drivers for the various
winmodems, including Lucent, Conexant, and Rockwell chipsets. As the required software for
these devices is not an included part of Slackware, and varies from driver to driver, we will not go
into detail on them.

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5.2.4 PCMCIA
As part of your Slackware install, you are given the opportunity to install the pcmcia package (in
the “A” series of packages). This package contains the applications and setup files required to work
with PCMCIA cards under Slackware. It is important to note that the pcmcia package only installs
the generic software required to work with PCMCIA cards under Slackware. It does NOT install
any drivers or modules. The available modules and drivers will be in the /lib/modules/`uname -
r`/pcmcia directory. You may need to do some experimentation to find a module that will work
with your network card.

You will need to edit /etc/pcmcia/network.opts (for an Ethernet card) or

/etc/pcmcia/wireless.opts (if you have a wireless networking card). Like most Slackware
configuration files, these two files are very well commented and it should be easy to determine
which modifications need to be made.

5.3 TCP/IP Configuration

At this point, your network card should be physically installed in your computer, and the relevant
kernel modules should be loaded. You will not yet be able to communicate over your network card,
but information about the network device can be obtained with ifconfig -a.

# ifconfig -a
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:A0:CC:3C:60:A4
UP BROADCAST NOTRAILERS RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:110081 errors:1 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:84931 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:100
RX bytes:114824506 (109.5 Mb) TX bytes:9337924 (8.9 Mb)
Interrupt:5 Base address:0x8400

lo Link encap:Local Loopback

inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1
RX packets:2234 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:2234 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:168758 (164.8 Kb) TX bytes:168758 (164.8 Kb)

If you just typed /sbin/ifconfig without the -a suffix, you would not see the eth0 interface, as
your network card does not yet have a valid IP address or route.

While there are many different ways to setup and subnet a network, all of them can be broken
down into two types: Static and Dynamic. Static networks are setup such that each node (geek
lingo for thing with an IP address) always has the same IP address. Dynamic networks are setup in
such a way that the IP addresses for the nodes are controlled by a single server called the DHCP
server.

5.3.1 DHCP
DHCP (or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), is a means by which an IP address may be
assigned to a computer on boot. When the DHCP client boots, it puts out a request on the Local
Area Network for a DHCP server to assign it an IP address. The DHCP server has a pool (or scope)
of IP addresses available. The server will respond to this request with an IP address from the pool,

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along with a lease time. Once the lease time for a given IP address lease has expired, the client
must contact the server again and repeat the negotiation.

The client will then accept the IP address from the server and will configure the requested interface
with the IP address. There is one more handy trick that DHCP clients use for negotiating the IP
address that they will be assigned, however. The client will remember it's last assigned IP address,
and will request that the server re-assign that IP address to the client again upon next negotiation. If
possible, the server will do so, but if not, a new address is assigned. So, the negotiation resembles
the following:

    Client: Is there a DHCP server available on the LAN?
    Server: Yes, there is. Here I am.
    Client: I need an IP address.
    Server: You may take 192.168.10.10 for 19200 seconds.
    Client: Thank you.

    Client: Is there a DHCP server available on the LAN?
    Server:Yes, there is. Here I am.
    Client:I need an IP address. The last time we
    talked, I had 192.168.10.10;
    May I have it again?
    Server:Yes, you may (or No, you may not: take 192.168.10.12 instead).
    Client: Thank you.

The DHCP client in Linux is /sbin/dhcpcd. If you load /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1 in your favorite text
editor, you will notice that /sbin/dhcpcd is called about midway through the script. This will force
the conversation shown above. dhcpcd will also track the amount of time left on the lease for the
current IP address, and will automatically contact the DHCP server with a request to renew the
lease when necessary. DHCP can also control related information, such as what ntp server to use,
what route to take, etc.

Setting up DHCP on Slackware is simple. Just run netconfig and select DHCP when offered. If
you have more than one NIC and do not wish eth0 to be configured by DHCP, just edit the
/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf file and change the related variable for your NIC to “YES”.

5.3.2 Static IP
Static IP addresses are fixed addresses that only change if manually told to. These are used in any
case where an administrator doesn't want the IP information to change, such for internal servers on
a LAN, any server connected to the Internet, and networked routers. With static IP addressing, you
assign an address and leave it at that. Other machines know that you are always at that certain IP
address and can contact you at that address always.

5.3.3 /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf

If you plan on assigning an IP address to your new Slackware box, you may do so either through
the netconfig script, or you may edit /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf. In /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf , you
will notice:

# Primary network interface card (eth0)

IPADDR[0]=""
NETMASK[0]=""

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USE_DHCP[0]=""
DHCP_HOSTNAME[0]=""

Then further at the bottom:

GATEWAY=""

In this case, our task is merely to place the correct information between the double-quotes. These
variables are called by /etc/rc.d/rc.inet1 at boot time to setup the nics. For each NIC, just enter
the correct IP information, or put “YES” for USE_DHCP. Slackware will startup the interfaces with
the information placed here in the order they are found.

The DEFAULT_GW variable sets up the default route for Slackware. All communications between
your computer and other computers on the Internet must pass through that gateway if no other
route is specified for them. If you are using DHCP, you will usually not need to enter anything
here, as the DHCP server will specify what gateway to use.

5.3.4 /etc/resolv.conf
Ok, so you've got an IP address, you've got a default gateway, you may even have ten million
dollars (give us some), but what good is that if you can't resolve names to IP addresses? No one
wants to type in 72.9.234.112 into their web browser to reach www.slackbook.org. After all, who
other than the authors would memorize that IP address? We need to setup DNS, but how? That's
where /etc/resolv.conf comes into play.

Chances are you already have the proper options in /etc/resolv.conf. If you setup your network
connection using DHCP, the DHCP server should handle updating this file for you. (Technically
the DHCP server just tells dhcpcd what to put here, and it obeys.) If you need to manually update
your DNS server list though, you'll need to hand edit /etc/resolv.conf. Below is an example:

# cat /etc/resolv.conf
nameserver 192.168.1.254
search lizella.net

The first line is simple. The nameserver directive tells us what DNS servers to query. By necessity
these are always IP addresses. You may have as many listed there as you like. Slackware will
happily check one after the other until one returns a match.

The second line is a little more interesting. The search directive gives us a list of domain names to
assume whenever a DNS request is made. This allows you to contact a machine by only the first
part of its FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name). For example, if “slackware.com” were in your
search path, you could reach http://store.slackware.com by just pointing your web browser at
http://store.

# ping -c 1 store
PING store.slackware.com (69.50.233.153): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 69.50.233.153 : icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.251 ms
1 packets transmitted, 1 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max = 0.251/0.251/0.251 ms

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5.3.5 /etc/hosts
Now that we've got DNS working fine, what if we want to bypass our DNS server, or add a DNS
entry for a machine that isn't in DNS? Slackware includes the oft-loved /etc/hosts file which
contains a local list of DNS names and IP addresses they should match to.

# cat /etc/hosts
127.0.0.1 localhost locahost.localdomain
192.168.1.101 redtail
172.14.66.32 foobar.slackware.com

Here you can see that localhost has an IP address of 127.0.0.1 (always reserved for localhost),
redtail can be reached at 192.168.1.101, and foobar.slackware.com is 172.14.66.32.

5.4 PPP
Many people still connect to the Internet through some kind of dialup connection. The most
common method is PPP, though SLIP is still occasionally used. Setting up your system to speak
PPP to a remote server is pretty easy. We've included a few tools to help you in setting it up.

5.4.1 pppsetup
Slackware includes a program called pppsetup to configure your system to use your dialup account.
It shares a look and feel similar to our netconfig program. To run the program, make sure you are
logged in as root. Then type pppsetup to run it. You should see a screen like this:

The program will present a series of questions, to which you will feed it appropriate answers.
Things like your modem device, the modem initialization string, and the ISP phone number. Some
items will have a default, which you can accept in most cases.

After the program runs, it will create a ppp-go program and a ppp-off program. These are used to
start and stop, respectively, the PPP connection. The two programs are located in /usr/sbin and
need root privileges to run.

5.4.2 /etc/ppp
For most users, running pppsetup will be sufficient. However, there may be an instance where you
want to tweak some of the values used by the PPP daemon. All of the configuration information is
kept in /etc/ppp. Here is a list of what the different files are for:

ip-down This script is run by pppd after the PPP connection is ended.

This script is run by pppd when there's a successful ppp connection. Put any
ip-up
commands you want run after a successful connection in this file.

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options General configuration options for pppd.

options.demand General configuration options for pppd when run in demand dialing mode.

pppscript The commands sent to the modem.

pppsetup.txt A log of what you entered when you ran pppsetup.

Most of these files won't be there until after you run pppsetup.

5.5 Wireless
Wireless networking is still a relatively new thing in the world of computers, yet is quickly
catching on as more people begin to purchase laptops and want networking on the go, without
having to fool with some old twisted pair cable. This trend doesn't appear to be slowing down.
Unfortunately, wireless networking isn't yet as strongly supported in Linux as traditional wired
networking.

There are three basic steps to configuring an 802.11 wireless Ethernet card:

1. Hardware support for the wireless card

2. Configure the card to connect to a wireless access point

3. Configure the network

5.5.1 Hardware Support

Hardware support for a wireless card is provided through the kernel, either with a module or built
in to the kernel. Generally, most newer Ethernet cards are provided through kernel modules, so
you'll want to determine the appropriate kernel module and load it through /etc/rc.d/rc.modules.
netconfig may not detect your wireless card, so you'll probably need to determine the card
yourself. See http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Jean_Tourrilhes/Linux/ for more information on
kernel drivers for various wireless cards.

5.5.2 Configure the Wireless Settings

The vast majority of this work is done by iwconfig, so as always read the man page for iwconfig if
you need more information.

First, you'll want to configure your wireless access point. Wireless access points vary quite a bit in
their terminology, and how to configure them, so you may need to adjust a bit to accommodate
your hardware. In general, you'll need at least the following information:

The domain ID, or name of the network (called the ESSID by iwconfig)

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The channel the WAP uses

The encryption settings, including any keys used (preferably in hexadecimal)

A NOTE ABOUT WEP. WEP is quit flawed, but it's much better than nothing. If you wish a
greater degree of security on your wireless network, you should investigate VPNs or IPSec,
both of which are beyond the scope of this document. You might also configure your WAP
not to advertise its domain ID/ ESSID. A thorough discussion of wireless policy is beyond
the scope of this section, but a quick Google search will turn up more than you ever wanted
to know.

Once you've gathered the above information, and assuming you've used modprobe to load the
appropriate kernel driver, you can edit rc.wireless.conf and add your settings. The
rc.wireless.conf file is a bit untidy. The least effort is to modify the generic section with your
ESSID and KEY, and CHANNEL if required by your card. (Try not setting CHANNEL, and if it
works, great; if not, set the CHANNEL as appropriate.) If you're daring, you can modify the file so
that only the necessary variables are set. The variable names in rc.wireless.conf correspond to the
iwconfig parameters, and are read by rc.wireless and used in the appropriate iwconfig commands.

If you have your key in hexadecimal, that's ideal, since you can be fairly confident that your WAP
and iwconfig will agree on the key. If you only have a string, you can't be sure how your WAP will
translate that into a hexadecimal key, so some guesswork may be needed (or get your WAP's key in
hex).

Once you've modified rc.wireless.conf, run rc.wireless as root, then run rc.inet1, again as
root. You can test your wireless networking with standard testing tools such as ping, along with
iwconfig. If you have a wired interface you may wish to use ifconfig to turn those interfaces off
while you test your wireless networking to ensure there's no interference. You may also want to test
your changes through a reboot.

Now that you've seen how to edit /etc/rc.d/rc.wireless for you default network, let's take a
closer look at iwconfig and see how it all works. This will teach you the quick and dirty way of
setting up wifi for those times when you find yourself at an Internet cafe, coffee shop, or any other
wifi hot spot and wish to get online.

The first step is to tell your wireless NIC what network to join. Make sure you replace “eth0” with
whatever network interface your wireless card uses and change “mynetwork” to the essid you wish
to use. Yes, we know you're smarter than that. Next you'll have to specify the encryption key (if
any) used on your wireless network. Finally specify the channel to use (if needed).

# iwconfig eth0 essid "mynetwork"

# iwconfig eth0 key XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
# iwconfig eth0 channel n

That should be all on the wireless end of things.

5.5.3 Configure the Network

This is done in the exact same way as wired networks. Simply refer to earlier sections of this
chapter.

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5.6 Network File Systems

At this point, you should have a working TCP/IP connection to your network. You should be able
to ping other computers on your internal network and, if you have configured an appropriate
gateway, you should also be able to ping computers on the Internet itself. As we know, the whole
point in bringing a computer onto a network is to access information. While some people might
bring a computer up on a network just for the fun of it, most people wish to be able to share files
and printers. They wish to be able to access documents on the Internet or play an online game.
Having TCP/IP installed and functional on your new Slackware system is a means to that end, but
with just TCP/IP installed, functionality will be very rudimentary. To share files, we will have to
transfer them back and forth using either FTP or SCP. We cannot browse files on our new
Slackware computer from the Network Neighborhood or My Network Places icons on Windows
computers. We'd like to be able to access files on other Unix machines seamlessly.

Ideally, we'd like to be able to use a network file system to allow us transparent access to our files
on other computers. The programs that we use to interact with information stored on our computers
really do not need to know on what computer a given file is stored; they just need to know that it
exists and how to get to it. It is then the responsibility of the operating system to manage access to
that file through the available file systems and network file systems. The two most commonly used
network file systems are SMB (as implemented by Samba) and NFS.

5.6.1 SMB/Samba/CIFS

SMB (for Server Message Block) is a descendant of the older NetBIOS protocol that was initially
used by IBM in their LAN Manager product. Microsoft has always been fairly interested in
NetBIOS and it's successors (NetBEUI, SMB and CIFS). The Samba project has existed since
1991, when it was originally written to link an IBM PC running NetBIOS with a Unix server.
These days, SMB is the preferred method for sharing file and print services over a network for
virtually the entire civilized world because Windows supports it.

Samba's configuration file is /etc/samba/smb.conf; one of the most well commented and
documented configuration files you will find anywhere. Sample shares have been setup for you to
view and modify for your needs. If you need even tighter control the man page for smb.conf is
indispensable. Since Samba is documented so well in the places I've mentioned above, we will not
rewrite the documentation here. We will, however, quickly cover the basics.

smb.conf is broken down into multiple sections: one section per share, and a global section for
setting options that are to be used everywhere. Some options are only valid in the global section;
some are only valid outside the global section. Remember that the global section can be over-
ridden by any other section. Refer to the man pages for more information.

You will most likely wish to edit your smb.conf file to reflect the network settings in your LAN. I
would suggest modifying the items listed below:

[global]
# workgroup = NT-Domain-Name or Workgroup-Name, eg: LINUX2
workgroup = MYGROUP

Change the workgroup name to reflect the workgroup or domain name that you are using locally.

# server string is the equivalent of the NT Description field

server string = Samba Server
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This will be the name of your Slackware computer displayed in the Network Neighborhood (or My
Network Places) folder.

# Security mode. Most people will want user level security. See
# security_level.txt for details. NOTE: To get the behaviour of
# Samba-1.9.18, you'll need to use "security = share".
security = user

You'll almost certainly wish to implement user level security on your Slackware system.

# You may wish to use password encryption. Please read

# ENCRYPTION.txt, Win95.txt and WinNT.txt in the Samba
# documentation.
# Do not enable this option unless you have read those documents
encrypt passwords = yes

If encrypt passwords is not enabled, you will not be able to use Samba with NT4.0, Win2k, WinXP,
and Win2003. Earlier Windows operating systems did not require encryption to share files.

SMB is an authenticated protocol, meaning you must supply a correct username and password in
order to use this service. We tell the samba server what usernames and passwords are valid with the
smbpasswd command. smbpasswd takes a couple of common switches to tell it to either add
traditional users, or add machine users (SMB requires that you add the computers' NETBIOS
names as machine users, restricting what computers one can authenticate from).

Adding a user to the /etc/samba/private/smbpasswd file.

# smbpasswd -a user
Adding a machine name to the /etc/samba/private/smbpasswd file.
# smbpasswd -a -m machine

It's important to note that a given username or machine name must already exist in the /etc/passwd
file. You can accomplish this simply with the adduser command. Note that when using the adduser
command to add a machine name one must append a dollar sign (“$”) to the machine name. This
should not however, be done with smbpasswd. smbpasswd appends the dollar sign on its own. Failing
to mangle the machine name this way with adduser will result in an error when adding the machine
name to samba.

# adduser machine$

5.6.2 Network File System (NFS)

NFS (or Network File System) was originally written by Sun for their Solaris implementation of
Unix. While it is significantly easier to get up and running when compared to SMB, it is also
significantly less secure. The primary insecurity in NFS is that it is easy to spoof user and group
id's from one machine to another. NFS is an unauthenticated protocol. Future versions of the NFS
protocol are being devised that enhance security, but these are not common at the time of this
writing.

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NFS configuration is governed by the /etc/exports file. When you load the default /etc/exports
file into an editor, you'll see a blank file with a two line comment on top. We'll need to add a line to
the exports file for each directory that we wish to export, with a listing of client workstations that
will be allowed to access that file. For instance, if we wished to export directory /home/foo to
workstation Bar, we would simply add the line:

/home/foo Bar(rw)

to our /etc/exports. Below, you'll find the example from the man page for the exports file:

# sample /etc/exports file

/ master(rw) trusty(rw,no_root_squash)
/projects proj*.local.domain(rw)
/usr *.local.domain(ro) @trusted(rw)
/home/joe pc001(rw,all_squash,anonuid=150,anongid=100)
/pub (ro,insecure,all_squash)

As you can see, there are various options available, but most should be fairly clear from this
example.

NFS works under the assumption that a given user on one machine in a network has the same user
ID on all machines across the network. When an attempt is made to read or write from a NFS client
to an NFS server, a UID is passed as part of the read/write request. This UID is treated the same as
if the read/write request originated on the local machine. As you can see, if one could arbitrarily
specify a given UID when accessing resources on a remote system, Bad Things (tm) could and
would happen. As a partial hedge against this, each directory is mounted with the root_squash
option. This maps the UID for any user claiming to be root to a different UID, thus preventing root
access to the files or folders in the exported directory. root_squash seems to be enabled by default
as a security measure, but the authors recommend specifying it anyway in your /etc/exports file.

You can also export a directory directly from the command line on the server by using the exportfs
command as follows:

# exportfs -o rw,no_root_squash Bar:/home/foo

This line exports the /home/foo directory to the computer “Bar” and grants Bar read/write access.
Additionally, the NFS server will not invoke root_squash, which means any user on Bar with a
UID of “0” (root's UID) will have the same privileges as root on the server. The syntax does look
strange (usually when a directory is specified in computer:/directory/file syntax, you are referring
to a file in a directory on a given computer).

You'll find more information on the man page for the exports file.

Chapter 6 X Configuration
Starting with Slackware-10.0, the X Window environment in Slackware is provided by Xorg. X is
responsible for providing a graphical user interface. It is independent from the operating system,
unlike Windows or the MacOS.

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The X Window System is implemented through many programs that run in userland. The two main
components are the server and the window manager. The server provides the lowlevel functions for
interacting with your video hardware, thus it is system specific. The window manager sits on top of
the server and provides the user interface. The advantage to this is you can have many different
graphical interfaces by simply changing the window manager you use.

Configuring X can be a complex task. The reason for this is the vast numbers of video cards
available for the PC architecture, most of which use different programming interfaces. Luckily,
most cards today support basic video standards known as VESA, and if your card is among them
you'll be able to start X using the startx command right out of the box.

If this doesn't work with your card, or if you'd like to take advantage of the high-performance
features of your video card such as hardware acceleration or 3-D hardware rendering, then you'll
need to reconfigure X.

To configure X, you'll need to make an /etc/X11/xorg.conf file. This file contains lots of details
about your video hardware, mouse, and monitor. It's a very complex configuration file, but
fortunately there are several programs to help create one for you. We'll mention a few of them here.

6.1 xorgconfig
This is a simple menu driven frontend that's similar in feel to the Slackware installer. It simply tells
the X server to take a look at the card, and then set up the best initial configuration file it can make
based on the information it gathers. The generated /etc/X11/xorg.conf file should be a good
starting point for most systems (and should work without modification).

This is a text-based X configuration program that's designed for the advanced system administrator.
Here's a sample walkthrough using xorgconfig. First, start the program:

# xorgconfig

This will present a screenful of information about xorgconfig. To continue, press ENTER. xorgconfig
will ask you to verify you have set your PATH correctly. It should be fine, so go ahead and hit ENTER.

Figure 6-1. xorgconfig Mouse Configuration

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Select your mouse from the menu presented. If you don't see your serial mouse listed, pick the
Microsoft protocol -- it's the most common and will probably work. Next xorgconfig will ask you
about using ChordMiddle and Emulate3Buttons. You'll see these options described in detail on the
screen. Use them if the middle button on your mouse doesn't work under X, or if your mouse only
has two buttons (Emulate3Buttons lets you simulate the middle button by pressing both buttons
simultaneously). Then, enter the name of your mouse device. The default choice, /dev/mouse,
should work since the link was configured during Slackware setup. If you're running GPM (the
Linux mouse server) in repeater mode, you can set your mouse type to /dev/gpmdata to have X get
information about the mouse through gpm. In some cases (with busmice especially) this can work
better, but most users shouldn't do this.

xorgconfig will ask you about enabling special key bindings. If you need this say “y”. Most users
can say “n” -- enter this if you're not sure.

Figure 6-2. xorgconfig Horizontal Sync

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In the next section you enter the sync range for your monitor. To start configuring your monitor,
press ENTER. You will see a list of monitor types -- choose one of them. Be careful not to exceed the
specifications of your monitor. Doing so could damage your hardware.

Figure 6-3. xorgconfig Vertical Sync

Specify the vertical sync range for your monitor (you should find this in the manual for the
monitor). xorgconfig will ask you to enter strings to identify the monitor type in the xorg.conf file.
Enter anything you like on these 3 lines (including nothing at all).

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Figure 6-4. xorgconfig Video Card

Now you have the opportunity to look at the database of video card types. You'll want to do this, so
say “y”, and select a card from the list shown. If you don't see your exact card, try selecting one
that uses the same chipset and it will probably work fine.

Next, tell xorgconfig how much RAM you have on your video card. xorgconfig will want you to
enter some more descriptive text about your video card. If you like, you can enter descriptions on
these three lines.

You'll then be asked which display resolutions you want to use. Again, going with the provided
defaults should be fine to start with. Later on, you can edit the /etc/X11/xorg.conf file and
rearrange the modes so 1024x768 (or whatever mode you like) is the default.

At this point, the xorgconfig program will ask if you'd like to save the current configuration file.
Answer yes, and the X configuration file is saved, completing the setup process. You can start X
now with the startx command.

6.2 xorgsetup
The second way to configure X is to use xorgsetup, an automagical configuration program that
comes with Slackware.

To run xorgsetup, log in as root and type:

# xorgsetup

If you've already got an /etc/X11/xorg.conf file (because you've already configured X), you'll be
asked if you want to backup the existing config file before continuing. The original file will be
renamed to /etc/X11/xorg.conf.backup.

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6.3 xinitrc
xinit(1) is the program that actually starts X; it is called by startx(1), so you may not have
noticed it (and probably don't really need to). Its configuration file, however, determines which
programs (including and especially the window manager) are run when X starts up. xinit first
checks your home directory for a .xinitrc file. If the file is found, it gets run; otherwise,
/var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc (the systemwide default) is used. Here's a simple xinitrc file:

#!/bin/sh
# $XConsortium: xinitrc.cpp,v 1.4 91/08/22 11:41:34 rws Exp $

userresources=$HOME/.Xresources
usermodmap=$HOME/.Xmodmap
sysresources=/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xinit/.Xresources
sysmodmap=/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xinit/.Xmodmap

# merge in defaults and keymaps

if [ -f $sysresources ]; then
xrdb -merge $sysresources
fi

if [ -f $sysmodmap ]; then
xmodmap $sysmodmap
fi

if [ -f $userresources ]; then
xrdb -merge $userresources
fi

if [ -f $usermodmap ]; then
xmodmap $usermodmap
fi

# start some nice programs

twm &
xclock -geometry 50x50-1+1 &
xterm -geometry 80x50+494+51 &
xterm -geometry 80x20+494-0 &
exec xterm -geometry 80x66+0+0 -name login

All of those “if” blocks are there to merge in various configuration settings from other files. The
interesting part of the file is toward the end, where various programs are run. This X session will
begin with the twm(1) window manager, a clock, and three terminals. Note the exec before the last
xterm. What that does is replace the currently running shell (the one that's executing this xinitrc
script) with that xterm(1) command. When the user quits that xterm, the X session will end.

To customize your X startup, copy the default /var/X11R6/lib/xinit/xinitrc to ~/.xinitrc and

edit it, replacing those program lines with whatever you like. The end of mine is simply:

# Start the window manager:

exec startkde

Note that there are several xinitrc.* files in /var/X11R6/lib/xinit that correspond to various
window managers and GUIs. You can use any of those, if you like.
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6.4 xwmconfig
For years, Unix was used almost exclusively as the operating system for servers, with the exception
of high-powered professional workstations. Only the technically inclined were likely to use a Unix-
like operating system, and the user interface reflected this fact. GUIs tended to be fairly bare-
bones, designed to run a few necessarily graphical applications like CAD programs and image
renderers. Most file and system management was conducted at the command line. Various vendors
(Sun Microsystems, Silicon Graphics, etc) were selling workstations with an attempt to provide a
cohesive “look and feel”, but the wide variety of GUI toolkits in use by developers led inevitably
to the dissolution of the desktop's uniformity. A scrollbar might not look the same in two different
applications. Menus might appear in different places. Programs would have different buttons and
checkboxes. Colors ranged widely, and were generally hard-coded in each toolkit. As long as the
users were primarily technical professionals, none of this mattered much.

With the advent of free Unix-like operating systems and the growing number and variety of
graphical applications, X has recently gained a wide desktop user base. Most users, of course, are
accustomed to the consistent look and feel provided by Microsoft's Windows or Apple's MacOS;
the lack of such consistency in X-based applications became a barrier to its wider acceptance. In
response, two open source projects have been undertaken: The K Desktop Environment, or KDE,
and the GNU Network Object Model Environment, known as GNOME. Each has a wide variety of
applications, from taskbars and file managers to games and office suites, written with the same
GUI toolkit and tightly integrated to provide a uniform, consistent desktop.

The differences in KDE and GNOME are generally fairly subtle. They each look different from the
other, because each uses a different GUI toolkit. KDE is based on the Qt library from Troll Tech
AS, while GNOME uses GTK, a toolkit originally developed for The GNU Image Manipulation
Program (or The GIMP, for short). As separate projects, KDE and GNOME each have their own
designers and programmers, with different development styles and philosophies. The result in each
case, however, has been fundamentally the same: a consistent, tightly integrated desktop
environment and application collection. The functionality, usability, and sheer prettiness of both
KDE and GNOME rival anything available on other operating systems.

The best part, though, is that these advanced desktops are free. This means you can have either or
both (yes, at the same time). The choice is yours.

In addition to the GNOME and KDE desktops, Slackware includes a large collection of window
managers. Some are designed to emulate other operating systems, some for customization, others
for speed. There's quite a variety. Of course you can install as many as you want, play with them
all, and decide which you like the most.

To make desktop selection easy, Slackware also includes a program called xwmconfig that can be
used to select a desktop or window manager. It is run like so:

% xwmconfig

Figure 6-5. Desktop Configuration with xorgconfig

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You'll be given a list of all the desktops and window managers installed. Just select the one you
want from the list. Each user on your system will need to run this program, since different users
can use different desktops, and not everyone will want the default one you selected at installation.

Then just start up X, and you're good to go.

6.5 xdm
As Linux becomes more and more useful as a desktop operating system, many users find it
desirable for the machine to boot straight into a graphical environment. For this, you will need to
tell Slackware to boot straight into X, and assign a graphical login manager. Slackware ships with
three graphical login tools, xdm(1), kdm, and gdm(1).

xdm is the graphical login manager shipped with the X.org system. It's ubiquitous, but not as fully
features as alternatives. kdm is the graphical login manager shipped with KDE, The K Desktop
Environment. Finally, gdm is the login manager shipped with GNOME. Any of the choices will
allow you to log in as any user, and choose what desktop you wish to use.

Unfortunately, Slackware doesn't include a nice program like xwmconfig for choosing what login
manager to use, so if all three are installed you may have to do some editing to choose your
preference. But first, we'll discuss how to boot into a graphical environment.

In order to start X at boot, you need to boot into run-level 4. Run-levels are just a way of telling
init(8) to do something different when it starts the OS. We do this by editing the config file for
init, /etc/inittab.

# These are the default runlevels in Slackware:

# 0 = halt
# 1 = single user mode
# 2 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3)
# 3 = multiuser mode (default Slackware runlevel)
# 4 = X11 with KDM/GDM/XDM (session managers)
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# 5 = unused (but configured the same as runlevel 3)
# 6 = reboot

# Default runlevel. (Do not set to 0 or 6)

id:3:initdefault:

In order to make Slackware boot to a graphical environment, we just change the 3 to a 4.

# Default runlevel. (Do not set to 0 or 6)

id:4:initdefault:

Now Slackware will boot into runlevel 4 and execute /etc/rc.d/rc.4. This file starts up X and
calls whatever login manager you've chosen. So, how do we choose login managers? There are a
few ways to do this, and I'll explain them after we look at rc.4.

# Try to use GNOME's gdm session manager:

if [ -x /usr/bin/gdm ]; then
exec /usr/bin/gdm -nodaemon
fi

# Not there? OK, try to use KDE's kdm session manager:

if [ -x /opt/kde/bin/kdm ]; then
exec /opt/kde/bin/kdm -nodaemon
fi

# If all you have is XDM, I guess it will have to do:

if [ -x /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm ]; then
exec /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon
fi

As you can see here, rc.4 first checks to see if gdm is executable, and if so runs it. Second on the
list is kdm, and finally xdm. One way of choosing a login manager is to simply remove the ones you
don't wish to use using removepkg. You can find out more about removepkg in Chapter 18.

Optionally, you can remove the executable permission from those files that you don't want to use.
We discuss chmod in Chapter 9.

# chmod -x /usr/bin/gdm

Finally, you can just comment out the lines for the login manager you don't want to use.

# Try to use GNOME's gdm session manager:

# if [ -x /usr/bin/gdm ]; then
# exec /usr/bin/gdm -nodaemon
# fi

# Not there? OK, try to use KDE's kdm session manager:

if [ -x /opt/kde/bin/kdm ]; then
exec /opt/kde/bin/kdm -nodaemon
fi

# If all you have is XDM, I guess it will have to do:

if [ -x /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm ]; then
exec /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon
fi
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Any lines preceded by the hash mark (#) are considered comments and the shell silently passes
them. Thus, even if gdm is installed and executable, the shell (in this case bash) won't bother
checking for it.

Chapter 7 Booting
The process of booting your Linux system can sometimes be easy and sometimes be difficult.
Many users install Slackware on their computer and that's it. They just turn it on and it's ready to
use. Othertimes, simply booting the machine can be a chore. For most users, LILO works best.
Slackware includes LILO and Loadlin for booting Slackware Linux. LILO will work from a hard
drive partition, a hard drive's master boot record, or a floppy disk, making it a very versatile tool.
Loadlin works from a DOS command line, killing DOS and invoking Linux.

Another popular utility for booting Linux is GRUB. GRUB is not included or officially supported
by Slackware. Slackware holds to the “tried and true” standard for what gets included inside the
distribution. While GRUB works well and includes some features that LILO does not, LILO
handles all the essential tasks of a boot loader reliably with a proven track record. Being younger,
GRUB hasn't quite lived up to that legacy yet. As it is not included with Slackware, we do not
discuss it here. If you wish to use GRUB (perhaps it came with another Linux OS and you want to
use it to dual-boot) consult GRUB's documentation.

This section covers using LILO and Loadlin, the two booters included with Slackware. It also
explains some typical dual booting scenarios and how you could go about setting it up.

7.1 LILO
The Linux Loader, or LILO, is the most popular booter in use on Linux systems. It is quite
configurable and can easily be used to boot other operating systems.

Slackware Linux comes with a menu-driven configuration utility called liloconfig. This program
is first run during the setup process, but you can invoke it later by typing liloconfig at the prompt.

LILO reads its settings from the /etc/lilo.conf(5) file. It is not read each time you boot up, but
instead is read each time you install LILO. LILO must be reinstalled to the boot sector each time
you make a configuration change. Many LILO errors come from making changes to the lilo.conf
file, but failing to re-run lilo to install these changes. liloconfig will help you build the
configuration file so that you can install LILO for your system. If you prefer to edit /etc/lilo.conf
by hand, then reinstalling LILO just involves typing /sbin/lilo (as root) at the prompt.

When you first invoke liloconfig, it will look like this:

Figure 7-1. liloconfig

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If this is your first time setting up LILO, you should pick simple. Otherwise, you might find expert
to be faster if you are familiar with LILO and Linux. Selecting simple will begin the LILO
configuration.

If kernel frame buffer support is compiled into your kernel, liloconfig will ask which video
resolution you would like to use. This is the resolution that is also used by the XFree86 frame
buffer server. If you do not want the console to run in a special video mode, selecting normal will
keep the standard 80x25 text mode in use.

The next part of the LILO configuration is selecting where you want it installed. This is probably
the most important step. The list below explains the installation places:

Root

This option installs LILO to the beginning of your Linux root partition. This is the safest
option if you have other operating systems on your computer. It ensures that any other
booters are not overwritten. The disadvantage is that LILO will only load from here if your
Linux drive is the first drive on your system. This is why many people chose to create a very
small /boot partition as the first drive on their system. This allows the kernel and LILO to be
installed at the beginning of the drive where LILO can find them. Previous versions of LILO
contained an infamous flaw known as the “1024 cylinder limit”. LILO was unable to boot
kernels on partitions past the 1024th cylinder. Recent editions of LILO have eliminated this
problem.

Floppy

This method is even safer than the previous one. It creates a boot floppy that you can use to
boot your Linux system. This keeps the booter off the hard disk entirely, so you only boot
this floppy when you want to use Slackware. The flaws with this method are obvious.
Floppies are notoriously fickle, prone to failures. Secondly, the boot loader is no longer self-
contained within the computer. If you loose your floppy disk, you'll have to make another to
boot your system.

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MBR

You will want to use this method if Slackware is the only operating system on your
computer, or if you will be using LILO to choose between multiple operating systems on
your computer. This is the most preferred method for installing LILO and will work with
almost any computer system.

This option will overwrite any other booter you have in the MBR.

After selecting the installation location, liloconfig will write the configuration file and install
LILO. That's it. If you select the expert mode you will receive a special menu. This menu allows
you to tweak the /etc/lilo.conf file, add other operating systems to your boot menu, and set LILO
to pass special kernel parameters at boot time. The expert menu looks like this:

Figure 7-2. liloconfig Expert Menu

Whatever your system configuration is, setting up a working boot loader is easy. liloconfig makes
setting it up a cinch.

7.2 LOADLIN
The other booting option that comes with Slackware Linux is LOADLIN. LOADLIN is a DOS
executable that can be used to start Linux from a running DOS system. It requires the Linux kernel
to be on the DOS partition so that LOADLIN can load it and properly boot the system.

During the installation process, LOADLIN will be copied to root's home directory as a .ZIP file.
There is no automatic setup process for LOADLIN. You will need to copy the Linux kernel
(typically /boot/vmlinuz) and the LOADLIN file from root's home directory to the DOS partition.

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LOADLIN is useful if you would like to make a boot menu on your DOS partition. A menu could
be added to your AUTOEXEC.BAT file that would allow you to pick between Linux or DOS. A choice
of Linux would run LOADLIN, thus booting your Slackware system. This AUTOEXEC.BAT file under
Windows 95 will provide a sufficient boot menu:

@ECHO OFF
SET PROMPT=$P$G
SET PATH=C:\WINDOWS;C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND;C:\
CLS
ECHO Please Select Your Operating System:
ECHO.
ECHO [1] Slackware Linux
ECHO [2] Windows 95
ECHO.
CHOICE /C:12 "Selection? -> "
IF ERRORLEVEL 2 GOTO WIN
IF ERRORLEVEL 1 GOTO LINUX
:WIN
CLS
ECHO Starting Windows 95...
WIN
GOTO END
:LINUX
ECHO Starting Slackware Linux...
CD \LINUX
LOADLIN C:\LINUX\VMLINUZ ROOT=<root partition device> RO
GOTO END
:END

You will want to specify your root partition as a Linux device name, like /dev/hda2 or something
else. You can always use LOADLIN at the command line. You simply use it in the same manner as
it is in the example above. The LOADLIN documentation comes with many examples on how to
use it.

7.3 Dual Booting

Many users set up their computers to boot Slackware Linux and another operating system. We've
described several typical dual boot scenarios below, in case you are having difficulty setting up
your system.

7.3.1 Windows
Setting up a computer with both MS Windows and Linux is probably the most common dual boot
scenario. There are numerous ways you can setup the booting, but this section will cover two.

Often times when setting up a dual boot system, a person will devise a perfect plan for where
everything should go but mess up the installation order. It is very important to understand that
operating systems need to be installed in a certain order for a dual boot setup to work. Linux
always offers control over what, if anything, gets written to the Master Boot Record. Therefore, it's
always advisable to install Linux last. Windows should be installed first, since it will always write
its booter to the Master Boot Record, overwriting any entry Linux may have put there.

7.3.1.1 Using LILO

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Most people will want to use LILO to chose between Linux and Windows. As stated above, you
should install Windows first, then Linux.

Let's say you have a 40GB IDE hard disk as the only drive in your system. Let's also say that you
want to give half of that space to Windows and half of that space to Linux. This will present a
problem when trying to boot Linux.

20GB Windows boot (C:)

1GB Linux root (/)
19GB Linux /usr (/usr)

You would also want to set aside an adequate amount of space for a Linux swap partition. The
unwritten rule is to use twice the amount of RAM you have in disk space. A 64MB system would
have 128MB of swap, and so on. Adequate swap space is the discussion of many flames on IRC
and Usenet. There's no truly “right” way to do it, but sticking with the rule above should be
sufficient.

With your partitions laid out, you should proceed to install Windows. After that is set up and
working, you should install Linux. The LILO installation needs special attention. You will want to
select the expert mode for installing LILO.

Begin a new LILO configuration. You will want to install it to Master Boot Record so that it can be
used to choose between the two operating systems. From the menu, add your Linux partition and
add your Windows (or DOS) partition. Once that's complete, you can install LILO.

Reboot the computer. LILO should load and will display a menu letting you select between the
operating systems you have installed. Select the name of the OS you wish to load (these names
were selected when you setup LILO).

LILO is quite a configurable boot loader. It's not just limited to booting Linux or DOS. It can boot
just about anything. The man pages for lilo(8) and lilo.conf(5) provide more detailed
information.

What if LILO doesn't work? There are instances where LILO just won't work on a particular
machine. Fortunately, there is another way to dual boot Linux and Windows.

7.3.1.2 Using LOADLIN

This method can be used if LILO doesn't work on your system, or if you just don't want to set up
LILO. This method is also ideal for the user that reinstalls Windows often. Each time you reinstall
Windows, it will overwrite the Master Boot Record, thus destroying any LILO installation. With
LOADLIN, you are not subject to that problem. The biggest disadvantage is that you can only use
LOADLIN to boot Linux.

With LOADLIN, you can install the operating systems in any order desired. Be careful about
installing things to the Master Boot Record, you do not want to do that. LOADLIN relies on the
Windows partition being bootable. So during the Slackware installation, make sure you skip the
LILO setup.

After installing the operating systems, copy the loadlinX.zip (where X is a version number, such
as 16a) file from root's home directory to your Windows partition. Also copy your kernel image to
the Windows partition. You will need to be in Linux for this to work. This example shows how to
do this:

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# mkdir /win
# mount -t vfat /dev/hda1 /win
# mkdir /win/linux
# cd /root
# cp loadlin* /win/linux
# cp /boot/vmlinuz /win/linux
# cd /win/linuz
# unzip loadlin16a.zip

That will create a C:\LINUX directory on your Windows partition (assuming it's /dev/hda1) and
copy over the necessary stuff for LOADLIN. After doing this, you will need to reboot into
Windows to setup a boot menu.

Once in Windows, get to a DOS prompt. First, we need to make sure the system is set to not boot
into the graphical interface.

C:\> cd \
C:\> attrib -r -a -s -h MSDOS.SYS
C:\> edit MSDOS.SYS

Add this line to the file:

BootGUI=0

Now save the file and exit the editor. Now edit C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT so we can add a boot menu. The
following provides an example of what a boot menu block in AUTOEXEC.BAT would look like:

cls
echo System Boot Menu
echo.
echo 1 - Linux
echo 2 - Windows
echo.
choice /c:12 "Selection? -> "
if errorlevel 2 goto WIN
if errorlevel 1 goto LINUX
:LINUX
cls
echo "Starting Linux..."
cd \linux
loadlin c:\linux\vmlinuz root=/dev/hda2 ro
goto END
:WIN
cls
echo "Starting Windows..."
win
goto END
:END

The key line is the one that runs LOADLIN. We tell it the kernel to load, the Linux root partition,
and that we want it mounted read-only initially.

The tools for these two methods are provided with Slackware Linux. There are numerous other
booters on the market, but these should work for most dual boot setups.

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7.3.1.3 Deprecated Windows NT Hack

This is the least common dual booting situation. In the days of old, LILO was unable to boot
Windows NT, requiring Linux users to hack NTLDR, which presented several more problems than
dual booting between Windows 9x and Linux. Understand that the following instructions are
deprecated. LILO has been able to boot Windows NT/2000/XP/2003 for many years now. If you
are using a legacy machine though, you may need to use just such a hack.

1. Install Windows NT

2. Install Linux, making sure LILO is installed to the superblock of the Linux partition

3. Get the first 512 bytes of the Linux root partition and store it on the Windows NT
partition

4. Edit C:\BOOT.INI under Windows NT to add a Linux option

Installing Windows NT should be fairly straightforward, as should installing Linux. From there, it
gets a little more tricky. Grabbing the first 512 bytes of the Linux partition is easier than it sounds.
You will need to be in Linux to accomplish this. Assuming your Linux partition is /dev/hda2, issue
this command:

# dd if=/dev/hda2 of=/tmp/bootsect.lnx bs=1 count=512

That's it. Now you need to copy bootsect.lnx to the Windows NT partition. Here's where we run
into another problem. Linux does not have stable write support for the NTFS filesystem. If you
installed Windows NT and formatted your drive as NTFS, you will need to copy this file to a FAT
floppy and then read from it under Windows NT. If you formatted the Windows NT drive as FAT,
you can simply mount it under Linux and copy the file over. Either way, you will want to get
/tmp/bootsect.lnx from the Linux drive to C:\BOOTSECT.LNX on the Windows NT drive.

The last step is adding a menu option to the Windows NT boot menu. Under Windows NT open a
command prompt.

C:\WINNT> cd \
C:\> attrib -r -a -s -h boot.ini
C:\> edit boot.ini

Add this line to the end of the file:

C:\bootsect.lnx="Slackware Linux"

Save the changes and exit the editor. When you reboot Windows NT, you will have a Linux option
on the menu. Choosing it will boot into Linux.

7.3.2 Linux
Yes, people really do this. This is definitely the easiest dual boot scenario. You can simply use
LILO and add more entries to the /etc/lilo.conf file. That's all there is to it.

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Chapter 8 The Shell

In a graphical environment, the interface is provided by a program that creates windows, scrollbars,
menus, etc. In a commandline environment, the user interface is provided by a shell, which
interprets commands and generally makes things useable. Immediately after logging in (which is
covered in this chapter), users are put into a shell and allowed to go about their business. This
chapter serves as an introduction to the shell, and to the most common shell among Linux users--
the Bourne Again Shell (bash). For more detailed information on anything in this chapter, check
out the bash(1) man page.

8.1 Users
8.1.1 Logging In

So you've booted, and you're looking at something that looks like this:

Welcome to Linux 2.4.18

Last login: Wed Jan 1 15:59:14 -0500 2005 on tty6.
darkstar login:

Hmm.. nobody said anything about a login. And what's a darkstar? Don't worry; you probably
didn't accidentally fire up a hyperspace comm-link to the Empire's artificial moon. (I'm afraid the
hyperspace comm-link protocol isn't currently supported by the Linux kernel. Maybe the 2.8 kernel
branch will at last provide this oft looked-for support.) No, darkstar is just the name of one of our
computers, and its name gets stamped on as the default. If you specified a name for your computer
during setup, you should see it instead of darkstar.

As for the login... If this is your first time, you'll want to log in as root. You'll be prompted for a
password; if you set one during the setup process, that's what it's looking for. If not, just hit enter.
That's it-- you're in!

8.1.2 Root: The Superuser

Okay, who or what is root? And what's it doing with an account on your system?

Well, in the world of Unix and similar operating systems (like Linux), there are users and then
there are users. We'll go into this in more detail later, but the important thing to know now is that
root is the user above all users; root is all-powerful and all-knowing, and nobody disobeys root. It
just isn't allowed. root is what we call a “superuser”, and rightly so. And best of all, root is you.

Cool, huh?

If you're not sure: yes, that's very cool. The catch is, though, that root is inherently allowed to break
anything it so desires. You might want to skip ahead to Section 12.1.1 and see about adding a user;
then login as that user and work from there. The traditional wisdom is that it's best to only become
the superuser when absolutely necessary, so as to minimize the possibility of accidentally breaking
something.

By the way, if you decide you want to be root while you're logged in as someone else, no problem.
Just use the su(1) command. You'll be asked for root's password and then it will make you root
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until you exit or logout. You can also become any other user using su, provided you know that
user's password: su logan, for instance, would make you me.

root is allowed to su to any user, without requiring their password.

8.2 The Command Line

8.2.1 Running Programs
It's hard to get much accomplished without running a program; you might be able to prop
something up with your computer or hold a door open, and some will make the most lovely
humming noise when running, but that's really about it. And I think we can all agree that its use as
a humming doorstop isn't what brought the personal computer the popularity it now enjoys.

So, remember how almost everything in Linux is a file? Well, that goes for programs, too. Every
command you run (that isn't built into the shell) resides as a file somewhere. You run a program
simply by specifying the full path to it.

For instance, remember that su command from the last section? Well, it's actually in the /bin
directory: /bin/su would run it nicely.

So why, then, does just typing su work? After all, you didn't say it was in /bin. It could just as
easily have been in /usr/local/share, right? How did it know? The answer to that lies in the PATH
environment variable; most shells have either PATH or something very much like PATH. It basically
contains a list of directories to look in for programs you try to run. So when you ran su, your shell
ran through its list of directories, checking each one for an executable file called su that it could
run; the first one it came to, it ran. This happens whenever you run a program without specifying a
full path to it; if you get a ““Command not found”” error, that only means that the program you tried
to run isn't in your PATH. (Of course, this would be true if the program doesn't exist at all...) We'll
discuss environment variables in more depth in Section 8.3.1.

Remember also that “.” is shorthand for the current directory, so if you happened to be in /bin,
./su would have worked as an explicit full path.

8.2.2 Wildcard Matching

Nearly every shell recognizes some characters as being substitutes or abbreviations that mean
anything goes here. Such characters are aptly named wildcards; the most common are * and ?. By
convention, ? usually matches any single character. For instance, suppose you're in a directory with
three files: ex1.txt, ex2.txt, and ex3.txt. You want to copy all of those files (using the cp
command we cover in Section 10.5.1) to another directory, say /tmp. Well, typing cp ex1.txt
ex2.txt ex3.txt /tmp is entirely too much work. It's much easier to type cp ex?.txt /tmp; the ?
will match each of the characters “1”, “2”, and “3”, and each in turn will be substituted in.

What's that you say? That's still too much work? You're right. It's appalling; we have labor laws to
protect us from that sort of thing. Fortunately, we also have *. As was already mentioned, *
matches “any number of characters”, including 0. So if those three files were the only ones in the
directory, we could have simply said cp * /tmp and gotten them all in one fell swoop. Suppose,
though, that there is also a file called ex.txt and one called hejaz.txt. We want to copy ex.txt but
not hejaz.txt; cp ex* /tmp will do that for us.

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cp ex?.txt /tmp, would, of course, only get our original three files; there's no character in ex.txt
to match that ?, so it would be left out.

Another common wildcard is the bracket pair [ ]. Any characters inside the brackets will be
substituted in place of the [ ] to find matches. Sound confusing? It's not too bad. Suppose for
instance, we have a directory containing the following 8 files: a1, a2, a3, a4, aA, aB, aC, and aD . We
want to only find the files ending in numbers; [ ] will do this for us.

% ls a[1-4]
a1 a2 a3 a4

But what we really want is just a1, a2, and a4? In the previous example we used - to mean all
values between 1 and 4. We can also separate individual entries with commas.

% ls a[1,2,4]
a1 a2 a4

I know what you're thinking now, “Well what about letters?” Linux is case-sensitive, meaning that
a and A are different characters and are only related in your mind. Capitals always come before
lowercase letters, so A and B come before a and b. Continuing with our earlier example, if we
wanted files a1, and A1, we can find these quickly with [ ].

% ls [A,a]1
A1 a1

Note, that if we had included a hyphen instead of a comma, we would have gotten incorrect results.

% ls [A-a]1
A1 B1 C1 D1 a1

You can also combine hyphen and comma strings.

% ls [A,a-d]
A1 a1 b1 c1 d1

8.2.3 Input/Output Redirection and Piping

(Here comes something cool.)

% ps > blargh

Y'know what that is? That's me running ps to see which processes are running; ps is covered in
Section 11.3. That's not the cool part. The cool part is > blargh, which means, roughly, take the
output from ps and write it to a file called blargh. But wait, it gets cooler.

% ps | less

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That one takes the output from ps and pipes it through less, so I can scroll through it at my leisure.

% ps >> blargh

This is the third most commonly used redirector; it does the same thing as “>”, except that “>>”
will append output from ps to the file blargh, if said file exists. If not, just like “>”, it will be
created. (“>” will obliterate the current contents of blargh.)

There is also a “<” operator, which means take your input from the following, but it's not used
nearly so often.

% fromdos < dosfile.txt > unixfile.txt

Redirection gets really fun when you start piling it up:

% ps | tac >> blargh

That will run ps, reverse the lines of its output, and append those to the file blargh. You can stack
as many of these up as you want; just be careful to remember that they get interpreted from left to
right.

See the bash(1) man page for more detailed information on redirection.

8.3 The Bourne Again Shell (bash)

8.3.1 Environment Variables
A Linux system is a complex beast, and there's a lot to keep track of, a lot of little details that come
into play in your normal interactions with various programs (some of which you might not even
need to be aware of). Nobody wants to pass a bunch of options to every program that gets run,
telling it what kind of terminal is being used, the hostname of the computer, how their prompt
should look...

So as a coping mechanism, users have what's called an environment. The environment defines the
conditions in which programs run, and some of this definition is variable; the user can alter and
play with it, as is only right in a Linux system. Pretty much any shell will have environment
variables (if not, it's probably not a very useable shell). Here we will give an overview of the
commands bash provides for manipulating its environment variables.

set by itself will show you all of the environment variables that are currently defined, as well as
their values. Like most bash built-ins, it can also do several other things (with parameters); we'll
leave it to the bash(1) man page to cover that, though. Example 8-1 shows an excerpt from a set
command run on one of the author's computers. Notice in this example the PATH variable that was
discussed earlier. Programs in any of those directories can be run simply by typing the base
filename.

Example 8-1. Listing Environment Variables with set

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% set
PATH=/usr/local/lib/qt/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:
/usr/openwin/bin:/usr/games:.:/usr/local/ssh2/bin:/usr/local/ssh1/bin:
/usr/share/texmf/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/sbin:/home/logan/bin
PIPESTATUS=([0]="0")
PPID=4978
PS1='\h:\w\$ '
PS2='> '
PS4='+ '
PWD=/home/logan
QTDIR=/usr/local/lib/qt
REMOTEHOST=ninja.tdn
SHELL=/bin/bash

% unset VARIABLE

unset will remove any variables that you give it, wiping out both the variable and its value; bash
will forget that variable ever existed. (Don't worry. Unless it's something you explicitly defined in
that shell session, it'll probably get redefined in any other session.)

% export VARIABLE=some_value

Now, export is truly handy. Using it, you give the environment variable VARIABLE the value
“some_value”; if VARIABLE didn't exist, it does now. If VARIABLE already had a value, well, it's gone.
That's not so good, if you're just trying to add a directory to your PATH. In that case, you probably
want to do something like this:

% export PATH=$PATH:/some/new/directory

Note the use of $PATH there: when you want bash to interpret a variable (replace it with its value),
tack a $ onto the beginning of the variable's name. For instance, echo $PATH will echo the value of
PATH, in my case:

% echo $PATH
/usr/local/lib/qt/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:
/usr/openwin/bin:/usr/games:.:/usr/local/ssh2/bin:/usr/local/ssh1/bin:
/usr/share/texmf/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/sbin:/home/logan/bin

8.3.2 Tab Completion

(Here comes something cool again.)

1. A commandline interface means lots of typing.

2. Typing is work.

3. Nobody likes work.

From 3 and 2, we can determine that (4) nobody likes typing. Fortunately, bash saves us from (5)
(nobody likes a commandline interface).

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How does bash accomplish this wonderful feat, you ask? In addition to the wildcard expansion we
discussed before, bash features tab completion.

Tab completion works something like this: You're typing the name of a file. Maybe it's in your
PATH, maybe you're typing it out explicitly. All you have to do is type enough of the filename to
uniquely identify it. Then hit the tab key. bash will figure out what you want and finish typing it for
you!

Example time. /usr/src contains two subdirectories: /usr/src/linux and /usr/src/sendmail. I

want to see what's in /usr/src/linux. So I just type ls /usr/src/l, hit the TAB key, and bash gives
me ls /usr/src/linux.

Now, suppose there are two directories /usr/src/linux and /usr/src/linux-old; If I type
/usr/src/l and hit TAB, bash will fill in as much as it can, and I'll get /usr/src/linux. I can stop
there, or I can hit TAB again, and bash will show a list of directories that match what I've typed so
far.

Hence, less typing (and hence, people can like commandline interfaces). I told you it was cool.

8.4 Virtual Terminals

So you're in the middle of working on something and you decide you need to do something else.
You could just drop what you're doing and switch tasks, but this is a multi-user system, right? And
you can log in as many times simultaneously as you want, right? So why should you have to do
one thing at a time?

You don't. We can't all have multiple keyboards, mice, and monitors for one machine; chances are
most of us don't want them. Clearly, hardware isn't the solution. That leaves software, and Linux
steps up on this one, providing “virtual terminals”, or “VTs”.

By pressing Alt and a function key, you can switch between virtual terminals; each function key
corresponds to one. Slackware has logins on 6 VTs by default. Alt+F2 will take you to the second
one, Alt+F3 to the third, etc.

The rest of the function keys are reserved for X sessions. Each X session uses its own VT,
beginning with the seventh (Alt+F7) and going up. When in X, the Alt+Function key combination
is replaced with Ctrl+Alt+Function; so if you are in X and want to get back to a text login
(without exiting your X session), Ctrl+Alt+F3 will take you to the third. (Alt+F7 will take you
back, assuming you're using the first X session.)

8.4.1 Screen

But what about situations where there are no virtual terminals? What then? Fortunately, slackware
includes a beautiful screen manager aptly named screen. screen is a terminal emulator that has
virtual terminal like capabilities. Executing screen flashes a brief introduction, then dumps to a
terminal. Unlike the standard virtual terminals, screen has its own commands. All screen
commands are prefixed with a Crtl+A keystroke. For example, Ctrl+A+C will create a new
terminal session. Ctrl+A+N will switch to the next terminal. Ctrl+A+P switches to the previous
terminal.

screen also supports detaching and re-attaching to screen sessions which is particularly useful for
remote sessions via ssh and telnet, (more on those later). Ctrl+A+D will detach from the

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currently running screen. Executing screen -r will list all currently running screen sessions you
may reattach to.

% screen -r
There are several suitable screens on:
1212.pts-1.redtail (Detached)
1195.pts-1.redtail (Detached)
1225.pts-1.redtail (Detached)
17146.pts-1.sanctuary (Dead ???)
Remove dead screens with 'screen -wipe'.
Type "screen [-d] -r [pid.]tty.host" to resume one of them.

Running screen -r 1212 would reattach to the first screen listed. I mentioned earlier how useful
this was for remote sessions. If I were to login to a remote slackware server via ssh, and my
connection was severed by some chance occurrence such as a local power failure, whatever I was
doing at that moment would instantly perish, which can be a horrible thing for your server. Using
screen prevents this by detaching my session if my connection is dropped. Once my connection is
restored, I can reattach to my screen session and resume right where I left off.

Chapter 9 Filesystem Structure

We have already discussed the directory structure in Slackware Linux. By this point, you should be
able to find files and directories that you need. But there is more to the filesystem than just the
directory structure.

Linux is a multiuser operating system. Every aspect of the system is multiuser, even the filesystem.
The system stores information like who owns a file and who can read it. There are other unique
parts about the filesystems, such as links and NFS mounts. This section explains these, as well as
the multiuser aspects of the filesystem.

9.1 Ownership
The filesystem stores ownership information for each file and directory on the system. This
includes what user and group own a particular file. The easiest way to see this information is with
the ls command:

% ls -l /usr/bin/wc
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 7368 Jul 30 1999 /usr/bin/wc

We are interested in the third and fourth columns. These contain the username and group name that
owns this file. We see that the user “root” and the group “bin” own this file.

We can easily change the file owners with the chown(1) (which means “change owner”) and
chgrp(1) (which means “change group”) commands. To change the file owner to daemon, we would
use chown:

# chown daemon /usr/bin/wc

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To change the group owner to “root”, we would use chgrp:

# chgrp root /usr/bin/wc

We can also use chown to specify the user and group owners for a file:

# chown daemon:root /usr/bin/wc

In the above example, the user could have used a period instead of a colon. The result would have
been the same; however, the colon is considered better form. Use of the period is deprecated and
may be removed from future versions of chown to allow usernames with periods in them. These
usernames tend to be very popular with Windows Exchange Servers and are encountered most
commonly in email addresses such as: mr.jones@example.com. In slackware, administrators are
advised to stay away from such usernames because some scripts still use the period to indicate the
user and group of a file or directory. In our example, chmod would interpret mr.jones as user “mr”
and group “jones”.

File ownership is a very important part of using a Linux system, even if you are the only user. You
sometimes need to fix ownerships on files and device nodes.

9.2 Permissions
Permissions are the other important part of the multiuser aspects of the filesystem. With these, you
can change who can read, write, and execute files.

The permission information is stored as four octal digits, each specifying a different set of
permissions. There are owner permissions, group permissions, and world permissions. The fourth
octal digit is used to store special information such as set user ID, set group ID, and the sticky bit.
The octal values assigned to the permission modes are (they also have letters associated with them
that are displayed by programs such as ls and can be used by chmod):

Table 9-1. Octal Permission Values

Permission Type Octal Value Letter Value

“sticky” bit 1 t
set user ID 4 s
set group ID 2 s
read 4 r
write 2 w
execute 1 x

You add the octal values for each permission group. For example, if you want the group
permissions to be “read” and “write”, you would use “6” in the group portion of the permission
information.

bash's default permissions are:

% ls -l /bin/bash
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 477692 Mar 21 19:57 /bin/bash

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The first dash would be replaced with a “d” if this was a directory. The three permission groups
(owner, group, and world) are displayed next. We see that the owner has read, write, and execute
permissions (rwx). The group has only read and execute (r-x). And everyone else has only read and
execute (r-x).

How would we set permissions on another file to resemble bash's? First, let's make an example file:

% touch /tmp/example
% ls -l /tmp/example
-rw-rw-r--- 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example

We will use chmod(1) (which means “change mode”) to set the permissions on the example file.
Add the octal numbers for the permissions you want. For the owner to have read, write, and
execute, we would have a value of 7. Read and execute would have 5. Run those together and pass
them to chmod like this:

% chmod 755 /tmp/example

% ls -l /tmp/example
-rwxr-xr-x 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example

Now you may be thinking, “Why didn't it just create a file with those permissions in the first
place?” Well the answer is simple. bash includes a nice little built-in called umask. This is included
with most Unix shells as well, and controls what file permissions are assigned to newly created
files. We discussed bash built-ins to some degree in Section 8.3.1. umask takes a little getting used
to. It works very similar to chmod, only in reverse. You specify the octal values you do not wish to
have present in newly created files. The default umask value is 0022.

% umask
0022
% umask 0077
% touch tempfile
% ls -l tempfile
-rw-------- 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 tempfile

See the man page for bash for more information.

To set special permissions with chmod, add the numbers together and place them in the first column.
For example, to make it set user ID and set group ID, we use 6 as the first column:

% chmod 6755 /tmp/example

% ls -l /tmp/example
-rwsr-sr-x 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example

If the octal values confuse you, you can use letters with chmod. The permission groups are
represented as:

Owner u
Group g
World o

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All of the above a

To do the above, we would have to use several command lines:

% chmod a+rx /tmp/example

% chmod u+w /tmp/example
% chmod ug+s /tmp/example

Some people prefer the letters over the numbers. Either way will result in the same set of
permissions.

The octal format is often faster, and the one you see most often used in shell scripts. Sometimes the
letters are more powerful however. For example, there's no easy way to change one group of
permissions while preserving the other groups on files and directories when using the octal format.
This is trivial with the letters.

% ls -l /tmp/
-rwxr-xr-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example0
-rwxr-x--- 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example1
----r-xr-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example2
% chmod g-rwx /tmp/example?
-rwx---r-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example0
-rwx------ 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example1
-------r-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example2

We mentioned set user ID and set group ID permissions in several places above. You may be
wondering what this is. Normally when you run a program, it is operating under your user account.
That is, it has all the permissions that you as a user have. The same is true for the group. When you
run a program, it executes under your current group. With set user ID permissions, you can force
the program to always run as the program owner (such as “root”). Set group ID is the same, but for
the group.

Be careful with this, set user ID and set group ID programs can open major security holes on your
system. If you frequently set user ID programs that are owned by root, you are allowing anyone to
run that program and run it as root. Since root has no restrictions on the system, you can see how
this would pose a major security problem. In short, it's not bad to use set user ID and set group ID
permissions, just use common sense.

9.3 Links
Links are pointers between files. With links, you can have files exist in many locations and be
accessible by many names. There are two types of links: hard and soft.

Hard links are names for a particular file. They can only exist within a single filesystem and are
only removed when the real name is removed from the system. These are useful in some cases, but
many users find the soft link to be more versatile.

The soft link, also called a symbolic link, can point to a file outside of its filesystem. It is actually a
small file containing the information it needs. You can add and remove soft links without affecting
the actual file. And since a symbolic link is actually a small file containing its own information,
they can even point at a directory. It's rather common to have /var/tmp actually be a symbolic link
to /tmp for example.

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Links do not have their own set of permissions or ownerships, but instead reflect those of the file
they point to. Slackware uses mostly soft links. Here is a common example:

% ls -l /bin/sh
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Apr 6 12:34 /bin/sh -> bash

The sh shell under Slackware is actually bash. Removing links is done using rm. The ln command
is used to create links. These commands will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 10.

It's very important to be careful about symlinks in particular. Once, I was working on a machine
that was consistently failing to back-up to tape each night. Two symlinks had been made to
directories beneath each other. The back-up software kept appending those same directories to the
tape until it was out of space. Normally, a set of checks will prevent creating a symlink in this
situation, but ours was a special case.

9.4 Mounting Devices

As was previously discussed in Section 4.1.1, all the drives and devices in your computer are one
big filesystem. Various hard drive partitions, CD-ROMs, and floppies are all placed in the same
tree. In order to attach these drives to the filesystem so that you can access them, you have to use
the mount(1) and umount(1) commands.

Some devices are automatically mounted when you boot up your computer. These are listed in the
/etc/fstab file. Anything that you want to be mounted automatically gets an entry in that file. For
other devices, you'll have to issue a command every time you want to use the device.

9.4.1 fstab
Let's look at an example of the /etc/fstab file:

% cat /etc/fstab
/dev/sda1 / ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sda2 /usr/local ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sda4 /home ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sdb1 swap swap defaults 0 0
/dev/sdb3 /export ext2 defaults 1 1
none /dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0
none /proc proc defaults 0 0
/dev/fd0 /mnt ext2 defaults 0 0
/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 ro 0 0

The first column is the device name. In this case, the devices are five partitions spread out across
two SCSI hard drives, two special filesystems that don't need a device, a floppy, and a CD-ROM
drive. The second column is where the device will be mounted. This needs to be a directory name,
except in the case of a swap partition. The third column is the filesystem type of the device. For
normal Linux filesystems, this will be ext2 (second extended filesystem). CD-ROM drives are
iso9660, and Windows-based devices will either be msdos or vfat.

The fourth column is a listing of options that apply to the mounted filesystem. defaults is fine for
just about everything. However, read-only devices should be given the ro flag. There are a lot of
options that can be used. Check the fstab(5) man page for more information. The last two columns

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are used by fsck and other commands that need to manipulate the devices. Check the man page for
that information as well.

When you install Slackware Linux, the setup program will build much of the fstab file.

9.4.2 mount and umount

Attaching another device to your filesystem is easy. All you have to do is use the mount command,
along with a few options. Using mount can simplified if the device has an entry in the /etc/fstab
file. For example, let's say that I wanted to mount my CD-ROM drive and that my fstab file
looked like the example from the previous section. I would call mount like so:

% mount /cdrom

Since there is an entry in fstab for that mount point, mount knows what options to use. If there
wasn't an entry for that device, I would have to use several options for mount:

% mount -t iso9660 -o ro /dev/cdrom /cdrom

That command line includes the same information as the example fstab did, but we'll go over all
the parts anyways. The -t iso9660 is the filesystem type of the device to mount. In this case, it
would be the iso9660 filesystem which is what CD-ROM drives most commonly use. The -o ro
tells mount to mount the device read-only. The /dev/cdrom is the name of the device to mount, and
/cdrom is the location on the filesystem to mount the drive.

Before you can remove a floppy, CD-ROM, or other removable device that is currently mounted,
you'll have to unmount it. That is done using the umount command. Don't ask where the “n” went
because we couldn't tell you. You can use either the mounted device or the mount point as the
argument to umount. For example, if you wanted to unmount the CD-ROM from the previous
example, either of these commands would work:

# umount /dev/cdrom
# umount /cdrom

9.5 NFS Mounts

NFS stands for the Network Filesystem. It is not really part of the real filesystem, but can be used
to add parts to the mounted filesystem.

Large Unix environments often times share the same programs, sets of home directories, and mail
spool. The problem of getting the same copy to each machine is solved with NFS. We can use NFS
to share one set of home directories between all of the workstations. The workstations then mount
that NFS share as if it were on their own machines.

See Section 5.6.2 and the man pages for exports(5), nfsd(8), and mountd(8) for more information.

Chapter 10 Handling Files and Directories

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Linux aims to the most Unix-like it can be. Traditionally, Unix operating systems have been
command-line oriented. We do have a graphical user interface in Slackware, but the command-line
is still the main level of control for the system. Therefore, it is important to understand some of the
basic file management commands.

The following sections explain the common file management commands and provide examples of
how they are used. There are many other commands, but these will help you get started. Also, the
commands are only briefly discussed here. You will find more detail in the accompanying man
pages for each command.

10.1 Navigation : ls, cd, and pwd

10.1.1 ls
This command lists files in a directory. Windows and DOS users will notice its similarity to the dir
command. By itself, ls(1) will list the files in the current directory. To see what's in your root
directory, you could issue these commands:

% cd /
% ls
bin cdr dev home lost+found proc sbin tmp var
boot cdrom etc lib mnt root suncd usr vmlinuz

The problem a lot of people have with that output is that you cannot easily tell what is a directory
and what is a file. Some users prefer that ls add a type identifier to each listing, like this:

% ls -FC
bin/ cdr/ dev/ home/ lost+found/ proc/ sbin/ tmp/ var/
boot/ cdrom/ etc/ lib/ mnt/ root/ suncd/ usr/ vmlinuz

Directories get a slash at the end of the name, executable files get an asterisk at the end of the
name, and so on.

lscan also be used to get other statistics on files. For example, to see the creation dates, owners,
and permissions, you would look at a long listing:

% ls -l
drwxr-xr-x 2 root bin 4096 May 7 09:11 bin/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 24 03:55 boot/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 18 01:10 cdr/
drwxr-xr-x 14 root root 6144 Oct 23 18:37 cdrom/
drwxr-xr-x 4 root root 28672 Mar 5 18:01 dev/
drwxr-xr-x 10 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:32 etc/
drwxr-xr-x 8 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:31 home/
drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Jan 23 21:29 lib/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 16384 Nov 1 08:53 lost+found/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Oct 6 12:47 mnt/
dr-xr-xr-x 62 root root 0 Mar 4 15:32 proc/
drwxr-x--x 12 root root 4096 Feb 26 02:06 root/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root bin 4096 Feb 17 02:02 sbin/
drwxr-xr-x 5 root root 2048 Oct 25 10:51 suncd/
drwxrwxrwt 4 root root 487424 Mar 7 20:42 tmp/

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drwxr-xr-x 21 root root 4096 Aug 24 03:04 usr/
drwxr-xr-x 18 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:32 var/

Suppose you want to get a listing of the hidden files in the current directory. This command will do
just that:

% ls -a
. bin cdrom home mnt sbin usr
.. boot dev lib proc suncd var
.pwrchute_tmp cdr etc lost+found root tmp vmlinuz

Files beginning with a period (called dot files) are hidden when you run ls. You will only see them
if you pass the -a option.

There are many more options that can be found in the online manual page. Don't forget that you
can combine options that you pass to ls.

10.1.2 cd

The cd command is used to change working directories. You simply type cd followed by the path
name to change to. Here are some examples:

darkstar:~$ cd /bin
darkstar:/bin$ cd usr
bash: cd: usr: No such file or directory
darkstar:/bin$ cd /usr
darkstar:/usr$ ls
bin
darkstar:/usr$ cd bin
darkstar:/usr/bin$

Notice that without the preceding slash, it tries to change to a directory in the current directory.
Also executing cd with no options will move you to your home directory.

The cd command is not like the other commands. It is a builtin shell command. Shell builtins are
discussed in Section 8.3.1. This may not make any sense to you right now. Basically it means there
is no man page for this command. Instead, you have to use the shell help. Like this:

% help cd

It will display the options for cd and how to use them.

10.1.3 pwd

The pwd command is used to show your current location. To use the pwd command just type pwd. For
example:

% cd /bin
% pwd
/bin

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% cd /usr
% cd bin
% pwd
/usr/bin

10.2 Pagers: more, less, and most

10.2.1 more

more(1) is what we call a pager utility. Oftentimes the output of a particular command is too big to
fit on one screen. The individual commands do not know how to fit their output to separate screens.
They leave this job to the pager utility.

The more command breaks the output into individual screens and waits for you to press the space
bar before continuing on to the next screen. Pressing the enter key will advance the output one line.
Here is a good example:

% cd /usr/bin
% ls -l

That should scroll for a while. To break up the output screen by screen, just pipe it through more:

% ls -l | more

That is the pipe character (shift backslash). The pipe is short for saying take the output of ls and
feed it into more. You can pipe just about anything through the more command, not just ls. Piping is
also covered in Section 8.2.3.

10.2.2 less

The more command is quite handy, but often you will find that you have advanced past the screen
you wanted. more does not provide a way to go back. The less(1) command provides this
functionality. It is used in the same way as the more command, so the previous examples apply here
too. So, less is more than more. Joost Kremers puts it this way:

less is more, but more more than more is, so more is less less, so use more less if you
want less more.

10.2.3 most

Where more and less leave off, most(1) picks back up. If less is more than more, most is more than
less. Whereas the other pagers can only display one file at a time, most is capable of viewing any
number of files, as long as each file's window is at least 2 lines long. most has a lot of options,
check the man page for full details.

10.3 Simple Output: cat and echo

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10.3.1 cat
cat(1) is short for “concatenate”. It was originally designed to merge text files into one, but can be
used for many other purposes.

To merge two or more files into one, you simply list the files after the cat command and then
redirect the new output to a file. cat works with standard input and standard output, so you have to
use the shell redirection characters. For example:

% cat file1 file2 file3 > bigfile

This command takes the contents of file1, file2, and file3 and merges it all together. The new
output is sent to standard out.

One can also use cat to display files. Many people cat text files through the more or less
commands, like this:

% cat file1 | more

That will display the file1 file and pipe it through the more command so that you only get one
screen at a time.

Another common use for cat is copying files. You can copy any file around with cat, like this:

% cat /bin/bash > ~/mybash

The /bin/bash program is copied to your home directory and named mybash.

cat has many uses and the ones discussed here are just a few. Since cat makes extensive use of
standard input and standard output, it is ideal for use in shell scripts or part of other complex
commands.

10.3.2 echo
The echo(1) command displays the specified text on the screen. You specify the string to display
after the echo command. By default echo will display the string and print a newline character after
it. You can pass the -n option to suppress the printing of the newline. The -e option will cause echo
to search for escape characters in the string and execute them.

10.4 Creation: touch and mkdir

10.4.1 touch
touch(1) is used to change the timestamp on a file. You can change access timestamps and
modification timestamps with this command. If the file specified does not exist, touch will create a
zero length file with the name specified. To mark a file with the current system time, you would
issue this command:

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% ls -al file1
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 9779 Feb 7 21:41 file1
% touch file1
% ls -al file1
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 9779 Feb 8 09:17 file1

There are several options for touch, including options to specify which timestamp to modify, the
time to use, and many more. The online manual page discusses these in detail.

10.4.2 mkdir
mkdir(1)will create a new directory. You simply specify the directory to create when you run
mkdir. This example creates the hejaz directory in the current directory:

% mkdir hejaz

You can also specify a path, like this:

% mkdir /usr/local/hejaz

The -p option will tell mkdir to make any parent directories. The above example will fail if
/usr/local does not exist. The -p option will create /usr/local and /usr/local/hejaz:

% mkdir -p /usr/local/hejaz

10.5 Copy and Move

10.5.1 cp
cp(1) copies files. DOS users will notice its similarity to the copy command. There are many
options for cp , so you should have a look at the man page before using it.

A common use is to use cp to copy a file from one location to another. For example:

% cp hejaz /tmp

This copies the hejaz file from the current directory to the /tmp directory.

Many users prefer to keep the timestamps preserved, as in this example:

% cp -a hejaz /tmp

This ensures that the timestamps are not modified in the copy.

To recursively copy the contents of a directory to another directory, you would issue this command:

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% cp -R mydir /tmp

That will copy the mydir directory to the /tmp directory.

Also if you wish to copy a directory or a file and keep all it's old permissions and time stamps and
keep it exactly the same use cp -p.

% ls -l file
-rw-r--r-- 1 root vlad 4 Jan 1 15:27 file
% cp -p file /tmp
% ls -l /tmp/file
-rw-r--r-- 1 root vlad 4 Jan 1 15:27 file

cp has many more options that are discussed in detail in the online manual page.

10.5.2 mv
mv(1) moves files from one place to another. Sounds simple enough doesn't it?

% mv oldfile /tmp/newfile

mv has a few useful command line options that are detailed in the man page. In practice, mv is
almost never used with commandline options.

10.6 Deletion: rm and rmdir

10.6.1 rm

rm(1) removes files and directory trees. DOS users will notice the similarity to both the del and
deltree commands. rm can be very dangerous if you do not watch yourself. While it is sometimes
possible to retrieve a recently deleted file, it can be complicated (and potentially costly) and is
beyond the scope of this book.

To remove a single file, specify its name when you run rm:

% rm file1

If the file has write permissions removed, you may get a permission denied error message. To force
removal of the file no matter what, pass the -f option, like this:

% rm -f file1

To remove an entire directory, you use the -r and -f options together. This is a good example of how
to delete the entire contents of your hard drive. You really don't want to do this. But here's the
command anyway:

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# rm -rf /

Be very careful with rm; you can shoot yourself in the foot. There are several command line
options, which are discussed in detail in the online manual page.

10.6.2 rmdir
rmdir(1)removes directories from the filesystem. The directory must be empty before it can be
removed. The syntax is simply:

% rmdir <directory>

This example will remove the hejaz subdirectory in the current working directory:

% rmdir hejaz

If that directory does not exist, rmdir will tell you. You can also specify a full path to a directory to
remove, as this example shows:

% rmdir /tmp/hejaz

That example will try to remove the hejaz directory inside the /tmp directory.

You can also remove a directory and all of its parent directories by passing the -p option.

% rmdir -p /tmp/hejaz

This will first try to remove the hejaz directory inside /tmp. If that is successful, it will try to
remove /tmp. rmdir will continue this until an error is encountered or the entire tree specified is
removed.

10.7 Aliasing files with ln

ln(1) is used to create links between files. These links can be either hard links or soft (symbolic)
links. The differences between the two kinds of links were discussed in Section 9.3. If you wanted
to make a symbolic link to the directory /var/media/mp3 and place the link in your home directory,
you would do this:

% ln -s /var/media/mp3 ~/mp3

The -s option tells ln to make a symbolic link. The next option is the target of the link, and the final
option is what to call the link. In this case, it will just make a file called mp3 in your home directory
that points to /var/media/mp3. You can call the link itself whatever you want by just changing the
last option.

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Making a hard link is just as simple. All you have to do is leave off the -s option. Hard links may
not normally refer to directories or span file systems, however. To create a hard link
/usr/bin/email to /usr/bin/mutt, simply type the following:

# ln /usr/bin/mutt /usr/bin/email

Chapter 11 Process Control

Every program that is running is called a process. These processes range from things like the X
Window System to system programs (daemons) that are started when the computer boots. Every
process runs as a particular user. Processes that are started at boot time usually run as root or
nobody. Processes that you start will run as you. Processes started as other users will run as those
users.

You have control over all the processes that you start. Additionally, root has control over all
processes on the system, including those started by other users. Processes can be controlled and
monitored through several programs, as well as some shell commands.

11.1 Backgrounding
Programs started from the command line start up in the foreground. This allows you to see all the
output of the program and interact with it. However, there are several occasions when you'd like
the program to run without taking up your terminal. This is called running the program in the
background, and there are a few ways to do it.

The first way to background a process is by adding an ampersand to the command line when you
start the program. For example, assume you wanted to use the command line mp3 player amp to
play a directory full of mp3s, but you needed to do something else on the same terminal. The
following command line would start up amp in the background:

% amp *.mp3 &

The program will run as normal, and you are returned to a prompt.

The other way to background a process is to do so while it is running. First, start up a program.
While it is running, hit Control+z. This suspends the process. A suspended process is basically
paused. It momentarily stops running, but can be started up again at any time. Once you have
suspended a process, you are returned to a prompt. You can background the process by typing:

% bg

Now the suspended process is running in the background.

11.2 Foregrounding

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If you need to interact with a backgrounded process, you can bring it back into the foreground. If
you've only got one backgrounded process, you can bring it back by typing:

% fg

If the program is not done running, the program will take control over you terminal and you will
not be returned to a prompt. Sometimes, the program will finish running while backgrounded. In
this instance, you'll get a message like this:

[1]+ Done /bin/ls $LS_OPTIONS

That tells you that the backgrounded process (in this case ls - not terribly interesting) has
completed.

It is possible to have several processes backgrounded at once. When this happens, you'll need to
know which process you want to bring back to the foreground. Just typing fg will foreground the
process that was last backgrounded. What if you had a whole list of processes in the background?
Luckily, bash includes a command to list all the processes. It's called jobs and gives output like so:

% jobs
[1] Stopped vim
[2]- Stopped amp
[3]+ Stopped man ps

This shows you a list of all the processes that are backgrounded. As you can see, they are all
stopped. This means that the processes are suspended. The number is a sort of ID for all the
backgrounded processes. The ID with a plus sign beside it (man ps) is the process that will be
foregrounded if you just type fg.

If you wanted to foreground vim, you would type:

% fg 1

and vim would spring back up to the console. Backgrounding processes can be very useful if you
only have one terminal open over a dialup connection. You can have several programs running on
that one terminal, periodically switching back and forth between them.

11.3 ps
So now you know how to switch back and forth between several processes that you've started from
the command line. And you also know that there are lots of processes running all the time. So how
do you list all of these programs? Well, you make use of the ps(1) command. This command has a
lot of options, so we'll only cover the most important ones here. For a complete listing, see the man
page for ps. Man pages are covered in-depth in Section 2.1.1.

Simply typing ps will get you a listing of the programs running on your terminal. This incudes the
foreground processes (which include whatever shell you are using, and of course, ps itself). Also
listed are backgrounded processes you may have running. Many times, that will be a very short
listing:
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Figure 11-1. Basic ps output

% ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
7923 ttyp0 00:00:00 bash
8059 ttyp0 00:00:00 ps

Even though this is not a lot of processes, the information is very typical. You'll get the same
columns using regular ps no matter how many processes are running. So what does it all mean?

Well, the PID is the process ID. All running processes are given a unique identifier which ranges
between 1 and 32767. Each process is assigned the next free PID. When a process quits (or is
killed, as you will see in the next section), it gives up its PID. When the max PID is reached, the
next free one will wrap back around to the lowest free one.

The TTY column indicates which terminal the process is running on. Doing a plain ps will only list
all the programs running on the current terminal, so all the processes give the same information in
the TTY column. As you can see, both processes listed are running on ttyp0. This indicates that
they are either running remotely or from an X terminal of some variety.

The TIME column indicated how much CPU time the process has been running. This is different
from the actual amount of time that a process runs. Remember that Linux is a multitasking
operating system. There are many processes running all the time, and these processes each get a
small portion of the processor's time. So, the TIME column should show much less time for each
process than it actually takes to run. If you see more than several minutes in the TIME column, it
could mean that something is wrong.

Finally, the CMD column shows what the program actually is. It only lists the base name of the
program, not any command line options or similar information. To get that information, you'll need
to use one of the many options to ps. We'll discuss that shortly.

You can get a complete listing of the processes running on your system using the right combination
of options. This will probably result in a long listing of processes (fifty-five on my laptop as I write
this sentence), so I'll abbreviate the output:

% ps -ax
PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
1 ? S 0:03 init [3]
2 ? SW 0:13 [kflushd]
3 ? SW 0:14 [kupdate]
4 ? SW 0:00 [kpiod]
5 ? SW 0:17 [kswapd]
11 ? S 0:00 /sbin/kerneld
30 ? SW 0:01 [cardmgr]
50 ? S 0:00 /sbin/rpc.portmap
54 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/syslogd
57 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/klogd -c 3
59 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/inetd
61 ? S 0:04 /usr/local/sbin/sshd
63 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/rpc.mountd
65 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/rpc.nfsd
67 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/crond -l10
69 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/atd -b 15 -l 1
77 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/apmd
79 ? S 0:01 gpm -m /dev/mouse -t ps2
94 ? S 0:00 /usr/sbin/automount /auto file /etc/auto.misc
106 tty1 S 0:08 -bash

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108 tty3 SW 0:00 [agetty]
109 tty4 SW 0:00 [agetty]
110 tty5 SW 0:00 [agetty]
111 tty6 SW 0:00 [agetty]
[output cut]

Most of these processes are started at boot time on most systems. I've made a few modifications to
my system, so your mileage will most likely vary. However, you will see most of these processes
on your system too. As you can see, these options display command line options to the running
processes. Recently, a kernel vulnerability in ptrace facilitated a fix which no longer shows
command line options for many running processes. These are now listed in brackets like PIDs 108
through 110. It also brings up a few more columns and some other interesting output.

First, you'll notice that most of these processes are listed as running on tty “?”. Those are not
attached to any particular terminal. This is most common with daemons, which are processes which
run without attaching to any particular terminal. Common daemons are sendmail, BIND, apache,
and NFS. They typically listen for some request from a client, and return information to it upon
request.

Second, there is a new column: STAT. It shows the status of the process. S stands for sleeping: the
process is waiting for something to happen. Z stands for a zombied process. A zombied processes is
one whose parent has died, leaving the child processes behind. This is not a good thing. D stands
for a process that has entered an uninterruptible sleep. Often, these processes refuse to die even
when passed a SIGKILL. You can read more about SIGKILL later in the next section on kill . W
stands for paging. A dead process is marked with an X. A process marked T is traced, or stopped. R
means that the process is runable.

If you want to see even more information about the running processes, try this out:

% ps -aux
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 1 0.0 0.0 344 80 ? S Mar02 0:03 init [3]
root 2 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW Mar02 0:13 [kflushd]
root 3 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW Mar02 0:14 [kupdate]
root 4 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW Mar02 0:00 [kpiod]
root 5 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW Mar02 0:17 [kswapd]
root 11 0.0 0.0 1044 44 ? S Mar02 0:00 /sbin/kerneld
root 30 0.0 0.0 1160 0 ? SW Mar02 0:01 [cardmgr]
bin 50 0.0 0.0 1076 120 ? S Mar02 0:00 /sbin/rpc.port
root 54 0.0 0.1 1360 192 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/sysl
root 57 0.0 0.1 1276 152 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/klog
root 59 0.0 0.0 1332 60 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/inet
root 61 0.0 0.2 1540 312 ? S Mar02 0:04 /usr/local/sbi
root 63 0.0 0.0 1796 72 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/rpc.
root 65 0.0 0.0 1812 68 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/rpc.
root 67 0.0 0.2 1172 260 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/cron
root 77 0.0 0.2 1048 316 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/apmd
root 79 0.0 0.1 1100 152 ? S Mar02 0:01 gpm
root 94 0.0 0.2 1396 280 ? S Mar02 0:00 /usr/sbin/auto
chris 106 0.0 0.5 1820 680 tty1 S Mar02 0:08 -bash
root 108 0.0 0.0 1048 0 tty3 SW Mar02 0:00 [agetty]
root 109 0.0 0.0 1048 0 tty4 SW Mar02 0:00 [agetty]
root 110 0.0 0.0 1048 0 tty5 SW Mar02 0:00 [agetty]
root 111 0.0 0.0 1048 0 tty6 SW Mar02 0:00 [agetty]
[output cut]

That's a whole lot of information. Basically, it adds information including what user started the
process, how much of the system resources the process is using (the %CPU, %MEM, VSZ, and
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RSS columns), and on what date the process was started. Obviously, that's a lot of information that
could come in handy for a system administrator. It also brings up another point: the information
now goes off the edge of the screen so that you cannot see it all. The -w option will force ps to
wrap long lines.

It's not terribly pretty, but it does the job. You've now got the complete listings for each process.
There's even more information that you can display about each process. Check out the very in-
depth man page for ps. However, the options shown above are the most popular ones and will be
the ones you need to use the most often.

11.4 kill
On occasion, programs misbehave and you'll need to put them back in line. The program for this
kind of administration is called kill(1), and it can be used for manipulating processes in several
ways. The most obvious use of kill is to kill off a process. You'll need to do this if a program has
run away and is using up lots of system resources, or if you're just sick of it running.

In order to kill off a process, you'll need to know its PID or its name. To get the PID, use the ps
command as was discussed in the last section. For example, to kill off process 4747, you'd issue the
following:

% kill 4747

Note that you'll have to be the owner of the process in order to kill it. This is a security feature. If
you were allowed to kill off processes started by other users, it would be possible to do all sorts of
malicious things. Of course, root can kill off any process on the system.

There's another variety of the kill command called killall(1). This program does exactly what it
says: it kills all the running processes that have a certain name. If you wanted to kill off all the
running vim processes, you could type the following command:

% killall vim

Any and all vim processes you have running will die off. Doing this as root would kill off all the
vim processes running for all users. This brings up an interesting way to kick everyone (including
yourself) off the system:

# killall bash

Sometimes a regular kill doesn't get the job done. Certain processes will not die with a kill. You'll
need to use a more potent form. If that pesky PID 4747 wasn't responding to your kill request, you
could do the following:

% kill -9 4747

That will almost certainly cause process 4747 to die. You can do the same thing with killall.
What this is doing is sending a different signal to the process. A regular kill sends a SIGTERM
(terminate) signal to the process, which tells it to finish what it's doing, clean up, and exit. kill -9
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sends a SIGKILL (kill) signal to the process, which essentially drops it. The process is not allowed
to clean-up, and sometimes bad things like data corruption could occur by killing something with a
SIGKILL. There's a whole list of signals at your disposal. You can get a listing of signals by typing
the following:

% kill -l
1) SIGHUP 2) SIGINT 3) SIGQUIT 4) SIGILL
5) SIGTRAP 6) SIGABRT 7) SIGBUS 8) SIGFPE
9) SIGKILL 10) SIGUSR1 11) SIGSEGV 12) SIGUSR2
13) SIGPIPE 14) SIGALRM 15) SIGTERM 17) SIGCHLD
18) SIGCONT 19) SIGSTOP 20) SIGTSTP 21) SIGTTIN
22) SIGTTOU 23) SIGURG 24) SIGXCPU 25) SIGXFSZ
26) SIGVTALRM 27) SIGPROF 28) SIGWINCH 29) SIGIO
30) SIGPWR

The number must be used for kill, while the name minus the leading “SIG” can be used with
killall. Here's another example:

% killall -KILL vim

A final use of kill is to restart a process. Sending a SIGHUP will cause most processes to re-read
their configuration files. This is especially helpful for telling system processes to re-read their
config files after editing.

11.5 top
Finally, there's a command you can use to display updating information about the processes
running on the system. This command is called top(1), and is started like so:

% top

This will display a full screen of information about the processes running on the system, as well as
some overall information about the system. This includes load average, number of processes, the
CPU status, free memory information, and details about processes including PID, user, priority,
CPU and memory usage information, running time, and program name.

6:47pm up 1 day, 18:01, 1 user, load average: 0.02, 0.07, 0.02

61 processes: 59 sleeping, 2 running, 0 zombie, 0 stopped
CPU states: 2.8% user, 3.1% system, 0.0% nice, 93.9% idle
Mem: 257992K av, 249672K used, 8320K free, 51628K shrd, 78248K buff
Swap: 32764K av, 136K used, 32628K free, 82600K cached

PID USER PRI NI SIZE RSS SHARE STAT LIB %CPU %MEM TIME COMMAND
112 root 12 0 19376 18M 2468 R 0 3.7 7.5 55:53 X
4947 david 15 0 2136 2136 1748 S 0 2.3 0.8 0:00 screenshot
3398 david 7 0 20544 20M 3000 S 0 1.5 7.9 0:14 gimp
4946 root 12 0 1040 1040 836 R 0 1.5 0.4 0:00 top
121 david 4 0 796 796 644 S 0 1.1 0.3 25:37 wmSMPmon
115 david 3 0 2180 2180 1452 S 0 0.3 0.8 1:35 wmaker
4948 david 16 0 776 776 648 S 0 0.3 0.3 0:00 xwd
1 root 1 0 176 176 148 S 0 0.1 0.0 0:13 init
189 david 1 0 6256 6156 4352 S 0 0.1 2.4 3:16 licq
4734 david 0 0 1164 1164 916 S 0 0.1 0.4 0:00 rxvt
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2 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0 0.0 0.0 0:08 kflushd
3 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0 0.0 0.0 0:06 kupdate
4 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0 0.0 0.0 0:00 kpiod
5 root 0 0 0 0 0 SW 0 0.0 0.0 0:04 kswapd
31 root 0 0 340 340 248 S 0 0.0 0.1 0:00 kerneld
51 root 0 0 48 48 32 S 0 0.0 0.0 0:00 dhcpcd
53 bin 0 0 316 316 236 S 0 0.0 0.1 0:00 rpc.portmap
57 root 0 0 588 588 488 S 0 0.0 0.2 0:01 syslogd

It's called top because the most CPU intensive programs will be listed at the top. An interesting
note is that top will be listed first on most inactive (and some active) systems because of its CPU
utilization. However, top is quite useful for determining what program is misbehaving and needs to
be killed off.

But suppose you only want a list of your own processes, or the processes of some other user. The
processes you want to see might not be among the most CPU intensive programs currently running.
The -u option allows you to specify a username or UID and monitor only those processes owned by
that UID.

% top -u alan
PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM TIME+ COMMAND
3622 alan 13 0 11012 10m 6956 S 1.0 2.1 0:03.66 gnome-terminal
3739 alan 13 0 1012 1012 804 R 0.3 0.2 0:00.06 top
3518 alan 9 0 1312 1312 1032 S 0.0 0.3 0:00.09 bash
3529 alan 9 0 984 984 848 S 0.0 0.2 0:00.00 startx
3544 alan 9 0 640 640 568 S 0.0 0.1 0:00.00 xinit
3548 alan 9 0 8324 8320 6044 S 0.0 1.6 0:00.30 gnome-session
3551 alan 9 0 7084 7084 1968 S 0.0 1.4 0:00.50 gconfd-2
3553 alan 9 0 2232 2232 380 S 0.0 0.4 0:00.05 esd
3555 alan 9 0 2552 2552 1948 S 0.0 0.5 0:00.10 bonobo-activati
3557 alan 9 0 2740 2740 2224 S 0.0 0.5 0:00.05 gnome-smproxy
3559 alan 9 0 6496 6492 5004 S 0.0 1.3 0:00.31 gnome-settings-
3565 alan 9 0 1740 1740 1440 S 0.0 0.3 0:00.28 xscreensaver
3568 alan 9 0 7052 7052 4960 S 0.0 1.4 0:02.28 metacity
3572 alan 9 0 11412 11m 7992 S 0.0 2.2 0:01.58 gnome-panel
3574 alan 9 0 12148 11m 8780 S 0.0 2.4 0:00.64 nautilus
3575 alan 9 0 12148 11m 8780 S 0.0 2.4 0:00.00 nautilus
3576 alan 9 0 12148 11m 8780 S 0.0 2.4 0:00.00 nautilus

As you can see, I'm currently running X, top, a gnome-terminal (in which I'm writing this) and
many other X-related processes which take up the most CPU time for me. This is a good way to
monitor how hard your users are working your system.

topalso supports monitoring processes by their PID, ignoring idle and zombied processes, and
many other options. The best place to get a handle on these options is the man page for top.

Chapter 12 Essential System Administration

Whoa whoa whoa whoa whoa.... I know what you're thinking. “I'm not a system administrator! I
don't even want to be a system administrator!”

Fact is, you are the administrator of any computers for which you have the root password. This
might be your desktop box with one or two users, or it might be a big server with several hundred.
Regardless, you'll need to know how to manage users, and how to shut down the system safely.
These tasks seem simple, but they have some quirks to keep in mind.
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12.1 Users and Groups

As mentioned in Chapter 8, you shouldn't normally use your system logged in as root. Instead, you
should create a normal user account for everyday use, and use the root account only for system
administration tasks. To create a user, you can either use the tools supplied with Slackware, or you
can edit the password files by hand.

12.1.1 Supplied Scripts

The easiest way to manage users and groups is with the supplied scripts and programs. Slackware
includes the programs adduser, userdel(8), chfn(1), chsh(1), and passwd(1) for dealing with users.
The commands groupadd(8), groupdel(8), and groupmod(8) are for dealing with groups. With the
exception of chfn, chsh, and passwd, these programs are generally only run as root, and are
therefore located in /usr/sbin. chfn, chsh, and passwd can be run by anyone, and are located in
/usr/bin.

Users can be added with the adduser program. We'll start out by going through the whole
procedure, showing all the questions that are asked and a brief description of what everything
means. The default answer is in the brackets, and can be chosen for almost all the questions, unless
you really want to change something.

# adduser
Login name for new user []: jellyd

This is the name that the user will use to login. Traditionally, login names are eight characters or
fewer, and all lowercase characters. (You may use more than eight characters, or use digits, but
avoid doing so unless you have a fairly important reason.)

You can also provide the login name as an argument on the command line:

# adduser jellyd

In either case, after providing the login name, adduser will prompt for the user ID:

User ID ('UID') [ defaults to next available ]:

The user ID (UID) is how ownerships are really determined in Linux. Each user has a unique
number, starting at 1000 in Slackware. You can pick a UID for the new user, or you can just let
adduser assign the user the next free one.

Initial group [users]:

All users are placed into the users group by default. You might want to place the new user into a
different group, but it is not recommended unless you know what you're doing.

Additional groups (comma separated) []:

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This question allows you to place the new user into additional groups. It is possible for a user to be
in several groups at the same time. This is useful if you have established groups for things like
modifying web site files, playing games, and so on. For example, some sites define group wheel as
the only group that can use the su command. Or, a default Slackware installation uses the sys group
for users authorized to play sounds through the internal sound card.

Home directory [/home/jellyd]

Home directories default to being placed under /home. If you run a very large system, it's possible
that you have moved the home directories to a different location (or to many locations). This step
allows you to specify where the user's home directory will be.

Shell [ /bin/bash ]

bash is the default shell for Slackware Linux, and will be fine for most people. If your new user
comes from a Unix background, they may be familiar with a different shell. You can change their
shell now, or they can change it themselves later using the chsh command.

Expiry date (YYYY-MM-DD) []:

Accounts can be set up to expire on a specified date. By default, there is no expiration date. You
can change that, if you'd like. This option might be useful for people running an ISP who might
want to make an account expire upon a certain date, unless they receive the next year's payment.

New account will be created as follows:

---------------------------------------
Login name: jellyd
UID: [ Next available ]
Initial group: users
Additional groups: [ None ]
Home directory: /home/jellyd
Shell: /bin/bash
Expiry date: [ Never ]

This is it... if you want to bail out, hit Control+C. Otherwise, press ENTER to go ahead and make the
account.

You now see all the information that you've entered about the new account and are given the
opportunity to abort the account creation. If you entered something incorrectly, you should hit
Control+C and start over. Otherwise, you can hit enter and the account will be made.

Creating new account...

Changing the user information for jellyd

Enter the new value, or press return for the default
Full Name []: Jeremy
Room Number []: Smith 130
Work Phone []:
Home Phone []:
Other []:

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All of this information is optional. You don't have to enter any of this if you don't want to, and the
user can change it at any time using chfn. However, you might find it helpful to enter at least the
full name and a phone number, in case you need to get in touch with the person later.

Changing password for jellyd

Enter the new password (minimum of 5, maximum of 127 characters)
Please use a combination of upper and lower case letters and numbers.
New password:
Re-enter new password:
Password changed.

Account setup complete.

You'll have to enter a password for the new user. Generally, if the new user is not physically
present at this point, you'll just pick some default password and tell the user to change it to
something more secure.

Choosing a Password: Having a secure password is the first line of defense against getting
cracked. You do not want to have an easily guessed password, because that makes it easier
for someone to break into your system. Ideally, a secure password would be a random string
of characters, including upper and lowercase letters, numbers, and random characters. (A tab
character might not be a wise choice, depending on what kinds of computers you'll be
logging in from.) There are many software packages that can generate random passwords
for you; search the Internet for these utilities.

In general, just use common sense: don't pick a password that is someone's birthday, a
common phrase, something found on your desk, or anything that is easily associated with
you. A password like “secure1” or any other password you see in print or online is also bad.

Removing users is not difficult at all. Just run userdel with the name of the account to remove. You
should verify that the user is not logged in, and that no processes are running as that user. Also,
remember that once you've deleted the user, all of that user's password information is gone
permanently.

# userdel jellyd

This command removes that annoying jellyd user from your system. Good riddance! :) The user is
removed from the /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow, and /etc/group files, but doesn't remove the user's
home directory.

If you'd wanted to remove the home directory as well, you would instead use this command:

# userdel -r jellyd

Temporarily disabling an account will be covered in the next section on passwords, since a
temporary change involves changing the user's password. Changing other account information is
covered in Section 12.1.3.

The programs to add and remove groups are very simple. groupadd will just add another entry to
the /etc/group file with a unique group ID, while groupdel will remove the specified group. It is
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up to you to edit /etc/group to add users to a specific group. For example, to add a group called
cvs:

# groupadd cvs

And to remove it:

# groupdel cvs

12.1.2 Changing Passwords

The passwd program changes passwords by modifying the /etc/shadow file. This file holds all the
passwords for the system in an encrypted format. In order to change your own password, you
would type:

% passwd
Changing password for chris
Old password:
Enter the new password (minumum of 5, maximum of 127 characters)
Please use a combination of upper and lower case letters and numbers.
New password:

As you can see, you are prompted to enter your old password. It won't appear on the screen as you
type it, just like when you log in. Then, you are prompted to enter the new password. passwd
performs a lot of checks on your new password, and it will complain if your new password doesn't
pass its checks. You can ignore its warnings if you want. You will be prompted to enter your new
password a second time for confirmation.

If you are root, you can also change another user's password:

# passwd ted

You will then have to go through the same procedure as above, except that you won't have to enter
the user's old password. (One of the many benefits of being root...)

If needed, you can also temporarily disable an account, and reenable it at a later time if needed.
Both disabling an account and reenabling an account can be done with passwd. To disable an
account, do the following as root:

# passwd -l david

This will change david's password to something that can never match any encrypted value. You
would reenable the account by using:

# passwd -u david

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Now, david's account is back to normal. Disabling an account might be useful if the user doesn't
play by the rules you've set up on your system, or if they've exported a very large copy of xeyes(1)
to your X desktop.

12.1.3 Changing User Information

There are two pieces of information that users can change at any time: their shell and their finger
information. Slackware Linux uses chsh (change shell) and chfn (change finger) to modify these
values.

A user can pick any shell that is listed in the /etc/shells file. For most people, /bin/bash will do
just fine. Others might be familiar with a shell found on their system at work or school and want to
use what they already know. To change your shell, use chsh:

% chsh
Password:
Changing the login shell for chris
Enter the new value, or press return for the default
Login Shell [/bin/bash]:

After entering your password, enter the full path to the new shell. Make sure that it's listed in the
/etc/shells(5) file first. The root user can also change any user's shell by running chsh with a
username as the argument.

The finger information is the optional information such as your full name, phone numbers, and
room number. This can be changed using chfn, and follows the same procedure as it did during
account creation. As usual, root can change anyone's finger information.

12.2 Users and Groups, the Hard Way

Of course, it is possible to add, modify, and remove users and groups without using the scripts and
programs that come with Slackware. It's not really difficult, although after reading this process,
you'll probably find it much easier to use the scripts. However, it's important to know how your
password information is actually stored, in case you ever need to recover this information and don't
have the Slackware tools available.

First, we'll add a new user to the /etc/passwd(5), /etc/shadow(5), and /etc/group(5) files. The
passwd file holds some information about the users on your system, but (strangely enough) not their
passwords. This was once the case, but was halted long ago for security reasons. The passwd file
must be readable by all users, but you don't want encrypted passwords world-readable, as would-be
intruders can use the encrypted passwords as a starting point for decrypting a user's password.
Instead, the encrypted passwords are kept in the shadow file, which is only readable by root, and
everyone's password is entered into the passwd file simply as “x”. The group file lists all the groups
and who is in each.

You can use the vipw command to edit the /etc/passwd file safely, and the vigr command to edit
the /etc/group file safely. Use vipw -s to edit the /etc/shadow file safely. (“Safely” in this context
means someone else won't be able to modify the file you're editing at the moment. If you're the
only administrator of your system, you're probably safe, but it's best to get into good habits from
the start.)

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Let's examine the /etc/passwd file and look at how to add a new user. A typical entry in passwd
looks like this:

chris:x:1000:100:Chris Lumens,Room 2,,:/home/chris:/bin/bash

Each line is an entry for one user, and fields on each line are separated by a colon. The fields are
the login name, encrypted password (“x” for everyone on a Slackware system, since Slackware
uses shadow passwords), user ID, group ID, the optional finger information (separated by
commas), home directory, and shell. To add a new user by hand, add a new line at the end of the
file, filling in the appropriate information.

The information you add needs to meet some requirements, or your new user may have problems
logging in. First, make sure that the password field is an x, and that both the user name and user ID
is unique. Assign the user a group, either 100 (the “users” group in Slackware) or your default
group (use its number, not its name). Give the user a valid home directory (which you'll create
later) and shell (remember, valid shells are listed in /etc/shells).

Next, we'll need to add an entry in the /etc/shadow file, which holds the encrypted passwords. A
typical entry looks like this:

chris:$1$w9bsw/N9$uwLr2bRER6YyBS.CAEp7R.:11055:0:99999:7:::

Again, each line is an entry for one person, with each field delimited by a colon. The fields are (in
order) login name, encrypted password, days since the Epoch (January 1, 1970) that the password
was last changed, days before the password may be changed, days after which the password must
be changed, days before password expiration that the user is notified, days after expiration that the
account is disabled, days since the Epoch that the account is disabled, and a reserved field.

As you can see, most of that is for account expiration information. If you aren't using expiration
information, you only need to fill in a few fields with some special values. Otherwise, you'll need
to do some calculations and decision making before you can fill those fields in. For a new user, just
put some random garbage in the password field. Don't worry about what the password is right now,
because you're going to change it in a minute. The only character you cannot include in the
password field is a colon. Leave the “days since password was changed” field blank as well. Fill in
0, 99999, and 7 just as you see in the example entry, and leave the other fields blank.

(For those of you who think you see my encrypted password above and believe you've got a leg up
on breaking into my system, go right ahead. If you can crack that password, you'll know the
password to a firewalled test system. Now that's useful :) )

All normal users are members of the “users” group on a typical Slackware system. However, if
you want to create a new group, or add the new user to additional groups, you'll need to modify the
/etc/group file. Here is a typical entry:

cvs::102:chris,logan,david,root

The fields are group name, group password, group ID, and group members, separated by commas.
Creating a new group is a simple matter of adding a new line with a unique group ID, and listing
all the users you want to be in the group. Any users that are in this new group and are logged in
will have to log out and log back in for those changes to take effect.

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At this point, it might be a good idea to use the pwck and grpck commands to verify that the
changes you've made are consistent. First, use pwck -r and grpck -r: the -r switch makes no
changes, but lists the changes you would be asked to make if you ran the command without the
switch. You can use this output to decide whether you need to further modify any files, to run pwck
or grpck without the -r switch, or to simply leave your changes as they are.

At this point, you should use the passwd command to create a proper password for the user. Then,
use mkdir to create the new user's home directory in the location you entered into the /etc/passwd
file, and use chown to change the owner of the new directory to the new user.

Removing a user is a simple matter of deleting all of the entries that exist for that user. Remove the
user's entry from /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow, and remove the login name from any groups in the
/etc/group file. If you wish, delete the user's home directory, the mail spool file, and his crontab
entry (if they exist).

Removing groups is similar: remove the group's entry from /etc/group.

12.3 Shutting Down Properly

It is very important that you shut down your system properly. Simply turning the power off with
the power switch can cause serious filesystem damage. While the system is on, files are in use even
if you aren't doing anything. Remember that there are many processes running in the background
all the time. These processes are managing the system and keep a lot of files open. When the
system's power is switched off, these files are not closed properly and may become corrupted.
Depending on what files become damaged, the system might be rendered completely unusable! In
any case, you'll have to go through a long filesystem check procedure on the next reboot.

If you configured your system with a journalling filesystem, like ext3 or reiserfs, you'll be
partially protected from filesystem damage, and your filesystem check on reboot will be
shorter than if you had used a filesystem without journalling, like ext2. However, this safety
net is no excuse for improperly shutting down your system! A journalling FS is meant to
protect your files from events beyond your control, not from your own laziness.

In any case, when you want to reboot or power down your computer, it is important to do so
properly. There are several ways of doing so; you can pick whichever one you think is the most fun
(or least amount of work). Since a shutdown and a reboot are similar procedures, most of the ways
for powering off the system can also be applied to rebooting.

The first method is through the shutdown(8) program, and it is probably the most popular. shutdown
can be used to reboot or turn off the system at a given time, and can display a message to all the
logged-in users of the system telling them that the system is going down.

The most basic use of shutdown to power down the computer is:

# shutdown -h now

In this case, we are not going to send a custom message to the users; they will see shutdown's
default message. “now” is the time that we want to shutdown, and the “-h” means to halt the
system. This is not a very friendly way to run a multi-user system, but it works just fine on your

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home computer. A better method on a multiuser system would be to give everyone a little advance
warning:

# shutdown -h +60

This would shutdown the system in one hour (60 minutes), which would be just fine on a normal
multiuser system. Vital systems should have their downtime scheduled far in advance, and you
should post warnings about the downtime in any appropriate locations used for system notifications
(email, bulletin board, /etc/motd, whatever).

Rebooting the system uses the same command, but substitutes “-r” for “-h”:

# shutdown -r now

You can use same time notation with shutdown -r that you could with shutdown -h. There are a lot
of other things that you can do with shutdown to control when to halt or reboot the machine; see the
man page for more details.

The second way of shutting down or powering off the computer is to use the halt(8) and reboot(8)
commands. As the names indicate, halt will immediately halt the operating system, and reboot
will reboot the system. (reboot is actually just a symbolic link to halt.) They are invoked like so:

# halt
# reboot

A lower-level way to reboot or shutdown the system is to talk directly to init. All the other
methods are simply convenient ways to talk to init, but you can directly tell it what to do using
telinit(8) (note that it only has one “l”). Using telinit will tell init what runlevel to drop into,
which will cause a special script to be run. This script will kill or spawn processes as needed for
that runlevel. This works for rebooting and shutting down because both of those are special
runlevels.

# telinit 0

Runlevel 0 is halt mode. Telling init to enter runlevel 0 will cause all processes to be killed off, the
filesystems unmounted, and the machine to be halted. This is a perfectly acceptable way to bring
down the system. On many laptops and modern desktop computers, this will also cause the
machine to be turned off.

# telinit 6

Runlevel 6 is reboot mode. All processes will be killed off, the filesystems will be unmounted, and
the machine will be rebooted. This is a perfectly acceptable method of rebooting the system.

For the curious, when switching to runlevel 0 or 6, whether by using shutdown, halt, or reboot, the
script /etc/rc.d/rc.6 is run. (The script /etc/rc.d/rc.0 is another symbolic link, to
/etc/rc.d/rc.6.) You can customize this file to your tastes--but be sure to test your changes
carefully!

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There is one last method of rebooting the system. All the other methods require you to be logged in
as root. However, it is possible to reboot the machine even if you aren't root, provided that you
have physical access to the keyboard. Using Control+Alt+Delete (the "three-fingered salute") will
cause the machine to immediately reboot. (Behind the scenes, the shutdown command is called for
you when you use Control+Alt+Delete.) The salute doesn't always work when using X Windows--
you may need to use Control+Alt+F1 (or another Function key) to switch to a non-X Windows
terminal before using it.

Finally, the file that ultimately controls every aspect of startup and shutdown is the /etc/inittab(5)
file. In general, you should not need to modify this file, but it may give you insight into why some
things work the way they do. As always, see the man pages for further details.

Chapter 13 Basic Network Commands

A network consists of several computers connected together. The network can be as simple as a
few computers connected in your home or office, or as complicated as a large university network or
even the entire Internet. When your computer is part of a network, you have access to those
systems either directly or through services like mail and the web.

There are a variety of networking programs that you can use. Some are handy for performing
diagnostics to see if everything is working properly. Others (like mail readers and web browsers)
are useful for getting your work done and staying in contact with other people.

13.1 ping
ping(8) sends an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host responds, you
get an ICMP packet back. Sound strange? Well, you can “ping” an IP address to see if a machine is
alive. If there is no response, you know something is wrong. Here is an example conversation
between two Linux users:

User A: Loki's down again.
User B: Are you sure?
User A: Yeah, I tried pinging it, but there's no response.

It's instances like these that make ping a very useful day-to-day command. It provides a very quick
way to see if a machine is up and connected to the network. The basic syntax is:

% ping www.slackware.com

There are, of course, several options that can be specified. Check the ping(1) man page for more
information.

13.2 traceroute
Slackware's traceroute(8) command is a very useful network diagnostic tool. traceroute displays
each host that a packet travels through as it tries to reach its destination. You can see how many
“hops” from the Slackware web site you are with this command:

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% traceroute www.slackware.com

Each host will be displayed, along with the response times at each host. Here is an example output:

% traceroute www.slackware.com
traceroute to www.slackware.com (204.216.27.13), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets
1 zuul.tdn (192.168.1.1) 0.409 ms 1.032 ms 0.303 ms
2 207.171.227.254 (207.171.227.254) 18.218 ms 32.873 ms 32.433 ms
3 border-sf-2-0-4.sirius.com (205.134.230.254) 15.662 ms 15.731 ms 16.142 ms
4 pb-nap.crl.net (198.32.128.20) 20.741 ms 23.672 ms 21.378 ms
5 E0-CRL-SFO-03-E0X0.US.CRL.NET (165.113.55.3) 22.293 ms 21.532 ms 21.29 ms
6 T1-CDROM-00-EX.US.CRL.NET (165.113.118.2) 24.544 ms 42.955 ms 58.443 ms
7 www.slackware.com (204.216.27.13) 38.115 ms 53.033 ms 48.328 ms

traceroute is similar to ping in that it uses ICMP packets. There are several options that you can
specify with traceroute. These options are explained in detail in the man page.

13.3 DNS Tools

Domain Name Service (DNS for short) is that magical protocol that allows your computer to turn
meaningless domain names like www.slackware.com into meaningful IP address like
64.57.102.34. Computers can't route packets to www.slackware.com, but they can route packets to
that domain name's IP address. This gives us a convenient way to remember machines. Without
DNS we'd have to keep a mental database of just what IP address belongs to what computer, and
that's assuming the IP address doesn't change. Clearly using names for computers is better, but how
do we map names to IP addresses?

13.3.1 host
host(1) can do this for us. host is used to map names to IP addresses. It is a very quick and simple
utility without a lot of functions.

% host www.slackware.com
www.slackware.com is an alias for slackware.com.
slackware.com has address 64.57.102.34

But let's say for some reason we want to map an IP address to a domain name; what then?

13.3.2 nslookup

nslookup is a tried and true program that has weathered the ages. nslookup has been deprecated and
may be removed from future releases. There is not even a man page for this program.

% nslookup 64.57.102.34
Note: nslookup is deprecated and may be removed from future releases.
Consider using the `dig' or `host' programs instead. Run nslookup with
the `-sil[ent]' option to prevent this message from appearing.
Server: 192.168.1.254
Address: 192.168.1.254#53

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Non-authoritative answer:
www.slackware.com canonical name = slackware.com.
Name: slackware.com
Address: 64.57.102.34

13.3.3 dig
The meanest dog in the pound, the domain information groper, dig(1) for short, is the go-to
program for finding DNS information. dig can grab just about anything from a DNS server
including reverse lookups, A, CNAME, MX, SP, and TXT records. dig has many command line
options and if you're not familiar with it you should read through it's extensive man page.

% dig @192.168.1.254 www.slackware.com mx

; <<>> DiG 9.2.2 <<>> @192.168.1.254 www.slackware.com mx

;; global options: printcmd
;; Got answer:
;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 26362
;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 2, AUTHORITY: 2, ADDITIONAL: 2

;; QUESTION SECTION:
;www.slackware.com. IN MX

;; ANSWER SECTION:
www.slackware.com. 76634 IN CNAME slackware.com.
slackware.com. 86400 IN MX 1 mail.slackware.com.

;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
slackware.com. 86400 IN NS ns1.cwo.com.
slackware.com. 86400 IN NS ns2.cwo.com.

;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
ns1.cwo.com. 163033 IN A 64.57.100.2
ns2.cwo.com. 163033 IN A 64.57.100.3

;; Query time: 149 msec

;; SERVER: 192.168.1.254#53(192.168.1.254)
;; WHEN: Sat Nov 6 16:59:31 2004
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 159

This should give you an idea how dig works. “@192.168.1.254” specifies the dns server to use.
“www.slackware.com” is the domain name I am performing a lookup on, and “mx” is the type of
lookup I am performing. The above query tells me that e-mail to www.slackware.com will instead be
sent to mail.slackware.com for delivery.

13.4 finger
finger(1) will retrieve information about the specified user. You give finger a username or an email
address and it will try to contact the necessary server and retrieve the username, office, telephone
number, and other pieces of information. Here is an example:

% finger johnc@idsoftware.com

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finger can return the username, mail status, phone numbers, and files referred to as “dot plan” and
“dot project”. Of course, the information returned varies with each finger server. The one included
with Slackware returns the following information by default:

Username

Room number

Home phone number

Work phone number

Login status

Email status

Contents of the .plan file in the user's home directory

Contents of the .project file in the user's home directory

The first four items can be set with the chfn command. It stores those values in the /etc/passwd
file. To change the information in your .plan or .project file, just edit them with your favorite text
editor. They must reside in your home directory and must be called .plan and .project.

Many users finger their own account from a remote machine to quickly see if they have new
email. Or, you can see a user's plan or current project.

Like many commands, finger has options. Check the man page for more information on what
special options you can use.

13.5 telnet
Someone once stated that telnet(1) was the coolest thing he had ever seen on computers. The
ability to remotely log in and do stuff on another computer is what separates Unix and Unix-like
operating systems from other operating systems.

telnet allows you to log in to a computer, just as if you were sitting at the terminal. Once your
username and password are verified, you are given a shell prompt. From here, you can do anything
requiring a text console. Compose email, read newsgroups, move files around, and so on. If you are
running X and you telnet to another machine, you can run X programs on the remote computer
and display them on yours.

To login to a remote machine, use this syntax:

% telnet <hostname>

If the host responds, you will receive a login prompt. Give it your username and password. That's
it. You are now at a shell. To quit your telnet session, use either the exit command or the logout
command.

telnetdoes not encrypt the information it sends. Everything is sent in plain text, even
passwords. It is not advisable to use telnet over the Internet. Instead, consider the Secure

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Shell. It encrypts all traffic and is available for free.

13.5.1 The other use of telnet

Now that we have convinced you not to use the telnet protocol anymore to log into a remote
machine, we'll show you a couple of useful ways to use telnet.

You can also use the telnet command to connect to a host on a certain port.

% telnet <hostname> [port]

This can be quite handy when you quickly need to test a certain service, and you need full control
over the commands, and you need to see what exactly is going on. You can interactively test or use
an SMTP server, a POP3 server, an HTTP server, etc. this way.

In the next figure you'll see how you can telnet to a HTTP server on port 80, and get some basic
information from it.

Figure 13-1. Telnetting to a webserver

% telnet store.slackware.com 80
Trying 69.50.233.153...
Connected to store.slackware.com.
Escape character is '^]'.
HEAD / HTTP/1.0

HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 25 Apr 2005 20:47:01 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.33 (Unix) mod_ssl/2.8.22 OpenSSL/0.9.7d
Last-Modified: Fri, 18 Apr 2003 10:58:54 GMT
ETag: "193424-c0-3e9fda6e"
Accept-Ranges: bytes
Content-Length: 192
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html

Connection closed by foreign host.

%

You can do the same for other plain-text protocols, as long as you know what port to connect to,
and what the commands are.

13.6 The Secure shell

Today, secure shell basks in the adoration that telnet once enjoyed. ssh(1) allows one to make a
connection to a remote machine and execute programs as if one were physically present; however,
ssh encrypts all the data travelling between the two computers so even if others intercept the
conversation, they are unable to understand it. A typical secure shell connection follows.

% ssh carrier.lizella.net -l alan

The authenticity of host 'carrier.lizella.net (192.168.1.253)' can't be
established.

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RSA key fingerprint is 0b:e2:5d:43:4c:39:4f:8c:b9:85:db:b2:fa:25:e9:9d.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'carrier.lizella.net' (RSA) to the list of
known hosts.
Password: password
Last login: Sat Nov 6 16:32:19 2004 from 192.168.1.102
Linux 2.4.26-smp.
alan@carrier:~$ ls -l MANIFEST
-rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 23545276 2004-10-28 20:04 MANIFEST
alan@carrier:~$ exit
logout
Connection to carrier.lizella.net closed.

There you see me making an ssh connection to carrier.lizella.net, and checking the permissions
on the MANIFEST file.

13.7 email
Electronic mail is one of the most popular things one can do on the Internet. In 1998, it was
reported that more electronic mail was sent than regular mail. It is indeed common and useful.

Under Slackware, we provide a standard mail server, and several mail clients. All of the clients
discussed below are text-based. A lot of Windows users may be against this, but you will find that a
text based client is very convenient, especially when checking mail remotely. Fear not, there are
many graphical e-mail clients such as KDE's Kmail. If you wish to use one of those check its help
menu.

13.7.1 pine
pine(1) is not elm. Or so the saying goes. The University of Washington created their program for
Internet news and email out of a need for an easy mail reader for their students. pine is one of the
most popular email clients in use today and is available for nearly every flavor of Unix and even
Windows.

Figure 13-2. The Pine main menu

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You will see a menu of commands and a row of command keys at the bottom. pine is indeed a
complex program, so we will not discuss every feature about it here.

To see what's in your inbox, type i. Your messages are listed with their date, author, and subject.
Highlight the message you want and press enter to view it. Pressing r will start a reply to the
message. Once you have written the response, type Ctrl+X to send it. You can press i to get back
to the message listing.

If you want to delete a message, press d. It will mark the highlighted message for deletion. pine
deletes the mail when you exit the program. pine also lets you store your mail in folders. You can
get a listing of folders by pressing l. At the message listing, press s to save it to another folder. It
will ask for the folder name to write the message to.

pine offers many, many features; you should definitely have a look at the man page for more
information. It will contain the latest information about the program.

13.7.2 elm
elm(1) is another popular text-based email client. Though not quite as user friendly as pine, it's
definitely been around a lot longer.

Figure 13-3. Elm main screen

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By default, you are placed in your inbox. The messages are listed with the message number, date,
sender, and subject. Use the arrow keys to highlight the message you want. Press Enter to read the
message.

To compose a new message, type m at the main screen. The d key will flag a message for deletion.
And the r key will reply to the current message you are reading. All of these keys are displayed at
the bottom of the screen with a prompt.

The man page discusses elm in more detail, so you will probably want to consult that before using
elm.

13.7.3 mutt
“All mail clients suck. This one just sucks less.” mutt's original interface was based on elm with
added features found in other popular mailclients, resulting in a hybrid mutt.

Some of mutt's features include:

color support

message threading

MIME and PGP/MIME support

pop3 and imap support

support for multiple mailbox formats (mbox, MMDF, MH, maildir)

highly customizable

Figure 13-4. Mutt main screen

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if you're looking for a mail client that will let you be in total control over everything, then you will
like mutt. all the default settings can be customized, keybindings can be changed. if you like to add
a macro, you can.

you probably want to take a look at the muttrc manpage, which will tell you how to configure
everything. or take a look at the included example muttrc file.

13.7.4 nail
nail(1)is a command line driven mail client. It is very primitive and offers pretty much nothing in
the way of user interfaces. However, mailx is handy for times when you need to quickly mail
something, scripting a bulk mailer, testing your MTA installation or something similar. Note that
Slackware creates symbolic links to nail at /usr/bin/mail and /usr/bin/mailx. Any of these three
commands executes the same program. In fact, you will most likely see nail referred to as mail.

The basic command line is:

% mailx <subject> <to-addr>

mailx reads the message body from standard input. So you can cat a file into this command to mail
it, or you can just type text and hit Ctrl+D when finished with the message.

Here is an example of mailing a program source file to another person.

% cat randomfunc.c | mail -s "Here's that function" asdf@example.net

The man page explains more of what nail can do, so you will probably want to have a look at that
before using it.

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13.8 Browsers
The first thing that people think about when they hear the word Internet is “surfing the net”. Or
looking at websites using a web browser. This is probably by far the most popular use of the
Internet for the average user.

Slackware provides popular graphical web browsers in the “XAP” series, as well as text mode
browsers in the “N” series. We'll take a quick look at some of the most common options below.

13.8.1 lynx
lynx(1)
is a text-based web browser. It is a very quick way of looking up something on the Internet.
Sometimes graphics just get in the way if you know exactly what you're after.

To start lynx, just type lynx at the prompt:

% lynx

Figure 13-5. Lynx default start page

You may want to specify a site for lynx to open to:

% lynx http://www.slackware.com

lynx prints the command keys and what they do at the bottom of the screen. The up and down
arrow keys move around the document, Enter selects the highlighted link, and the left arrow goes
back to the previous page. Typing d will download the currently selected file. The g command
brings up the Go prompt, where you can give lynx a URL to open.

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There are many other commands in lynx. You can either consult the man page, or type h to get the
help screen for more information.

13.8.2 links
Just like lynx, links is a textmode web browser, where you do all the navigation using the
keyboard. However, when you press the Esc key, it will activate a very convenient pulldown menu
on the top of the screen. This makes it very easy to use, without having to learn all the keyboard
shortcuts. People who do not use a text browser every day will appreciate this feature.

links seems to have better support for both frames and tables, when compared to lynx.

Figure 13-6. Links, with the file menu open

13.8.3 wget

wget(1) is a command line utility that will download files from a specified URL. While not an
actual web-browser, wget is used primarily to grab whole or partial web sites for offline viewing, or
for fast download of single files from HTTP or FTP servers instead. The basic syntax is:

% wget <url>

You can also pass options. For example, this will download the Slackware web site:

% wget --recursive http://www.slackware.com

wget will create a www.slackware.com directory and store the files in there, just as the site does.

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wget can also download files from FTP sites; just specify an FTP URL instead of an HTTP one.

% wget ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/wget/wget-1.8.2.tar.gz
--12:18:16-- ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/wget/wget-1.8.2.tar.gz
=> `wget-1.8.2.tar.gz'
Resolving ftp.gnu.org... done.
Connecting to ftp.gnu.org[199.232.41.7]:21... connected.
Logging in as anonymous ... Logged in!
==> SYST ... done. ==> PWD ... done.
==> TYPE I ... done. ==> CWD /gnu/wget ... done.
==> PORT ... done. ==> RETR wget-1.8.2.tar.gz ... done.
Length: 1,154,648 (unauthoritative)

100%[==================================>] 1,154,648 209.55K/s ETA 00:00

12:18:23 (209.55KB/s) - `wget-1.8.2.tar.gz' saved [1154648]

wget has many more options, which make it nice for site specific scripts (web site mirroring and so
forth). The man page should be consulted for more information.

13.9 FTP Clients

FTP stands for the File Transfer Protocol. It allows you to send and receive files between two
computers. There is the FTP server and the FTP client. We discuss the client in this section.

For the curious, the “client” is you. The “server” is the computer that answers your FTP request
and lets you login. You will download files from and upload files to the server. The client cannot
accept FTP connections, it can only connect to servers.

13.9.1 ftp
To connect to an FTP server, simply run the ftp(1) command and specify the host:

% ftp <hostname> [port]

If the host is running an FTP server, it will ask for a username and password. You can log in as
yourself or as “anonymous”. Anonymous FTP sites are very popular for software archives. For
example, to get Slackware Linux via FTP, you must use anonymous FTP.

Once connected, you will be at the ftp> prompt. There are special commands for FTP, but they are
similar to other standard commands. The following shows some of the basic commands and what
they do:

Table 13-1. ftp commands

Command Purpose
ls List files
cd <dirname> Change directory
bin Set binary transfer mode
ascii Set ASCII transfer mode
get <filename> Download a file

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Command Purpose
put <filename> Upload a file
hash Toggle hash mark stats indicator
tick Toggle byte counter indicator
prom Toggle interactive mode for downloads
mget <mask> Download a file or group of files; wildcards are allowed
mput <mask> Upload a file or group of files; wildcards are allowed
quit Log off the FTP server

You can also use some of the following commands which are quite self-explanatory: chmod, delete,
rename, rmdir. For a complete list of all commands and their meaning, just type help or ? and you'll
see a complete listing on screen.

FTP is a fairly simple program to use, but lacks the user interface that many of us are used to
nowadays. The man page discusses some of the command line options for ftp(1).

ftp> ls *.TXT
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 18606 Apr 6 2002 BOOTING.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 10518 Jun 13 2002 COPYRIGHT.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 602 Apr 6 2002 CRYPTO_NOTICE.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 32431 Sep 29 02:56 FAQ.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 499784 Mar 3 19:29 FILELIST.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 241099 Mar 3 19:12 PACKAGES.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 12339 Jun 19 2002 README81.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 14826 Jun 17 2002 SPEAKUP_DOCS.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 15434 Jun 17 2002 SPEAK_INSTALL.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 2876 Jun 17 2002 UPGRADE.TXT
226 Transfer complete.
ftp> tick
Tick counter printing on (10240 bytes/tick increment).
ftp> get README81.TXT
local: README81.TXT remote: README81.TXT
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for README81.TXT (12339 bytes).
Bytes transferred: 12339
226 Transfer complete.
12339 bytes received in 0.208 secs (58 Kbytes/sec)

13.9.2 ncftp
ncftp(1)(pronounced "Nik-F-T-P") is an alternative to the traditional ftp client that comes with
Slackware. It is still a text-based program, but offers many advantages over ftp, including:

Tab completion

Bookmarks file

More liberal wildcard uses

Command history

By default, ncftp will try to log in anonymously to the server you specify. You can force ncftp to
present a login prompt with the “-u” option. Once logged in, you can use the same commands as in
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ftp, only you'll notice a nicer interface, one that works more like bash.

ncftp /pub/linux/slackware > cd slackware-current/

Please read the file README81.TXT
it was last modified on Wed Jun 19 16:24:21 2002 - 258 days ago
CWD command successful.
ncftp ...ware/slackware-current > ls
BOOTING.TXT FAQ.TXT bootdisks/
CHECKSUMS FILELIST.TXT extra/
CHECKSUMS.asc GPG-KEY isolinux/
CHECKSUMS.md5 PACKAGES.TXT kernels/
CHECKSUMS.md5.asc PRERELEASE_NOTES pasture/
COPYING README81.TXT rootdisks/
COPYRIGHT.TXT SPEEKUP_DOCS.TXT slackware/
CRYPTO_NOTICE.TXT SPEEK_INSTALL.TXT source/
CURRENT.WARNING Slackware-HOWTO
ChangeLog.txt UPGRADE.TXT
ncftp ...ware/slackware-current > get README81.TXT
README81.TXT: 12.29 kB 307.07 kB/s

13.10 Talking to Other People

13.10.1 wall

wall(1) is a quick way to write a message to the users on a system. The basic syntax is:

% wall [file]

This will result in the contents of [file] being displayed on the terminals of all currently logged in
users. If you don't specify a file, wall will read from standard input, so you can just type your
message, and end with Ctrl+d.

wall doesn't have many features, and apart from letting your users know that you're about to do
some serious maintenance to the system, or even reboot it, so they have time to save their work and
log off :)

13.10.2 talk

talk(1) allows two users to chat. It splits the screen in half, horizontally. To request a chat with
another user, use this command:

% talk <person> [ttyname]

Figure 13-7. Two users in a talk session

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If you specify just a username, the chat request is assumed to be local, so only local users are
queried. The ttyname is required if you want to ring a user on a specific terminal (if the user is
logged in more than once). The required information for talk can be obtained from the w(1)
command.

talk can also ring users on remote hosts. For the username you simply specify an email address.
talk will try to contact that remote user on that host.

talk is somewhat limited. It only supports two users and is half-duplex.

13.10.3 ytalk
ytalk(1)
is a backwards compatible replacement for talk. It comes with Slackware as the ytalk
command. The syntax is similar, but has a few differences:

% ytalk <username>[#ttyname]

Figure 13-8. Two users in a ytalk session

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The username and terminal are specified the same as under talk, except you must put them together
with the hash mark (#).

ytalk offers several advantages:

It supports more than two users.

A menu of options that can be brought up anytime with Esc.

You can shell out while still in the talk session.

Plus more...

If you're a server administrator, you'll want to make sure that the ntalk port is enabled in
/etc/inetd.conf. ytalk needs that to work properly.

Chapter 14 Security
Security on any system is important; it can prevent people launching attacks from your machine, as
well as protect sensitive data. This chapter is all about how to start securing your Slackware box
against script kiddies, crackers and rogue hamsters alike. Bear in mind that this is only the start of
securing a system; security is a process, not a state.

14.1 Disabling Services

The first step after installing Slackware should be to disable any services you don't need. Any
services could potentially pose a security risk, so it is important to run as few services as possible
(i.e. only those that are needed). Services are started from two main places - inetd and init scripts.

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14.1.1 Services started from inetd

A lot of the daemons that come with Slackware are run from inetd(8). inetd is a daemon that
listens on all of the ports used by services configured to be started by it and spawns an instance of
the relevant daemon when a connection attempt is made. Daemons started from inetd can be
disabled by commenting out the relevant lines in /etc/inetd.conf. To do this, open this file in your
favorite editor (e.g. vi) and you should see lines similar to this:

telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/sbin/tcpd in.telnetd

You can disable this service, and any others you don't need, by commenting them out (i.e. adding a
# (hash) symbol to the beginning of the line). The above line would then become:

#telnet stream tcp nowait root /usr/sbin/tcpd in.telnetd

After inetd has been restarted, this service will be disabled. You can restart inetd with the
command:

# kill -HUP $(cat /var/run/inetd.pid)

14.1.2 Services started from init scripts

The rest of the services started when the machine starts are started from the init scripts in
/etc/rc.d/. These can be disabled in two different ways, the first being to remove the execute
permissions on the relevant init script and the second being to comment out the relevant lines in the
init scripts.

For example, SSH is started by its own init script at /etc/rc.d/rc.sshd. You can disable this using:

# chmod -x /etc/rc.d/rc.sshd

For services that don't have their own init script, you will need to comment out the relevant lines in
the init scripts to disable them. For example, the portmap daemon is started by the following lines
in /etc/rc.d/rc.inet2:

# This must be running in order to mount NFS volumes.

# Start the RPC portmapper:
if [ -x /sbin/rpc.portmap ]; then
echo "Starting RPC portmapper: /sbin/rpc.portmap"
/sbin/rpc.portmap
fi
# Done starting the RPC portmapper.

This can be disabled by adding # symbols to the beginnings of the lines that don't already start with
them, like so:

# This must be running in order to mount NFS volumes.

# Start the RPC portmapper:
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#if [ -x /sbin/rpc.portmap ]; then
# echo "Starting RPC portmapper: /sbin/rpc.portmap"
# /sbin/rpc.portmap
#fi
# Done starting the RPC portmapper.

These changes will only take effect after either a reboot or changing from and back to runlevel 3 or
4. You can do this by typing the following on the console (you will need to log in again after
changing to runlevel 1):

# telinit 1
# telinit 3

14.2 Host Access Control

14.2.1 iptables
iptables is the packet filtering configuration program for Linux 2.4 and above. The 2.4 kernel
(2.4.5, to be exact) was first introduced into Slackware (as an option) in version 8.0 and was made
the default in Slackware 8.1. This section only covers the basics of its usage and you should check
http://www.netfilter.org/ for more details. These commands can be entered into
/etc/rc.d/rc.firewall, which has to be set as executable for these rules to take effect at startup.
Note that incorrect iptables commands can essentially lock you out of your own machine. Unless
you are 100% confident in your skills, always ensure you have local access to the machine.

The first thing most people should do is set the default policy for each inbound chain to DROP:

# iptables -P INPUT DROP

# iptables -P FORWARD DROP

When everything is denied, you can start allowing things. The first thing to allow is any traffic for
sessions which are already established:

# iptables -A INPUT -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT

So as not to break any applications that communicate using the loopback address, it is usually wise
to add a rule like this:

# iptables -A INPUT -s 127.0.0.0/8 -d 127.0.0.0/8 -i lo -j ACCEPT

This rules allows any traffic to and from 127.0.0.0/8 (127.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255) on the loopback
(lo) interface. When creating rules, it is a good idea to be as specific as possible, to make sure that
your rules do not inadvertently allow anything evil. That said, rules that allow too little mean more
rules and more typing.

The next thing to do would be to allow access to specific services running on your machine. If, for
example, you wanted to run a web server on your machine, you would use a rule similar to this:

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# iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 80 -i ppp0 -j ACCEPT

This will allow access from any machine to port 80 on your machine via the ppp0 interface. You
may want to restrict access to this service so that only certain machines can access it. This rule
allows access to your web service from 64.57.102.34:

# iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -s 64.57.102.34 --dport 80 -i ppp0 -j ACCEPT

Allowing ICMP traffic can be useful for diagnostic purposes. To do this, you would use a rule like
this:

# iptables -A INPUT -p icmp -j ACCEPT

Most people will also want to set up Network Address Translation (NAT) on their gateway
machine, so that other machines on their network can access the Internet through it. You would use
the following rule to do this:

# iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o ppp0 -j MASQUERADE

You will also need to enable IP forwarding. You can do this temporarily, using the following
command:

# echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

To enable IP forwarding on a more permanent basis (i.e. so that the change is kept after a reboot),
you will need to open the file /etc/rc.d/rc.inet2 in your favorite editor and change the following
line:

IPV4_FORWARD=0

...to this:

IPV4_FORWARD=1

For more information on NAT, see the NAT HOWTO.

14.2.2 tcpwrappers
tcpwrappers controls access to daemons at the application level, rather than at the IP level. This can
provide an extra layer of security at times when IP-level access controls (e.g. Netfilter) are not
functioning correctly. For example, if you recompile the kernel but forget to include iptables
support, your IP level protection will fail but tcpwrappers will still help protect your system.

Access to services protected by tcpwrappers can be controlled using /etc/hosts.allow and

/etc/hosts.deny.
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The majority of people would have a single line in their /etc/hosts.deny file to deny access to all
daemons by default. This line would be:

ALL : ALL

When this is done, you can concentrate on allowing access to services for specified hosts, domains,
or IP ranges. This can be done in the /etc/hosts.allow file, which follows the same format.

A lot of people would start by accepting all connections from localhost. This can be achieved
using:

ALL : 127.0.0.1

To allow access to SSHd from 192.168.0.0/24, you could use either of the following rules:

sshd : 192.168.0.0/24
sshd : 192.168.0.

It is also possible to restrict access to hosts in certain domains. This can be done using the
following rule (note that this relies on the reverse DNS entry for the connecting host being
trustworthy, so I would recommand against its use on Internet-connected hosts):

sshd : .slackware.com

14.3 Keeping Current

14.3.1 slackware-security mailing list
Whenever a security problem affects Slackware, an email is sent to all subscribers to the
slackware-security@slackware.com mailing list. Reports are sent out for vulnerabilities of any part
of Slackware, apart from the software in /extra or /pasture. These security announcement emails
include details on obtaining updated versions of Slackware packages or work-arounds, if any.

Subscribing to Slackware mailing lists is covered in Section 2.2.2.

14.3.2 The /patches directory

Whenever updated packages are released for a version of Slackware (usually only to fix a security
problem, in the case of already released Slackware versions), they are placed in the /patches
directory. The full path to these patches will depend on the mirror you are using, but will take the
form /path/to/slackware-x.x/patches/.

Before installing these packages, it is a good idea to verify the md5sum of the package. md5sum(1) is a
commandline utility that creates a “unique” mathematical hash of the file. If a single bit of the file
has been changed, it will generate a different md5sum value.

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% md5sum package-<ver>-<arch>-<rev>.tgz
6341417aa1c025448b53073a1f1d287d package-<ver>-<arch>-<rev>.tgz

You should then check this against the line for the new package in the CHECKSUMS.md5 file in the
root of the slackware-$VERSION directory (also in the /patches directory for patches) or in the email
to the slackware-security mailing list.

If you have a file with the md5sum values in it, you can source it instead with the -c option to
md5sum.

# md5sum -c CHECKSUMS.md5
./ANNOUNCE.10_0: OK
./BOOTING.TXT: OK
./COPYING: OK
./COPYRIGHT.TXT: OK
./CRYPTO_NOTICE.TXT: OK
./ChangeLog.txt: OK
./FAQ.TXT: FAILED

As you can see, any files that md5sum evaluates as correct are listed “OK” while files that fail are
labelled “FAILED”. (Yes, this was an insult to your intelligence. Why do you put up with me?)

Chapter 15 Archive Files

15.1 gzip
gzip(1) is the GNU compression program. It takes a single file and compresses it. The basic usage
is as follows:

% gzip filename

The resulting file will be named filename.gz and will usually be smaller than the input file. Note
that filename.gz will replace filename. This means that filename will no longer exist, even though
a gzipped copy will. Regular text files will compress nicely, while jpeg images, mp3s, and other
such files will not compress too well as they are already compressed. This basic usage is a balance
of final file size and compression time. The maximum compression can be achieved like so:

% gzip -9 filename

This will take a longer time to compress the file, but the result will be as small as gzip can make it.
Using lower values for the command line option will cause it to compress faster, but the file will
not be as compressed.

Decompressing gzipped files can be done using two commands, which are really just the same
program. gzip will decompress any file with a recognized file extension. A recognized extension
can be any of the following: .gz, -gz, .z, -z, .Z, or -Z. The first method is to call gunzip(1) on a
file, like so:

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% gunzip filename.gz

This will leave a decompressed version of infile in the current directory, and the .gz extension will
be stripped from the filename. gunzip is really part of gzip and is identical to gzip -d. As such,
gzip is often pronounced gunzip, as that name just sounds cooler. :^)

15.2 bzip2
bzip2(1) is an alternative compression program installed on Slackware Linux. It uses a different
compression algorithm from gzip, which results in some advantages and some disadvantages. The
main advantage for bzip2 is the compressed file size. bzip2 will almost always compress better
than gzip. In some instances, this can result in dramatically smaller files. This can be a great
advantage for people on slower modem connections. Also remember, when downloading software
from a public ftp server, it's generally good netiquette to download the .bz2 files instead of the .gz
files, as this results in less overhead for the generous people hosting the server.

The disadvantage to bzip2 is that it is more CPU intensive than gzip. This means that bzipping a
file will generally take longer and will use more of the CPU than gzipping the file would. When
considering which compression program to use, you must weigh this speed vs. compressed size
and determine which is more important.

The usage of bzip2 is nearly identical to gzip, so not much time will be spent discussing it. Like
gunzip, bunzip2 is identical to bzip2 -d. The primary difference in practical usage is that bzip2
uses the .bz2 extension.

% bzip2 filename
% bunzip2 filename.bz2
% bzip2 -9 filename

15.3 tar
tar(1) is the GNU tape archiver. It takes several files or directories and creates one large file. This
allows you to compress an entire directory tree, which is impossible by just using gzip or bzip2.
tar has many command line options, which are explained in its man page. This section will just
cover the most common uses of tar.

The most common use for tar is to decompress and unarchive a package that you've downloaded
from a web site or ftp site. Most files will come with a .tar.gz extension. This is commonly
known as a “tarball”. It means that several files were archived using tar and then compressed using
gzip. You might also see this listed as a .tar.Z file. It means the same thing, but this is usually
encountered on older Unix systems.

Alternatively, you might find a .tar.bz2 file somewhere. Kernel source is distributed as such
because it is a smaller download. As you might have guessed, this is several files archived with tar
and then bzipped.

You can get to all the files in this archive by making use of tar and some command line arguments.
Unarchiving a tarball makes use of the -z flag, which means to first run the file through gunzip and
decompress it. The most common way to decompress a tarball is like so:

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% tar -xvzf filename.tar.gz

That's quite a few options. So what do they all mean? The -x means to extract. This is important, as
it tells tar exactly what to do with the input file. In this case, we'll be splitting it back up into all
the files that it came from. -v means to be verbose. This will list all the files that are being
unarchived. It is perfectly acceptable to leave this option off, if somewhat boring. Alternatively,
you could use -vv to be very verbose and list even more information about each file being
unarchived. The -z option tells tar to run filename.tar.gz through gunzip first. And finally, the -f
option tells tar that the next string on the command line is the file to operate on.

There are a few other ways to write this same command. On older systems lacking a decent copy of
GNU tar, you might see it written like so:

% gunzip filename.tar.gz | tar -xvf -

This command line will uncompress the file and send the output to tar. Since gzip will write its
output to standard out if told to do so, this command will write the decompressed file to standard
out. The pipe then sends it to tar for unarchiving. The “-” means to operate on standard input. It
will unarchive the stream of data that it gets from gzip and write that to the disk.

Another way to write the first command line is to leave off the dash before the options, like so:

% tar xvzf filename.tar.gz

You might also encounter a bzipped archive. The version of tar that comes with Slackware Linux
can handle these the same as gzipped archives. Instead of the -z command line option, you'd use -j:

% tar -xvjf filename.tar.bz2

It is important to note that tar will place the unarchived files in the current directory. So, if you had
an archive in /tmp that you wanted to decompress into your home directory, there are a few options.
First, the archive could be moved into your home directory and then run through tar. Second, you
could specify the path to the archive file on the command line. Third, you can use the -C option to
“explode” the tarball in a specified directory.

% cd $HOME
% cp /tmp/filename.tar.gz .
% tar -xvzf filename.tar.gz

% cd $HOME
% tar -xvzf /tmp/filename.tar.gz

% cd /
% tar -xvzf /tmp/filename.tar.gz -C $HOME

All the above statements are equivalent. In each case, the archive is unpacked inside your home
directory and the original uncompressed archive is left in place.

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So what good is being able to uncompress these archives if you can't make them? Well, tar handles
that too. In most cases it's as easy as removing the “-x” option and replacing it with the “-c” option.

% tar -cvzf filename.tar.gz .

In this command line, the -c option tells tar to create an archive, while the -z option runs the
resulting archive file through gzip to compress it. filename.tar.gz is the file that you want to
create.

Specifying the “-f” option isn't always necessary, but is typically good practice anyway. Without it,
tar writes to standard output, which is usually desired for piping tar's output to another program,
like so.

% tar -cv filename.tar . | gpg --encrypt

That command creates an non-compressed tar archive of the current directory, pipes the tarball
through gpg which encrypts and compresses the tarball, making it realistically impossible to read
by anyone other than the person knowing the secret key.

15.4 zip
Finally, there are two utilities that can be used on zip files. These are very common in the Windows
world, so Linux has programs to deal with them. The compression program is called zip(1), and
the decompression program is called unzip(1).

% zip foo *

This will create the file foo.zip, which will contain all the files in the current directory. zip will
add the .zip extension automatically, so there's no need to include that in the file name. You can
also recurse through the current directory, zipping up any directories that are also laying around:

% zip -r foo *

Decompressing files is easy, as well.

% unzip foo.zip

This will extract all the files in the file foo.zip, including any directories in the archive.

The zip utilities have several advanced options for creating self-extracting archives, leaving out
files, controlling compressed file size, printing out what will happen, and much more. See the man
pages for zip and unzip to find out how to use these options.

Chapter 16 Vi
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vi(1) is the standard Unix text editing program, and while mastering it is not as essential as it once
was, is still a very rewarding goal. There are several versions (or clones) of vi available, including
vi, elvis, vile, and vim. One of these is available on just about any version of Unix, as well as on
Linux. All of these versions include the same basic feature set and commands, so learning one
clone should make it easy to learn another. With the variety of text editors included with Linux
distributions and Unix variants these days, many people no longer use vi. Still, it remains the most
universal text editor across Unix and Unix work-alikes. Mastering vi means you should never be
sitting at a Unix machine and not be comfortable with at least one powerful text editor.

vi includes a number of powerful features including syntax highlighting, code formatting, a

powerful search-and-replace mechanism, macros, and more. These features make it especially
attractive to programmers, web developers, and the like. System administrators will appreciate the
automation and integration with the shell that is possible.

On Slackware Linux, the default version of vi available is elvis. Other versions - including vim
and gvim - are available if you've installed the proper packages. gvim is an X Window version of
vim that includes toolbars, detachable menus, and dialog boxes.

16.1 Starting vi
vi can be started from the command line in a variety of ways. The simplest form is just:

% vi

Figure 16-1. A vi session.

This will start up vi with an empty buffer. At this point, you'll see a mostly blank screen. It is now
in “command mode”, waiting for you to do something. For a discussion of the various vi modes,
see the Section 16.2. In order to quit out of vi, type the following:

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:q

Assuming that there have been no changes to the file, this will cause vi to quit. If there have been
changes made, it will warn you that there have been changes and tell you how to disregard them.
Disregarding changes usually means appending an exclamation point after the “q” like so:

:q!

The exclamation point usually means to force some action. We'll discuss it and other key
combinations in further details later.

You can also start vi with a pre-existing file. For example, the file /etc/resolv.conf would be
opened like so:

% vi /etc/resolv.conf

Finally, vi can be started on a particular line of a file. This is especially useful for programmers
when an error message includes the line their program bombed on. For example, you could start up
vi on line 47 of /usr/src/linux/init/main.c like so:

% vi +47 /usr/src/linux/init/main.c

vi will display the given file and will place the cursor at the specified line. In the case where you
specify a line that is after the end of the file, vi will place the cursor on the last line. This is
especially helpful for programmers, as they can jump straight to the location in the file that an error
occurred, without having to search for it.

16.2 Modes
vi operates in various modes, which are used to accomplish various tasks. When you first start vi,
you are placed into command mode. From this point, you can issue various commands to
manipulate text, move around in the file, save, quit, and change modes. Editing the text is done in
insert mode. You can quickly move between modes with a variety of keystrokes, which are
explained below.

16.2.1 Command Mode

You are first placed into command mode. From this mode, you cannot directly enter text or edit
what is already there. However, you can manipulate the text, search, quit, save, load new files, and
more. This is intended only to be an introduction to the command mode. For a description of the
various commands, see Section 16.7.

Probably the most often used command in command mode is changing to insert mode. This is
accomplished by hitting the i key. The cursor changes shapes, and -- INSERT -- is displayed at the
bottom of the screen (note that this does not happen in all clones of vi). From there, all your
keystrokes are entered into the current buffer and are displayed to the screen. To get back into
command mode, hit the ESCAPE key.
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Command mode is also where you move around in the file. On some systems, you can use the
arrow keys to move around. On other systems, you may need to use the more traditional keys of
“hjkl”. Here is a simple listing of how these keys are used to move around:

h move left one character

j move down one character
k move up one character
l move right one character

Simply press a key to move. As you will see later, these keys can be combined with a number to
move much more efficiently.

Many of the commands that you will use in command mode begin with a colon. For example,
quitting is :q, as discussed earlier. The colon simply indicates that it is a command, while the “q”
tells vi to quit. Other commands are an optional number, followed by a letter. These commands do
not have a colon before them, and are generally used to manipulate the text.

For example, deleting one line from a file is accomplished by hitting dd. This will remove the line
that the cursor is on. Issuing the command 4dd would tell vi to remove the line that the cursor is on
and the three after that. In general, the number tells vi how many times to perform the command.

You can combine a number with the movement keys to move around several characters at a time.
For example, 10k would move up ten lines on the screen.

Command mode can also be used to cut and paste, insert text, and read other files into the current
buffer. Copying text is accomplished with the y key (y stands for yank). Copying the current line is
done by typing yy, and this can be prefixed with a number to yank more lines. Then, move to the
location for the copy and hit p. The text is pasted on the line after the current one.

Cutting text is done by typing dd, and p can be used to paste the cut text back into the file. Reading
in text from another file is a simple procedure. Just type :r, followed by a space and the file name
that contains the text to be inserted. The file's contents will be pasted into the current buffer on the
line after the cursor. More sophisticated vi clones even contain filename completion similar to the
shell's.

The final use that will be covered is searching. Command mode allows for simple searching, as
well as complicated search-and-replace commands that make use of a powerful version of regular
expressions. A complete discussion of regular expressions is beyond the scope of this chapter, so
this section will only cover simple means of searching.

A simple search is accomplished by hitting the / key, followed by the text that you are searching
for. vi will search forward from the cursor to the end of the file for a match, stopping when it finds
one. Note that inexact matches will cause vi to stop as well. For example, a search for “the” will
cause vi to stop on “then”, “therefore”, and so on. This is because all of those words do match
“the”.

After vi has found the first match, you can continue on to the next match simply by hitting the /
key followed by enter. You can also search backwards through the file by replacing the slash with
the ? key. For example, searching backwards through the file for “the” would be accomplished by
typing ?the.

16.2.2 Insert Mode

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Inserting and replacing text is accomplished in insert mode. As previously discussed, you can get
into insert mode by hitting i from command mode. Then, all text that you type is entered into the
current buffer. Hitting the ESCAPE key takes you back into command mode.

Replacing text is accomplished in several ways. From command mode, hitting r will allow you to
replace the one character underneath the cursor. Just type the new character and it will replace the
one under the cursor. You will then be immediately placed back into command mode. Hitting R
allows you to replace as many characters as you'd like. To get out of this replacement mode, just hit
ESCAPE to go back into command mode.

There is yet another way to toggle between insertion and replacement. Hitting the INSERT key
from command mode will take you into insert mode. Once you are in insert mode, the keyboard's
INSERT key serves as a toggle between insert and replace. Hitting it once will allow you to
replace. Hitting it once more will once again allow you to insert text.

16.3 Opening Files

vi allows you to open files from command mode as well as specifying a file on the command line
to open. To open the file /etc/lilo.conf:

:e /etc/lilo.conf

If you have made changes to the current buffer without saving, vi will complain. You can still open
the file without saving the current buffer by typing :e!, followed by a space and the filename. In
general, vi's warnings can be suppressed by following the command with an exclamation mark.

If you want to reopen the current file, you can do so simply by typing e!. This is particularly useful
if you have somehow messed up the file and want to reopen it.

Some vi clones (for example, vim) allow for multiple buffers to be open at the same time. For
example, to open up the file 09-vi.sgml in my home directory while another file was open, I would
type:

:split ~/09-vi.sgml

The new file is displayed on the top half of the screen, and the old file is displayed in the bottom
half of the screen. There are a lot of commands that manipulate the split screen, and many of these
commands start to resemble something out of Emacs The best place to look up these commands
would be the man page for your vi clone. Note that many clones do not support the split-screen
idea, so you might not be able to use it at all.

16.4 Saving Files

There are several ways to save files in vi. If you want to save the current buffer to the file
randomness, you would type:

:w randomness

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Once you've saved the file once, saving it again is as simple as typing :w. Any changes will be
written out to the file. After you've saved the file, you are dumped back into command mode. If
you want to save the file and quit vi (a very common operation), you would type :wq. That tells vi
to save the current file and quit back to the shell.

On occasion, you want to save a file that is marked as read-only. You can do this by adding an
exclamation point after the write command, like so:

:w!

However, there will still be instances where you cannot write the file (for example, you are
attempting to edit a file that is owned by another user). When this happens, vi will tell you that it
cannot save the file. If you really want to edit the file, you'll have to come back and edit it as root
or (preferably) the owner of that file.

16.5 Quitting vi
One way to quit vi is through :wq, which will save the current buffer before quitting. You can also
quit without saving with :q or (more commonly) :q!. The latter is used when you've modified the
file but do not wish to save any changes to it.

On occasion, your machine might crash or vi might crash. However, both elvis and vim will take
steps to minimize the damage to any open buffers. Both editors save the open buffers to a
temporary file on occasion. This file is usually named similarly to the open file, but with a dot at
the beginning. This makes the file hidden.

This temporary file gets removed once the editor quits under normal conditions. This means that
the temporary copy will still be around if something crashes. When you go back to edit the file
again, you will be prompted for what action to take. In most cases, a large amount of your unsaved
work can be recovered. elvis will also send you a mail (from Graceland, oddly enough :) telling
you that a backup copy exists.

16.6 vi Configuration
Your vi clone of choice can be configured in several ways.

A variety of commands can be entered while in command mode to set up vi just how you like it.
Depending on your editor, you can enable features to make programming easier (like syntax
hilighting, auto-indenting, and more), set up macros to automake tasks, enable textual substitutions,
and more.

Almost all of these commands can be put into a configuration file in your home directory. elvis
expects a .exrc file, while vim expects a .vimrc file. Most of the setup commands that can be
entered in command mode can be placed in the configuration file. This includes setup information,
textual substitutions, macros, and more.

Discussing all these options and the differences between the editors is quite an involved subject.
For more information, check out the man page or web site for your preferred vi editor. Some
editors (like vim) have extensive help within the editor that can be accessed with the :help
command, or something similar. You can also check out the O'Reilly book Learning the vi Editor
by Lamb and Robbins.
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Many common programs in Linux will load up a text file in vi by default. For example, editing
your crontabs will start up vi by default. If you do not like vi and would like another editor to be
started instead, all you need to do is set the VISUAL environment variable to the editor you prefer.
For information on setting environment variables, see the section called Environment Variables in
Chapter 8. If you want to make sure that your editor will be the default every time you login, add
the VISUAL setting to your .bash_profile or .bashrc files.

16.7 Vi Keys
This section is a quick reference of many common vi commands. Some of these were discussed
earlier in the chapter, while many will be new.

Table 16-1. Movement

Operation Key
left, down, up, right h, j, k, l
To the end of the line $
To the beginning of the line ^
To the end of the file G
To the beginning of the file :1
To line 47 :47

Table 16-2. Editing

Operation Key
Removing a line dd
Removing five lines 5dd
Replacing a character r
Removing a character x
Removing ten characters 10x
Undo last action u
Join current and next lines J
Replace old with new, globally %s'old'new'g

Table 16-3. Searching

Operation Key
Search for “asdf” /asdf
Search backwards for “asdf” ?asdf
Repeat last search forwards /
Repeat last search backwards ?
Repeat last search, same direction n
Repeat last search, opposite direction N

Table 16-4. Saving and Quitting

Operation Key
Quit :q
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Operation Key
Quit without saving :q!
Write and quit :wq
Write, without quitting :w
Reload currently open file :e!
Write buffer to file asdf :w asdf
Open file hejaz :e hejaz
Read file asdf into buffer :r asdf
Read output of ls into buffer :r !ls

Chapter 17 Emacs
While vi (with its clones) is without a doubt the most ubiquitous editor on Unix-like systems,
Emacs comes in a good second. Instead of using different “modes”, like vi does, it uses Control
and Alt key combinations to enter commands, in much the same way that you can use Control and
Alt key combinations in a word processor and indeed in many other applications to execute certain
functions. (Though it should be noted that the commands rarely correspond; so while many modern
applications use Ctrl-C/ X/ V for copying, cutting and pasting, Emacs uses different keys and
actually a somewhat different mechanism for this.)

Also unlike vi, which is an (excellent) editor and nothing more, Emacs is a program with near
endless capabilities. Emacs is (for the most part) written in Lisp, which is a very powerful
programming language that has the peculiar property that every program written in it is
automatically a Lisp compiler of its own. This means that the user can extend Emacs, and in fact
write completely new programs “in Emacs”.

As a result, Emacs is not just an editor anymore. There are many add-on packages for Emacs
available (many come with the program's source) that provide all sorts of functionality. Many of
these are related to text editing, which is after all Emacs' basic task, but it doesn't stop there. There
are for example several spreadsheet programs for Emacs, there are databases, games, mail and
news clients (the top one being Gnus), etc.

There are two main versions of Emacs: GNU Emacs (which is the version that comes with
Slackware) and XEmacs. The latter is not a version for Emacs running under X. In fact, both
Emacs and XEmacs run on the console as well as under X. XEmacs was once started as a project to
tidy up the Emacs code. Currently, both versions are being actively developed, and there is in fact
much interaction between the two development teams. For the present chapter, it is immaterial
whether you use Emacs or XEmacs, the differences between them are not relevant to the normal
user.

17.1 Starting emacs

Emacs can be started from the shell by simply typing emacs. When you are running X, Emacs will
(normally) come up with its own X window, usually with a menu bar at the top, where you can find
the most important functions. On startup, Emacs will first show a welcome message, and then after
a few seconds will drop you in the *scratch* buffer. (See Section 17.2.)

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You can also start Emacs on an existing file by typing

% emacs /etc/resolv.conf

This will cause Emacs to load the specified file when it starts up, skipping the welcome message.

17.1.1 Command Keys

As mentioned above, Emacs uses Control and Alt combinations for commands. The usual
convention is to write these with C-letter and M-letter, respectively. So C-x means Control+x,
and M-x means Alt+x. (The letter M is used instead of A because originally the key was not the
Alt key but the Meta key. The Meta key has all but disappeared from computer keyboards, and in
Emacs the Alt key has taken over its function.)

Many Emacs commands consist of sequences of keys and key combinations. For example, C-x C-c
(that is Control-x followed by Control-c ) quits Emacs, C-x C-s saves the current file. Keep in
mind that C-x C-b is not the same as C-x b. The former means Control-x followed by Control-b,
while the latter means Control-x followed by just 'b'.

17.2 Buffers
In Emacs, the concept of “buffers” is essential. Every file that you open is loaded into its own
buffer. Furthermore, Emacs has several special buffers, which do not contain a file but are used for
other things. Such special buffers usually have a name that starts and ends with an asterisk. For
example, the buffer that Emacs shows when it is first started, is the so-called *scratch* buffer. In
the *scratch* buffer, you can type text in the normal way, but text that is typed there is not saved
when Emacs is closed.

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There is one other special buffer you need to know about, and that is the minibuffer. This buffer
consists of only one line, and is always on the screen: it is the very last line of the Emacs window,
below the status bar for the current buffer. The minibuffer is where Emacs shows messages for the
user, and it is also the place where commands that require some user input are executed. For
example, when you open a file, Emacs will ask for its name in the minibuffer.

Switching from one buffer to another can be done with the command C-x b. This will prompt you
for the name of a buffer (a buffer's name is usually the name of the file you are editing in it), and it
gives a default choice, which is normally the buffer that you were in before you switched to or
created the current buffer. Just hitting Enter will switch to that default buffer.

If you want to switch to another buffer than the default offered by Emacs, just type its name. Note
that you can use so-called Tab-completion here: type the first few letters of the buffer's name and
hit Tab; Emacs will then complete the name of the buffer. Tab completion works everywhere in
Emacs where it makes sense.

You can get a list of open buffers by hitting C-x C-b. This command will usually split the screen in
two, displaying the buffer you were working in in the top half, and a new buffer called *Buffer
List* in the bottom half. This buffer contains a list of all the buffers, their sizes and modes, and the
files, if any, that those buffers are visiting (as it is called in Emacs). You can get rid of this split
screen by typing C-x 1.

Under X, the list of buffers is also available in the Buffer menu in the menu bar.

17.3 Modes
Every buffer in Emacs has an associated mode. This mode is very different from the idea of modes
in vi: a mode tells you what kind of buffer you are in. For example, there is text-mode for normal
text files, but there are also modes such as c-mode for editing C programs, sh-mode for editing
shell scripts, latex-mode for editing LaTeX files, mail-mode for editing email and news messages,
etc. A mode provides special customizations and functionality that is useful for the kind of file you
are editing. It is even possible for a mode to redefine keys and key commands. For example, in
Text mode, the Tab key simply jumps to the next tab stop, but in many programming language
modes, the Tab key indents the current line according to the depth of the block that line is in.

The modes mentioned above are called major modes. Each buffer has exactly one major mode.
Additionally, a buffer can have one or more minor modes. A minor mode provides additional
features that may be useful for certain editing tasks. For example, if you hit the INSERT key, you
invoke overwrite-mode, which does what you'd expect. There is also an auto-fill-mode, which is
handy in combination with text-mode or latex-mode: it causes each line that you type to be
automatically wrapped once the line reaches a certain number of characters. Without auto-fill-
mode, you have to type M-q to fill out a paragraph. (Which you can also use to reformat a
paragraph after you've edited some text in it and it is no longer nicely filled out.)

17.3.1 Opening files

To open a file in Emacs, type

C-x C-f

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Emacs will ask you for the name of the file, filling in some default path for you (which is usually
~/ ). After you type the filename (you can use Tab completion) and hit ENTER , Emacs will open
the file in a new buffer and display that buffer on the screen.

Emacs will automatically create a new buffer, it will not load the file into the current buffer.

In order to create a new file in emacs, you cannot just go typing right away. You first have to create
a buffer for it, and come up with a filename. You do this by typing C-x C-f and typing a filename,
just as if you were opening an existing file. Emacs will notice that the file you typed doesn't exist,
and will create a new buffer and report “(New file)” in the minibuffer.

When you type C-x C-f and then enter a directory name instead of a filename, Emacs will create a
new buffer in which you will find a list of all the files in that directory. You can move the cursor to
the file that you are looking for and type , and Emacs will open it. (There are in fact a lot more
actions you can perform here, such as deleting, renaming and moving files, etc. Emacs is now in
dired-mode, which is basically a simple file manager.)

When you have typed C-x C-f and suddenly change your mind, you can type C-g to cancel the
action. C-g works almost everywhere where you want to cancel an action or command that you've
started but don't want to finish.

17.4 Basic Editing

When you have opened a file, you can of course move around in it with the cursor. The cursor
keys and PgUp, PgDn do what you'd expect. Home and End jump to the beginning and end of the
line. (In older versions, they would actually jump to the beginning and end of the buffer.) However,
there are also Control and Meta (Alt) key combos that move the cursor around. Because you do
not need to move your hands to another part of the keyboard for these, they are much quicker once
you get used to them. The most important such commands are listed in Table 17-1.

Table 17-1. Basic Emacs Editing Commands

Command Result
C-b go one character back
C-f go one character forward
C-n go one line down
C-p go one line up
C-a go to the beginning of the line
C-e go to the end of the line
M-b go one word back
M-f go one word forward
M-} go one paragraph forward
M-{ go one paragraph backward
M-a go one sentence backward
M-e go one sentence forward
C-d delete the character under the cursor
M-d delete until the end of the current word
C-v go down one screen (i.e., PgDn)
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Command Result
M-v go up one screen (i.e., PgUp)
M-< go to the beginning of the buffer
M-> go to the end of the buffer
undo the last change (can be repeated); note that you actually have to
C-_
type Shift+Control+hyphen for this.
C-k delete to end of line
C-s forward search
C-r backward search

Note that many Meta commands are parallel to the Control commands except that they operate on
larger units: while C-f goes forward one character, M-f goes forward an entire word, etc.

Also note that M-< and M-> require you to type Shift+Alt+comma and Shift+Alt+dot
respectively, since < and > are on Shift+comma and Shift+dot. (Unless of course you have a
different keyboard layout from the standard US layout.)

Note that C-k deletes (kills, as it is commonly called) all the text after the cursor to the end of the
line, but doesn't delete the line itself (i.e., it doesn't delete the final newline). It only deletes the line
if there was no text after the cursor. In other words, in order to delete a complete line, you have to
put the cursor at the beginning of the line, and then hit C-k twice: once to delete the text on the
line, once to delete the line itself.

17.5 Saving Files

In order to save a file, you type

C-x C-s

Emacs will not ask you for a filename, the buffer will just be saved to the file it was loaded from. If
you want to save your text to another file, type

C-x C-w

When you save the file for the first time in this session, Emacs will normally save the old version
of your file to a backup file, which has the same name appended with a tilde: so if you're editing a
file “cars.txt”, Emacs will create a backup “cars.txt~”.

This backup file is a copy of the file that you opened. While you are working, Emacs will also
regularly create an auto-save copy of the work you are doing, to a file named with hash signs:
#cars.txt#. This backup is deleted when you save the file with C-x C-s.

When you are done editing a file, you can kill the buffer that holds it by typing

C-x k

Emacs will then ask you which buffer you want to kill, with the current buffer as default, which
you can select by hitting ENTER. If you haven't saved your file yet, Emacs will ask you if you
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really want to kill the buffer.

17.5.1 Quitting Emacs

When you are done with Emacs altogether, you can type

C-x C-c

This quits Emacs. If you have any unsaved files, Emacs will tell you so, and ask if you want to
save them each in turn. If you answer no to any of these, Emacs will ask for one final confirmation
and then quit.

Chapter 18 Slackware Package Management

A software package is a bundle of related programs that are ready for you to install. When you
download a source code archive, you have to configure, compile, and install it by hand. With a
software package, this has already been done for you. All that you have to do is install the package.
Another handy feature of using software packages is that it is very easy to remove and upgrade
them, if you so desire. Slackware comes with programs for all your package management needs.
You can install, remove, upgrade, make, and examine packages very easily.

There's a myth that's been going around ever since RedHat debuted RedHat Package Manager, that
Slackware has no package management tool. This simply couldn't be further from the truth.
Slackware has always included a package manager, even before RedHat existed. While not as full-
featured or as ubiquitous as rpm (or for that matter deb), pkgtool and its associated programs are
every bit as good at installing packages as rpm. The truth about pkgtool is not that it doesn't exist,
but that it doesn't do any dependency checking.

Apparently many people in the Linux community think that a packager manager must by definition
include dependency checking. Well, that simply isn't the case, as Slackware most certainly does
not. This is not to say that Slackware packages don't have dependencies, but rather that its package
manager doesn't check for them. Dependency management is left up to the sysadmin, and that's the
way we like it.

18.1 Overview of Package Format

Before learning the utilities, you should become familiar with the format of a Slackware package.
In Slackware, a package is simply a tar archive file that has been compressed with gzip. Packages
are built to be extracted in the root directory.

Here is a fictitious program and its example package:

./
usr/
usr/bin/
usr/bin/makehejaz
usr/doc/
usr/doc/makehejaz-1.0/
usr/doc/makehejaz-1.0/COPYING

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usr/doc/makehejaz-1.0/README
usr/man/
usr/man/man1
usr/man/man1/makehejaz.1.gz
install/
install/doinst.sh

The package system will extract this file in the root directory to install it. An entry in the package
database will be created that contains the contents of this package so that it can be upgraded or
removed later.

Notice the install/ subdirectory. This is a special directory that can contain a postinstallation
script called doinst.sh. If the package system finds this file, it will execute it after installing the
package.

Other scripts can be embedded in the package, but those are discussed more in detail in Section
18.3.2 below.

18.2 Package Utilities

There are four main utilities for package management. They perform installation, removal, and
upgrades of packages.

18.2.1 pkgtool

pkgtool(8) is a menu-driven program that allows installation and removal of packages. The main
menu is shown in Figure 18-1.

Figure 18-1. Pkgtool's main menu.

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Installation is offered from the current directory, another directory, or from floppy disks. Simply
select the installation method you want and pkgtool will search that location for valid packages to
install.

You may also view a list of installed packages, as shown in Figure 18-2.

Figure 18-2. Pkgtool view mode

If you want to remove packages, select the remove option and you will be presented with a
checklist of all the installed packages. Flag the ones you want to remove and select OK. pkgtool
will remove them.

Some users prefer this utility to the command line utilities. However, it should be noted that the
command line utilities offer many more options. Also, the ability to upgrade packages is only
offered through the command line utilities.

18.2.2 installpkg
installpkg(8) handles installation of new packages on the system. The syntax is as follows:

# installpkg option package_name

Three options are provided for installpkg. Only one option can be used at a time.

Table 18-1. installpkg Options

Option Effects
-m Performs a makepkg operation on the current directory.
-warn Shows what would happen if you installed the specified package. This is useful for
production systems so you can see exactly what would happen before installing

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Option Effects
something.
Recursively install all packages in the current directory and down. The package name can
-r
use wildcards, which would be used as the search mask when recursively installing.

If you pass the ROOT environment variable before installpkg, that path will be used for the root
directory. This is useful for setting up new drives for your root directory. They will typically be
mounted to /mnt or something other than /.

The installed package database entry is stored in /var/log/packages. The entry is really just a plain
text file, one for each package. If the package has a postinstallation script, it is written to
/var/log/scripts/.

You may specify several packages or use wildcards for the package name. Be advised that
installpkg will not tell you if you are overwriting an installed package. It will simply install right
on top of the old one. If you want to ensure that old files from the previous package are safely
removed, use upgradepkg.

18.2.3 removepkg

removepkg(8) handles removing installed packages from the system. The syntax is as follows:

# removepkg option package_name

Four options are provided for removepkg. Only one option may be used at a time.

Table 18-2. removepkg Options

Option Effects
The package is copied to the preserved packages directory. This creates a tree of the
-copy
original package without removing it.
Saves temporary files created during the removal. Really only useful for debugging
-keep
purposes.
- The package is removed, but copied to the preserved packages directory at the same
preserve time.
-warn Shows what would happen if you removed the package.

If you pass the ROOT environment variable before removepkg, that path will be used for the root
directory. This is useful for setting up new drives for your root directory. They will typically be
mounted to /mnt or something other than /.

removepkg looks at the other installed packages and only removes files unique to the package you
specify. It will also scan the postinstallation script for the specified package and remove any
symbolic links that were created by it.

During the removal process, a status report is displayed. After the removal, the package database
entry is moved to /var/log/removed_packages and the postinstallation script is moved to
/var/log/removed_scripts.

Just as with installpkg, you can specify several packages or use wildcards for the package name.

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18.2.4 upgradepkg
upgradepkg(8) will upgrade an installed Slackware package. The syntax is as follows:

# upgradepkg package_name

or

# upgradepkg old_package_name%new_package_name

upgradepkg works by first installing the new package and then removing the old package so that old
files are no longer around on the system. If the upgraded package name has changed, use the
percent sign syntax to specify the old package (the one that is installed) and the new package (the
one you are upgrading it to).

If you pass the ROOT environment variable before upgradepkg, that path will be used for the root
directory. This is useful for setting up new drives for your root directory. They will typically be
mounted to /mnt or something other than /.

upgradepkg is not flawless. You should always back up your configuration files. If they get
removed or overwritten, you'll want a copy of the originals for any needed repair work.

Just as with installpkg and removepkg, you can specify several packages or use wildcards for the
package name.

18.2.5 rpm2tgz/rpm2targz
The Red Hat Package Manager is a popular packaging system available today. Many software
distributors are offering their products in RPM format. Since this is not our native format, we do
not recommend people rely on them. However, some things are only available as an RPM (even the
source).

We provide a program that will convert RPM packages to our native .tgz format. This will allow
you to extract the package (perhaps with explodepkg) to a temporary directory and examine its
contents.

The rpm2tgz program will create a Slackware package with a .tgz extension, while rpm2targz
creates an archive with a .tar.gz extension.

18.3 Making Packages

Making Slackware packages can be either easy or difficult. There is no specific method for
building a package. The only requirement is that the package be a tar gzipped file and if there is a
postinstallation script, it must be /install/doinst.sh.

If you are interested in making packages for your system or for a network that you manage, you
should have a look at the various build scripts in the Slackware source tree. There are several
methods we use for making packages.

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18.3.1 explodepkg
explodepkg(8) will do the same thing that installpkg does to extract the package, but it doesn't
actually install it and it doesn't record it in the packages database. It simply extracts it to the current
directory.

If you look at the Slackware source tree, you will see how we use this command for “framework”
packages. These packages contain a skeleton of what the final package will look like. They hold all
the necessary filenames (zero-length), permissions, and ownerships. The build script will cat the
package contents from the source directory to the package build directory.

18.3.2 makepkg

makepkg(8) will package up the current directory into a valid Slackware package. It will search the
tree for any symbolic links and add a creation block to the postinstallation script for creating them
during the package install. It also warns of any zero-length files in the package tree.

This command is typically run after you have created your package tree.

18.3.3 SlackBuild Scripts

Slackware packages are built in many different ways by necessity. Not all software packages are
written by their programmers to compile the same way. Many have compile time options that are
not all included in the packages Slackware uses. Perhaps you need some of this functionality; you'll
need to compile your own package then. Fortunately for many Slackware packages, you can find
SlackBuild scripts in the package's source code.

So what is a SlackBuild script? SlackBuild scripts are executable shell scripts that you run as root
to configure, compile, and create Slackware packages. You can freely modify these scripts in the
source directory and run them to create your own versions of the default Slackware packages.

18.4 Making Tags and Tagfiles (for setup)

The Slackware setup program handles installation of the software packages on your system. There
are files that tell the setup program which packages must be installed, which ones are optional, and
which ones are selected by default by the setup program.

A tagfile is in the first software series directory and is called tagfile. It lists the packages in that
particular disk set and their status. The status can be:

Table 18-3. Tagfile Status Options

Option Meaning
ADD The package is required for proper system operation
SKP The package will be automatically skipped
REC The package is not required, but recommended
OPT The package is optional

The format is simply:

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package_name: status

One package per line. The original tagfiles for each software series are stored as tagfile.org. So if
you mess up yours, you can restore the original one.

Many administrators prefer writing their own tagfiles and starting the installer and selecting “full”.
The setup program will read the tagfiles and perform the installation according to their contents. If
you use REC or OPT, a dialog box will be presented to the user asking whether or not they want a
particular package. Therefore, it is recommended that you stick with ADD and SKP when writing
tagfiles for automated installs.

Just make sure your tagfiles are written to the same location as the originals. Or you can specify a
custom tagfile path if you have custom tagfiles.

Chapter 19 ZipSlack
19.1 What is ZipSlack?
ZipSlack is a special version of Slackware Linux. It's an already installed copy of Slackware that's
ready to run from your DOS or Windows partition. It's a basic installation, you do not get
everything that comes with Slackware.

ZipSlack gets its name from the form it's distributed in, a big .ZIP file. Users of DOS and Windows
will probably be familiar with these files. They are compressed archives. The ZipSlack archive
contains everything you need to get up and running with Slackware.

It is important to note that ZipSlack is significantly different from a regular installation. Even
though they function the same and contain the same programs, their intended audiences and
functions differ. Several advantages and disadvantages of ZipSlack are discussed below.

One last thing, you should always review the documentation included in the actual ZipSlack
directory. It contains the latest information regarding installation, booting, and general use of the
product.

19.1.1 Advantages
Does not require repartitioning of your hard disk.

Great way to learn Slackware Linux without stumbling through the installation process.

19.1.2 Disadvantages

Uses the DOS filesystem, which is slower than a native Linux filesystem.

Will not work with Windows NT.

19.2 Getting ZipSlack

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Obtaining ZipSlack is easy. If you have purchased the official Slackware Linux CD set, then you
already have ZipSlack. Just find the CD that contains the zipslack directory and place it in your
CD-ROM drive. It's usually the third or fourth disc, but always trust the labels over this
documentation as the disk it resides on is prone to change.

If you want to download ZipSlack, you should first visit our “Get Slack” web page for the latest
download information:

http://www.slackware.com/getslack/

ZipSlack is part of each Slackware release. Locate the release you want, and go to that directory on
the FTP site. The latest release directory can be found at this location:

ftp://ftp.slackware.com/pub/slackware/slackware/

You'll find ZipSlack in the /zipslack subdirectory. ZipSlack is offered as one big .ZIP file or
floppy-sized chunks. The chunks are in the /zipslack/split directory.

Don't stop at just the .ZIP files. You should also download the documentation files and any boot
images that appear in the directory.

19.2.1 Installation
Once you've downloaded the necessary components, you'll need to extract the .ZIP file. Be sure to
use a 32-bit unzipper. The size and filenames in the archive are too much for a 16-bit unzipper.
Examples of 32-bit unzippers include WinZip and PKZIP for Windows.

ZipSlack is designed to be extracted directly to the root directory of a drive (such as C: or D:). A
\LINUX directory will be created that contains the actual Slackware installation. You'll also find the
files necessary to booting the system in that directory as well.

After you've extracted the files, you should have a \LINUX directory on the drive of your choosing
(we'll use C: from here on).

19.3 Booting ZipSlack

There are several ways to boot ZipSlack. The most common is to use the included LINUX.BAT to
boot the system from DOS (or from DOS mode under Windows 9x). This file must be edited to
match your system before it will work.

Start by opening the C:\LINUX\LINUX.BAT file in your favorite text editor. At the top of the file you
will notice a large comment. It explains what you need to edit in this file (and also what to do if
you are booting from an external Zip drive). Don't worry if you don't understand the root= setting.
There are several examples, so feel free to pick one and try it. If it doesn't work, you can edit the
file again, comment out the line you uncommented, and pick another one.

After you uncomment the line you want by removing the “rem” at the beginning of the line, save
the file and exit the editor. Bring your machine into DOS mode.

A DOS prompt window in Windows 9x will NOT work.

Type C:\LINUX\LINUX.BAT to boot the system. If all goes well, you should be presented with a login
prompt.

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Log in as root, with no password. You'll probably want to set a password for root, as well as
adding an account for yourself. At this point you can refer to the other sections in this book for
general system usage.

If using the LINUX.BAT file to boot the system didn't work for you, you should refer to the included
C:\LINUX\README.1ST file for other ways to boot.

Glossary
Account

All of the information about a user, including username, password, finger information, UID
and GID, and home directory. To create an account is to add and define a user.

Background

Any process that is running without accepting or controlling the input of a terminal is said to
be running in the background.

Boot disk

A floppy disk containing an operating system (in our case, the Linux kernel) from which a
computer can be started.

Compile

To convert source code to machine-readable “binary” code.

Daemon

A program designed to run in the background and, without user intervention, perform a
specific task (usually providing a service).

Darkstar

The default hostname in Slackware; your computer will be called darkstar if you do not
specify some other name.

One of Patrick Volkerding's development machines, named after “Dark Star”, a song by the
Grateful Dead.

Desktop Environment

A graphical user interface (GUI) that runs atop the X Window System and provides such
features as integrated applications, cohesive look-and-feel between programs and
components, file and window management capabilities, etc. A step beyond the simple
window manager.

Device driver

A chunk of code in the kernel that directly controls a piece of hardware.

Device node

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A special type of file in the /dev filesystem that represents a hardware component to the
operating system.

DNS

Domain Name Service. A system in which networked computers are given names which
translate to numerical addresses.

Domain name

A computer's DNS name, excluding its host name.

Dot file

In Linux, files which are to be hidden have filenames beginning with a dot ('.').

Dotted quad

The format of IP addresses, so called because it consists of four numbers (range 0-255
decimal) separated by periods.

Dynamic loader

When programs are compiled under Linux, they usually use pieces of code (functions) from
external libraries. When such programs are run, those libraries must be found and the
required functions loaded into memory. This is the job of the dynamic loader.

Environment variable

A variable set in the user's shell which can be referenced by that user or programs run by that
user within that shell. Environment variables are generally used to store preferences and
default parameters.

Epoch

A period of history; in Unix, “The Epoch” begins at 00:00:00 UTC January 1, 1970. This is
considered the “dawn of time” by Unix and Unix-like operating systems, and all other time
is calculated relative to this date.

Filesystem

A representation of stored data in which “files” of data are kept organized in “directories”.
The filesystem is the nearly universal form of representation for data stored to disks (both
fixed and removable).

Foreground

A program that is accepting or controlling a terminal's input is said to be running in the

foreground.

Framebuffer

A type of graphics device; in Linux, this most often refers to the software framebuffer, which
provides a standard framebuffer interface to programs while keeping specific hardware
drivers hidden from them. This layer of abstraction frees programs of the need to speak to
various hardware drivers.

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FTP

The File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a very popular method of transferring data between
computers.

Gateway

A computer through which data on a network is transferred to another network.

GID

Group Identifier. The GID is a unique number attributed to a group of users.

Group

Users in Unix belong to “groups”, which can contain many other users and are used for more
general access control than the existence of users alone can easily allow.

GUI

Graphical User Interface. A software interface that uses rendered graphical elements such as
buttons, scrollbars, windows, etc. rather than solely text-based input and output

Home directory

A user's “home directory” is the directory the user is placed in immediately upon logging in.
Users have full permissions and more or less free reign within their home directories.

HOWTO

A document describing “how to” do something, such as configure a firewall or manage users
and groups. There is a large collection of these documents available from the Linux
Documentation Project.

HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol. HTTP is the primary protocol on which the World Wide
Web operates.

ICMP

Internet Control Message Protocol. A very basic networking protocol, used mostly for pings.

Kernel

The heart of an operating system. The kernel is the part that provides basic process control
and interfaces with the computer's hardware.

Kernel module

A piece of kernel code, usually a driver of some sort, that can be loaded and unloaded from
memory separately from the main body of the kernel. Modules are handy when upgrading
drivers or testing kernel settings, because they can be loaded and unloaded without
rebooting.

Library

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A collection of functions which can be shared between programs.

LILO

The LInux LOader. LILO is the most widely-used Linux boot manager.

LOADLIN

LOADLIN is a program that runs under MS DOS or Windows and boots a Linux system. It
is most commonly used on computers with multiple operating systems (including Linux and
DOS/Windows, of course).

Man section

Pages in the standard Unix online manual ("man") are grouped into sections for easy
reference. All C programming pages are in section 3, system administration pages in section
5, etc.

MBR

The Master Boot Record. A reserved space on a hard drive where information on what to do
when booting is stored. LILO or other boot managers can be written here.

Motif

A popular programming toolkit used in many older X programs.

MOTD

Message of the Day. The motd (stored in Linux in /etc/motd is a text file that is displayed to
all users upon logging in. Traditionally, it is used by the system administrator as a sort of
“bulletin board” for communicating with users.

Mount point

An empty directory in a filesystem where another filesystem is to be “mounted”, or grafted

on.

Nameserver

A DNS information server. Nameservers translate DNS names to numerical IP addresses.

Network interface

A virtual representation of a network device provided by the kernel. Network interfaces

allow users and programs to talk to network devices.

NFS

The Network Filesystem. NFS allows the mounting of remote filesystems as if they were
local to your computer and thus provides a transparent method of file sharing.

Octal

Base-8 number system, with digits 0-7.

Pager
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An X program that allows the user to see and switch between multiple “desktops”.

Partition

A division of a hard drive. Filesystems exist on top of partitions.

PPP

Point-to-Point Protocol. PPP is used mainly for connecting via modem to an Internet Service
Provider.

Process

A running program.

Root directory

Represented as “/”, the root directory exists at the top of the filesystem, with all other
directories branching out beneath it in a “file tree”.

Root disk

The disk (usually fixed) on which the root directory is stored.

Routing table

The set of information the kernel uses in “routing” network data around. It contains such
tidbits as where your default gateway is, which network interface is connected to which
network, etc.

Runlevel

The overall system state as defined by init. Runlevel 6 is rebooting, runlevel 1 is “single user
mode”, runlevel 4 is an X login, etc. There are 6 available runlevels on a Slackware system.

Secure shell

An encrypted (thus secure) method of logging in remotely to a computer. Many secure shell
programs are available; both a client and server are needed.

Service

The sharing of information and/or data between programs and computers from a single
“server” to multiple “clients”. HTTP, FTP, NFS, etc. are services.

Shadow password suite

The shadow password suite allows encrypted passwords to be hidden from users, while the
rest of the information in the /etc/passwd file remains visible to all. This helps prevent brute-
force attempts at cracking passwords.

Shell

Shells provide a commandline interface to the user. When you're looking at a text prompt,
you're in a shell.

Shell builtin
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A command built into the shell, as opposed to being provided by an external program. For
instance, bash has a cd builtin.

Signal

Unix programs can communicate between each other using simple “signals”, which are
enumerated and usually have specific meanings. kill -l will list the available signals.

SLIP

Serial Line Interface Protocol. SLIP is a similar protocol to PPP, in that it's used for
connecting two machines via a serial interface.

Software package

A program and its associated files, archived and compressed into a single file along with any
necessary scripts or information to aid in managing the installation, upgrade, and removal of
those files.

Software series

A collection of related software packages in Slackware. All KDE packages are in the “kde”
series, networking packages in the “n” series, etc.

Source code

The (more or less) human-readable code in which most programs are written. Source code is
compiled into “binary” code.

Standard Error (stderr)

The Unix-standard output stream for errors. Programs write any error messages on stderr, so
that they can be separated from normal output.

Standard Input (stdin)

The Unix-standard input stream. Data can be redirected or piped into a program's stdin from
any source.

Standard Output (stdout)

The Unix-standard output stream. Normal text output from a program is written to stdout,
which is separate from the error messages reported on stderr and can be piped or redirected
into other programs' stdin or to a file.

Subnet

An IP address range that is part of a larger range. For instance, 192.168.1.0 is a subnet of
192.168.0.0 (where 0 is a mask meaning “undefined”); it is, in fact, the “.1” subnet.

Superblock

In Linux, partitions are discussed in terms of blocks. A block is 512 bytes. The superblock is
the first 512 bytes of a partition.

Supplemental disk

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In Slackware, a floppy disk used during installation that contains neither the kernel (which is
on the boot disk) nor the root filesystem (which is on the root disk), but additional needed
files such as network modules or PCMCIA support.

Suspended process

A process which has been frozen until killed or resumed.

Swap space

Disk space used by the kernel as “virtual” RAM. It is slower than RAM, but because disk
space is cheaper, swap is usually more plentiful. Swap space is useful to the kernel for
holding lesser-used data and as a fallback when physical RAM is exhausted.

Symbolic link

A special file that simply points to the location of another file. Symbolic links are used to
avoid data duplication when a file is needed in multiple locations.

Tagfile

A file used by the Slackware setup program during installation, which describes a set of
packages to be installed.

Terminal

A human-computer interface consisting of at least a screen (or virtual screen) and some
method of input (almost always at least a keyboard).

Toolkit, GUI

A GUI toolkit is a collection of libraries that provide a programmer with code to draw
“widgets” such as scrollbars, checkboxes, etc. and construct a graphical interface. The GUI
toolkit used by a program often defines its “look and feel”.

UID

User Identifier. A unique number that identifies a user to the system. UIDs are used by most
programs instead of usernames because a number is easier to deal with; usernames are
generally only used when the user has to see things happen.

VESA

Video Electronics Standards Association. The term “VESA” is often used to denote a
standard specified by said Association. Nearly all modern video adapters are VESA-
compliant.

Virtual terminal

The use of software to simulate multiple terminals while using only a single set of
input/output devices (keyboard, monitor, mouse). Special keystrokes switch between virtual
terminals at a single physical terminal.

Window manager

An X program whose purpose is to provide a graphical interface beyond the simple

rectangle-drawing of the X Window System. Window managers generally provide titlebars,
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menus for running programs, etc.

Working directory

The directory in which a program considers itself to be while running.

Wrapper program

A program whose sole purpose is to run other programs, but change their behavior in some
way by altering their environments or filtering their input.

X server

The program in the X Window System which interfaces with graphics hardware and handles
the actual running of X programs.

X Window System

Network-oriented graphical interface system used on most Unix-like operating systems,

including Linux.

Appendix A. The GNU General Public License

GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

Version 2, June 1991
Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed.

A.1. Preamble

The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change it. By
contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and
change free software--to make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public
License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to any other program
whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too.

When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public
Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software
(and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it,
that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; and that you know you
can do these things.

To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you these rights or
to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if
you distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.

For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee, you must give
the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
source code. And you must show them these terms so they know their rights.

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We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you this license
which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the software.

Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone understands that
there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified by someone else and passed
on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any problems
introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' reputations.

Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to avoid the danger
that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must be licensed for
everyone's free use or not licensed at all.

The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification follow.

A.2. TERMS AND CONDITIONS

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION

1. This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by
the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public
License. The “Program”, below, refers to any such program or work, and a “work based
on the Program” means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law:
that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with
modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, translation is
included without limitation in the term “modification”.) Each licensee is addressed as
“you”.

Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not covered by this
License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the Program is not restricted, and
the output from the Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on
the Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). Whether that
is true depends on what the Program does.

2. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you
receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish
on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all
the notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any
other recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program.

You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your
option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.

3. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, thus forming a
work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such modifications or work under
the terms of Section 1 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:

a. You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that you
changed the files and the date of any change.

b. You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in
part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to be
licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under the terms of this
License.

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c. If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run,

you must cause it, when started running for such interactive use in the most
ordinary way, to print or display an announcement including an appropriate
copyright notice and a notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that
you provide a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under
these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this License.
(Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but does not normally print
such an announcement, your work based on the Program is not required to
print an announcement.)

These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If identifiable sections of

that work are not derived from the Program, and can be reasonably considered
independent and separate works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not
apply to those sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you
distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program,
the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions
for other licensees extend to the entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless
of who wrote it.

Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to work
written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the
distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program.

In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the
Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License.

4. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2) in
object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that
you also do one of the following:

a. Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source

code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on
a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,

b. Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any
third party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing
source distribution, a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding
source code, to be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a
medium customarily used for software interchange; or,

c. Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to distribute

corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for
noncommercial distribution and only if you received the program in object
code or executable form with such an offer, in accord with Subsection b
above.)

The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making
modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source code means all the source
code for all modules it contains, plus any associated interface definition files, plus the
scripts used to control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a
special exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is normally
distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major components (compiler,
kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable runs, unless that
component itself accompanies the executable.
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If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to copy from a

designated place, then offering equivalent access to copy the source code from the same
place counts as distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
compelled to copy the source along with the object code.

5. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or
distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full
compliance.

6. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However,
nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative
works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore,
by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you
indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for
copying, distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.

7. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the
recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute
or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any
further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. You are not
responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to this License.

8. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement or for any

other reason (not limited to patent issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether by
court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they
do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot distribute so as to
satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent
obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the Program at all. For
example, if a patent license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program
by all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only way
you could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain entirely from distribution
of the Program.

If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any particular
circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to apply and the section as a whole
is intended to apply in other circumstances.

It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other
property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims; this section has the sole
purpose of protecting the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
implemented by public license practices. Many people have made generous
contributions to the wide range of software distributed through that system in reliance
on consistent application of that system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or
she is willing to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
impose that choice.

This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence

of the rest of this License.

9. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries either by
patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places the
Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation
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excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries

not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written in
the body of this License.

10. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General
Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.

Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a

version number of this License which applies to it and “any later version”, you have the
option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of any later
version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a
version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free
Software Foundation.

11. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose
distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For
software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free
Software Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be
guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free
software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.

12. NO WARRANTY

BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO

WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY
APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE
COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM
“AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE
ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM
IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME
THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

13. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN

WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO
MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED
ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL,
SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF
THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR
LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE
PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH
HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGES.

END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

A.3. How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the
best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change
under these terms.

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To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each
source file to most effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
the “copyright” line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.

<one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.>
Copyright (C) <year> <name of author>

This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify

it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
(at your option) any later version.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,

but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.

If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive
mode:

Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) year name of author

Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.

The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of the
General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other than
`show w' and `show c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your
program.

You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if any, to sign a
“copyright disclaimer” for the program, if necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names:

Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program

`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.

<signature of Ty Coon>, 1 April 1989

Ty Coon, President of Vice

This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary
programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit
linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU
Library General Public License instead of this License.

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