CONTENTS

Introduetion ...15

Paradoxical Breathing ..............107

Supine Abdominal Breathing ........10g
Abdominal Breathing in Sitting Postures ..........111
Diaphragmatic Breathing ..............120
A Traditional Warning ...................131

Chapter Three - ABDOMINOPELVIC EXERC I SES ..................

1Be
Crunches
andSit-ups .....................140
T h e F o u n d a t i o on f t h e B o d y . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................141
Supine Leg Lifts .......160
Y o g aS i t - u p s ..............169
T h e S i t t i n g B o a t P o s t u r e s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................121
The Peacock ..............128
The Pelvisand The AnatomicalPerineum .........I77
A s h w i n iM u d r a ..........tg2
M u l a B a n d h a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................1gg
AgniSara .'....'..'.........188
U d d i y a n aB a n d h a ,T h e A b d o m i n a lL i f t . . . . . . . . . . ........'..'..............195
Nauli ........... ...............201
C o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n. .s. . . . . . . . . . ................204
Benefits ......................205

Chapter Four - STANDING POSTURES .........................................207

T h e S k e l e t aSl y s t e ma n d M o v e m e n t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............'.'......210
A n a t o m yo f t h e S p i n e .....................215
S y m m e t r ya n d A s y m m e t r y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....--..........-.227
S t a n d i n gP o s t u r e s ........................228
l b u r S i m p l eS t r e t c h e s .. ... ............230
B a c k w a r dB e n d i n g . . . . . . . ' .'.. . .. . . . . . . . 2 3 6
Forward Bending ...-..240
S i d eB e n d i n g ..--.........249
W h a t M a k e sP o s t u r e sD i f f i c u l t ? ................--.---....254
T h e T r i a n g l eP o s t u r e s ...........----.....255
'I'wo BalancingPostures '..-.--...'......267
Beneflts ......................271

Chapter Fiae - BACKBENDING POSTURES .........273

T h e A n a t o m yo f F l e x i o na n d E x t e n s i o n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....."...-...-...274
B r e a t h i n ga n d B a c k b e n d i n .g. . . . . . . . . . . . ........'...........280
T h e C o b r aP o s t u r e s ..-.......-...---.......284
' I ' h eL o c u s tP o s t u r e s .....................'.296
' f h e P r o n eB o a t P o s t u r e s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................303
The Bow Posturcs .....305
T h e K n e eJ o i n t . . . . . . . . . . . ....................307
Supine BackbendingPostures '--312
A K n e e l i n gB a c k b e n d - T h eC a m e l .....................320
C o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n. .s. . . . . . . . . . ................323
Benefits ......................324

Chapter Six - FORWARD BENDING POSTURES ......................325

ForwardBending:Head,Neck, and Chest ....-.....326
Lumbar and LumbosacralForward Bending '.....327
SacroiliacNutation and Counternutation....... ..'..328
F o r w a r dB e n d i n ga t t h e H i p J o i n t s . . . . . . . . . . ...........332
ForwardBendingat the Ankles and in the Feet ..............'.......334
ClinicalMatters and Cautions .'...'.337
T h e P o s t e r i o rS t r e t c h '....................340
T h e D o w n - F a c i nD g og ..........'.........349
T h e C h i l d ' sP o s e. . . . . . . . . . . . . ................352
B r e a t h i n ga n d F o r w a r dB e n d i n g .........................353
SacroiliaF c lexibility .......................355
H i p F l e x i b i l i t y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................361
Benefits ......................381

Chapter Seuen - TWIS?ING POS:IURES .......................................383

The Fundamentalsof Twisting ......384
T h e S k u l l ,t h e A t l a s ,a n d t h e A x i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..........388
M o v e m e n t so f t h e H e a da n d N e c k .......................392
ThoracicTwisting .....395
L u m b a rT w i s t i n g ......396
T h e L o w e rE x t r e m i t i e s ...................398
S u p i n eT w i s t s . . . .. . . . . . . 4 0 3
S t a n d i n gT w i s t s ........4.|0
I n v e r t e dT w i s t s .........424
S i t t i n gS p i n a T
l w i s t s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................425
Benefits ......................435

Chapter Eight - THE HEADSTAND ......437

'l'he Cardiovascular
System ...........437
T h e ' I ' w oH e a d s t a n d s ......................446
'l'hc
U p p e rE x t r e m i t i e s ...................455
S t r u c t u r a fl m b a l a n t r , s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . 4 7
Breathing Issues.......... ...................474
Developing S t r e n g t ha n d F l e x i b i l i t y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................477
B e n d i n ga n d T w i s t i n gi n t h e H e a d s t a n d. . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................488
Exiending Y o u rT i m e ......................493
Benefits ......................497

Chapter Nine - THE SHOULDERSTAND .................499

A n a t o m yo f T h e S h o u l d e r s t a n.d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........500
I n v e r t e dA c t i o nP o s t u r e s ................503
The Shoulderstand .........................507
The Plow ....................516
T h e L i f t e d S h o u l d e r s t a nadn d P l o w ....................522
Circulation .................524
Respiration ................526
Sequelae .....................528
Benefits ......................539

C hapter Ten - RE LAXATION AND MED ITATION .....................541

M u s c u l a rR e l a - x a t i o n .......................543
Two RelaxationPostures ................547
B r e a t h i n ea n d R e l a x a t i o n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................552
 FORE,WORD
LT
I latha yoga. Its teachers and serious students are convinced of its power to
build strength and confidence, to improve flexibility and balance, and to foster
spiritual peace and contentment. And beyond its attributes as preventive med-
icine, many of us also believe in the power of yoga to heal, to aid in recovering
from everything from low back strain to carpal tunnel syndrome and to help
cope with chronic problems like arthritis, multiple sclcrosis and infection with
the human immunodeficiency virus {HIV).
But despite the recent boom in yoga's popularity, most scientists and physi-
'I'o
cians have been slow to embrace this discipline. many of them perhaps, it
seems like a mystical pursuit, a quasi-religion with little basis in thc modern
world of science.In a medical profession now itself dominated by a near religious
reverence for thc randomized, controlled study, knowledge acquired through
thousands ofycars of'direct observation, introspection, and trial and error may
seem qu:rint.
But as the West has slowly opened in the past decades to Eastern, experientially
based fields like acupuncture-as part of' a greater acceptance of'alternative
medicine in general yoga has begun to stakc its claim. Concepts like prana or
chi, however, are not warmly rcccived by skcptical scicntists. To win them ovcr
you need to provide the kind of evidence they buy. Studies. Preferably
published in peer-review journals. And you need to propose mechanisms of
action that confirrm with science as they understand it.
A significant breakthrough was provided by Dr. Dean Ornish, a Calif'rrrnia-
bascd cardirilogist who interrupted his college years to study with Sri Swami
Satchidananda. His work, publishcd in t99o in thc prestigious British medical
journal the Lancet, showed that a program that combines hatha yoga with
dietary changes, exercise, and group therapy can actually reverse blockages in
the heart's main arteries-which doctors used to think wasn't possible.
In t99tl, research led by Marian Garfinkel of the Medical College of
Pennsylvania and published in the Journal of' the Americctn Medicol
Associati,on found that Iyengar yoga could effectively reduce the symptoms of'
carpal tunnel syndrome, a malady of'near epidemic proportions in this computer
age. Of note, Garfinkel's study lasted only eight weeks, and yet the inter-vention
proved efficacious. Serious yoga practitioners realize of course that although some
benefit may be noticed after even a single class, yoga's most profound effects
accrue over years-even decades-not weeks. Yoga is indeed powerful medicine
but it is slow medicine.
More studies will be needed to convince the medical establishment, but that
research could also be slow in coming. Funding is a perennial problem. Unlike
the situation with, say, pharmaceuticals, there is no private industry to
bankroll the scientific investigation of hatha yoga. Given the incredible cost of
long-range studies-which are more likely to demonstrate effectiveness-
I suspect that we're unlikely to see any time soon the kind of overwhelming
proof that skeptical scientists want. This presents a philosophical question:
When you have an intervention which appears safe and effective-and when its
side effects are almost entirely positive-should one wait for proof before
trying it? This value judgment lies at the heart of the recent debate over many
traditional healing methods.
Ironically, though, even within the world of alternative medicine yoga seems
under-appreciated. Two years ago, I attended a four-day conference on alter-
native medicine sponsored by Harvard Medical School. A wide range of topics
from herbs to prayer to homeopathy were covered in detail. Yet in the dozens
of presentations I attended, yoga was mentioned just once: In a slide that
accompanied the lecture on cardiovascular disease, yoga was one of several
modalities listed under "Other Stress Reduction'lechniques." Yoga is certainly a
stress reduction device but to reduce it to iust that misses so much.
Given the situation, how welcome then is David Coulter's Ahatorny of Hatha
Yoga. David combines the perspectives of a dedicated yogi with that of erformer
anatomy prof'essor and research associate at two major American rnedical
schools. He has set himself the ambitious goal of combining the rnodern
scientific understanding of anatomy and physiologry with the ancient practice of'
hatha yoga.
'Ihe
result of an obvious labor of krve, the book explains hatha yoga in
demystified, scientific tcrms whilc at the same time honoring its traditions. It
should go a long way to helping yoga achieve the scienti{ic recognition it
deserves. Useful as both a textbook and as a reference, Artalont.y of'Halha Yogo
is a book that all serious .yoga teachers and practitioners u'ill rvant on their
shelves. It will also be welcomed by sympathctic physiciar.rs and there are more
of us all the time as well as physicai therapists and other health
prof'essionals. Speaking as a doctor who had already studied anatomy in detail
(though fbrgotten more than I'd care Lo admit) and as a dedicated student of'
yoga, I can happily report that this book heightened my understandingofboth
hatha yoga and anatomy and-as a nice bonus-improved my personal practice.
I realize, howeveq that to those who lack scientifjc training An.otonry ot'
Hatha Yoga may seem daunting. Some sections use terminology and concepts
that may be challenging on first reading. Ilyou feel intimidated, my suggestion
is to adopt the mentality many employ when reading the ancient and some-
times difficult texts of the yoga tradition. Read with an open heart and if you get
frustrated, try another part or come back to it another day. As with yoga itself,
diligent students will be rewarded with an ever-greater understanding.

Timothy McCall, MD
Boston, Massachusetts
Januan'. loot

Dr. Timothy McCall is a board-certified specialist in internal medicine and the

author of Examining Your Doctor: A Patient's Guide to Auoiding Hannlul
Medical Core. His work has appeared in more than a dozen major publications
including the lrlew England Journal of Medicine, the Nation and the Los
Angeles Times. He can be found on the web at www.drmccall.com

t2
 PRE,FACE,
-|-
Ihe origins of this book date from twenty-five years ago when I was teaching
various neuroscience, microscopic anatomy, and elementary anatomy courses
in the Department of Cell Biology and Neuroanatomy at the University of
Minnesota. At the same timc I was learning about yoga in classes at the
Meditation Center in Minneapolis. During those .years, Swami Rama, who
founded the Himalayan Institute, often lecturcd in Minnesota, and onc of his
messageswas thal yoga was ncither exercisc nor religion, but a scicnce,and he
wanted modern biomedical science to cxamine it in that light. One of his
purposcs in coming to the Wcst was to bring this about, a purposc which is
rellected by thc name he selectcd for thc institute that he fbundcd The
Himalayan Intcrnational Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy. Thc idea of
connecting yoga with modern scionce resonated with mc, and the conviction
grcw that I could be a part ol'such a quest. Soon after I communicatcd my
interest, Swamiji callcd and suggcsted that I pay him a visit to talk about
writing a book on anatomy and hatha yoga. And that is how this projcct began
rn r916.
Apart from several falsc starts :rnd ncar-fatal errors, I did little writing on
this subject bctween r9t6 and rgfiili, but still I bcnefited from students'
questions in courses on anatomy and hatha yriga at the Univcrsity of
Minnesota (Extension Division), more comprehensivc coul'scson yoga anatomy
Ibr graduate students at the Himalayan Institute in the latc rgllos, anatomy
and physiology courses in thc mid-r99os {br the Pacific Institute Ibr Oricntal
Medicine (NYC), and from l99o to the present, teaching anatomy for students
of'OhashiatsuG), a method of Oriental bodywork. 'lhese courses brought me in
touch with many tclling questions from students intercsted in various aspects
of'holistic medicine; without them, the seed planted by Swamiji would never
have matured.
And so it went, from a working draf't in the summer of t976 to 1995, when
af'ter many gentle and not-so-gentle nudges, Swamiji insisted that my time was
up, I was to finish the book, finish it noq and not run away. If'I tricd to escape,
he avowed, he would follow me to the ends of the earth; what he would do upon
finding me is better left unsaid. Happily, he saw an early but complete draft of
the text a year before his passing in November of r996.

l3
 INTRODUCTION
A
fLcomprehensive statement on the anatomy and physiology of hatha yoga
ought to have been written years ago. But it hasn't happened, and my aim
is to remedy the deficiency.After considering the subject for twenty-five
years, it's clear that such a work might well interweave two themes: for the
benefit ofcompleteness, a traditional treatment ofhow to do yoga postures
(yoga asanas)using anatomically precise terminology, and, for correlations
with medical science, an objective analysis of how those postures are
realized in some of the great systems of the body. In that regard, special
emphasis is placed here on the musculoskeletal, nervous, respiratory, and
cardiovascular systems the musculoskeletal system becausethat is where
all our actions are expressed,the nervous systembecausethat is the residence
of all the managerial functions of the musculoskeletalsystem,the respiratory
system becausebreathing is of such paramount importance in yoga, and
the cardiovascular system because inverted postures cannot be fully
comprehended without understanding the dynamics of the circulation.
Most of the emphasis is practical-doing experiments, learning to observe
the body, and further refining actions and observations.
'Ihe
discussion is intended fbr an audience of yoga teachers, health
professionals,and anyone elsc who is intercsted in exploring some of thc
structural and functional aspectsof hatha yoga. The work can also serve as
a guide for students of alternative medicine who would like to communicate
with those who place their faith more strictly in contcmporary science.'I<r
help everyone in that regard I've included only material that is generally
acceptedin modern biomedical sciences,avoiding comment on non-physical
concepts such as prana, the nadis, and the chakras, none of which are
presently testable in the scientific sense,and none oI'which have obvious
parallels in turn-of-the-millennium biologS'.
The book begins with an introductory discussion of some basic premises
that set a philosophical tone and suggest a consistent mental and physical
approach to postures. Ten chapters follow, the first three fundamental to
the last seven. Chapter r summarizes the basic principles of the anatomy
and physiolog, of hatha yoga. Breathing is next in chapter z since the manner
in which we breathe in hatha yoga is important for expediting movement
and posture. Breathing is followed by pelvic and abdominal exercises in
chapter -l for three reasons:many of those exercisesuse specializedmethods
of breathing, they are excellent warm-ups for other postures, and the pelvis
and abdomen form the foundation of the body. Standing postures will then
be covered in chapter ,1becausethese posesare so important for beginning

r5
students, and because they provide a preview of backbending, forward
bending, and twisting postures, which are covered in detail in thapters 5,
6, and 7. The headstand and shoulderstand, including a brief introduction
to cardiovascular function, are included in chapters tl and 9. Postures for
relaxation and meditation are treated last in chapter ro.
It will be helpful to experiment with each posture, preferably in the
order given. This approach will lead you logically through a wealth of
musculoskeletal anatomy, bring the academic discourse to life, and permit
you to understand the body's architecture and work with it safely.If some
of the sections on anatomy and physiolo€y seem formidable, there is an
easy solution. Turn the page. Or turn several pages.Go directly to the next
section on postures, in which most of the discussion can be understood in
context. Just keep in mind, however, that knowledge is power, and that to
communicate effectively with laypeople who have technical questrons as
well as with health professionalsto whom you may go for advice, it rnar,be
desirable to refer back to the more challenging sectionsof this book as the
need arises. And those who do not find these sections particularly demanding
can look to Alter's definitive Scienceof Flexibility, as well as to other sources
that are listed after thc glossary,if they require more technical details than
are provided here.

l6
 BASICPRE,MISTS
'T-
Ihe last half of the twentieth century saw many schools of hatha yoga
take root in the West. Some are based on authentic oral traditions passed
down through many generations of teachers. Some are pitched to meet
modern needs and expectations but are still consistent with the ancient
art, science,and philosophy ofyoga. Still others have developed New Age
tangents that traditionalists view with suspicion. Picture this title placed
near the exit of your local bookstore..Get Rich, Young, and Beautiful with
Hatha Yoga.I've not seen it, but it would hardly be surprising, and I have
to admit that I would look carefully before not buying it . . . .
Given human differences,the many schoolsof hatha yoga approach even
the most basic postures with differing expectations, and yoga teachers find
themselves facing a spectrum of students that rangcs from accomplished
dancers and gymnasts to nursing home residents who are afraid to lie down
on the floor fbr fear they won't be able to get back up. fhat's Iinc; it's not
a problem to transcend such diff'ercnces,becausefor cveryone, no matter
what their age or level of expertise, the most important issue in hatha yoga
is not flexibility and the ability to do difticult postures, but awareness-
awareness of the body and the breath, and for those who read this book,
awareness of the anatomical and physiological principles that underlic
each posture. From this awarcness comcs control, and Irom control comes
grace and beauty. Even postures approximated by beginning students can
carry the germ ofpoisc and elegance.
How to accomplish these goals is another matter, and we often see
disagreement over how the poses should be approached and taught.
Therefore, the guidelines that lbllow are not set in stone; thcir purposc is
to provide a common point of reference from which we can discuss the
anatomy and physiology of hatha yoga.

FOCUS YOUR ATTENTION

Lock your attention within the body. You can hold your concentration on
breathing, on tissues that are being stretched, on joints that are being
stressed,on the speedof your movements, or on the relationships between
breathing and stretching. You can also concentrate on your options as you
move in and out of postures. Practicing with total attention within the
body is advanced yoga, no matter how easy the posture; practicing with
your attention scattered is the practice ofa beginner, no matter how difficult
the posture. Hatha yoga trains the mind as well as the body, so focus your
attention without lapse.

17
1tJ ANATOMYOT;}IATHA YOGA

BE AWARE OF YOUR BREATH

We'll see in chapters z-7 that inhalations lift you more fully into many
postures and create a healthy internal tension and stability in the torso.
You can test this by lying prone on the floor and noticing that lifting up
higher in the cobra posture (fig. z.ro) is aided by inhalation. Paradoxically,
however, exhalations rather than inhalations carry you further into many
other postures. You can test this by settling into a sitting forward bend and
noticing that exhalation allows you to draw your chest down closer to your
thighs (fig. 6.13).But in either case you get two benefits: diaphragmatic
breathing assists the work of stretching the tissues, and your awarenessof
those effects directs you to make subtle adjustments in the posture.
While doing postures, as a general rule keep the airway wide open,
breathe only through the nose, and breathe smoothly, evenly, and quietll:
Never hold the breath at the glottis or make noise as you breathe except as
rcquired or suggestedby specific practices.

BUILD FOUNDATIONS

As you do each asana, analyze its foundation in the body and pinpciint the
key muscles that assist in maintaining that foundation: the lower extrem-
ities and their extensor muscles in standing postures; the shoulders. neck.
spine (vertebral c<llumn),and muscles of the torso in the shoulderstand:
and the entirety of the musculoskeletalsystem, but especiallythe abdominal
and deep back muscles, in the peacock.Focusyour attention accordingll' on
the pertinent regional ana!.qmy,both to prevent injury and to refine r-our
understanding of the posture.
Then there is another kind of'fbundation, more general than what u'e
appreciate from the point of view of regional anatomy-the fbundation of
connective tissues throughout the body, especially those that bind the
musculoskeletal system together. The connective tissues are like steel lein-
forcing rods in concrete; they are hidden but intrinsic to the integrity ofthe
whole. To strengthen these tissues in preparation for more demanding
work with postures, concentrate at first on toughening up joint capsules.
tendons, Iigaments, and the fascial sheathes that envelop muscles. The
practical method for accomplishing these aims is to build strength. and to
do this from the inside out, starting with the central muscles of the torso
and then moving from there to the extremities. Aches and pains frequenth'
develop if you attempt extreme stretches before you have first developed
the strength and skill to protect the all-important joints. Unless you are
already a weightlifter or body builder, stretching and becoming flexible
should be a secondaryconcern. Only as your practice matures should 1'our
emphasis be changed to cultivate a greater range of motion around the
ioints.
MOVING INTO ANO OUT OF POSTURES

Being in a state of silence when you have come into a posture is soothing
and even magical, but you cannot connect with that state except by know-
ing how you got there and knowing where you're going. If you jerk from
posture to posture you cannot enjoy the journey, and the journey is just as
important as the destination. So move into and out of postures slowly and
consciously.As you move, survey the body from head to toe: hands, wrists,
forearms, elbows, arms, and shoulders; feet, ankles, legs, knees, thighs, and
hips; and pelvis, abdomen, chest, neck, and head. You will soon develop
awareness of how the body functions as a unit and notice quirks and
discontinuities in your practice which you can then smooth out. Finally, as
you learn to move more gracefully, the final posture will seem less difficult.

HONOR THE SUGGESTIONSOF PAIN

Do you honor or ignore messagesfrom aches and pains? If'you have back
pain, do you adjust your posture and activities to minimize it, or do vou just
tough it out? And do you keep a def'ercntial eye on your body,or do you find
that you get so wrapped up in some challenge that you forget about it? If'
you do not listen to messagesfrom your body you will be a candidate frlr
pulled muscles, tendinitis, pinched nerves, and ruptured intervertebral
disks. 'lo avoid injury in hatha yoga you have to devekrp a sclf-respecting
awareness.
Begin your program of' hatha yoga with a resolution to avoid pain.
Unless you have had ycars of experience an{know exactly what you are
doing, pushing yourself into a painful strctch will not only court injury, it
will also create a state of fcar and anxiety, and your nervous system will
store those memories and thwart your elTbrts to recreate the posture. Pain
is a gift; it tells us that somc problem has developcd.Analyze the nature of
the problem instead of pushing ahead mindlessly. With self-awarenessand
the guidance of a competent teacher, you can do other postures that
circumvent the difficulty.

C U L T I V A T E R E G U L A R I T Y ,E N T H U S I A S M , A N D C A U T I O N

Try to practice at the same time and in the same place every day. Such
habits will make it easier to analyzeday-to-day changes.Mornings are best
for improving health-stiffness in the early morning tells you where you
need the most careful work and attention. Later in the day, you lose that
sensitivity and incur the risk of injury. Cultivate a frolicsome enthusiasm
in the morning to counter stiffness, and cautiousness in the evening to
avoid hurting yourself. And at any time, if you start feeling uncommonly
strong, flexible, and frisky, be careful. That's when it is easy to go too far.
 ANATO]ITY OF HATI]A YOGA

TAKE PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY

Study with knowledgeable teachers, but at the same time take responsibility
for your own decisions and actions. Your instructor may be strong and
vigorous, and may urge you on, but you have to be the final arbiter of what
you are capable of doing. Becausemany hatha yoga postures make use of
unnatural positions, they exposeweaknessesin the body, and it is up to you
to decide how and whether to proceed. One criterion is to make sure you
not only feel fine an hour after your practice, but twenty-four hours iater
as well. Finally, honor the contraindications for each posture and each class
of postures; if in doubt, consult with a medical practitioner who has had
experience with hatha yoga.

CULTIVATEPATIENCE

Learn from the tortoise. Cultivate the patiencc to move forward stcadill., no
matter how slow your progress. Remember as well that the benefits of
hatha yoga gr beyond getting stronger and more flexible, and that if 1.ou
are monitoring only that rcalm, you may be disappointed.l'or any kind of'
'lhe main culprit is thinking that
bcneficial result you have to be pntient.
you should be able to accomplish something without making consistent
'l'hat attitudc has two unfortunate side efl'ects:first, it divcrts vour
effort.
attention lrom the work before you to what you believe you are entitled to:
and second,it makes it impossibleto learn and appreciatewhat is taking
place this minute. So resolve to practice being with your experience in the
present moment, enjoy yourself no mattcr what, and let go of expectations.
 CHAPTERONT
MOVE,MENTANDPOSTURE

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,',/7, /irntt, r.t n rauq// /a.t/r.zrt.)/rt.. ,.///rllrr//i/r.t.t, a ,/u,t'r/
r2.lhl.r/ a/lztt Vt.Vt.: /./u, ,ourqruo/rtttl a/' .Lrtrtt/r.Lh. .l/./r
llrutt.rttVJ, //.t. .//r ///z//r /r, ry'tru.Vt ,,r'rr, ./,i//i ,,/rrr, ,, //rrV,
rzetq,l'7trrr/t r/ttJ t.ulllJ n hal r/irr/nt. "

- Michael Gershon, in T'he Secon.d,Brain, p. jq.

'T.
Ihe first organizing principle underlying human movement and p<lsturc
is our existence in a gpavitational field. Imagine its absencein a spacccraft,
where astronauts float unless thcy are strapped in place,and where outside
the vessellittle backpack rockets propel them from onc work sitc to another.
To get exercise,which is crucial for preventing loss ofbone calcium on long
voya€ies,they must work out on machines bolted to thc floor. They can't do
the threc things that most of'us depend on: walking, running, and lifting.
I1'thcy tried to partner up fbr workouts, all they could do is.jerk one another
back and fbrth. And even hatha yogzrpostures would be valueless; they
would involve little more than relaxing and squirming around.
Back on earth, it is helpful to keep rccalling how the force of g:ravity
dominates our practice of hatha yoga. We tend to overlook it, {brgetting
that it keeps us grounded in the most literal possible sense.When we lift
up into the cobra, the locust, or the bow postures, we lift parts of the body
away from the ground against the force ofgravity. In the shoulderstand the
force ofgravity holds the shoulders against the floor. In a standing posture
we would collapse if we did not either keep antigravity muscles active or
lock joints to remain erect. And even lying supine, without the need either
to balance or to activate the antigravity muscles, we make use of gravity in
other creative ways, as when we gt:asp our knees, pull them toward the
chest, roll from side to side, and allow our body weight to massagethe back
muscles against the floor.
Keeping in mind that the earth's gravitational field influences every
movement we make, we'll turn our attention in the rest of this chapter ro

21
the mechanisms that make movement and posture possible.First we'll look
at how the skeletal muscles move the body, then we'll discuss the way the
nervous system controls the operation of the skeletal muscles, and then
we'll examine how connective tissues restrict movement. If we understand
how these three function together within the field of gravity, we can begin
to understand some of the principles underlying hatha yoga. Finally, we'll
put it all together in a discussion of three postures. We'll begin with the
role of skeletal muscles.

THE NEURO-MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

To any informed observer, it is plain that the musculoskeletal system
executes all our acts of will, expresses our conscious and unconscious
habits, breathes air into the lungs, articulates our oral expressionofwords.
and implements all generally recognizedforms o{'nonverbal expressionand
communication. And in the practice of hatha yoga, it is plainly the n'rusculo-
skeletal system that enablcs us to achieve external balance, to twist. bend.
turn upsidc down, to be still or active, and to accomplishall cleansingand
brcathing exercises.Nevertheless,we are subtly deceivedif we think that
is the end of the story. Just as we see munchkins sing and dance in T/ie
Wizard of Oz and do not learn that they are not autonomous until tl-reend
of the story, we'll find that muscles, like munchkins, do not opet'ute ir.t
isolation. And just as Dorothy found that the wizard kept a tether on ever\'-
thing going on in his realm, so we'll see that the nervous system keeps ar.r
'lhe two systems combir.red
absolute rein on the musculoskeletal system.
form a neuro-musculoskelctalsystcm that unilies all aspectso{'our actions
and activities.
To illustratc how the nervous system manages posture, let's sar']'ou are
standing and decide to sit. First your nervous system commands the /Ie.i'or
rtuscles (muscles that fold thc limbs and bend the spine fbrwaldt t<-rpull
the upper part of the trunk forward and to initiate bending at the hip-s.
knees,and ankles. A bare moment aftcr you initiate that movement, g3'avit.i'
takes center stage and starts to pull you toward the sitting position. Ar-rdat
the same time-accompanying the action of gravity-the nervous s)'stent
commands the extensor muscles (those that resist folding the linrbs t to
counteract gravity and keep you from falling in a heap. Finall,v.as soon as
you are settled in a secure seated position, the nervous system permits the
extensor muscles and the body as a whole to relax.
The musculoskeletal system does more than move the body, it also
servesas a movable container for the internalorgans.Just as a robot houses
and protects its hidden supporting elements (power plant, integlated
circuits, programmable computers, self-repairing components, and enough
fuel to function for a reasonableleneth of time). so doesthe musculoskeletal
 1. MOW]MF:N7'AND PO,'II]RE 23

system house and protect the delicate internal organs. Hatha yoga postures
teach us to control both the muscles that operate the extremities and the
muscles that form the container.

SKELETAL MUSCLE

The term "muscle" technically includes both its central fleshy part, the
belly of the muscle, and its tendons. The belly of a muscle is composedof
individual muscle fibers (muscle cells) which are surrounded by connectiue
tissue libers that run into a tendon. The tendon in turn connects the bellv
of the muscle to a bone.
Under ordinary circumstances muscle cells contracf, or shorten, only
because nerue impuLse.ssignal them to do so. When many nerve impulses
per second travel to most of the individual fibers in a muscle, it pulls
strongly on the tendon; if only a few nerve impulses per second travel to a
smaller population of fibers within the muscle, it pulls weakly on the tendon;
and i{'nerve impulses are totally absent the musclc is totally rela-xed.

lTechnicalnote: One of the most pcrsistcntmisconceptions doggedlysurvivingin

the biomedicerl
communityis th.rt all muscles,eventhoseat rcst, alwayskeepreceiving
at leaslsomenerveimpulses.F'ilty.yeerrs of electromyography with fine-wirenccdlc
cleclrodesis at oddswith this bclicf,documenting from the l!!os on that it's not
ncccssarilytruc, and that with biofeedback training we can lcarn to rclax most of
our skclctalmusclescompletcl.y.I
A musclc usually operateson a movablejoint such as a hinge or a ball
and socket, and when a muscle is stimulated to contract by the nervous
system, the resulting tension is imparted to the bones on bt-rthsides of the
fulcrum of the joint. In the ca.seoI'a hinge such as the elbow that opens to
about r8o", any muscle situated on the face of the hinge that can close will
decreasethe angle between the two bones, and any muscle situated on the
back side of the hinge will open it up from a closed or partially closedposition.
For example, the bicepsbrachii muscle lies on the inside of the hinge, so it
acts to flex the forearm (by definition, the segment of the upper extremity
between the wrist and the elbow), pulling the hand toward the shoulder.
The triceps brachii is situated on the back side of the arm (the segment of
the upper extremity between the elbow and the shoulder) on the outside of
the hinge, so it acts to extend the elbow, or unfold the hinge (fig. r.r).

ORIGINS AND INSERTIONS

We use the words "origin" and "insertiort" to indicate where muscles are
attached to bones in relation to the most common movement at a joint. The
origin of a muscle is on the bone that is relatively (or usually) stationary,
and the insertion of a muscle is on the bone that is most generally moved.
Flexion of the elbow is again a good example. Since ordinarily the arm is
fixed and the forearm is moved, at least in relative terms. we say that the
 :OGA

biceps brachii and triceps brachii take origin from the arm and shoulder,
and that they insert on the forearm (fig. t.t).
The origins and insertions of a muscle can be functionally reyersed.
When the lo,tissimus dorsi muscle (figs. tt.9-to) pulls the arm down and
back in a swimming stroke, its textbook origin is from the lower back and
peluis, and its insertion is on the humerus in the arm. But when we do a
chin-up the arm is the relatively stable origin, and the lower back and
pelvis become the insertion for lifting the body as a whole. In the coming
chapters we'll see many examples of how working origins and insertions
are reversed.

AGONIST AND ANTAGONIST MUSCLES

The muscles surrounding a joint act cooperatively, but one of them-the

agonist ordinarily selvesas the prime mol)er,assistedin its role by function-
ally related muscles called.synergi.sl.s. While the agonist and its synelgists
are acting on one side of'the joint, muscles on thc opposite side act as
antagon,ists.As suggcstcd by thc name, antagonists monitor, smooth. and
even retard the movement in question. For example, whcn thc biccps
brachii and the brachiaLis in the arm (the agonist and onc of its s;",ncrgistsr
shorten to flcx the clboq the triceps brachii (on the opposite side of'the
arm) resists flexion antagonistically while incidcntally holding the ioint
surfaces in correct appositi<ln(flig. r.r).
Muscles zrlsoact in relation to the force of gravity. In the lower extlenr-
ities extensor muscles act as antigrouity ntuscles to keep you upright rrr.rd
resist crumpling to the floor. Examplcs: thc quadriccps fbmoris r.nuscle
(figs. r.z, 1.9, and ll.rr) on the front of the thigh (the seEsnentof the lolt'el
extremity between the hip joint and the knee joint) extends the knec joint
as you stcp onto a platform, and the calf muscles extend the ankles as ]'or,l
lift your heels to reach an object on a high shelf. Flexor muscles afe antag-
onists to the cxtensors. They can act in two ways. They often aid glar it.v.
as when you settle into a standing forward bend and then pull youlself
down more insistently with your hip flexors-the iLiopsoasmuscles rfigs.
2.8,3.7,3.9,and lt.t3).But they also act to opposegravity: if you want to rlrn
in place the iliopsoasmuscle complex flexes the hip joint, lifting the thigh
and drawing the knee toward the chest; and if you want to kick your-.elf in
the buttocks the hamstrlngs (fig. j.8, J.lo, tl.to, and tl.rz) flex the knee.
pulling the leg (the segment of the lower extremity between the knee and
the ankle) toward the thigh. Even so, the flexor muscles in the lou'er
extremities are not classified as antigravity muscles, because under ordi-
nary postural circumstances they are antagonists to the muscles that are
supporting the body weight as a whole.
For the upper extremities the situation is different, becauseunless you
 L ,trovLMI':NT AND I'OS't'ttRIt 25

are doing something unusual like taking a walk in a handstand with slightly
bent elbows (which necessitates a strong commitment from the triceps
brachii muscles), the extensor muscles do not support the weight of the
body. In most practical circumstances, it is likely to be the flexors rather
than extensors that act as antigravity muscles in the upper extremities, as
when you flex an elbow to lift a package or complete a chin-up.
'fhroughoutthis book,in orderto keepterminologysimpleand yet
fTechnicalnote:
precise,I'll stick with strict anatomicaldefinitionsof arm, forearm,thigh, and leg,
which meansnever using ambiguousterms such as "upper arm," "lower arm,"
"upper leg," and "iower leg." The samegoesfor the carelessuseof the term "arm"
to encompass an undeterminedportion of the upperextremityand the carelessuse
of the term "leg" to encompass an undeterminedportion of the lower extremity.I

infraspinatus
Ieresmrnor muscle
muscte supraspinatus
muscle

-'-clavicle

medialborder spineo1
of scapula ---7 scapula

Ieresmajormuscre
deltoidmuscle

tricepsbrachii
muscle;extends
forearmat elbow bicepsbrachii
as primemover muscle:flexes
forearmas prime
mover

brachialismuscle:
synergistfor flexion
of forearm

otecranon:
bony lip of
elbowand
insertionof

brachii
upperpart
of forearm

Figure'1.1.View of the right scapula,arm,and upper part of the forearmfrom

behindand the side (from Sappey;see"Acknowledgements" for discussion
of
creditsregardingdrawings,illustrations,and other visualmaterials).
)6 ANAT)M'' oF HA'N]A YOGA

[And another technical note: Just to avoid confusion, I'11 not use the word flex
except in regard to the opposite of extend. Everyone knows what a first grader
means by saying "look at me flex my muscles," but beyond this childhood expres-
sion, it can lead to ambiguity. For example, having someone "flex their biceps"
results in flexion of the forearm, but "flexing" the gluteal muscles-the "gluts"-
results not in flexion but in extension ofthe hips. For describingyoga postures it's
b e t t e r j u s t t o a v o i d t h e u s a g ea l t o g e t h e r . l

LAnd one more: Until getting used to terminolory for movements of body parts, it is
often a puzzle whether it's better to refer to moving a joint through some range of
motion, or to moving the body part on the far side of the joint. For example, the
choice might be between saying: extend the kneejoint versus extend the leg, abduct
the hipjoint versus abduct the thigh, flcx the anklejoint versus flex the foot, extend
the elbow joint versus extend the {brearm, or hyperextend the wrist.joint versus
hyperextend the hand. Even though the two usagesare roughlv equivalent, thc con-
text usually makes one or thc other seem more sensible.For example, sometimes wc
rcf'cr specifically to the joint, as in "flex the wrist." In that casc, saying "flex the
hand" would be ambiguous becauseit could mean any one of three things: making
a fist, flexing the wrist, or bolh in combination. On the other hand, referrirrg to tl-rc
bod.ypart is often more self-explanatory,as in "llex thc arm lbrward !o'." Although
the alternative-"flcx thershoulder.joint!o"" isn't nonscnsicerl, it's a littlc iu'cane
fcrrthe non-professional.I

CONCENTRIC
SHORTENING
A N D E C C E N T R I CL E N G T H E N I N G

To understand how the musculoskeletal systcm operates in hatha voga \\'c

must look at how individual musclcs contribute to whole-body activitl,. The
simplest situation, conccntric contraction, or "concentt'i,r:shorte,ning." is
one in which muscle fibers are stimulated by nerve impulses and the entire
muscle responds by shortcning, as when the biceps brachii muscle in the
forearm shortens concentrically to lift a book.
When we want to put the book down the picture is more complicated. \l'c
do not ordinarily drop an object we have.just lifted-we set it down care-
fully by slowly cxtending the elbow, and we accomplish that by allowing thc
muscle as a whole to bect-rmelonger while keeping some of its muscle fiber-s
in a state of contraction. Whenever this happens-whenever a muscle
increases in length under tension while resisting gravity-the movement i-s
caIIed " eccentric lengthening."
We see concentric shortening and eccentric lengthening in most natural
activities. When you walk up a flight of stairs, the muscles that are lifting
you up are shortening concentrically; when you walk back down the starrs.
the same muscles are lengthening eccentrically to control youl- descent.
And when you haul yourself up a climbing rope hand over hand, muscies of
the upper extremities shorten concentrically every time you pull yourself
up; as you come back down, the same muscles lengthen eccentrically.
In hatha yoga we see concentric shortening and eccentric lengthening in
hundreds of situations. The simplest is when a single muscle or muscle
group opposes gravity, as when the back muscles shorten concentrically to
 'tiRE
27

lift the torso up from a standing forward bend. Then as you slowly lower
back down into the bend, the back muscles resist the force of g::avity that
is pulling you forward, lengthening eccentrically to smooth your descent.

ISOTONIC AND ISOMETRIC ACTIVITY

Most readers are already familiar with the terrns "isotonic" and "isometric."
Strictly speaking, the term isotonic refers solely to shortening of a muscle
under a constant load, but this never happens in reality except in the case
of vanishingly small ranges of motion. Over time, however, the term
isotonic has become corrupted to apply generally to exercise that involves
movement, usually under conditions of moderate or minimal resistance.
Isometric exercise,on the other hand, refers to something more precise-
holding still, often under conditions of substantial or maximum resistance.
Raising and lowering a book repetitively is an isotonic exercise fbr the
biccps brachii and its synergists, and holding it still, neither allowing it t<-r
fall nor raising it, is an isometric cxcrcise for the same muscles. Most
athletic endcavors involve isotonic exercise because they involve movc-
ment. Japanese sumo wrestling between equally matched, tightly ppipped,
and momentarily immobile opponents is one obvious exception. And
isometric exercise is also exemplified by any and every hatha yoga posturc
which you are holding steadily with muscular cllbrt.

RELAXATION STBETCH AND MOBILITY

If few or no nerve impulses are impinging on muscle fibers, the muscle

tissue will be relaxed,as when you are in thc corpseposture (fig. t.t,1).But
if a relaxed muscle is stretched, the situation becomes more complex.
Working with a partner can make this plain. If you lie down and lift your
hands straight overhead, and then ask someone to stretch you gently by
pulling on your wrists, you will notice that you can easily go with the
stretch provided you have good flexibility. tsut if your partner pulls too
suddenly or if'there is any appreciable pain, the nervous system will resist
relaxation and keep the muscles tense; or at the least, you will sensethem
tightening up to resist the stretch. Finally, if you allow yourself to remain
near your limit of passive but comfortable stretch for a while longer, you
may feel the muscles relax again, allowing your partner to pull more
insistently.
Many of these same responsesare apparent if you set up similar conditions
of stretching on your own, as when you place your hands overhead against
a wall and stretch the underside of the arms. This is more demanding of
your concentration than relaxing into someone else's work, however,
becauseyou are concentrating on two tasks at the same time: creating the
necessaryconditions for the stretch, and relaxing into that effort. But the
26 ANATOJI|Y OI: HATHA 'OGA

same rules apply. If you go too far and too quickly, pain inhibits lengthening,
prevents relaxation, and spoils the work.

MUSCULAR ACTIVITY IN A LUNGING POSTURE

To discover for yourself how skeletal muscles operate in hatha yoga, try a
warrior posture (warrior I) with the feet spread wide apart, the hands
stretched overhead, and the palms together (figs. r.z and 7.zo). Feel what
happens as you slowly pull the arms to the rear and lower your weight. To
pull the arms up and back, the muscles facing the rear have to shorten
concentrically, while antagonist muscles facing the {ront passively resist
the stretch and possibly completion of the posture. As you lower your weight
thc quadriceps femoris muscle on the front of the flexed thigh resists gravity
and lenEghensecccntrically.Finally, as you hold still in the posture, muscles
throughout the body will be in a state of isometric contraction.
Several important principles of musculoskeletal activity cannot be
addresseduntil we have considered the nervous system and the connective
tissues in detail. For now, it is enough to realize that all muscular activitl:
whether it be contracticlnof individual cclls, isotonic or isomctric exercrse.
agonist or antagonist activity, concentric shortening, or eccentric ler-rg1h-
ening, takcs place strictly under the guidance ol'the nervous system.

, {ff
musclesfacing l;l
the front resist
p u l l i n go f t h e *
arms to the rear .{ musclesfacingthe rear
$. shortenconcentrically, thus
i I p u l l i n qt h e a r m sD a c \ w a r o
It I
rightquadriceps i!
femorismuscle
lengthens
eccentrically

&
\

F i g u r e1 . 2 .W a r r i o r I p o s e
 t. Mot1jitlllN1'AND t'Osl',tRt': 29

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

We experience all-or at least everything pertaining to the material
world-through the agency of specialized, irreplaceable cells called
neurons, too billion of them in the brain alone, that channel information
throughout the body and within the vast supporting cellular milieu of the
central neruous system (the brain and spinal cord). This is all accomplished
by only three kinds of neurons: sensory neurons, which carry the flow of
sensation from theperipheral neruous system (by definition all parts ofthe
nervous system exceptingthe brain and spinal cord) into the central nervous
system and consciousness;molor neurons, which carry instructions from
the brain and spinal cord into the peripheral nervous system, and from
there to muscles and glands; and interneurons, or associalion nerffotts,
which are interposed between the sensory neurons and the motor neurons,
'lhe sensory
and which transmit our will and volition to the motor neurons.
information is carricd into thc dorsal horn of the spinal cord by way o1'
dorsal rocrls,and the motor information is carried out of the uentral hont
'lhe dorsal and ventral roots join
o{'the spinal cord by way of uen.tralroots.
to form mixcd (motor and sensory) spinal nerues that in turn innervate
structures throughout the body (figs. r.:-q).
scienccwilh yoga,
ITechnicalnotes:Bccauscthis is a book corrclatingbiomcdicerl
which many considcr to bc a scicnccof mind, a f'cw commcnts errercquircd on a
subject of perennial, although possibly ovcrworkcd, philosophiczrl intcrcsl thc
nature of mind uj.s-o-ui.sLhenervous systcm. Speakingfbr ncuroscicntists,I think I
cztnsay thal most of'us accept as axiomatic that neurons are collectively responsible
for erllof our thinking, cognition, emotions,and other activilics of' mind, and that
thc totality o{ mind is inherent in the nervous system. But I also have to say as a
practicing yogi th.rt erccordingto that tradition, the principle ol mind is separate
from and more subtlc than thc ncrvous systcm, and is considcredto be a lilc principlc
that extends evcn beyond the body.I

lHow and whether thesequcstionsbecomeresolvedin thc third miliennium is anyone's

guess. l'hcy are topics that are not usually taken seriousl.yby working scientists,
who usuzrlly consider it a waste o1'timc to ponder non-testable propositions, which
are by dcfinition propositions that cannot possibly be proven wrong. Such state-
ments abound in new age commentaries, and are a source ol mild embarrassment
to those of us who are trying to examine older traditions using techniques of modern
science.This says nothing about the accuracy o1'suchproposals.It may be true, lbr
example, that "life cannot continue in the absenceofprana." The problem is that
short of developing a definition and assay for prana, such a statement can not be
tested-it can only be accepted,denied, or argued ad infiniturn.l

IThis approachto experimentation and observationdoesn't require a lot ofbrilliance.

It simply stipulates that you must always ask yourself if the nature and content of a
statement make it potentially refutable with an experimental approach. If it's not,
you will be accurate )o7r, of the time if you conclude that the idea is spurious, even
though it may sound inviting or may even appear self-evident, as did the chemical
theory ofphlogiston in the mid-t8th century. To give the benefit ofthe doubt to the
purveyors of such statements, it's rare that they are outright fabrications. On the
 3o ANATOJIIY OF IIA'1'TTA YOGA

other hand, one should always keep in mind that all of us (including scientists) have
a huge capacity for deceiving ourselves when it comes to defending our ideas and
innovations. The problem is that it's often impossible to distinguish fantasv, wishful
thinking, mild exaggeration, and imprecise language from out-and-out fraud. What
to do? In the end it's a waste of time to make a career of ferreting out errors-one
can't get rid of bad ideas by pointing them out. On the other hand, if we turn our
attention to propositions that can be tested, the creative attention this requires
sometimes brings inspiration and better ideas, which in turn disposesof bad ideas
by displacing them. Lavoisier discredited the theory of phlogiston by pointing to
brilliant experiments (many ofthem carried out by others), not by crafting cunning
argllments. I

lOne last concern: ifyour complaint is that you can't understand a particular concept
and do not feel competent to criticize it, don't assume that the problem is your own
lack of intelligence or scientific background. More than likety, the idea wasn't
presented in a straightforward manner, and it usually happens that this masks one

'_,=.==

axons of sensory
ventral neuronsin transit rightdorsalroot
rootlets(cut) to spinalcord ganglionwith cell
bodiesof sensory
neurons

left
mixedspinal dorsal ventralroot containingmotor
nerve(motorand root neuronalaxonsthat course
sensory;leftside) out to the mixedspinalnerve
(rightside)

Figure 1.3. Microscopic section of dorsal root ganglion (above),

a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n avl i e w o f t h e f i r s t l u m b a r s e g m e n t ( 1 1 )o f
the spinal cord, showing paired dorsal and ventral roots and
mixed (motor and sensory) spinal nerves (from Quain).
 T. MOVI':MLNI'AND POS'N]RI': 31

or more fatal flaws in the reasoning.One dependable test of a conceptis whether

you can convincinglyexplain it, along with the mechanicsof how it operates,to a
third party. If you find yourself getting your explanationgarbled, or if your
listenerdoesnot comprehend your argumentor is unpersuaded, pleaseexamineand
researchthe idea more critically,and if it still doesnot passmuster,either discard
it or put it on the backburner.I invite the readerto hold me to thesestandards.To
honorthem, I'll limit inquiriesto what we can appraiseand discussin the realm of
modernbiomedicalscience,and to refine and improvemy presentation,I ask for
your written input and cordialcriticism.l
Returning to our immediate concerns, it is plain that neurons channel
our mindful intentions to the muscles,but we still need working definitions
for will and volition. In this book I'm arbitrarily defining will as the
decision-making processassociatedwith mind, and I'm defining volition as
the actual initiation of'the on and off commands from the cerebral cortex
and other regions of the central nervous system that arc responsible for
commanding our actions. So "will" is a black box, the contents of which are
still largely unknown and at best marginally accessiblcto cxpcrimentation.
'lhe nature and content of volition, by contrast, can be explored with estab-
Iished mcthods of' neurost'ient'e.

NEURONS

The neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. Although therc are other cell typcs in thc ncrvous systcm, namely
the neurogLfuT, or "nerve glue cells," which outnumber neurons lo:1, these
supportin€i cells do not appear, as do thc neurons, to bc in thc business of'
transmitting information from place to place. So the neuron is our main
interest. It has scvcral componcnts: a nucleatcd ccll bodv that supports
growth and development, and cellular extensions, or processes,somc of
them very long, that receive and transmit information. The cellular
processesare of two types: dendrjfe.sand dxon,s.Picture an octopus hooked
on a fishing line. Its eight arms are the dcndritcs, and the fishing line is the
axon. A typical motor neuron contains many dendrites that branch off the
cell body. Its single axon the fishing line-may extend anywhere from a
fraction of an inch away from the cell body to four feet in the case of a
motor neuron whose cell body is in the spinal cord and whose terminal
ends in a muscle of the foot, or even fifteen feet long in the caseof similar
neurons in a giraffe. The axon may have branches that come off the main
trunk of the axon near the cell body (axon collaterals), and all branches,
including the main trunk, subdivide profusely as they near their targets.
Dendrites are specializedto receive information from the environment
or from other neurons, and an axon transmits information in the form of
nerve impulses to some other site in the body. Dendrites of sensory neurons
are in the skin, joints, muscles, and internal organs; their cell bodies are in
dorsal root ganglia, which are located alongside the spine, and therr axons
.]2 ANATOJ'IY OF HATHA',

carry sensory information into the spinal cord (figs. r.3-9). Dendrites of
motor neurons are located in the central nervous system, and axons of
motor neurons fan out from there (in peripheral nerves) to innervate muscle
cells and glands throughout the body. Between the sensory and motor
neurons are the association neurons, or interneurons, whose dendrites
receive information from sensory neurons and whose axons contact other
interneurons or motor neurons that innervate muscles (fig. r.4). As a class,
the interneurons comprise most of the neurons within the brain and spinal
cord, including secondary and tertiary linking neurons that relay sensory
signals to the cerebrum, projection neurons that relay motor signals from
the cerebrum and cerebellum to intermediary neurons that eventually
contact motor neurons of the spinal cord, and commissural neurons that
connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres-that is, the "right brain"
and the "left brain."
Interneurons put it all together. Ylu sense and ultimately do, and
between sensingand doing are the integrating activities of'the interncurons.
It's true, as the first-grade reader suggests,that you can think and do. but
more often you sense,think, and do.
'l'o operate the entire organism, neurons
form networks and chains that
contact and influence one another at sites called "synopse.s."Synaptic
terminals of axons at such sitcs release chemical transmitter substances
that a{I'ectthe dendrite of the next neuron in the chain (fig. r.+). The first
neuron is the pre-synaptic ncuron, and the neuron afi'ected is the
post-synaptic neuron. The pre-synaptic axon terminal transmits to the
pr-rst-synzrptic dendrite-not the other way around; it's a one-way street.
'lwo types of
transmittcr substances are relcased at the synapse: one
lacilitates (speeds up) the activity of the post-synaptic neuron; the other
inhibits (slows down) the activity of the post-synapticneuron. Thousands
of axon terminals may synapse on the dendrites of one post-synaptic
neuron, and the level ofactivity ofthe recipient neuron dependson its pre-
synaptic input. More lacilitatictn yields more activity in the post-synaptic
neuron in the form of increasing numbers of'nerve impulses that travel
down its axon; more inhibition yields diminished activity. For example, the
pre-synaptic input of association neurons to motor neurons either facili-
tates the activity of motor neurons, causing them to fire more nerr.e
impulses per second to skeletal muscles, or it inhibits their actir.ity',
causing them to f,rrefewer nerve impulses per second.The peacockposture
(fig. 3.23d)requires maximum facilitation and diminished inhibition of the
motor neurons that innervate the abdominal muscles, deep back muscles,
muscles that stabilize the scapulae, and flexors of the forearms. On the
other hand, muscular relaxation in the corpse posture (fig. r.r4) requires
reduced facilitation and possibly increased inhibition of motor neurons
 I. JIIOVI.:MENT AND POSTI]RE 11

axonterminalsof sensoryneuron pain endings

synapsingwith dendritesof an cell body (dendritic)
in
interneuron of a sensory jointcapsule
neuronrn
axon of sensory dorsal root
neuronin transit gangilon
to dorsalhorn of
spinalcord

genenc
interneuron l/r',
(association
cell)with its
,\lll
dendritesand
cell body in the
dorsalhorn of
the spinalcord,
and 7 axon
terminals,-
-----\
synapsing
--'\
with dendrites
of a motor
neuronin the
ventralhorn of
the spinalcord

axon of motor neuron

passingout of spinal
cord into ventralroot,
\ and from there into a
spinalnerveand to a
motorneuron, skeletalmusclecell
with cell body
in ventralhorn
of the spinal (Quarn)

axon that
r'
innervatesa
skeletalmuscle
neuromuscular
synapse -\
,1

musclecellwith 11 nucleivisible

Figure1.4.Cross-section of the fifth lumbarsegment(15)of the spinalcord,

with sensoryinput from a joint receptoria genericinterneuron,and motor
output to a skeletalmusclecell.The smallarrowsindicatethe directionof
nerveimpulsesand pre- to post-synaptic interneuronalrelationships.
The long
heavyarrowsindicatethe locationsof the genericinterneuronin the spinal
cord dorsalhorn and of the motor neuronin the spinalcord ventralhorn.
31 ANA'|OMY OF HATHA t

throughout the central nervous system (see fig. 1o.r for a summary of
possible mechanisms of muscular relaxation).

V O L I T I O N : T H E P A T H W A Y ST O A C T I V E V O L U N T A R Y M O V E M E N T

Exercising our volition to create active voluntary movement involves

dozens of well-known circuits of association neurons whose dendrites and
cell bodies are in the cerebrum, cerebellum, and other portions of the brain,
and whose axons terminate on motor neurons. A small but important sub-
set of projection neurons, the subset whose cell bodies are located in the
cerebral cortex and whose axons terminate on motor neurons in the spinal
cord, are known as "upper motor neurons" because they are important in
controlling willed activity. These are differentiated from the main class of'
motor neurons, the "lower motor neurons," whose cell bodics are located in
the spinal cord. Collectively, the lower motor neurons are called Lhe "fi,nal,
common pathway" becauseit is their axons that directly innervate skeletal
muscles.In common parlance, if'someone refcrs simply to "motor neurons,"
they are invariably thinking of lower motor ncu rons (fig. t .i l.

L O W E R M O T O R N E U R O N P A R A L Y S I S :F L A C C I D P A R A L Y S I S

The best way to understand how the motor pathways o1'the nervous system
operatc is to examine the classic neurological syndromes that rcsult from
illnesses, or from injuries that have an impact on some aspect of motor
function. We'll start with one of the most famous: poliomyelitis, commonly
known as polio, which destroys lower motor neurons. Anyone whtl grew up
in the r94os and early r95oswill remember the dread of this diseasc.And
then a miracle-the Salk vaccine-came in r95.1,putting an end to the fear.
Poliomyelitis can be devastating because it destroys the lower motor
neurons and deprives the muscles of nerve impulses f.rom the spinal cord,
and this results in muscular paralysis. Our power of volition in the cerebral
cortex has been disconnectedfrom the pathway o{'action out of the spinal
cord because the final common pathway has been destroyed. In its most
extreme form the resulting paralysis causesmuscles to become completely
flaccid, and this accounts for its medical name: flaccid paraly.sl.s.The same
thing happens in a less global fashion when a peripheral nerve is severed
or crushed. Destruction of the lower motor neurons or their axons at any site
in the spinal cord or peripheral nerves causesparalysis of all their muscular
targets. Will, volition, and active voluntary movement are totally frustrated.

U P P E R M O T O R N E U R O N P A R A L Y S I S :S P A S T I C P A R A L Y S I S

When the upper motor neurons or their axons are destroyed as in an injury
or stroke (the interruption of blood supply to the brain) that destroys the
motor region of the cerebral cortex, we lose much of our voluntary control
 1. MOI'NM]JNT AND POSTTiRE

cell body of uppermotorneuron cerebralcortex,

motorregionfor
thigh muscles

half-brain,
loft cido
dendritic
,r"" medialview

\ frontallobe

II tsuoo"vl
)
\"""" or upper
axon collateral molor neuron rearview of spinalcord
and pairedspinalnerves;
on each side we see
axonsof most upper 8 cervicalnerves(C1-8),
.12
motorneuronscross,or thoracicnerves(Tl-12),
"decussate,"to the 5 lumbarnerves(L1-5),
oppositeside of the brain 5 sacralnerves(S1-5),and
in the motordecussation, smallcoccygealnerves
whichis locatedin the
lowermostsegmentof
the brainstem (the
medullaoblongata)
example of a
lower motor
left
side

spinalcord,second
lumbar(12)cord
level,and lower motor
neuronwhosecell
body is shownwith
four dendritictrun

cell body
F i g u r e1 . 5 .U p p e r a n d
lower motor neurons.
The cell body of an
upper motor neuron is
shown above in the left
cerebral cortex, and its axon of a motorneuron
target-the cell body of illustratedhere as passing
a motor neuron whose out of the vertebralcolumn
axon is destined to by way of the right L2
innervate the right spinalnerve;its cell body
quadriceps femoris receivessynapticinput
from the uppermotor
muscle-is on the right
neuronat the L2 cord level
s i d e o f t h e s p i n a lc o r d .
36 ANATOMY OF HAI'HA '

of the lower motor neurons, especiallyon the side opposite to the site of the
injury. Our will can no longer be expressedactively and smoothly. The ultimate
result of this, at least in severe casesin which a vascular mishap occurs at
a site where the axons of other motor systems are interrupted along with
those of the upper motor neurons, is not flaccid paralysis but spasticparalysis,
in which the muscles are rigid and not easily controlled. A semblance of
motor function remains because other parts of the nervous system, parts
that have been spared injury, also send axon terminals to the lower motor
neurons and affect motor function. The problem is that these supplemental
sourcesofinput cannot be controlled accurately,and some ofthem facilitate
the lower motor neurons to such an extent that skeletal muscles are driven
into strong and uncontrolled states of contraction. Although most of the
time the condition does not result in total dysfunction, severe spastic paralysis
is only mildly less devastating than flaccid paralysis; some active voluntary
movements are possible, but they are poorly coordinated, espccially those
that make use of the distal musclcsof the cxtremities (fig. t.6)'

SPINAL CORD INJURIES

If the entire spinal cord is severed or scverely damaged at some specific

level, there are two main problems. First, sensory information that comes
into the spinal cord from below the level of'the injury cannot get to the
cerebral cortex and thereby to conscious awareness. The patient is not
aware of touch, pressure, pain, or temperature from the affected region of
the body. Second,motor commands from the brain cannot get to the lower
motor neurons that arc located below thc injury. Spinal cord injuries at
different levels illustrate these conditions: a spinal cord transection in the
thoracic region would result in paraplegia-paralysis and loss of sensation
in the lower extremities; and a spinal cord transection in the lower part of'
the neck would canse quadriplegia-paralysis and loss of sensation from
the neck down, including all four extremities (fig. z.tz). Injuries such as
these are usually the result of either automobile or sports accidents.

REFLEXES

So far our discussion has focused on neuronal connections from the top
down-from our intention, to the cerebral cortex, to upper motor neurons,
lower motor neurons, and skeletal muscles. But there is something else to
consider, something much more primitive and elemental in the nervous
system that bypassesour consciouschoices:reflexes,or unconscious motor
responsesto sensory stimuli. In this context reflexes have nothing at all to
do with the lightning-fast reactions ("fast reflexes") that are needed for
expertise in video games or quick-draw artistry. These reactions refer to
unconscious responsescarried out at the spinal level.
 1. MOt:EMEN| AND POSTtiRti 37

uppermotorneuron half-brain,
\::\-. (from Sappey) left side
site of
vascular
lesron

I
I
I
,,

'&,*;
'iV,i, t

-,"))
these3 neurons
representmotor
l.$s neuronalsystems
representedby these
systemsthat help
controlskeletal two neurons,as well
muscularactivity, as by the upper
but less precisely motorneuronabove,
than "upper t\
are destroyedas a
I'
motorneurons" l.( resultof oxygen
t"
f. deprivationdue to
ruptureof a small
blood vesselat a site
(arrowhead) through
whichthe axonsof
all threesystems
motorneuronson the course
rightside of the spinal t
I
cord stillreceiveinput I
from the 3 neuronal I
I
systemsrepresentedby I
the solidline

F i g u r e1 . 6 .A h y p o t h e t i c aslc h e m e
i l l u s t r a t i nhgo w i n j u r yt o a s m a l l
regionof the braincould interrupt
pathwaysimportantfor the precise the finalcommonpathway
controlof skeletalmuscularactivity (thecollectivepool of all
and causespasticparalysis. The dotted lowermotorneurons)is
line represents the systemsthat have stillintact,but its conscious
b e e ni n t e r r u p t e da,n d t h e s o l i dl i n e controlis problematic
represents the remainingsystemsthat
cannotcontrolmuscularactivity
accuratelV bV themselves. "a" : axon.
llJ ANATOMY OIt LIATHA )

Reflexes are simple. That is why they are called reflexes. They always
include four elements: a sensory neuron that receives a stimulus and that
carries nerve impulses into the spinal cotd, an integrating center within
the spinal cord, a motor neuron that relays nerve impulses back out to a
muscle, and the muscular responsethat completes the action. More explicitly,
the sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from a muscle, tendon, ligament,
joint, or the skin to an integrating center in the spinal cord. This integrating
center might be as simple as one synapse between the sensory and motor
neuron, or it might involve one or more interneurons. The motor neuron,
in its turn, innervates muscle cells that complete the action. By definition,
the reflex bypasses higher centers of consciousness.Awareness of the
accompanying sensation gets to the cerebral cortex after the fact and only
because it is carried there independently by other circuits. There arc
dozensof well-known reflexes.We'll examine three, all of which are important
in hatha yoga.

THE MYOTATICSTRETCH REFLEX

'lhe myotatic stretch rellex, familiar to everyone zrsthc "k,neejerh," is actuzrlly
found throughout the body,but is especiallyactive jn antigravity musclestfig.
r.7). You can test it in the thigh. Cross ytlur knees so that one ftlot can
bounce up and down freely, and then tap the pateLLartentlon.just below the
kneecap with the edge ofvour hand. Findjust the right spot, and the big set
of quadricepsfemoris muscleson the frtlnt of the thigh will contract reflexly
and causethe foot to fly up. You have to remain relaxcd, howeveq becauseit
is possibleto override the reflex with a willed efibrt to hold the leg in place.
'fhe receptors for the myotatic stretch reflcx are located in the belly of
the muscle, where the dendrites of sensory neurons are in contact with
muscle spirulles-specialized receptors barely large enough to be visible
with the naked eye. Named for their shapes,each of these muscle spindles
contains a spindle-shaped collection of'specialized muscle fibers that are
loaded with sensory receptors (fig. t.7).
The reflex works this way: When you tap the patellar tendon to activate
the reflex at the knee joint, the impact stretches muscle spindles in the
quadriceps femoris muscle on the front of the thigh. This stretch is as fast
as an eyeblink, but it nevertheless stimulates the specific sensory neurons
whose dendrites end in the muscle spindles and whose axons terminate
directly on motor neurons back in the spinal cord. Those axon terminals
strongly facilitate the cell bodies of the motor neurons whose axon terminals
stimulate the quadriceps femoris muscle, causing it to shorten and jerk the
foot up. The myotatic stretch reflex is specific in that it feeds back only to
the muscle in which the spindle is located.
As with all reflexes, this one takes place a fraction ofa secondbefore you
 1. rITOI'EMENT ANI) POST'UR]]

(Quain)

dorsal rool
ventral gangilon
rool (sensory)
(motor)
mixed(motor
and sensory)
sprnarnerve
lateralhead of
quaonceps
femoris

musclespindlesare
stretchedsharply
Dy rmpacr;
quadricepsfemoris
musclesin thighs
supportlanding
reflexlyand almost /
instantaneously Sappey)

oorsal
roor

____>

one of two musclecells(greatly

enlargedin relationto muscle
lumbarspinalcord (Sappey) spindle),and neuromuscular muscte
in cross-section j u n c t i o n( + ) spindle

Figure 1.7.The myotatic stretch reflex. A 3-foot vertical jump momentarily

stretchesmuscle spindles in all the extensor (anti-gravity)muscles of the lower
extremities.The spindles then provide direct (monosynaptic) and almost
immediate facilitatory input (+ in ventral horn of spinal cord) to extensor motor
neurons, resulting in strong reflex contraction of the individual muscles.
/+o ANAIOMt',OF HATHA '

are aware ofit consciously.You feel it happen after the fact, after the reflex
has already completed its circuit. And you notice the sensation consciously
only becauseseparate receptors for the modality of touch send messagesto
the cerebral cortex and thus into the consciousmind.
You can feel the myotatic stretch reflex in operation in many sports in
which your muscles absorb dynamic shocks. For example, when you are
water skiing on rough water outside the wake of a boat, the muscle spindles
in the knee extensors of the thighs are stretched by the impact of hitting
each wave, and absorbing one bump after another would quickly collapse
your posture were it not for the myotatic stretch reflex. Instead, what happens
is that each impact activates the reflex for the quadriceps femoris muscles in a
few milliseconds, thus stabilizing the body in an upright position. You can also
feel the reflex when you attack moguls aggressively on a ski slope, run
down the boulder field of a mountain (fig. t.7), or simply jump off a chair
onto the floor-any activity in which an impact shocks the muscle spindles.
l'he reflex is therefore a major cclntributor to what we interpret as
"strength" in our dynamic interactions with gravity. Athletes depend on it
{hr m<-rrethan most of them realize.
Stimultrting myotatic stretch reflexes repctitively has another important
effect: it shortens muscles and diminishes flexibility. We can see this most
obviously in jogging, which only mildly engagesthe reflexes each time your
Iront foot hits the Egound, but engages them thousands of times in a
halfhour. This can cause problems if taken to an cxtrcme, and if'you tend
to be tight you should always do prolonged slow stretching after a run. On
the other hand, if the muscles, tendons, and ligaments arc overly loose
from too much stretching and too f'ew repetitive movements, joints can
become destabilized, and in such casesan activity that tightens everything
down is one ofthe best things you can do.
In hatha yoga we usually want to minimize the effects of the myotatic
stretch reflex because even moderately dynamic movements will fire the
receptors, stimulate the motor neurons, shorten the muscles, and thereby
limit stretch. Any dynamic movement in hatha yoga activates the myotatic
stretch reflex-bouncy sun salutations, jumping in and out of standing
postures, and joints and glands exercises carried off with flair and toss.
These are all fine, especially as warm-ups, but if you wish to lengthen
muscles and increase flexibility it is better to move into postures slowly.

THE CLASP KNIFE REFLEX

The clasp knife reflex acts like the blade of a pocket knife when it lesists
closure up to a certain point and then suddenly snapsinto its folded position.
It is another stretch reflex, but this one causesthe targeted muscle to relax
rather than contract. The stimulus for the reflex is not dynamic stretch of
 "URE :11

a muscle spindle, but contractile tension on a sensory receptor in a tendon.

This tension reflexly causes the muscle attached to that tendon to relax
and the joint to buckle (fig. t.8).
The sensory receptor for the clasp knife reflex is the Golgi tendon organ.
Most of the receptors are actually located near musculotendinousjunctions,
where they link small slips of connectivetissue with their associatedmuscle
fibers. The Golgi tendon organ is therefore activated by the contraction of
muscles cells that are in line (in series) with the receptor. Recent studies
have clarified that the Golgi tendon organ is relatively insensitive to passive
stretch, but that it begins to fire nerve impulses back to the spinal cord as
soon as muscle fibers start tugging on it.
And then what happens? This is the main idea: unlike the myotatic
stretch reflex, here the incoming sensory axons do not terminate directly
on motor neurons (which would increase their activity and stimulate a
muscular contraction), but on inhibibry interneurons that diminish thc
activity of motor neurons and thereby cause thc muscle to relax. If you
stimulate the receptor,the reflex relaxcs the muscle (fig. r.lt). It is a precise
feedback loop in which the contraction of muscle fibers shuts down their
own activity. This f'eedbackloop works something like a thermostat that
shuts off the heat when the tempcrature rises. Anecdotal reports of super-
human strength in which a parent is able to lilt an automobilc o{I'hcr child
might be due to a massive ccntral nervous system inhibition of this reflcx,
like a thermostat that stops working and ovcrheats zr housc. In ordinary
life we see the clasp knife ref'lex in action, at least in a gross form, whcn
two unequally matchcd arm wrestlers hold thcir positions for a fcw seconds,
and suddenly the weaker of the two givcs way (fig. r.lt).
Whether intentional or not, we constantly make use of'the clasp knife
reflex while we are practicing hatha yoga. 'I'o see it most effectively and to
begin to gain awarencssof its utility, measurc roughly how far you can come
into a forward bend with your knees straight, preferably the first thing in the
morning. I'hen bend the kneesenough to flatten the torso against the thighs.
Hold that position firmly, keeping the arms tightly wrapped around the
thighs to stabilize the back in a comfortable position in relation to the pelvis.
Then try to straighten the knees while keeping the chest tightly in place,and
hold that position in an intense isometric pull for lo seconds.This is the
hamstrings-quadricepsthigh pull (fig. t.r6), and we'll examine it in more
detail later in this chapter.Releasethe poseand then check to seehow much
further you can come into a forward bend with the knees straight. The
difference will be a measure of how much the Golgi tendon organs "stimu-
lated" the hamsbring muscles to relax by way of the clasp knife reflex.
The Golgi tendon organs are sensitive to manual stimulation as well as
to muscular tension. If you manipulate any musculotendinous junction in
42 ANATO\TY OF rIA',r'IIA I

the body vigorously, its Golgi tendon organs will reflexly cause their asso-
ciated muscle fibers to relax. This is one of the reasons why deep massage
is relaxing. This is also why body therapists wanting to reduce tension in a
specific muscle will work directly on its musculotendinous junctions. It's
an old chiropractic trick-manual stimulation stimulates the clasp knife
reflex almost as efficiently as contractile tension. Surprisingly, the results
last for a day or two, during which time the recipient of the work has a
chance to correct the offending musculoskeletal habit that gave rise to the
excesstension in the first place.
Although you can test the effects of manual stimulation on tendons any-
where in the body,let's experiment with the adductor muscles on the inside
of the thighs becausetight adductors, more than any other muscles, limit
your ability to sit straight and comfortably in the classic yoga sitting pos-
tures. First test your ability to sit in either the auspicious or accomplished
posture (figs. ro.rt and ro.r4).'I'hen releasethe pose and lie with the hips
butted up firmly against a wall with the knees extended and the thighs
spread out as much as possible for an adductor stretch. With the help of'a
partner to hold your thighs abductcd, try to pull the thighs together
isometrically, engaE;ingthe adductors as much as possible,and at the same
time stimulate the Golgi tendon organs in the adductor muscles with
vigorous rubbing. Some ofthe adductor tendons are the cordlike structures
in the inner thighs near the genitals. Others are more flattened and are
located further to the rear. All ofthem take origin from a pair ofbones, the
inferior pubic rami (fig. t.tz), that together form the rear-facingV which
accommodatesthe genitals.
As you massage the adductors fbr a minute or so while keeping them
under tension, you will feel them gradually release,as evidenced by being
able to abduct the thighs more completely. Then sit up and check fbr
improvement in your sitting posture. The combination of massaging the
adductor tendons plus making an isometric effort with stretched adductors
powerfully inhibits the motor neurons that innervate these muscles, and
this allows them to release and oermits vou to sit straiehter and more
comfortably.
The hamstrings-quadriceps thigh pull and the adductor massagegive us
obvious examples of how the clasp knife reflex operates. It is also invoked
in a milder form any time you are able to stay comfortable in an active
posture for more than to-t5 seconds,which is what we often do in hatha
yoga. In this case don't bounce unless you want to induce the myotatic
stretch reflex, and don't take a posture into the discomfort zone unless you
are prepared to trigger flexion reflexes, which we'll discuss next.
 I. MOI,EM F:N']'A N D POS'I'UI?Ii '+3

dorsalroot,and
cell body of
sensoryneuron
inhibitory
interneuron

axon of motor
neuron,ano
ventralroot

tricepsbrachii
t e n d o n a, n d radialnerve:branchesinnervate
long headof all threeheadsof tricepsbrachii
as well as Golgitendonorgans
brachii
most Golgi "tendon"organs
are actuallyfound at or near
musculotendinous junctions
lateralhead of triceos brachii

commontendonof insertionfor
tricepsbrachiimuscle
medial head of triceps brachii

of cervicalspinalcord (C7)
cross-section neuromuscular
synapse

cell body
of sensory
neuron

mixed (motor
ano sensory)
sprnalnerve

I
axon of motor
neuronin
ventralroot

axon of inhibitoryinterneuron,
with Golgitendonorgan,in series
minussign signalinginhibitoryeffecl withthe five skeletalmuscle
on cell bodv of motorneuron cellsshownabove

Figure 1.8. The clasp knife reflex. Muscular effort stimulates Colgi tendon
organs, whose sensory input to the spinal cord activates inhibitory interneurons
( + i n d o r s a l h o r n ) ; t h e i n h i b i t o r y i n t e r n e u r o n st h e n i n h i b i t m o t o r n e u r o n s ( - i n
ventral horn), resulting in fewer nerve impulses per second to the skeletal mus-
cle cells (+ effects at the neuromuscular synapseare minimized). Final result is
relaxation of the muscle, or in this case,loss of the armwrestling match (Sappey).
 ANATOMY OF HATHA 'OGA

FLEXION REFLEXES

The flexion reflexes (fig. r.9) are pain reflexes. Ifyou inadvertently touch a
hot skillet you jerk your hand back reflexly. You don't have to think about
it, it just happens. As with the other reflexes, awareness comes a moment
Iater. Flexion reflexes are more complex than stretch reflexes, but they are
easier to comprehend because pain is such an obvious part of everyone's
conscious experience. Even if it is no more than a feeling of stretch that
went too far while you were gardening, a pain in the knee or hip that devel-
oped after a strenuous hike, or a neck problem you didn't notice until you
started to turn too far in a certain direction, with rare exceptions your
automatic response will be flexion. You may be only vaguely aware of the
reflex itself, but you will certainly be aware of the fear and tension that
accompaniesit.
The sensory neurons (including their axons) that carry the modalities of
pain and temperature conduct thcir nerve impulscs more slowlv than those
that activatc thc myotatic strctch rcflcx. What is more, flexion reflexes are
polysynaptic-thert is, they involve one or more interneurons in addition to
the sensoryand motor neurons-and each synapsein the chain of ncurons
slowsdown the speedof the reaction.You can estimatc the conductiontime
{br temperature by licking your finger and touching a co{Tccpot that is hot
enough to hurt but not hot cnough to causeinjury. It will take almost zrsecond
for the sensation to reach consciousnessfrom a finger, well over a secondfrom
a big toe, and, for the advcnturesome, about a tenth clf a second from the
tip of the nose. Such slow conduction times lrom the cxtremities would not
serve the myotatic strctch rcflcx. If, for that reflex, it took a full secondfrl'
nerve impulses to reach the spinal cord, you would be in serious trouble
,jumping off a platfbrm onto the floor with bent knecs you would collapse
and shatter your kneecapsbefore the extensor muscles could react enough
to support your weight.
Like the twcl stretch reflexes we have just considered,the motor reflexes
fbr flexion are spinal, not cerebral. So even if the spinal cord were cut oll'
from the brain, the flexion reflex would still withdraw a foot from a toxic
stimulus. That's why neurologists have little reason to be encouraged
when the foot of a patient with a spinal cord injury responds to a pinch.

BECIPROCAL INHIBITION

Flexion reflexes not only activate flexor muscles to pull the hand ol the fbot
toward the torso, they also relax the extensors, which then allorvs flexion
to take place freely. This is done through the agency of inhibitorl inter'-
neurons. While facilitatory interneurons impinge on motor neurons that
innervate flexors, thus causing them to contract, inhibitory interneurons
impinge on motor neurons that innervate extensors, causing them to rela-x.
 I. MOT,EMENT AND I)OSTT]RE .15

cell body of sensoryneuron cross-section

of spinalcord
at fifth lumbar
.lrliiii
f ,,, level (15)
r\lii
/
incoming
/
sensory //
stimulus/ /
from
bottom o{
left foot
(15)
flexor
lI molor
I neuron
I inhibited

<- motor oul-

motoroutput put at L5
to flexorsfor on right
sidefor
flexionreflex

relaxationof extensors
I crosseo
exlenston
(reciprocalinhibition) extensormolor neuron reflex
activatedon right side
tenth thoracrc
sprnalnerve
-(T10) rightside
.1
T1 spinal
spinalcord - nerve
segment,Ll

sensory _ T12
axon from
left foot firstlumbar
(15 spinal - Sptnalnerve
nerve) ( 1 1 )( r i g h t )

tower
lower
extremity,
extremity,
leftside;
rightside;
flexion
crossed
reflexwith
extension
recrprocar
reflex;
inhibition;
extensors
-'"$|"" flexorsare
are firmed
stimulated
to L5----+ ano exlen-
flexor
sors are
muscles
retaxeo
F i g u r e1 . 9 . F l e x i o nr e f l e x o n t h e are relaxed
left, and crossed extension from L2
from L2
through
r e f l e xo n t h e r i g h l . l n c o m i n g through52
S2
sensory input from bottom of
left foot (15) spreadsto lower
motor neurons from L2 through
52 for both lower extremities (Sappey).
16 ANAIOMY OIt IIAT'IIA YOGA

The phenomenon is known as reciprocal inhibition, and it is an integral

part of the flexion reflex (fig. t.9).
Unlike stretch reflexes, flexion reflexes create effects well beyond the
site of the stimulus. We can see this when a nurse pricks a child's index
finger with a needle to draw blood. The child's entire upper extremity
reacts, not just the flexors in the offended finger. A vehement jerk back-
ward shows that the flexion reflex facilitates flexor motor neurons and
inhibits extensor motor neurons for the entire upper extremity.

T H E C H O S S E D - E X T E N S I O NR E F L E X

The cro.s.sed-extension reflex addsyet another ingredient to flexion reflexes-

a supporting role for the opposite side of the body. Through the agency of
this reflex, as the extremity on the injured side flexes, the extremity on the
other side extends. This would happen ifyou stepped on a hot coal near a
campfire. You don't have to think about either reflex; you lift your injured
foot in a hurry, contracting flexors and relaxing extensors on that side-
everything at the same time-toe, ankle, knee, hip, and even the torso. And
as the iniurcd foot lifts, the crossed-extensionrcflex contracts the extensols
and relaxes thc flexors on the oppt-rsiteside of thc body, strcngthening -vour'
stanceand keeping you {rom toppling over into the fire (fig. t.g).
The crossed-extension reflex is accomplished by interneurons whose
axons cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord and innervate motor neurons
in a reverse pattern from that seen on the side with thc injury-motor neul'ons
fur extcnsor muscles are facilitated. and motor neurons for flexor muscles are
inhibited.
The flexion reflexcs also serve many other protective functions. F-or
example, if you sprain your ankle badly, thc pain endings becomerlol'e sen-
sitive. The next time you start to turn your ankle, the higher centers in the
brain associatedwith volition and consciousnessallow the spinal flexion
reflexes to act unencumbered and collapse the limb before your u'eight
drops fully on the vulnerablejoint. This prevents re-injury. A "trick" knee
demonstrates the same mechanisms-an old injury, a sudden physical
threat, unresistant higher centers, and unconscious flexion reflexes. Your
bad knee buckles quickly, and you are saved from more serious injury.

RECIPROCAL INHIBITION AND A STIFF BACK

Since they restrain movement, flexion reflexes usually influence hatha

postures negatively, but there are certain situations in which we can use
them to our advantage. Ifyou tend to be stiff and not inclined to forward
bending, try this experiment early in the morning. First, for comparison,
slowly lower into a standing forward bend with your fingers extended.
Notice that you hesitate to come forward smoothly. This may happen even
 1. ]IIOYEMENT AND POSTT|RE lJ

if you are in excellent condition but not warmed up. The deep back
muscles are extensors ofthe back; they lengthen eccentrically as you bend,
resisting forward movement and only allowing you come into the posture
with creaks and wariness. Come up. Next, holding the elbows partially
flexed, flex your fingers tightly, making fists. Holding that gesture, come
forward again. You will immediately notice that you do this more easily and
smoothly than when your fingers and elbows were extended. Come up, and
repeat the exercise to your capacity.
Making your hands into fists reciprocally inhibits the motor neurons
that innervate the deep back muscles. If you are in good condition this
merely helps you come forward more smoothly and confidently, but if your
back is tense from excessmuscle tone in the deep back muscles you will be
amazed at how much the simple act of flexing your fingers into fists eases
you into a relaxed bend.
Why might your back be stiff from excess muscle tone? It is usually
becauseof pain that causes the back muscles to become taut and act as a
splint to prevent movement. This is fine fbr a while as a protective measure,
but at some stage it becomescounterproductive and leads to other problems.
When stiffness and mild back pain emerge, you need enough muscle tone
to prevent re-injury, it is true, but you do not need enough to lock you up
for months on end. 'I'he reciprocal inhibition caused by making your hands
into fists helps relax the extensor muscles in the back and allows you to
ease further into a forward bend. If your back is chronically stiff, but not
in acute pain, you can benefit by doing this exercise several times a day.

THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM, SIGHT, AND TOUCH

So far we have seen how motor neurons drive the musculoskeletal system,
how association neurons channel our will to the motor neurons, and how
sensory input from muscles, tendons, and pain receptors participate with
motor neurons in simple reflexes. But that's only the beginning. Many
other sourcesof sensory input also affect motor function. Some of the most
important are the vestibular sense,sight, and touch.

THE VESTIBULAR SENSE

We have little consciousawarenessof our uestibuLarsenseeven though it is

critical fbr keeping us balanced in the field of gravity. Its receptors lie close
to the organ of hearing-the inner ear-in little circular tubes called semi-
circular canals and in a Iittle reservoir called the utricle, all of which are
embeddedin the bony region of the skull just underneath the external ear.
The semicircular canals and the utricle are all involved with maintaining
our equilibrium in space, but within that realm they are sensitive to
different stimuli-the semicircular canals to rotarv acceleration. and the
48 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

utricle to linear acceleration and to our orientation in a gravitational field.

They also participate in different reflexes: the semicircular canals coor-
dinate eye movements, and the utricles coordinate whole-body postural
adjustments.
Except for pilots, dancers, ice skaters, and others who require an acute
awareness of equilibrium, most of us take the vestibular system for granted.
We don't notice it because it does almost all of its work reflexly, feeding
sensory information into numerous motor circuits that control eye and
body movements.
Because the semicircular canals are sensitive to rotary acceleration,
they respond when we start or stop any spinning motion of the body. One
of their several roles is to help us maintain our equilibrium by coordinating
eye movements with movements of the head. You can experience these if
you sit crossJeggedon a chair or stool that can rotate, tip your head forward
about 3o', and have some assistants turn you around and around quickll'
for 3o-.1oseconds.Make sure you keep balanced zrndupright. Don't lean to
the side or you will be pitched off onto the floor. Then have your assistants
stop you suddenly. You eyes will exhibit little jerky movements knorvn as
nystagmus, zrndyou will probably feel dizzy. Children play with this reflex
when they spin themselvesuntil they get dizzy and fall down. The sensation
they describe as the world "turning" is due to nysta6gnus.The perception
is disorienting at first but it slows down and stops after a while.
The receptors in the semicircular canals stop sending signals after about
3o secondsof spinning, which is why you have your assistantsrotate you
for that period of'time. It is also why the re:rction slows down and stops in
-1osecondsafter you are abruptly stopped. Third-party observers obvioush'
cannot observe nystagmus during the initial period of acceleration rvhile
you are being spun around. To observe these eye movements in a plactictil
setting, we must rely on what we call post-rotatory nystagnza.s,the e.r'e
movements that occur after you have been stopped suddenly.
'Ihe neurological circuitry for nystagmus is sensitive to excessivealcol.rol.
and this is why highway patrol officers ask suspecteddrunks to get out of
the car and walk a straight line. If the suspect is suffering from alcohol-
induced nystagmus, the ensuing dizziness is likely to make s'trlking
straight impossible. Spontaneous (and continuing) forms of nvstagnlus
that are not induced by drugs or alcohol may be symptomatic of neurologdcirl
problems such as a brain tumor or stroke.
Occasionally students in hatha yoga classes are sensitive to dizzine.s
when they do neck exercises. They may have had such problems fron.r
childhood or they may just not be accustomed to the fact that thel' are
stimulating their semicircular canals when they rotate their head. And
even otherwise healthy students who are just getting over a fever ma-r'be
 1. IWOVF:\IE|VT A^"D POS'I LUIL ;lq

sensitive to dizziness. In any case, anyone who is sensitive should always

do neck exercisesslowly.
The second component of the vestibular organ, the utricle, detects two
modalities: speedingup or slowing down while you are moving in a straight
line, and the static orientation ofthe head in space.The rush ofaccelerating
or decelerating a car is an example of the first case.As with the semicircular
canals, stimulation ends after an equilibrium is established,whether sitting
still or going too miles per hour at a constant rate on a straight road. The
utricles also respond to the orientation ofthe head in the earth's 6pavitational
field-an upright posture stimulates them the least and the headstand
stimulates them the most. The receptors in the utricle adapt to the stimulus
of an altered posture after a short time, however, which is why it is so
important fbr pilots of small planes to depend on instruments for keeping
properly oriented in the sky when visual feedback is absent or confusing.
Rlr example, a friend of mine wns piloting a small planc and flew unexpectedly
into a thick bank of'clouds. Instantly lost and disoriented,and untraincd
in flying on instruments, he calculated that hc would just make a slow rlJo"
turn. Unlbrtunately, after having madc the turn and exiting thc clouds, he
was shocked to see that he was hcaded straight toward the ground.
Fortunately, he had enough airspace to pull out ofthe dive.
In ordinary circumstanccs on the ground, the receptors in the utricle do
more than sensc the rlrientation of the head in space: they trigger many
whole-body postural reflexes that maintzrin our balance. l'his is the source
ol'the impulse to lean into curvcs while you are running rlr cycling around
a track. We also depend on the utricle fur undcrlying ad.lustmentsof hatha
yoga postures that we trigger whcn we tilt thc head fbrward, backward, or
to one side. Evcry shift of'thc head in space initiatcs reflexes that aid and
abet many of the whole-body postural adjustments in the torso that we
take for granted in hatha yoga.
The well-known righting reflexes in cats can give us a hint of how the
vestibular system inlluences posture in humans. If you want to see these
reflexesoperate,drop an amicable cat, with its legs pointed up, Irom as little
as a few inches abovethe floor. It will turn with incredible speedand land on
all ftrur feet, even if it has been blindfolded. Careful study reveals a definite
sequenceof events. The utricle first detects being upside down, and then it
detects the falling sensation of linear acceleration toward the floor. In
responseto this the cat automatically rotates its head, which stimulates neck
musclesthat in turn leads to an agile twisting around of the rest of the body
and a nimble landing on all four feet. The cat does all this in a fraction of a
second. Comparable reflexes also take place in human beings, although
they are not as refined as in cats.
50 ANATOMYOF HATHA YOGA

SIGHT

When we are moving we are heavily dependent on vision, as anyone can

attest who has stepped off a curb unawares or thought erroneously that
one more step remained in a staircase.This is true to a lesser extent when
we are standing still. If you stand upright with your feet together and your
eyes open, you can remain still and be aware that only minuscule shifts in
the musclesof the lower extremities are necessaryto maintain your balance.
But the moment you close your eyes you will experiencemore pronounced
muscular shifts. For an even more convincing test, come into a posture such
as the tree or eagle with your eyes open, establish your balance fully, and
then closeyour eyes. Few people will be able to do this for more than a ferv
secondsbefore they wobble or fall.
Visual cues are especially important while coming into a hatha yoga pos-
ture, but once you are stable you can closeyour eyes in most poseswithout
losing your balance provided your vestibular svstem and joint senses are
hcalthy. On the other hand, if you want to study your body's alignn.rent
objectively you can do it only by watching your reflection in a mirror. It is
all too easy to deceive yourself if vou depend purely on your muscle.-and
.joint-senseto establish right-left balance.

THE SENSE OF TOUCH

The senseof touch brings us awarenessof the pleasure and luxury of cor.t.t-
fortable stretch, and becauseof this it is the surest authority we have for'
tclling us how far to go into a hatha yoga posture. The vestibular refleres
and vision help with balance, and pain tclls us how far not to go ilt a
stretch. But the scnse of touch is a beacon. It both rewards and guides.
The modality of touch includes discriminating touch, deep pressure. and
kinesthesis.All three are brought into consciousawarenessin the celebral
cortex, and along with stretch reflexes, vision, and the vestibulat' sense.
they make it possible for us to maintain our balance and equilibriun-r.
Discriminating touch is sensedby receptors in the skin, and deep pressllre
is sensedby receptors in fasciae and internal organs. Kinesthesis. u'hich is
the knowledge of where your limbs are located in space, as lvell i1s the
awareness of whether your joints are folded, straightened, stressed. or
comfortable, is sensed mostly by receptors in joints. If you lift r.rp in a
posture such as the prone boat and support your weight onll' on the
abdomen, you can feel all three aspectsof touch-contact of the skin u'ith
the floor, deep pressure in the abdomen, and awarenessof extensior-rin the
s p i n ea n d e x t r e m i t i e s .
Touch receptors adapt even more rapidly than receptors in the vestibular
system, which means that they stop sending signals to the central nervous
system after a few secondsof stillness. That's why holding hands with someone
 1. MOWIMI.)NT AND POS'| I|RL 5r

gets boring in the absence of occasional squeezing and stroking. Without

movement, the awarenessof touch disappears.Rapid adaptation to touch is
extremely important in hatha yoga postures, relaxation, and meditation. If
your posture is stable, the receptors for touch stop sending signals back to
the brain and you are able to focus your attention inward, but as soon as you
move the signals return and disturb your state of silence.

TOUCH AND THE GATE THEORY OF PAIN

If you bump your shin against something hard, rubbing the injured region
alleviates the pain, and if your knee hurts from sitting for a long time in a
cross-leggedposture, the natural response is to massagethe regron that is
hurting. There is a neurological basis for this-the gate theory of pain,
accordingto which the application ofdeep touch and pressure closesa "gate"
to block the synaptic transmission of pain in the spinal cord. Although it has
not been possibleto substantiate this theory as it was initially proposed, we
all know experientially that somehow it works. So evcn though the
mechanism is still uncertain, the general idea is widely accepted as self-
evident-somewhere between the spinal cord and the cercbral cortex,
touch and pressure pathways intersect with the ascending pathways for
pain and either block or minimize its perception.
Wc use this principle constantly in hatha yoga. l'o illustrate, interlock
your hands behind your back and press the palms together. Pull them to
the rear so they do not come in contact with the b:rck, and come into a
forward bend. If you arc not warmed up you may notice that you feel mild
discomfort from the stretch. Now come up, press the forearms firmly
against the back on either side o1'the spine, and come f<rrward again. The
contrast will be startlin6J.The sensation ofdeep touch and prcssure against
the back muscles stops the discomlbrt immediately.
Is this good or bad? That is a vital question, and one ofthe challengesoI'
hatha yoga is to learn how far this principle can safely be taken. If you
underestimate the importance of' the signals of pain, and diminish that
pain with input from touch and pressure, you may injureioints and tissues.
But if you baby yourself, you'll never progress. The answer, unfortunately,
is that you may not know if you have gone too far until the next morning.
If you are sore you know you misjudged.

qONNECTIVE TISSUE CONSTRAINTS

Our bodies are made up of four primary tissues:epithelium, muscle,neruous
tissue, and connectiuetissue. Epithelia form coverings,linings, and most of
the internal organs.Muscle is responsiblefor movement, and nervous tissue
is responsible for communication. That leaves connective tissue-the one
that binds all the others together. If you were able to remove all the
52 ANA',I'OMY OF HAT',IIA \OGA

connective tissue from the body, what was left would flatten down on the
floor like a hairy, Iumpy pancake. You would have no bones, cartilage,
joints, fat, or blood, and nothing would be left of your skin except the
epidermis, hair, and sweat glands. Muscles and nerves, without connective
tissue, would have the consistency of mush. Internal organs would fall
apart.
To understand epithelia, muscle, and nervous tissue we have to under-
stand their cells, because it is the cells that are responsible for what the
tissue does. Connective tissues are a different matter. With the exception
of fat, the one connective tissue that is made up almost entirely of cells, it
is the extracellular (outside of cells) substance in each connective tissue
that gives it its essential character. The extracellular materials impart
hardness to bone, resilience to cartilage, strength to tendons and fasciae.
and liquidity to blood. And yet the extracellular components of'connective
tissues are entirelv passive. Trying to relax a ligament or release fasciac
with our power of will would be like trying to relax leather.
So are the connective tissues alive? Yes and no. Yes, in that living cells
in the various connective tissues manufacturc its extracellular components
and organizethe tissue.Also yes, in thzrt the extracellular spacein connective
tissue is teeming with electrical activity. But no, in that the extraccllular
materials are nonliving. And one more no, in that the only way \&'ecar'l
accessthem is through the agency of living cells. Only through neurons
and their commands to muscle cells can we releasetension in a tendon.
executc weight-bearing activities that add bonc salts to bone, and stimultrtc
the laying down oI'additional connectivetissue fibers in tendons and f asciae.
And only with cells derived from epithclial tissues can we accomplish the
absorption, manufacturing, and eliminatory functions that are needed for
supporting the tissues of the body in general. In the end, our aim of molding
and shaping the extracellular components of our connective tissue-scar.)
only be accomplishedindirectly.
The fact that the various connectivc tissues are sclunlike one another is
a reflection of the fact that their extracellular materials are diametricalh'
different. Bone contains bone salts; tendons, ligaments, and fasciaecontain
dense accumulations of ropy fibers; loose connective tissue contains loose
accumulations of the same fibers; elastic connective tissue contains elastic
fibers; and blood contains plasma. So we can't work with connective tissttes
in general; we have to envision and work with each one individualll-.
Connective tissues not only give us shape, they also restrain actil'ity: Bone
butting against bone brings motion to a dead stop. Cartilage constrains
motion, but more softly than bone. Ligaments constrain movements according
to their architectural arrangements around joints. Sheets of fasciae,which ale
essentially layers of connective tissue, encloseand organizemusclesand netves,
 I, MOVEMENI' AND POSTT|RE 53

sometimes more restrictively than we would like. Finally, loose connective tissue
helps bond the entire body together; constraining movement between fasciae and
skin, adjacent muscle groups, and internal organs.

BONY CONSTRAINTS

Ligaments, muscles,and the joint capsule itself all aid in holding the elbow
joint together, but underlying these supports, bony constraints ultimately
limit both flexion and extension. Flexion is limited when the head of the
radius and the coronoid process of the ulna are stopped in the radial and
coronoid fossae in the lower end of the humerus, and extension is stopped
when the hooked upper end of the ulna-the olecranon process-comes to
a stop in a matchingolecranon fossa in the humerus. Evcn though thin layers
of cartilage soften the contact between the radius and ulna in relation to thc
humerus, the architectural plan limits flexion and extension as certainly as
doorstops and provide us with clear cxamples of bony constraints to move-
ment. It is not something we would want to alter (fig. r.ro).
In the spine we see another examp-leo{'how one bone butting up against
another limits movement. 'lhe lumbar spine can cxtend and flex freely, but
matching surfirces of'thc m<tvableintervertebral ioints in this region are
oriented vertically in a front-to-back plane that scverely limits twisting
(fig. r.rr). Becauseol'this, almost all the twisting in a spinal twist takes
place in thc neck and chcst, wherc the matching surfaces of comparable
joints are oriented more propitiously (cherpters4 and 7). As with the elbow,
we would not want to altcr this dcsign. If the lumbar region, isolated as it
is bctween the pelvis and chest, could twist markedly in addition to bending
forward and backward. it would be hopclcsslv unstable.

CARTILAGINOUSCONSTRAINTS

Cartilage has the consistencyof rubber or soft plastic. It gives shape to the
nose and external ears, and it furms a cushioning layer at the ends of'long
bones. Our main concern in this discussion, however, is not with thesc
cxamples but with the joints called symphyse.s-the interuertebral disks
between adjacent vertebral bodies (figs. r.rr,,1.rob,4.tr, and 4.tjb), as well
as the pubic symphysisbetween the two pubic bones(figs. r.rz and 3.2).At
all of these sites symphyses restrict movement, something like soft but
thick rubber gaskets glued between blocks of wood that allow a little move-
ment but no slippage. To that end the pubic symphysis is secure enough to
bind the two halves of the pelvic bowl together in front and yet permit
postural shifts and deviations; intervertebral disks bind adjacent vertebrae
together tightly and yet permit the vertebral column as a whole to bend
and twist.
 ANATOIIY OT' HA'I HA YOGA

medialview of right
NUMETUS

ulnarcollateral
ligament,two
oanos
U l n ?-

otecranonprocess

right left
humerus numerus

coronoid
fossae

ulnar
collateral
ligaments

olecranon
radial processes raoral
collateral collatera
ligament ilgamenr
$/ "o..onoio
processes

ngnr t^4

utna ulna

numerus

coronoid fossa olecranon fossa

olecranonprocess
coronoidprocess

F i g u r e1 . 1 0 .B o n y s t o p s f o r e l b o w f l e x i o n a n d e x t e n s i o n ,w i t h t h e j o i n t c a p s u l e
pictured above, front views of the disarticulated right and left elbow joints
s h o w n i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d a l o n g i t u d i n a lc u t t h r o u g h t h e j o i n t a n d t w o o f i t s
three bones shown below. Extensionis stopped where the olecranon process
butts up against its fossa,and flexion is stopped where the head of the radius
and coronoid process butt up against the radial and coronoid fossae (Sappey).
TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

By definition , tendons connect muscles to bones, and ligamenls connect bone

to bone. They are both made up of tough, ropy, densely packed, inelastic
connective tissue fibers, with only a few cells interspersed between large
packets of fibers. Microscopically, tendons and ligaments are nearly identical,
although the fibers are not packed as regularly in ligaments as in tendons.
In a tendon the fibers extend from the belly of a muscle into the substance
of a bone, lending continuity and strength to the whole complex.
Ligaments hold adjoining bones together in joints throughout the body,
often permitting small gliding motions, and usually becoming taut at the
end of a ioint's range of motion.
Ligaments and tendons can accommodate no more than about a q%,
increase in length during stretching, after which tearing begins. This can
be a serious problem. Becausethe extracellular connective tissue fibers in
tendons and ligaments depend only on a few scattered living cells for repair
and rcplacement, and because the tissue is so poorly supplied with blood
vessels,injuries are slow to heal.'I'he most common of these istendinitis,
which is causedby tears in the fibers at thc interfacc between tendon trnd

transverseprocesses inferior
articulating
processof
L1 (right
side)

supenor
articulating
processof
| 2 (riahl
side)
rearview
of right
transverse
processof
L3
rear vtew
of spinous
processof
L4

inferiorarticulating spatialorientation
of articulating
nrnnaqq n{ | 6 processespreventslumbartwisting

F i g u r e1 . 1 . 1L. u m b a r v e r t e b r a ef r o m t h e f r o n t , s i d e ,a n d b e h i n d .T h e v e r t i c a l ,
front-to-back orientation of the articulating processesand their joint surfaces
provides a bony stop that prevents lumbar twisting. Spacesthat represent the
location for the intervertebral disk between L2 and L3 are indicated bv arrows
(Sappey).
56 ANATOMY Ot: IIATHA YOGA

bone. If someone keeps abusing this interface with repetitive stress,

whether typing at a computer keyboard, swinging a tennis racket, or trying
compulsively to do a stressful hatha yoga posture, the injury can take a
year to heal, or even longer.
The main purpose of ligaments is to restrain movable joints, and this
becomes a major concern in hatha yoga when we want to stretch to our
maximum. We might at first think of loosening them up and stretching
them out so they do not place so many restraints on hatha postures. But
ligaments don't spring back when stretched and lengthened (at least not
beyond their q%, maximum), and if we persist in trying to strctch them
beyond their limits we often do more harm than good. Once lengthened
they become slack, and thejoints they protect are prone to dislocation and
injury. Ligaments have their purpose; Iet them be. To improve rangcs o{'
motion and flexibility, it is better to concentrate on lenE;theningmuscles.

JOINT CAPSULES

Joint capsules erreconnective tissue encascments that surrtlund the rvolk-

ing surfacesof thc classofioints known as syrtouial.joinfs, including Itinge
.joints, pivot ioints, and ball-and-sockeljoints. Joint capsulcsfbl svnovitrl

right left
pubic pubic
bone bone
rightsuperiorpubic ramus leftsuperiorpubic ramus

right pubrc
ischium symphysis

inferiorpubic rami

ischialtuberosities(sittingbones)

. u b i cs y m p h y s issh o w nw h e r ei t j o i n st h e t w o s i d e so f t h e p e l v i s .
F i g u r e1 . 1 2 P
Thisenlargementof the two pubic bonesand ischia(frontview) is takenfrom
fig.3.2,which showsthe entire pelvisin perspective(Sappey).
j ointshaveseveralroles: theyprovide. .""r.r"". r":';;" #;'' f, orr'n'r,
fluid Lhat Iubricates the mating surfaces of the opposing bones; they house
the synouial membrane that secretes the synovial fluid; they provide a
tough covering of tissue into which ligaments and tendons can insert; and
of special interest to us here, they and their associatedligaments provide
about half the total resistance to movement.
The shoulder joint reveals an excellent example of a ioint capsule. Like
the hip joint, the shoulder joint is a ball and socket-the ball being the head
of the humerus and the socket being the glenoid cauity of the scapula (fig.
t.r3). The joint capsule surrounds the entire complex and accommodates
tendons that passthrough or blend into the joint capsule,as well as ligaments
that reinforce it on the outside. 'I'o feel how it restricts movcment, raise
your arm overhead and pull it to the rear as far as possible: within the
shoulderyou can fcel theioint capsuleand its ligaments tightening up.

EXTENSILELIGAMENTS

Exten,sileligaments are not rcally lignments; they are skelctal musclcs held
at relzrtivelv static lenp$hs by motor neurons firing a continuous train of'
nerve impulses. 'Ihey have grezrterelasticity than connective tissue ligaments
becausco{' thcir muscular nature, but other than that thcy function to
maintain our posture like ordinary ligamcnts. What they don't do, by definition,
is move joints through their full range of motion, which is wh:rt we usuzrlly
expect from skeleftrlmuscles.According to the conventional definition, extensile
ligaments arc mostly postural muscles in the torso, but it is arguable that for
maintaining a stable meditation posture, every muscle in the body (excepting
thc musclesof'respiration) bccomcsan extensilelig:rment.
Unlike connective tissue ligaments, the length of'cxtensile ligaments
can be adiusted according to the number of nerve impulses impinging on
the muscle. And since every muscle associatedwith the torso and vertebral
column is represented on both sides of the body, the matching muscles in
each pair should receive the same number of nerve impulses per secondon
each side, at least in any static, bilaterally symmetricerl posture. If that
number is unequal, the paired muscles will develop chronically unequal
lengths that result in repercussions throughout the central axis of the
body. In hatha yoga, this condition is especially noticeable becauseit is the
primary source of right-left musculoskeletal imbalances.
Axial imbalances can be spotted throughout the torso and vertebral column,
but they are especially noticeable in the neck, where the tiny suboccipital
muscles function as extensile ligaments to maintain head position (fig.
lJ.zo).If your head is chronically twisted or tipped slightly to one side, it
may mean that you have held the matching muscles on the two sides at
unequal lengths over a long period of time. Motor neurons have become
5u ANATOXIY OT-HATHA YOGA

acromton
of scapula
glenoid
cavity
corocoid
processof
^^^^,.t^

medialborder
^{ ^^^^,.t^

front surfaceof
scapula(faces
back side of
tendonof origin, chest)
long headof
tricepsbrachii clavicle
HV -
_,-f -:)
- " .l) muscle
subscapularis
takesoriginfrom the
frontsurfaceof the
capsule of
s h o u l d e rj o i n t - - - s c a p u l a ( b e h i n dt h e

-+'
nhocf\ enrl holnc hn rl

the head of the

tendonof origin, humerusagainst the
long headof the glenoid cavity
biceps brachii
tendon of insedion of the
s u b s c a p u l a r i sm u s c l e . o n e
of the rotator cuff muscles
site of attachmentof tendonof origin,long
frbrouscapsuleof headof tricepsbrachii
the shoulderjointto tendonsof insertionof
the rearborderof the 3 rotatorcuff muscles:
^.,--^^^i^^r,,^
glenoidcavity JUpr d5PI rdru>.
infraspinatus, and
teresmlnor:these
capsuleof shoulderjoint musclesstabilizethe
s h o u l d ejro i n ta n d
keep it from being
dislocated
tendonof origin,long
headof tricepsbrachii
n e c ko f h u m e r u s

F i g u r e1 . 1 3 .D i s a r t i c u l a t e dr i g h t s h o u l d e rj o i n t a s v i e w e d f r o m t h e f r o n t ( t o p
i m a g e ) ;r i g h t s h o u l d e rj o i n t w i t h i t s c a p s u l e ,a l s o f r o m t h e f r o n t ( m i d d l e i n t a g e ) ;
a n d r i g h t s h o u l d e rj o i n t w i t h i t s c a p s u l ea s v i e w e d f r o m b e h i n d ( b o t t o m i m a g e ) .
Envisionthe chest as being located in front of the scapula and to the observer's
right in the top two images (the surface of the scapula shown here faces the
back of the chest). In the bottom image, envision the back of the scapula as
being located to the observer's left; except for being a much deeper and more
c o n f i n e d d i s s e c t i o n t, h i s v i e w i s s i m i l a rt o t h e o n e s h o w n i n f i g u r e 1 . 1 . A s t e r i s k s
indicate stabilizingligaments,and arrows indicate rotator cuff tendons (Sappey).
 1. IIIOVIiMT|N'I' AND POSTI]RE 5q

habituated to long-established firing patterns, the bellies of the muscles

themselves have become shorter on one side and longer on the other, and
the connective tissue fibers within and surrounding the muscle have
adjusted to the unequal lengths of the muscle fibers. Correcting such
imbalances requires years of unrelenting effort; neither the bellies of the
muscles or their connective tissue fibers can be Ienethened or shortened
quickly.

FASCIAE

Fasciae are sheets of connective tissue that give architectural support for
tissues and organs throughout the body, holding everything together and
providing for a stable infrastructure. 'Ihey are crudely like leather gloves
that form a boundary around your hands. Underneath the skin and
subcutaneous connective tissue, fasciae organize and unify groups of'
muscles, individual muscles, and groups of muscle fibers within each
muscle. They form a tough envelope around all the body cavities, and they
surround the heart with a healy connective tissue sack-the fibrous
pericardium. We have superficial fasciajust underneath the skin, and deep
fasciae overlying muscle groups. l'he singular and plural terms are almost
interchangeable we can say deep fzrsciaof the back, fascia of'the body, or
lasciae of thc body.
Fascia is flexible if we keep moving, stretching, and breerthing,but if we
allow any part of'the body to remain immobile, its {asciaebecomeless flcxible
and eventually restrict our movements, Iike gloves that fit so tightly that you
c a n ' t b e n dy o u r f i n g e r s .

LOOSE CONNECTIVETISSUE AND GROUND SUBSTANCE

Loose connectiuetissue is composed of ground substance,scattered fibers,

and cells. It fills in the spacesbetween the three primary tissues that are
mostly cellular muscle, epithelia, and nervous tissue-and between all
the other connective tissues, including bone and cartilage, blood and
lymph, tendons and ligaments, joints and .loint capsules, fasciae, fat, and
lymphatic tissue. But loose connective tissue is more than a filler. Its
ground substance is crudely comparable to glycerine-it lubricates and
'Ihe ground substance permits
smoothes movement throughout the body.
slippage of adjacent structures as well as slippage of individual connective
tissue fibers relative to one another in tendons and ligaments. Were it not
for the connective tissue fibers and their submicroscopic attachments to
muscle fibers, nerve fibers, and epithelia, ground substance would let
everything slip and slide apart. This would be as unwelcome-by itself-as
an oil spill on an icy road.
Ground substance is normally fluid. but it congeals and loses moisture
60 ANATOJI.I'' OF-1]A7 HA YO(;A

if the surrounding tissues are inactive. And as it loses moisture it loses its
lubricating properties. The entire body tightens down. Tendons, ligaments,
and joint capsulesbecome brittle, muscles lose much of their elasticity and
ability to function smoothly, and the tissues become susceptible to injury.
These reversals are the main reasons for morning stiffness, and they are a
compelling argument for beginning every day with a sessionof hatha yoga.
To rehydrate the ground substance a short, lazy practice is not as effective
as a long and vigorous one, and you get what you pay for. The benefit is
well-being; the payment is work and stretch.

STRETCHING
If you ask most people what it takes to lift a barbell overhead they will say
muscles, bones, and joints. If you ask them what is needed for runnrng a
marathon thcy will say heart, Iungs, and legs. And iI'you ask them what is
rcquired for dancc or gymnastic per{brmance thcy will say strength, gp'ace.
and agility. But if you ask them what is most important fbr increasrng
flexibility they will probably just give you a blzrnk look. And yet those of
us who practice hatha yoga know that improving flexibilitv is onc of our
grcatcst ch:rllenges.Ilven thc simplest posturcs are difficult whcn or-rers
stiff, erndthat is why instructors are always cncouraging us to stretcl.r.But
what cxactly do thcy mean?
Given what we have discussedso far, we know that we should be rvalv
of incrcasing flexibility by trying to free up bony stops or looscrrrng up
cartilaginous restraints, joint capsules, tendons, and ligaments. What u.e
can do is lengthcn nerves and the bellies of muscles, the two kinds of
extendable anatomical structures that run lcng$hwisc through limbs and
acrossjoints.

THE BELLIES OF MUSCLES

Muscles have to be lengthened only a little to permit a respectableir'pr-o'e-

ment in a joint's range of motion. But when we are stretching then.r and
looking for long-term results, are we dealing with their individual muscle
fibers or with their associatedconnective tissue fibers?'I'he answer is both.
The individual muscle fibers within a muscle can grow in length b-v the
addition of little contractile units called sarcomeres.We know this from
studies of muscles that have been held in casts in stretched positions. And
by the same token, if a muscle is held by a cast in a foreshortened state.
sarcomeresare Iost and the muscle fibers become shorter.
It is not enough to increase the length of muscle fibers alone. A match-
ing expansion of the connective tissue within and around the muscle is also
needed,including the overlying fascia, the connective tissue that surrounds
packets of muscle fibers, and the wrappings of individual fibers. And this is
what happens during programs of prolonged stretching. The connective
tissue gradually follows the lead of the muscle fibers, the muscle as a whole
gets longer, and flexibility is improved. Hatha yoga stretches are a safe and
effective way to bring this about. And in the occasionalcaseswhen we want
to tighten everything down, all we have to do is stop stretching so much
and concentrate on repetitive movements and short ranges of motion. The
muscle fibers will quickly get shorter, and the connective tissues will soon
follow suit.

NERVES

The issue of peripheral nerves is another matter. Nerves are sensitive to

stretch but are not robust enough to limit it, they can accommodate to
stretch only becausethey don't take a straight course through the tissues
that surround them and because their individual nerve fibers meander
back and forth within the connective tissue ensheathmcnts of thc nervc
itself. During the course of stretching a limb, the gross path of a nerve
through the surrounding tissues is first straightencd, and :rs the stretch
continucs, the scrpcntine course of the individual fibers within thc ncrvc
is also straightcncd. And cvcn after that, the enveloping conncctivc tissuc
has enough elasticity to accommodate about ro-ri()( additional stretch
without damaging thc ncrvc fibers.
Without their connective tissuc ensheathments nerves would be hope-
lcssly vulncrablc, not only to stretch but also to trauma and comprcssion
among tense muscles,bones, and ligaments. Thc protection is not fail-safe,
however, bccause in cxtrcme casesthese ensheathments can accommodate
to even more stretch than the ro-r;o/(,that is safe for their enclosednerve
fibers. The early warning signs are numbness, sensitivity, and tingling, and
if these are ignored, sensory and motor deficits may develop. Your best
protcction is awarcncss and patience-awareness of'why nerve stretch is a
potential problem and the patience to work slowly when and if mild symptoms
emerge. If ncrve pain keeps turning up chronically, seek professional help.

IN THE LAST ANALYSIS

Research has shown beyond question that the length of muscle fibers can
be increased as a result ofprolonged stretching, or decreasedas a result of
chronic foreshortening. It is also clear that the connective tissue ensheath-
ments of either muscles or nerves can be stretched too much. But there is
another factor in the equation: the nervous system plays a pivotal role in
causing muscles to either relax or tighten up, and this either permits stretch
or limits it. So is it the active role of the nervous system or the passive role of
the connective tissues that ultimately restrains movement? Since nerve
impulses keep stimulating muscle cells during ordinary activities, there is
 ANATO]TY OF HATHA YOGA

only one way to find out for certain: to check someone's range of motion
when they are under deep anesthesia, when the nervous system is not
stimulating any skeletal muscle cells except those needed for respiration.
This has been done, inadvertently but many times. Any operating room
attendant can tell you that when patients are anesthetized, their muscles
become so loose that care has to be taken not to dislocate the ioints, and
this will happen even if the patient is extremely stiff in waking life. So why
can't therapists take advantage ofanesthesia-induced flexibility to increase
the range of motion around joints? The answer is that without the protection
of the nervous system the tissues tear-muscle fibers, connective
tissue fibers, and nerves. And this proves that even though connective
tissues provide the outermost limits to stretch, it is the nervous system
that provides the practical limits in day-to-day life. When we have reached
those limits the nervous system warns us through pain, trembling, or
simply weakness that we are going tt-rr-rfar, and most important, it warns us
before the tissues are torn.

THREE POSTURES
Three hatha yoga postures illustrate the principles of movement we have
been discussing.'l'hey are all simple to analyze and study bccause they
exhibit bilateral symmctry, in which the two sides of the body are identical
in structure and perform identical movements. Each one presents different
challenges.We'll begin with the corpse posture.

THE CORPSE POSTURE

Thc corpseposturc reveals severalcommon problems that arise when people

try to relex. Lie supine on a padded surface with the knees straight, the f'eet
apart, the hands out from the thighs, and the palms up. Relar completelr'.
allowing your body to rest on the floor under the influence of gravity (fig. r. r1 t.
When you first lie down most of the motor neurons that inner-vatethe skeletal
muscles are still firing nerve impulses, but your breathing gradually
becomeseven and regular, and the number of nerve impulses per secondto
your muscles starts to drop. If you are an expert in relaxation, within a
minute or two the number of nerve impulses to the muscles of your hands
and toes goes to zero. Then, within five minutes the motor neuronal input
to the muscles of your forearms, arms, legs, and thighs diminishes and also
approacheszero. The rhythmical movement of the respiratory diaphragnt
lulls you into even deeper relaxation, finally minimizing the nerve impulses to
the deep postural muscles of the torso. The connective tissues are not
restraining you. Pain is not registered from any part of the body-the posture
is entirely comfortable. This is an ideal relaxation.
In the early stages of practice any number of problems can interfere
 'L|RE
6-l

with the ideal. First, let's say you hurt your right shoulder playing basket-
ball earlier in the day. Tension in that region is still high and stands out
painfully in contrast to the relaxation in the rest of the Iimb and on the
other side. In addition, you have an old back injury and the muscles around
the vertebral column are holding it in a state of tension. You would like to
lift, your knees to relieve the stress, but you do not wish to seem unsporting.
So you override the impulses of the flexion reflexes and continue to suffer
with your knees straight.
This is absurd. All problems in the body tattle on themselves in one way
or another, and you cannot relax your body because it is rebelling. You
would not be in so much pain if you were walking around the block because
the movement would keep you from noticing it, but when you try to relax
you are aware of nothing else. 'l'he posture becomesincreasingly irritating,
and your mind, far from bcing still, is oscillating between awarcness of the
discomfort and long5ingfor escape-Il'your instructor holds you in this pose
fbr more than a minute or two you arc in the wrong class. You are not yct
ready fclr this work. You need to heal, move, and stretch-not lic still.
'I'hose who are uncomfortable can
sometimcs improve the situation by
simply moving into partially flexed positions-bcnding the knees, placing
the hands on the chest, and supporting the head with a thick pillow. Rrr
restful sleep,it is not surprising that most people lie on their sides and curl
u p i n a n a t t i t u d co l f l e x i o n .

THE PRONE BOAT

The prclne boat posture demonstrates the simplest kind of movement

against gravity. To experience this lie face down on the floor. Stretch your
arms toward thc feet, straight out to the sides, or overhead, as you pref'er.
Raise the arms, thighs, and hcad away from the floor all at once, keeping
the knees and elb<-rws extended (fig. r.r;). Yt-ruare lifting into thc posture
with the muscles on the posterior (back) side of the body. 'fhe neck, back,
hamstring, and calf muscles are all shortening concentrically and drawing
the body up in an arc.

Figure 1.14.The corpse posture, for whole-body relaxation.

 YOGA

Although by most standards the prone boat is an easy posture, especially

with the hands alongside the thighs, it can be challenging if you are in poor
physical condition. A set of muscles is being used which is rarely exercised
as a group in daily life, and ifyou keep your elbows and knees extended you
may not be able to lift your hands and feet more than an inch or so off the
floor. The combination of inflexibility and unfamiliarity keeps the antagonist
muscles on the anterior (front) side of the body active, and this in turn
restrains the lift. Whole-body extension is the essenceof the prone boat,
but the pull of gpavity, lack of strenglh posteriorly, muscular resistance
anteriorly, an abundance of flexion reflexes, and various connective tissue
restrictions in the spine may all limit you. For beginners the activity of the
nervous system is the main impediment to the posture.
Fascia is the main obstacle for intermediate students. The nervous
system is commanding the posterior muscles to contract strongly and the
anterior muscles to relax, but connective tissucs and the design of thc
.joints prevent marked extension. With timc and practice thc anterior
muscles will relax ernd permit a lull stretch. Finally, advanced students
confidently lill to their maximum and play with thc edges of'neuronal
control, tugging on their connectivetissues with an educated awarcncss
while at the same time keeping thc breath even and regular without straining
or I'altering.

T H E H A M S T R I N G S - Q U A D R I C E P ST H I G H P U L L

Ihis standing forward bend dcmonstrates the interactions among agonist

muscles, their antagonists, gyavity, and the clasp knife rellex. Stand with
the feet about tz inches apart. Flexing the knees as necessary,bend forward
and press the torso tightly against the thighs, which keeps the back rela-
tively straight and prevents strain. Now, holding the chest and abdomen
firmly in place, try to straighten the knee joint. lhe quadriceps femoris
muscles on the front of the thighs try to accomplish this, and the hamstring

&
:&,.ff'"*'*'"

Figure1.15.The prone boat.As you lift up into the posture,muscleson the back
sideof the body shortenconcentrically; as you slowlylower yourselfdown,
they lengtheneccentrically. Tensionin musclesand connectivetissueson the
front side of the body increases
as you lift up and decreasesas you come down.
 'tiRE
65

muscles on the back side of the thighs resist, but you can undercut the
hamstring resistance by activating their clasp knife reflexes. Just massage
the musculotendinous junctions of the hamstring muscles behind the knee
joints while you are trying to press your hips up (fig. r.16).
At this point the quadriceps femoris muscles are shortening concentrically,
straightening the knees, and raising the body up against the force of gravity.
At the same time the hamstring muscles, which are antagonists to the
quadriceps, are actively even though unconsciously resisting. Ifyou are in
good condition your nervous system allows you to press upward to your
personal maximum, but if you have recently hurt your knee or sprained
your ankle, flexion reflexes responding to pain will limit you. As you press
up you are making an isotonic movement. If you go to your maximum but
then keep pressinpJ,you are exercising isometrically.
If'you were to bounce, which we do not want here, you would stretch the
muscle spindles dynamically and stimulate the myotatic stretch reflexes.If you
move slowly, you will be stimulating the Golgi tendon organs and cliciting the
clasp knife reflex in both thc quadriceps femoris and the hamstring muscles.
Although this will tend to relzx both sets of muscles,the fbcus of your will is
to straighten the kneejoint, with the result that the higher centcrsofthe brain
override the reflex in thc quadriceps femori and allow it fuller rein in the
hamstrings. Neurological circuits for reciprocal inner-vation also probably
inhibit the motor neurons whose axons inncrvate the hamstring musclcs.
'l'he main resistanceto lifting
up comesfrom the hamstrings. If you are
an advanced student and not feeling any trace of.joint pain, you can try to
relax the hamstrinE;s and extend the knee joints more completely,
contracting the quadriceps as much as your strength and health permit.
This posture is difT'erent from the prone boat, in that your attention is
more restricted. In the prone boat you are trying to relax the entire front
side of the body; here you :rre trying to relax only the hamstrings.

F i g u r e1 . 1 6 .S t a n d i n gh a m s t r i n g s -
quadriceps thigh pull. The first priority
is placing the torso solidly against the
thighs in order to protect the lower
back. Under those circumstances,
trying to lift the hips forceably in
combination with massagingthe Colgi
tendon organs in the hamstring
tendons encouragesdeep relaxation
and eventual lengthening of the
h a m s t r i n gm u s c l e s( s i m u l a t i o n ) .
66 ANATOMYOF HATHA 'OGA

If'you are relatively healthy, as you reach the limits of nervous system
control, the fasciaebegin to play an important role in limiting your efforts
to straighten the knees and raise up. You reach a point at which the connective
tissue fibers within and surroundingthe hamstringmuscles will not allow any
more lifting. They are now like wires pulled taut, stretched to their limit. The
only way to get more length in the system is to patiently lengthen the muscles
and nerweswith a long-term program ofprolonged stretches.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

We have covered a great deal ofterritory in this chapter, but in so doing we
have laid the foundation for everything that is to come. To sum it up:
sensory input to the brain and the power of will both ultimately influence
the motor neurons, which in turn preside over the actions of the musculo-
skeletal system. The reflexes are in the background and out of our immediatc
awareness, but without them we would be in dire straits. Without the
stretch reflexes our movements would be jerky and uncertain, like film
portrayals of F-rankenstein's monster. And without pain receptors and
flexion reflexes we would soon be a battleEgound of burns and iniuries.
Without the reflexes from our vestibular system wc would teeter about,
uncertain of our balance and orientation. Without sensation from touch
and pressure pathways we would lose most of'the scnsory input that gives
us pleasure-and along with its loss, its guidance. In thc end, the nervous
system drives the musculoskcletal system, and thesc twt-rin combination
maintain and sculpt connective tissues, which in turn passivcly restrict
movement and posture. AII of this takes place within the field of'gpavity
under the auspicesof will and creates thc practice of hatha yoga.

",'frrlr,rtatr/i, '//.'//a/r'rrz'
lrrzrr: /.1 .k:///':.tott(r/nq //r' /tz'ry' r.t
ry'zr)q, ltu//l rrrtt/za././// 1rfrrytrl ,/atr,rutt nttr/..llz7t.Lilr hztVrrl. "

Gershon,rn The SecondBrain, p.3i.

 CHAPTERTWO
BRE,ATHING

',7/L
lur/qJ ,zrr7t/irrr/r)t n rr:ceJJ Je .Ja.o'r:ry'azl//)r/ry'zt. il,a./
ttzt/uze ,rtort//lr'r,rrr, la /}ztr,
Vr,:ctrz//,q ,rr/l/}/.rtttt //iD Ttarl
/it/iforz LL r'gtz,l azl//i'r,nt t* inlz,,/i/Lr. /aa /a,qeruy' t/tz.
uttl/li/ /itz.l z.al,qz,l 1irz. qt'atr/r.r/ /r, ./,/14 at/z k, fl rt ztutr/aut
/e 1* /lza.t/ rzzry',,'r,ry'zoz/i'ert r*tty'r.nz.l,t1./i7tef ,rrr*r:Jr,r'trlj
rr/zahur,. l-' ,/'o/|/'a/1.L ,lat'/t o/'l/r, /)ry',q, /./1t /itq.t
a./lzr', at y' t/zir.Liq /lru e1.i"tra/nz, rr,nlr' /i.ntt 1.L i'
rntrzrzt/ nttry'rr.//n1t.)r n/ r,ttrr rn llr'/i;l/ r:t./t'ntrr, ,r/t.rl/t
alry'Lr'//lr7l,r'/itLat. ,/1r:rrrr' .Jar'// rut tqnat'ntt.rr r,/1'./lr.Vtirt/tatt
artry' a .lat'l r,//m/// ,r,r,rtry'zr'."'/lr/l'/r:t ,ru rlzrrl tttru' 1r, //L'
r)utn.Jl lt.ht./), ,r.rr,r./,ort.rt ,rrtitq. Jrt ,ry'J.rr"r' a. nta//rr, nn/,r a./
"
/l:at/ a,lut',t,t.
- John Mayow, in Tractatus Quinclu.ei67Q, quoted Irom
Proctor's A Histor"vofBreathing Physiology, p. t5j.

\/
Iogis knew nothing of physiology,at least in terms that would have been
helpful to tTth and rttth century European scientists and physicians like
John Mayow, but for a long time they have made extraordinary claims
about the value of studying the breath. They say flatly, for example, that
the breath is the link between the mind and the body, and that if we can
control our respiration we can control every aspect ofour being. This is the
endpoint, they tell us, that begins with simple hatha yoga breathing exercises.
Every aspect of our being? That's a lot, by any standard. No matter: even
though such comments may stimulate our curiosity, their pursuit is outside
the scopeof this book. Our objective here is to pursue studies in breathing
as far as they can be tested objectively and experientially, and then to
discuss some of the relationships between yoga and respiration that can be
correlated with modern biomedical science: how different patterns of
breathing affect us in different ways, why this is so, and what we can learn
from practice and observation.
Breathing usually operates at the edge of our awareness, but will and
volition are always at our disposal.Just as we can choosehow many times

67
6U Ai\"AI'OMY Ol" IIA'IIIA YOGA

to chew a bite of food or adjust our stride when we are walking up a hill, so
can we choose the manner in which we breathe. Most of the time, however,
we run on "automatic," allowing input from internal organs to manage the
rate and depth ofour breathing. Yogis emphasize choice.They have discovered
the value of regulating respiration consciously, of breathing evenly and
diaphragmatically, of hyperventilating for specific purposes,and of suspending
the breath at will. But even though these aims might seem laudable, readers
should be made aware that the classical literature of hatha yoga generally
warns students against experimenting intemperately with breathing exercises.
Verse t5 of Chapter z of the Hatha Yoga Pradipllea is tlpical: 'Just as lions,
elephants, and tigers are gradually controlled, so the prana is controlled
through practice.Otherwise the practitioner is destroyed." This sounds like
the voice o{'experience, and we ought not dismiss it casually.We'll revisit
the issue of temperance at the end of the chapter after having examined
the anatomy and physiology of respiration. Thcre are reasons for caution.
'I'o understand the benefits of'controllcd
breathing we must procccd step
by step, bep;inning with a look at thc overall design of the respiratory
system, and then at the way skeletal muscles draw air into the lungs. Next
we'll see how brcathing affects posture and how posture afT'ectsbreathing.
After that we'll explore how thc two major divisions of the nervous
system-somatic and autonomic-interact to influence breathing. Thcn
we'll turn to the physiologryof respiration and examine how lung volumes
and blood gasesarc altered in various breathing exercises.That will point
us toward the mechanisms by which respiration is regulated automatically
and at how wc can learn to override thosc mcchanismswhcn wc want to.
Finally we'll examine four difl'erent kinds of breathing-thoracic, paradoxical,
abdominal, and diaphragmatic-and the relationships of each to yoga
breathing practices. At the end oI'the chapter we'll return to thc issue of
modcration in planning a practice.

THE DESIGN OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Every cell in the body needs to breathe-taking up oxygen, burning fuel,
generating energy, and giving off carbon dioxide. This process, known as
cellular respiration, depends on an exchange-moving oxygen all the way
from the atmosphere to lungs, to blood, and to cells, and at the same time
moving carbon dioxide from cells to blood, to lungs, to atmosphere. The
body accomplishesthis exchangein two steps.For step one we draw air into
the lungs, where it comes in contact with a large wet surface area-the
collective hundred million alveoli-into which oxygen can dissolve and
from which carbon dioxide can be eliminated. For step two oxygen travels
in the pulmonary circulation from the lungs to the heart and in the
systemic circulation from the heart to the cells of the body. Carbon dioxide
travels in the opposite direction, first from the cells ofthe body to the heart
in the systemic circulation, and then from the heart to the lungs in the
pulmonary circulation (fig. z.t and chapter 8).
Everything about the respiratory system is accessoryto the movement
of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Airways lead from the nose and mouth into
the lungs (fig. z.z').Air is pulled backward in the nose past the hard and
soft palates, where it makes a 9oo turn and enters a funnel-shaped region,

top: the pulmonarycirculation

the pulmonarycapillaries lie
of blood to and from the lungs
in intimateappositionto the
alveoli;they transportcarbon
dioxidefrom the blood into
atmosphere the alveoliand oxygenfrom
--> oxlQen In€ the alveoliintothe blood
+carbon dioxide <-
oul

the pulmonary
the pulmonary veincarriesblood
arterycarfles high in oxygen
/ oxygen and low in carbon
blood low in
oxygenand dioxidefrom the
high in carbon \ / lungsto the left
dioxidefrom carbon atriumof the hearl
the right dioxide
ventricleof for the systemic
the heartto circulation, the
the lungs aorta carnes
oxygenated
\ blood from the
lne vena cava oxygen left ventricleot
carriesbloodthat the heartto the
is high in carbon oooy as a
dioxideand low in \ wnote
oxygenfrom the
capillarybeds of
the body back to 'i9hJ reft
v e n t r i,c l e
'""..
the rightatriumof .
ventncte cells of
the heart;this is
the systemic the body
"venousreturn"
the capillariesof the
systemiccirculationlie
in closeappositionto
the cellsof the body;
they transportoxygen
to the cellsand
carbondioxideaway
bottom: the systemic circulation of from them
blood to and from the body as a whole

Figure2.1.Cardio-respiratory system.As indicatedby the arrows,oxygenis

transportedfrom the atmosphere to the cellsof the body:from airwaysto lungs
to the pulmonarycirculation, hearf and finallyto the systemiccirculation.
Carbon
dioxideis transportedin the other direction:from the cellsto the systemic
circulation,heart,pulmonarycirculation, Iungs,airways,and atmosphere(Dodd).
70 ANATOMY OF TIATIIA t

the pharynx. From there it continues downward into the larynx, which is the
organ for phonation and whose vocal cords vibrate to create sound. Below the
larynx air passesinto the trachea, the right andlefL primary bronchi, and then
into the two lungs, each of which contains to bronchopulmonary segmentsthat
are serwedindividually by secondary bronchi. The secondary bronchi in turn
divide into tertiary bronchi and smaller subdivisions (bronchioles) that collec-
tively composethe bronchial tree (fig. 2.3).The terminal bronchioles of the
bronchial tree in turn open into the tiny alueoli, giving a microscopic view

nasalconchae nasal meatuses

(turbinatebones (arrpassages

':iE
SINUSES
covereooy mucus beneath
frontal,\
memoranes): concnae):
supeflo( supenor,
middle, m i d d l e a, n d
inferior inferior
base ol
---\
Clanlal -"> ".-..--
cavitv \ ,1-
\ .-rP
nasopharynx l-ffi, palate
naro,
soft
\r'\ p a r a i ln e
oropharynx
l0nstl
sprnousprocess
of second
cervrcal
vertebra(C2)

laryngopharynx

verbebral
body, C5 epiglottis

intervertebral
disk between
C6 and C7 entranceto larynx

vocarcoro
vertebralcanal esophagus on leftside
(tubehousing (pathwayfor trachea(pathway of larynx.
spinalcord) food between TOrarr oelween and qlottis
oropharynx larynxand
and stomach primarybronchi

Figure2.2.Nearlymid-sagittalcut (justto the left of the nasalseptum)showing

the left half of the headand neck,and revealingthe crossingpassageways for
f o o d ( s o l i dl i n ef r o m t h e o r a lc a v i t yi n t o t h e e s o p h a g u sa)n d a i r ( d a s h e dl i n e s
from the nasalpassages into the trachea).(from Sappey).
 2. BRtiAl'IIING 7r

ofthe lungs the appearanceofa delicate lacy network. The trachea and other
large tubes in the airways are held open by incomplete rings of cartilage, and
the alveoli remain open because a special surfactant on their walls limits
their expansion during the course of a full inhalation and yet prevents surface
tension from collapsing them during the course of a full exhalation.
The pharynx is a crossroadsfor the passageof air and food. Air passes
down and forward from the nasopharynx into the laryngopharynr and then
into the larynx and trachea. Food is chewed in the mouth, and from there
it is swallowed backward into the oropharynx and across the pathway for
air into the esophagz.s,which is located behind the trachea just in front of

trachea, with apex,rightlung

cartilagenous
apex,leftlung
rngs a tertiarybronchus

seconoary
bronchusfor
superiorlobe
of rightlung

left right
primary primary
Droncnus Droncnus
left right
purmonary pulmonary
anery artery
carnes carries
caroon carbon
dioxideto dioxideto
the left the right
lung rung

right
left
purmonary
pulmonary
veinscarry
veinscarry
oxygen
oxygen
from the
from the
r i g h tl u n g
leftlung
back to
back to
the heart
the heart

tertiarybronchifor left right

bronchopulmonary ventricle ventricle
segmentsof the inferior
lobe of the leftlung

Figure 2.3. lsolated heart-lung preparation as viewed from behind. The aorta
and superior vena cava are not visible from this perspective.The bronchial tree
branches into right and left primary bronchi, 5 secondary bronchi (3 for the
right lung and 2 for the left), and 20 tertiary bronchi to the bronchopulmonary
s e g m e n t s( 1 0 f o r e a c h l u n g ) . B r a n c h e so f t h e p u l m o n a r y a r t e r i e sa n d v e i n s a r e
likewise associatedwith each of the bronchopulmonary segments (Sappey).
72 ANA',tO]IIY Or- IIATIIA

the vertebral column (fig. z.z). The glottis, which is the narrowed aperture
in the larynx at the level of the uocal cords, closes when we swallow. You
can feel that happen if you initiate either an inhalation or an exhalation
and then swallow some saliva. You will find, no matter what part of the
breathing cycle you are in, that swallowing obstr-uctsbreathing. If it doesn't,
food may "go down the wrong way," as children put it, and we choke.
The lungs are mostly composedof air 5oa/r, air after full exhalation and
8o(/t,air after full inhalation. If you slap the side of your chest you'll hear a
hollow sound; contrast this with the lower-pitched liquidy sound that
comes from slappin€iyour hand against your abdomen. A slippery mem-
brane that is itself impervious to air covers the lungs, which can in turn be
likened roughly to blown-up balloons that lill the rib cage, excepting that
thc "balloons" are not tied off at their necks. So why don't they deflatc.just
like loosed balloons that fly away? The answer is fundamental to the design
of thc respiratory system. 'I'he lungs havc an inherent elzrsticity,and they
remain inflated insidc the rib cagc only becausc they faithfully track
changes in the volume of the chcst as it gets larger erndsmtrller. How can
this be? It is becausenothing lies betwccn the outer surfacesof'thc lungs
irnd thc chest werll except a potential space,the pleu,raLt:auity. This cavity
contains no air, only a vacuum which holds the lungs tightly against the
inner surface of the chest wall, along with a small amount of lubricating
Iluid that permits the lungs to expand and contract as the chest cxpands
and contracts through the agency of the surrounding muscles of respiration
t f i g s .: . - 1 2
. . 6 .a n d 2 . 9 ) .

TWO EMERGENCYSITUATIONS

Two emergencysituations will put all this in perspective.First, ii'your rib

cage were penetrated on one side in a traumatic injury, air would rush intcr
the pleural cavity and cause the lung on that side to collapse. I'his is called
pneumothorar. How quickly it develops depends on the size of the injLrn.
With a large enough opening, the lung collapsesalmost like letting the air
out of the neck of a balloon, as mipJht be surmised from Mayow's astute
observations more than 3oo years ago.
More perilously than pneumothorax for one lung, if both sides of the rib
cageare grossly penetrated, both lungs collapseto their minimum size and
shrink away from the chest wall. With the pleural cavities filled u'ith air..
the muscles of respiration cannot get purchase on the external surfaces of
the lungs to create an inhalation, and unless someoneholds your nose and
blows directly into your mouth to give you artificial respiration, you will die
in a few minutes.

lTechnicalnote: There is one other alternative.Ifyou were thinking fast enough

and not too distractedby the injury,you couldballoonout your cheeksand quickll-
 2. BREAT'|rrNG73

(two times per second)"swallow" air into your lungs 10-15times for inhalation,
closingthe glottis after eachswallow.To exhaleyou simplyopenthe glottis.For an
interestingexercisein awareness, and to feelfor yourselfhowthe lungseffortlessly
get smallerwhen you openyour glottis to exhale,hold your noseand breathethis
wayfor2 f minutes.l
The remedy for pneumothorax in a hospital setting also illustrates the
architecture of the system. It's simple, at least in principle. Tubes are
sealed into the openings of the chest wall, and the air is vacuumed out of
the pleural cavities. This pulls the external surfaces of the lungs against
the inner wall of the chest and upper surface of the diaphragm' and the
muscles of respiration can then operate on the inflated lunpJsin the usual
manner.
A second emergency situation involves an obstruction in the airway,
perhaps a big chunk offood that has dropped into the larynx instead ofthe
esophagus.If it is too big to get zrll the way through into the trachea, thc
obstruction may get stuck in thc larynx, block the airway, and prevent you
from breathing. In such casesthc natural reaction ftlr most people is to try

sixthrib on erector sprnous vertebral vertebralbody

i n f e r i o rl o b e rightside sPinae process,T6 canal of TGvertebra
of rightlung muscte
thoracrc
aorta
esophagus

inferiorlobe
rightpleural of leftlung
cavrty

superiorlobe
of rightlung
left atrium leftpleural
recervrng cavity
oxygenated
blood by
way of
pulmonary superiorlobe
veins of leftlung

if chestwall is pulmonary
penetrated, arteryas it
lung collapses, exitsright
and air rushes ventricle
into pleural aona as
cavity,creating it exits sternum
pneumothorax
right the left pericardial
supenorvena cava atriUm VentrlCle cavity

Figure2.4. Cross-sectionalview through the upper chest, looking from above at a

section through the lungs and pleural cavities,and at a three-dimensionalview of
the upper portion of the heart with great vessels,pericardialcavity,and fibrous
pericardium. Pericardialand pleural cavitiesare greatly exaggerated(Sappey).
to inhale more forcefully, but this will almost certainly reinforce rather
than relieve the obstruction. Trying to exhale may be more productive. Or
a second person, someone who knows first aid, could try the Heimlich
maneuver, pulling sharply in and up on the abdominal wall from behind to
create enough intra-abdominal and intra-thoracic pressure to force the
object from the laryngopharynx back into the oropharynx, where it can
either be coughed out externally or swallowed properly.
The emergency surgical remedy for a complete obstruction of the larynx
is a tracheotomy, making a midline incision between the larynx and the pit
of the throat, quickly separating the superficial muscles, and opening the
exposedtrachea with another midline incision just below the thyroid gland.
This allows inhalation and exhalation to take place below the obstruction.
In the case of pneumothorax, when the chest wall has been penetrated
and the lungs are collapsed,the muscles of respiration can expand and con-
tract the chest, but the e{Tbrt is all for nothing since the requisite contact
between the inner surface of the chest wall and the outer surface of the
lungs has been lost. It's like a car stuck in the snow-the wheels turn but
they can't move you forward. Thc sccond case is like a car with its drive
wheels immobilizcd in concretc-thc blockagc in the airway completely
frustrates the action of the muscles of respiration. In both situations we
are trying to pull air into the lungs bv using our force of will but we are
unable to support our inner nceds with our cxtcrnal efforts.

THE MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION

Inhalations can take place only as a result of muscular activity. Exhalations
arc different: the lungs have the capacity to get smaller becausethcir elasticity
keeps pulling them, along with the rib cage, to a smaller size. And as already
mentioned,the size of the lungs fbllows the size of'the chest in lockstep:any-
thing that expands and contracts the chest also expands and contracts the
lungs, whether it is lifting or compressing the rib cage, lowering or raising
the dome of the respiratory diaphragm, releasing or pressing inward with
the abdominal muscles, or allowing the elasticity of the lungs to draw in
the chest wall.
The way in which the muscles of respiration accomplish breathing is
more complex than the relatively simple way a muscle creates movements
around a joint. Three main sets of muscles are active when you breathe
normally: the intercostal muscles, the abdominctl muscles, and the respiratory
diaphragm. We'll start our discussion with the intercostal muscles.

THE INTERCOSTALMUSCLES

When we breathe, and in particular when we emphasize chest breathing,

the short intercostal (between the ribs) muscles operate as a unit to expand
and contract the chest (figs. z.i and 2.9). Two sets of these muscles, one
under the other, act on the rib cage. The external intercost1l muscles run
between the ribs in the same direction as the most external sheet of abdominal
and 8.8); they lift and expand the rib cage for
muscles (figs. 2.7, 2.9, 3.11-13,
inhalation, like the movement of an old-fashioned pump handle as it is Iifted
up from its resting position. The internal intercostal muscLesrun at right
angles to the external layer; they pull the ribs closer together as well as
down and in for exhalation (usually a forced exhalation). If you place your
hands on your chest with the fingers pointed down and medially (toward
the midline of the body), this approximates the orientation of the external
intercostal muscles,and if you place your hands on your chest with the fingers
pointing up and medially, this approximates the orientation of the internal
intercostal muscles (fig. z.l). The external intercostal muscles dcl not
always act concentrically to lift the rib cage; during quiet breathing they

enlrance to firstthoracic
chest cavity vertebra firstrib

sternum costalcartilages
for second,third,
and fourthribs on
left side
externalintercostal
musclesrun down
external
and medially
intercostal
muscles

internalintercostal fifth rib

musclesrun down
and laterally
internal
rntercostal
costal muscles
cartilages
for fifth,
sixth,
seventh, floatingribs:
ano eleventh(tip)
eighth
ribson twelfth (tip)
rightside
of chest
lowerborderof rib cage to firstlumbar
which respiratorydiaphragm vertebra
(not shown) attaches

Fieure2.5. Surfaceview of chest.The internalintercostalmusclesare visiblein front

nJar the sternum where they are not overlain by the external intercostals,and they
are also visible laterally where the external intercostalshave been dissected away
(between the fifth and' sixth ribs).As a group, the external intercostal muscles lift
the rib cage up and out to support inhalation,and the internalintercostalmuscles
pull it down and in to complete a full exhalation(from Morris).
76 ANA'IOitIr'OI: HAI'IIA YOGA

also act isometrically to keep the rib cage from collapsing inward when the
respiratory diaphragm (seebelow) creates the vacuum that draws air into
the lungs.

THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLES

In breathing, the abdominal muscles (figs.3.u-r3, tl.[], fl.rr, and tl.r3-r4)

function mainly in deep and forced exhalations, as when you try to blow up
a balloon in one breath. For that task the muscles shorten concentrically,
pressing the abdominal wall inward, which in turn pushes the abdominal
organs up against the relaxed (or relaxing) diaphragm. In combination
with the action of the internal intcrcostal muscles, this lbrcibly decreases
the size ofthe chest cavity and pushes air out ofthe lungs. You can also feel
the action of the abdominal muscles by pursing the lips and forcing the
breath out through the tiny opening. In yoga the abdominal muscles are
important for what yogis refer to as even breathing, and thcy are also kev
elements fbr many breathing exercises.

THE ANATOMY OF THE DIAPHRAGM

Becausethe respiratory diaphragm is completely hidden inside the torso,

most peoplc have only a rudimentary notion of what it looks like or how it
operates. The simplcst way to describe it is to say that it is a domed sheet
o{'combinedmuscle and tendon that spans the entire torso and separatcs
the chest cavity from the abclominal cauity (figs. z.(r-9). Its rim is attac].recl
to thc base of the rib cagc and to the lumbar spine in the rcar.
The diaphragm is shaped like an umbrella, or an upside-dowrr cr_rp.
except that it is deeply indentcd to accommodzrtethe vertebral colunrn. It
consists of a central tendon, a costal portion, and a, crural portiott.'l'hc
central tendon forms the top surface oI'the dome, which floats there fi-eel.r'.
attached only to the muscle fibers of the costal and crural portions of the
diaphragm. It is thus the only "tendon" in the body which docs not attach
directly to the skeleton. The largest part of the diaphragm is its costzrl
component, whose muscle fibers fan down from the central tcndon and
attach all around to the lower rim of the rib cage (figs. 2.7-r)). 'l'he crural
portion of the diaphragm consists of the right crus and left crrrs. which
attach to the forward arch of the lumbar spine (figs. z.r-ii). fhese are
separated from one another by the aorta as it passes from the thoracic
cauity into the abdominal cavity. The architecture of the diaphragm thus
permits it to move the central tendon of the dome, the base of the rib cage,
the lumbar spine, or any combination of the three.
You can note the site ofthe costal attachment ofthe diaphragm by hooking
your fingers under the rib cageand tracing its lower margin. It is high in front
where it attaches to the sternum, and lower where you trace it laterally (to the
side), but you can't feel it behind becausethe deep back muscles are in the
way. You can also occasionally feel the region where the crura (plural form)
of the diaphragm attach to the lumbar vertebrae, especially in someone
slender who is lying flat on the floor, becausethe lumbar region sometimes
arches forward to within an inch or so of the surface of the abdominal wall.
This vividly illustrates how far forward the diaphragm can be indented by
the spinal column.
The diaphragm has to be one of the most interesting and complex muscles
in the body. Becauseit is a thin sheet, its shape bears the impressions of its
immediate surroundings-the rib cage,the heart and lungs, and the abdominal
organs, and it is dependent on the existence and anatomical arrangements of
these str-ucturesfor its function. The diaphragm's extensive relationship with

tarynx

left phrenicnerve
(whiteprofile)

rightphrenicnerve left clavicle(cut)

(whiteprofile)

superiorvenacava aorticarch

purmonary
arterialtrunk
rightatrium leftpleural
cavity
rightlung (thinwhite
space)

left fifth rib

left ventricle
rightventricle
pericardialcavity
surroundingheart
rightpleuralcavity 1
betweenrightlung ; fibrouspericardium
and diaphragm where it sits on top
of diaphragm

rightseventhrib, abdominalmuscles
and costal cartilage (tranversus
abdominis)

Figure2.6. Front view of the chest,with the first six ribs, clavicles,and sternum cut
away to revealthe internal organs,which include: the larynx,trachea,lungs and
pleural cavities; the heart, great vessels(aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, and
pulmonary vein, not all shown), pericardialcavity,and fibrous pericardium; the
upper front portion of the respiratorydiaphragm; and the right and left phrenic
nerves.The pleural cavitiesare representedby the thin white spacesbetween the
lungs and the body wall, and between the lungs and diaphragm (Sappey).
76 ANATOXTY OF HA7'r1.1 yOGA

the chest wall is a case in point. Even though the costal portion of the
diaphragm extends to the base of the rib cage, the lungs are never pulled
that far inferiorly (toward the feet), and for much of its area the costal
portion of the diaphragm is in direct contact with the inner surface of the
rib cage, with only the potential spaceof the pleural cavity separating the
two. This region into which the lungs never descend is called the zone of
apposition 6,g. z.g); without its slippery interfaces, the outer surface of the
diaphragm could not slide easily against the inner aspect of the rib cage,
and the dome of the diaphragm could not move up and down smoothly
when we breathe.

costalfibersof the diaphragm

esopnagus hiatus attachingto cartilageat the costalfibersof the
and its for vena base of the sternum diaphragmattach-
hiatusin the cava ing to the baseof
respiratory the rib cage on the
diaphragm left side

centraltendon of
diaphragm(rightside) lowerborderof
costalcartilages

leftcrus of
rightcrus of diaphragm
diaphragm
intercostal
muscles:
three layers
i n t e r n a al .n d
of abdominal
muscles:
external
abdominal eleventh rib
(floating)
oblique,
internal
abdominal leftquadratus
oblique, tumoorum
ITANSVCTSUS fourth muscle
abdominis lumbar
vertebra leftpsoasmuscle

Figure 2.7. A view of the respiratory diaphragm looking at its underneath side
from below. lt's like a rejected upside-down bowl that a potter pushed in on
o n e s i d e .T h e p u s h e d - i n p l a c e i s t h e i n d e n t a t i o nf o r t h e v e r t e b r a lc o l u m n , a n d
the bottom of the bowl contains hiatuses(openings)for the esophagus,aorta,
and inferior vena cava.The central tendon of the diaphragm is represented by
the large, lightly contrasted central arch. The muscle fibers of the diaphragm are
disposed radially from the central tendon: the costal fibers attach to the base of
the rib cage most of the way around (approaching the viewer in the third
dimension); and the right and left crura attach to the lumbar vertebrae below
(between and in front of the origins of the psoas muscles).(from Morris)
 2. BITEATHING

THE FUNCTION OF THE DIAPHRAGM

To analyze the origins and insertions of a muscle that is shaped like an

indented umbrella is a bit daunting, but that is what we must do if we want
to understand how the diaphragm functions in breathing and posture.
we,ll begin with the simplest situation, which is found in supine postures.
Here the base of the rib cage and the lumbar spine act as fixed origins for
the diaphragm, and under those circumstances the central tendon has to

scalenesinserting
on left clavicle
left torearm
is partially
suDScapulafls
pronated
muscle (left) (notquite
enoughfor
X-likeconfig-
resplrarory urationof
diaphragm. radiusand
costal portion ulnato be
apparent)
numerus

circumferential
attachmentof the
CTUS: costal portion of the
right diaphragmto the
base of the rib cage
left
leftiliacusmuscle

left psoas muscle

leftfemur

forearmsupinated adductormuscles
(radiusand ulna in
parallelconfiguration)

Figure 2.8. ResPiratorY

tibias:
d i a p h r a g ma n d o t h e r right left fibula
deep muscles of the left
body. With internal
organs removed and
most of the rib cage
and sternumcut
away,the dome-like
structure of the
d i a p h r a g mi s r e a d i l y
a p p a r e n t( A l b i n u s ) .
 80 ANAT)],IY oF ITAI,]TA Y)GA

act as the movable insertion. The dome of the "cup," including the central
tendon, descendsand flattens during inhalation, putting pressure on the
contents of the abdomen and creating a slight vacuum in the chest that
draws air into the lungs. By contrast, the dome of the diaphragm is drawn
upward during exhalation by the inherent elasticity of the lungs, and as
that happens air escapesinto the atmosphere.
Whenever the chest and spine are fixed, as typically occurs during
relaxed breathing in a supine position, the top of the dome of the
diaphragm is pulled straight downward during inhalation, like a piston.
with the chest wall acting as the cylinder. During a supine inhalation the
fibers ofthe diaphragm shorten concentrically and pull the central tendon
inf'eriorly. During a supine exhalation its fibers lengthen eccentricalll. as
the central tendon is both pushed from below and pulled from abor.e-
pushed by gravity acting on the abdominal organs and pulled by the elastic
recoil of the lungs. The abdominal wall remains rclaxed. lt stretchesout

the liverand its impressionoi heartis locatedhere resprratory

o apnragm
largeimpression
on the inferior
surfaceof the s r x l nn o
diaphragm
s t o m a c na n o
r t s m p r e s so n
e x t e r n a la n d
zone of In t e r n a
apposition: r n t e r c o s l as
pleuralcavity
rs snownas
a substantial m p r e s so n

clarity;the g uvgr u | ilu

diaphragm
at this site
is actuallyin abdomrnal
intimate u5Ltu5. d5

appositionto .l^ 27
the chest
watl
o e s c e n Ion g
colon
lowerend ol
ascenorng
colon u il nary
bladder
grearer
omentum
(draping
down from
stomach)

F i g u r e2 . 9 .A b d o m i n a l o r g a n s i n p l a c e ,w i t h t h e d i a p h r a g ma n d l o w e r h a l f o f t h e
rib cage cut to illustrate the extensive zone of apposition, into which the rungs
d o n o t d e s c e n de v e n d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f a m a x i m u m i n h a l a t i o n( S a p p e y ) .
 IING IJl

anteriorly (forward) as the dome of the diaphragm descends during

inhalation, and it moves back posteriorly (toward the back of the body) as
the diaphragm relaxes and rises during exhalation. Only in supine and
inverted postures do we seethe diaphragm act with such purity of movement.
, This kind of breathing is carried out in its entirety by the diaphragm,
but it is often referred to as abdominal breathing, ot: belly breathing,
4
becausethis is where movement can be seen and felt. It is also known as
deep diaphragmatic breathing in recognition of its effects in the lower
abdomen. Finally, we can callilt abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing to indicate
that the downward movement of the dome of the diaphragm not only draws
air into the lungs, it also pushes the lower abdominal wall anteriorly.
Another type of diaphragmatic breathing operates very differently.
Amazingly, its principal mechanical features were accurately described by
Galen (a first century Roman physician and the {bunder of experimental
physiology) almost two thousand years ago, even though his concept of why
we breathe was pure fantasy. During inhalation the primary action of this
type of'breathing is not to enlarge the lungs by pulling the dome of the
diaphragrn inf'eriorly, but to lift the basc of the chest and expand it laterally,
posteriorly, and anteriorly It works likc this. If there is even mild tension in
the lower abdominal wall, that tcnsion will impedc the downward movement
of the dome of the diaphragrn. And since the.abdominal organs cannot be
compressed, they can act only as a Iulcrum, causing the diaphragm to
cantilever its costal site of erttachmenton the rib cagc outwardly, sprcading
thc base of the rib cage to the front, to thc rear, and to the sides, while at
the same time pulling air into thc lower portions of the lungs. ln contrast
to the pump handle analopy for intercostal breathing, diaphrogmatic
breathing has been likened to lifting a bucket handle up and out from its
resting position alongside the bucket (see Anderson and Sovik's Yoga,
Mastering the Basics for illustration and further explanation). Without the
resistance of the abdominal organs, the diaphragm cannot create this
result. The intercostal muscles serve to support the action of the
diaphragm, not so much to lift and enlarge the chest but to keep it from
collapsing during inhalation.

lTechnicalnote:Preciselanguagedoesnot exist,at leastin English,for describing

in a singleword or phrasehow the respiratorydiaphragmoperatesto expandthe
rib cagein diaphragmaticbreathing.A "cantilevertruss," however,from civil engi-
neering,describesa horizontaltruss supportedin the middleand sustaininga load
at both ends,and this comesclose.In the specialcaseof the human torso, the
abdominalorgansand intra-abdominalpressureprovidehorizontalsupportfor the
domeof the diaphragm,and the lift and outward expansionof the baseof the rib
I cageis a loadsustainedat the perimeterof the baseof the rib cage.1
The origins and insertions of the diaphragm for abdominal inhalations
are different than for diaphragmatic inhalations, and understanding the
82 ANATOMY OI.. IIATHA YOGA

subtleties of these functional shifts will further clarify the differences

between the two types of breathing. For abdominal breathing in the corpse
and inverted postures, both the costal attachment to the rib cage and the
crural attachment to the spine act as stationary origins; the only part ofthe
diaphragm that can move (the insertion, by defrnition) is the central tendon
in the dome, which moves inferiorly during inhalation and superiorly
(toward the head) during exhalation. By contrast, for diaphrapgnatic
breathing, the central tendon is held static by the relative tautness of the
abdominal wall and servesmainly as a link between the spinal attachments
ofthe crura, which now act as the stationary origin, and the costal attachment
to the base of the rib cage,which now acts as the movable insertion.
To summarize, diaphragrnatic breathing occasionsan expansion of the rib
cage from its lower border. To differentiate it from abdomino-diaphragnatic
breathing, in which the rib cage remains static, we can call tt thoroc'o-
diaphragmatic breathing. It should be mentioned that the terms abdominal
breathing, belly breathing, deep diaphragmatic breathing, and diaphragpnatic
breathing have all been in casual, although generally noncritical. use fbr a
Iong time, but the terms "abdomino-diaphragmatic" and "thoraco-
diaphragmatic" have not appeared in the literaturc before now.

HOW BREATHING AFFECTS POSTURE

'I'he way breathing aff'ectsposture and the way posture afl'ects breathing
will be continuing themes throughout the rest of this book. The importance
o{'theseissueshave long been recognizedin yoga, but most commentztries
are vaglre and imprecise. Here I am aiming for simplicity: photographic
records of exhalations and inhalations, and superimpositions of computer-
generated tracings of inhalations (since these are always largerr or.rthe
exhalations. As seen in both this chapter and in chapters -l and t. such
images provide a source of raw data not only for how inhalations resr.rltin
movements of the chest and abdomen but also for how they affect the body
from head to toe. The single most important key to understanding all such
effects is the operation of the respiratory diaphragm, and to introdllce the
subject, we'll explore two exercisesthat will help you become ari-are of its
anatomy and understand two of its main roles in movement other than
those for respiration itself.

A VARIATION OF THE COBRA

Lie face down on the floor and interlock your arms behind 1'our back.
grasping your forearms or elbows. Or you can simply place 1.our hands in
the standard cobra position alongside the chest. Strongll' tighten all the
muscles from the hips to the toes, and use the neck and deep back muscles
to Iift the head, neck, and chest as high as possible.You are not making any
 2. IJI]EAI'I IIi\G tJ.]

particular use of the diaphragm to come into this position. Now inhale and
exhale deeply through the nose. Notice that each inhalation raises the
upper part ofthe body higher and that each exhalation lowers it (fig. z.ro).
Because you are keeping the back muscles engaged continuously during
both inhalation and exhalation, the lifting and lowering action is due
entirely to the muscles of respiration.
In this variation of the cobra pose we hold the hips, thighs, and pelvis
firmly, which stabilizes the lower back and the spinal attachment of the
crus of the diaphragm. Inhalation creates tension at all three of the
diaphragm's attachments: one on the vertebral column, one on the base of
the rib cage, and the third on the central tendon. But becausethe hip and
thigh muscles have been tightened, the spinal attachment is stabilized,
excepting only a slight lifting effect that is translated to the hips. What
happens in the torso illustrates clearly how respiratory movements influence
posture: with the abdomen pressed against the floor, the contents of the
abdominal cavity cannot easily descend, and this restricts the downward
movement of the central tendon, which now acts as a link between the two
muscular portions of the diaphragm. With the crural attachments stabilized,
the only insertion that can be mobilized without difficulty is the one at the
base ofthe rib cage. This attachment therefore expands the chest from its
base,draws air into the lungs, and lifts the upper body. Ifyou are breathing
smoothly and deeply you will feel a gentle, rhythmic rocking movement as
the head, neck, and chest rise and fall with each inhalation and exhalation.
This is a perfect illustration of thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing.
In this exercisethe action oI'the diaphragrn during inhalation reinfbrces
the activity ofthe deep back and neck muscles and thus deepensthe back-
ward bend. During exhalation the muscle fibers of the diaphragm lengthen
eccentrically as they resist gravity. When they finally relax at thc cnd of
exhalation, the backward bend in the spine is maintained only by the deep

inhalation

l'l'i:rl::-,:,,,:,,.:,
.r' :::::|IIII::::::::rrrrl

Figure 2.10. Cobra variation with tightly engaged lower extremities.

Diaphragmatic inhalation (dotted line) lifts the upper half of the body over and
above what can be accomplished by the back muscles acting alone (halftone).
Contrast with the diaphragmatic rear lift in figure 2.-11.
6.+ ANA'.tOMY Ot: I |A',rl IA YOGA

muscles of the back and neck. This is an excellent exercise for strengthening
the diaphragm, because after you have lifted to your maximum with the
deep back muscles, you are using the diaphragm, aided by the external
intercostal muscles acting as synergists, to raise the upper halfofthe body
even higher-and this is a substantial mass to be lifted by a single sheet of
muscle acting as prime mover. Furthermore, if you keep trying as hard as
possible to inhale deeply without closing the glottis, you will be creating the
most extreme possible isometric exercisefor this muscle and its synergrsts,the
external intercostals. But be watchful. If this effort creates discomfort in
the upper abdomen on the left side, please read the section in chapter -1on
hiatal hernio before continuinc.

THE DIAPHRAGMATICREAR LIFT

Next try a posture that we can aptly call the diaphragmatic rear lift. Again
lic Iace down, placing your chin against the floor, with the arms along the
sidcsofthc body and the palms next to the chest.Keepingthe chest pressed
firmly against the floor, relzx all the musclesfrom the waist down, including
the hips. Take to-t5 nasal brcaths at a rate ofabout one breath per second.
With the thighs and hips rclaxed, and with the base of the rib cage fixed
against the floor, the action of the diaphragrn during inhalation can be
translatcd to only one site: the spinal attachment of'the crus. And because
the deep back muscles are rclaxed, each inhalation lilts the lower back and
hips, and each exhalation allows them to fall toward the floor (frg. :.nr.
Make sure you produce the movcment entirely with the diaphragm. not bv
bumping your hips up and down with the gluteal (hip) and back muscle.s.
Because the inhalations increase the lumbar curvature, this exercise u'ill
not be comfurtable fbr anvone with low back pain.

inhalation

--.--.-.>

Figure 2.11. Diaphragmatic rear lift. With the rib cage anchored against
the floor, its lower rim acts as an origin for the diaphragm rather than an
i n s e r t i o n ( a s h a p p e n si n t h e c o b r a p o s t u r e i n f i g . 2 . 1 0 ) .l f t h e g l u t e a l r e g i o n
and lower extremities remain completely relaxed, the crural attachments
o f t h e d i a p h r a g mt h e n l i f t t h e h i p s d u r i n g i n h a l a t i o na n d l o w e r t h e m b a c k
down during exhalation.
 2. IJREAT'HIN(; IJ5

You can feel the diaphragmatic rear lift most easily if you breathe rapidly;
the quick inhalations whip the hips up and away from the floor and the
sudden exhalations drop them. But if you breathe slowly and smoothly you
will notice that each inhalation gradually increasesthe pull and tension on
the hips and lower back, even though it does not create much movement,
and that each exhalation gradually easesthe tension. When you are breathing
slowly enough, you can also feel the muscle fibers of the diaphragm shorten
concentrically during inhalation and lengthen eccentrically during exhalation
as they control the gravity-induced lowering of the hips toward the floor.
The origins and insertions of the diaphragm are reversed in the diaphrag-
matic rear lift in comparison with the cobra variation, and this creates reper-
cussionsthroughout the whole body. In the cobra variation we fix the hips
and thighs, allowing the costal attachment of the diaphragm to lift the rib
cage, and with the rib cage the entire upper half of the body. In the
diaphragmatic rear lift we do just the opposite: we lix thc rib cage,relax the
hips and thighs, and allow the crural insertion of the diaphragpnto lift thc
lumbar spine and hips.
'I'hesetwo postures also show us how important it is that thc diaphragm
is indented so deeply by the vertebral column that it almost cncircles the
spine. This enables it to act both from above and behind to accentuate the
lumbar arch during inhalation, lilting thc uppcr half' of'the body in the cobra
variation, and lifting the sacrum and hips in the diaphragmatic rear lilt.

THE SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC SYSTEMS

'Ihe way wc brcathe aff'ects far morc than our posture, and we can best
explore those ramifications by looking at the two ggeat functional divisions
of the nervous system-somatic and autonomic-and at thc tissues and
'lhe somatic neruous system is
organs they each oversee. concerned with
every'thingfrom the control of skclctal musclc activity to conscioussensations
such as touch, pressure,pain, vision, and audition. Fclrthe autonomic neruous
system, think first of regulation of blood pressure, viscera, sweat glands,
digestion, and elimination-in fact, any kind of internal function of the
body that you have little or no interest in trying to manage consciously.
This system is concerned with sensory input to the brain from internal
organs-generally more for autonomic reflexes than for inner sensations-
as well as fbr motor control of smooth muscle in the walls of internal
organs and blood vessels, cardiac muscle in the wall of the heart, and
glands (figs. to.4a-b). Both systems are involved in breathing.

THE SOMATIC SYSTEM

Since breathing draws air into the lungs, and since the lungs are internal
organs, we might supposethat the muscles of respiration are controlled by
86 ANATOMYOFHATHA YOGA

the autonomic nervous system. But they're not. The act of breathing is a
somatic act of skeletal muscles. In chapter r we discussedthe somatic nervous
system, although without naming it, when we discussedthe control of the
skeletal muscles by the nervous system. Respiration makes use of this system,
whether we want to breathe fast or slow, cough, sneeze,or simply lift an
object while going "oomph." When we participate consciously in any of
these activities we breathe willfully to support them, and we do so from the
command post in the cerebral cortex that influences the lower motor neurons
for respiration. Ifyou are consciously and quietly using the diaphragm as
you breathe, you are activating the lower motor neurons whose axons
innervate the diaphragm by way of the phrenic nerues (figs. 2.6 and :..r:,). If
you are eight months pregnant the diaphragm can't function efficientll',
and in order to breathe you will have to activate lower motor neurons
whose axons innervate the intercostal muscles by way o{'the intercostal
nerues.And if you are trying to ring the bragging bell at a state fair with a
sledge hammer, you will make a mighty effort and a grunt with 1'our
abdominal muscles,again calling on motor neurons from the thoracic cord
to transmit the cerebral commands to thc muscles of the abdominal lvall.
The cell bodies for the phrenic nerves are located in the spinal cord in the
region ofthe neck fthe ceruical region), and the cell bodiesfor the intercostal
nerves are locatcd in the spinal cord in the region ofthe chest (the tJtorctcic
region). In the neck the spinal cord contains eight cervical segments (C I fi ).
and in the chest it contains twelve thoracic segmcnts (Tr-rz; figs. r.; and
z.rz). The diaphragnn is innervated by the right and left phrenic ner\.es
from spinal cord scppnentsC,l-5; thc intercostal and abdominal muscles are
innervatcd by the intercostal nerves from spinal cord segments l'r r: rfigs.
r . 5a n d z . r z ) .
Both the phrenic and intercostal nerves are necessary for the firll
expression of breathing. II'fbr any reason the intercostal nervcs are not
functional, leaving only the phrenic nerves and a functioning diaphragn-r
intact, the diaphragm will support respiration by itself'(fig. z. n, site d r. But
in that event the external intercostal muscles will no longer maintain the
shape of the chest isometrically, and every time the dome of the diaphragm
descendsand creates a vacuum in the lungs and pleural cavity, the chest
wall will be tugged inward. On the other hand, if for some reason the
phrenic nerves are not functional (see asterisks fig. z.tz), but the inter-
costal nerves and muscles are intact, the vacuum produced by actii'it-v of
the external intercostal muscles will pull the dome of the flaccid diaphragm
higher in the chest during the course of every inhalation.
Like all typical somatic motor neurons, those for respiration are con-
trolled from higher centers in the brain, and life cannot be supported by
spinal cord transections above C3 (fig. z.tz, site c). A transection at C6 is
 2. RR||ATTIING 67

this neuronrepresentsall a) a lesion

influenceson breathing in motor
from abovethe pons and pathways
medulla above the
pons teaves
respiration
entirely
the pons and
underthe
a neuronin its
control of
respiratory
the pontine
controlcenter
and
medullary
respiratory
the medullaand a control
neuronin its centers
respiratorycontrol
center
b) a completetransection of
the left phrenic the brainstem at the lower
nerve innervates end of the pons leaves
the left side of respirationunderthe crudest
possiblecontrolof the
the diaphragm;
its cell bodies medullarycontrolcenter
are locatedin arone
spinalcord
segmentsC3-5;
cuttingthese c) a lesionthat destroys
nervesat the *s motor pathwaysfor respira
would cause tion betweenthe medullary
complete controlcenterand C3 results
paralysisof the in immediatecessationof
diaphragm breathing,and death

the left intercostal

nerves(whosecell d) a transectionof the spinal
bodies are located cord just belowC5 spares
in spinalcord the phrenicnerveand the
segmentsT1-12) T{ispinal functionof the diaphragm
innervateboth the nerve (permittinglifeto be
intercostal muscles sustained), but paralyzesall
and the abdominal the intercostaland abdomi-
muscleson the left nal muscles,and resultsin
side quadriplegia(seechapter1)

e) a transectionof the spinal

cord at L1 spares lower
motorneuronsfor all the
Figure2.12.Central musclesof respiration,
nervoussystempath- which in turn permitsnormal
waysand peripheral breathing,but resultsin
nervesfor the motor paraplegia(seechapter1)
controlof respiration.
Sitesof lesionsthat
affectbreathingand/or
t h a t c a u s eq u a d r i p l e g i a
and paraplegia are
indicatedat asterisks
a n da t a - e ( S a p p e y ) .
88 A^"ATO.MY OF HANIA YOGA

not quite as serious. It spares input from the brain to the somatic motor
neurons whose axons travel in the phrenic nerve, and in that manner
sparesthe function of the diaphragm, as mentioned above,but it eradicates
input to the somatic motor neurons that innervate the intercostal and
abdominal muscles,as well as to the rest of the skeletal muscles of the body
from the neck down, resulting in quadriplegia (fiS. z.rz, site d; also see
chapter r). If a complete transection occurs at Lr-the frrst lumbar segment of
the spinal cord-all input to all motor neurons for all muscles of respiration is
spared and breathing is normal, although such a transection would result
in paraplegia(frg.z.rz, site e; seealso chapter r).

T H E R E S P I R A T O R YC E N T E R S

Breathing €foeson twenty-four hours a day. We can regulate it mindfullv

from the cerebral cortex if we want, in the same way that we can rcgulate
our movement and posture, but most of the time our minds are occupied
elsewhereand we rcly on other motor centers to manage rcspirzrtion. T'hesc
respiratory control centers are located in the two lowest segments of the
brai,n stem (the continuati<-rn of the spinal cord into the brain). A crude
rhythm for respiration is generatcd in the lowest of these segments-thc
medulla-and this is fine-tuned by the ncxt higher segment-the polr)- (fig.
z.tz). Input from these centers to the motor neurons of respiration is
unconscious.Willed respiration, ofcourse, is directcd from thc cerebral cortex
and can override the rhythms generated by the lower segments of tl.re
brain. But even ifhigher centershave been destroyedby a stroke or traumatic
head injury (fig. z.rz, site a), the controlling centers for respiration in the
pons or even just the medulla may still survive, allowing someone u'ho is
otherwise brain-dead to continue breathing indefinitely.
We depend on the respiratory centers to manage somatic aspect-sof'
breathing automatically, but sometimes the mechanisms do not u.ork
perf'ectly. In a rare form of sleep apnea-the central hypouentilotiort
syndrome-the automatic control of ventilation is lost but the abilitv to
breathe voluntarily is preserved. This is roughly similar tri a circur.r.rstzrnce
immortalized in Jean Giraudoux's play Ondine. Ondine, a water n-r'n.rph
and an immortal, married Hans, a mortal, even though she knew that sr,rcl-r
a union was forbidden and that Hans was doomed to die if he was unfaithfr.rl
to her. When the prophecy was fulfilled, Hans was deprived of his auton.ratic
functions. 'A single moment of inattention," he tells Ondine, "and I forget
to breathe. He died, they will say,becauseit was a nuisance to breathe." And
so it came to be. This form of sleep apnea is now known as Ondine's curse.
Although the respiratory pathways in the brain stem support the most
primitive form of rhythmic breathing, higher centers can either smooth
this out or disrupt it. We all know that when we are in intense emotional
 2, BREA'I'ITING 69

states our breathing becomesjerky and irregular. watch a baby struggle to

breathe while it is preparing to cry or think of how uncontrollable laughing
affects a teenager's breathing. By contrast, when we are calm, the somatic
motor circuits for respiration will be delicately balanced and our breathing
will be smooth and even. Maintaining such even-tempered states is one of
the aims of yoga.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

when you think of the autonomic nervous system, the first point is not to
confuse the terms automatic and autonomic. We can breathe automatically
courtesy of the somatic nervous system, but the word autonomic is derived
,,autonomy," the quality of being independent. In the context of the
from
two great divisions of the nervous system, the autonomic nervous system
is largely independent of the somatic system; it consists of a vast auxiliary
network of neurons that controls viscera, blood vessels, and glands
throughout the body. It is not, however,completely autonomous, becauseit
interacts with the somatic nelvous system-it both feeds sensory information
from within the body into the somatic systems of'the brain and spinal cord
(in this caseour main concern is the respiratory centers), and is affected by
l h c s o m a t i cm o t o r s y s t e m si n r e t u r n -
wc constantly depend on smooth interactions between the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.You race around the block using your skeletal
muscles, which are controlled by the somatic nervous system, but you
would not get far unless your autonomic nervous system sped up your
heart. stimulated the release of glucosefrom your liver, and shunted blood
from the skin to the skeletal muscles.And il instead of running around the
block, you sit down and read a book after dinner, you flip the pages using
your skeletal muscles and depend on the unconscious operation of your
autonomic nervous system to digest your meal. Respiration, as it happens,
is the fbremost function in the body in which signals from internal organs
have a constant and continuing effect on somatic function, in this case the
rate and depth ofbreathing, twenty-four hours a day.
If we look at an overwiew of how the autonomic nervous system operates,
controlling autonomic influences from the central nervous system (the brain
and spinal cord) are relayed to their visceral targets by two systems of
autonomic motor neurons: sympathetic and parasympathetic. The
sympathetic neruous system prepares the body for emergencies ("fight or
flight") and the parasympathetic neruous system maintains the supportive
functions of the internal organs.Between them, by definition, these two systems
execute the autonomic motor commands from the brain and spinal cord. More
of these interactions will be discussed in chapter to, in which we'll be
concernedwith the importance of the autonomic nenr'oussystem in relaxation.
 YOGA

Here our concern is limited mainly to breathing, and the first thing to
note is that the most important autonomic relationship involving the control
of respiration is sensory. This does not mean sensory in regard to some-
thing you can feel; it refers to influences from sensory receptors that have
an impact on breathing. Specifically, the sensory limb of the autonomic
nervous system carries information on oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in
the blood and cerebrospinal fluid to the respiratory control centers in the
brain stem. You would see the important respiratory linkage between the
autonomic and somatic systems in operation if you were suddenly rocketed
from sea level to the top of Alaska's Mount Denali. You would immediately
begin to breathe faster because your somatic respiratory control centers
receive autonomic sensory signals that your blood is not getting enough
oxygen, not becauseyou make a conscious somatic decision that you had
better do something to get more air.
There are also purely autonomic mcchanisms that affect breathing in
other ways. 'fhe most obvious examplc is familiar to those who suff'er from
asthma, or from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD) combined
with bronchitis, and that is the difficulty of moving air through constricted
airways. It is not very helpful to have healthy skelctal musclcs of r-espilir-
tion if the airways are so constricted that they do n<lt permit the passageof
air. Although this is a complex and multifaceted problem, the autonomic
nervous systcm involvement appears to be straightlbrward. In quiet tin.res
when therc is less need for air, the parasympathetic nervous system ntildlv
constricts the smooth muscle that surrounds the airways, espccialll' the
smallcr bronchioles, and thereby impedes thc flow of'air to and frorn the
alvcoli. But in timcs of emergency or increased physical activitl-, the
sympathetic nervous system opens the airways and allows air to flow n.rorc
easily. 'l'hose who have chronic respiratory diseaseshave an acute arvar.e-
ness of how difficult it can be to medicate and regulate this system.

HOW BREATHINGAFFECTS THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

All ofour concernsso far have been with how the ner.voussystem influences
breathing. These are all widely recognized. What is not as well-known is that
different methods of breathing can affect the autonomic nervous system and
have an impact on the functions we ordinarily consider to be under unconscious
control. Abnormal breathing patterns can stimulate autonomic reactions asso-
ciated with panic attacks, and poor breathing habits in emphysema patients
produce anxiety and chronic overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous
system. By contrast, quiet breathing influences the autonomic circuits that
slow the heartbeat and reduce blood pressure, producing calm and a sense
of stability. Our ability to control respiration consciously gives us accessto
autonomic function that no other system ofthe body can boast.
 2. BR,b:AI'T11,\G

2:1 BREATHING

one breathing technique that can produce a beneficent effect on the

autonomic nervous system is z:l breathing-taking twice as long to exhale
as to inhale. For those who are in good condition, 6-secondexhalations and
without
3-secondinhalations are about right, and if you can regulate this
stress, the practice will slow your heart down and you will have a subjective
experience of relaxation. As with almost all breathing exercises in yoga.
both inhalation and exhalation should be through the nose.
This connection between heart rate and breathing, known as respiratory
sinus arrhythmia, tnvolves reflex activity from the circulatory system to
the brain stem that causesthe heart to beat more slowly during exhalation
than it does in inhalation. It is a natural arrhythmia, called "respiratory"
becauseit is induced bv respiration, and called "sinus" becausethe receptors
that stimulate the shifts in heart rate are located in the aortic and carotid
sinuses,which are bulbous enlargements in those great vessels.If you take
longer to exhale than to inhale, especially when you are relaxing, the slowing-
'Ihis is an excellent example of
down effect of exhalation will predominate.
how we can willfully intervene to produce eff'ectsthat are usually regulated
by the autonomic nervous sYstem.
There are limits on both ends to the effects of z:t breathing. Il'you are
walking briskly, exhaling fbr two secondsand inhaling one second,you will
not get this reaction, and if vou takc it too far in the other direction, which
frlr most pegple means trying to breathe fewer than five breaths per minute
(l.l-secondexhalations and 4-second inhalations), the exercise may become
strcssful and causc the heart rate to increase rather than slow down. The
golden mean-that which is entirely comfortable-is best.
There is one well-known practical consequence of respiratory sinus
arrhythmia. For decades doctors have known empirically that pursed-lip
breathing against moderate resistance is helpful for those with obstructive
lung disease.What is not generally realized is that the practice is helpful
mainly because it leng$hens exhalations, slows the heart rate, decreases
the amount of air remaining in the lungs after exhaiation, and reduces fear
and anxiety. Knowledgeable yoga teachers realize that the same end can be
accomplished through a different approach-lengthening exhalations by
pressing in gently with the abdominal muscles while at the same time
breathing through the nose.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION

Different hatha yoga breathing exercises affect respiration in different
ways, but before we can understand how they do this we need a little more
background. we'll start our discussion with a look at the amount of air
found in the lungs and airways at different stages of the breathing cycle.
These values-the lung volumes, capacities, and anatomic dead space-
vary according to stature, age, sex, and conditioning, so to keep things simple
we'll always use round numbers that are characteristic for a healthy young
man. The numbers are generally smaller for women, for older men and
women) and for those in poor physical condition. That's not so relevant to
us here. Our main interest is not in how the lung volumes and capacities
vary in different individuals; it is in how they vary with different breathing
practices and postures. The numerical representations in fig. z.r-3,as well
as in all the charts on respiration, are only simulations, but they will be a
useful starting point for more rigorous inquir.y.

LUNG VOLUMES CAPACITIES AND THE ANATOMIC DEAD SPACE

There are four Lung uolumes (fig. z.r;). We'll begin with the tidal uolunte,
which is the amount of air that moves in and out in one breath. Textbooks
state that in our healthy young man it amounts to one pint, or about ;oo
ml (milliliters) during relaxed breathing, but this volume is obviouslv
circumstantial-when we are climbing stairs it will be greater than when
we are sitting quietly. The inspiratory reserueuolume, about -j,3oo ml (-l r :
quarts), is thc additional air you can inhale after an ordinary tidal inh:ilation.
'lhe
expiratory reserueuoLurne,trbout r,ooo ml, is the additional air you car.r
exhale after a normal tidal exhalation. The resiductLuolume, about r.:'oo
ml, is the amount of air that remains in the lungs alter you have exhatled
as much as possible.
Lung capacilies, of which there are also four, are combinations of trvo or
more lung volumes (fig. z.r l). First, the uital capacity is the total antount ot
air you can breathe in and out; it totals 4,tloo ml and is the combination of'
the tidal volume plus the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes. This
is the most inclusive possible definition o{'the yogic "complete breath," and
is an important clinical value.
Second, Lhe totaL lung capacity is self'-explanatory.In a health-v J-oung
man is amounts to about (r,oooml and is the sum of all lbur lung volumes,
or alternatively, the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume.
Third, the inspiratory capacity is the total amount of air you can inhale
at the beginning of a normal tidal inhalation. This is a restrictive definition
of the yogic "complete breath," which is the combination of the tidal volume
and inspiratory reserve volume (about l,ttoo ml).
Fourth, the functional residual capacity,2,2oo ml, is the combination of
the residual volume and the expiratory reserve volume. As its name
implies, this is an especially practical quantity-the amount of air in the
lungs at the end of a normal exhalation that will be mixed with a fresh
inhalation. This usually amounts to a lot of air-more than four times as
much as an ordinary tidal volume of 5oo ml. One point of pursed-lip breathing,
 2. BRttA'|IilItG 93

discussedearlier, is to drastically decreasethis value so that the fresh air

that you inhale is mixed with a smaller volume of oxygen-poor air.
Lung volumes and capacities differ markedly in different hatha yoga
postures and practices. For example, agni sara (chapter 3) almost obliterates
the expiratory reserve volume and increasesthe tidal volume from 5oo ml
to possibly 1,600 ml (figs. 3.3t-31);inverted postures (chapters 8 and 9)
decreasethe expiratory reserve volume and shift the tidal volume closer to
the residual volume; and the bellows breath, which will be discussed at
length later in this chapter, minimizes the tidal volume.
The anatomic dead space is another extremely important clinical
value-the air-filled spacetaken up by the airways, which include the nasal
passages,pharynx, larynx, trachea, right and left primary bronchi' and the
branches of the bronchial tree that lead to the alveoli. It is called a dead
space because it does not, unlike the alveoli, transport oxygen into the
blood and carbon dioxide out. This spaceordinarily totals about t5o ml, so
for a tidal volume of 5oo ml, only 35o ml of fresh air actually gets to the
alveoli. You can get an immediate idea of its significance when you are
snorkeling. If you breathe through a snorkel tubc with a volumc of too ml,
the practical size of the anatomic dead space incrcases from r5o ml to z5o

-
g
@
0)
=
-
.c
a
.o
o
(u
o
cU
o
o
c
5
a
0)
E
l
o
m
c
l

residual expiratory tidal inspiratory functional inspiratory vital total lung

volume reserve volume reserve residual capacity capacrty capacity
volume volume capacity

Figure2.13.The four lung volumes(onthe left) and the four lung capacities(on
the right).The latterare combinationsof two or more lungvolumes.All the
valuesare simulationsfor a healthyyoungman.
q.I ANATOMY OI-'IIATHA YOGA

ml, you have to inhale 6oo ml through the end of the tube just to get 35o
ml to the alveoli, and you might have a few moments of panic before you
adjust to the need for deeper breaths. Clinical concerns with the anatomic
dead space are often grim: in terminal emphysema patients its volume
sometimes approachesand exceedsthe vital capacity.

ALVEOLAR AND MINUTE VENTILATTON

When we consider how much air we inhale and exhale over a period of time,
the first thing we think of is the minute uentilation, the amount of air we
breathe in and out over a period of 60 seconds.This is what we feel-the
touch of the breath in the nostrils, in and out, over a period of one minute.
All you have to do to calculate your minute ventilation is measur.eyour
tidal volume and multiply that value times the number of breaths you take
per minute. According to textbooks, this would be 5oo ml per breath times
rz,breaths per minute, and this equals 6,000 ml per minute.
The minute ventilation does not tell us everything we need to knoq
however, because what is most important is not the amount of air that
movesin and out of the noseor mouth, but the amount of air that gets past
the anatomic dead spaceinto the alveoli. This is also measuredover a period
of one minute and is called, logically enough, the alueoLaruentiLation. It is
our primary concern when we want to know how breathing affects the content
of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, and that is our main interest in
yoga breathingl exercises.'lo calculate the alveolar ventilation, subtract thc
size of'the anatomic dead spacefrom the tidal volume before multiplying b1,
the respiratory frequency.For example, 5oo ml of tidal volume minus t 5o ntl
of anatomic dead spaceequals35oml per breath, and 35oml per breath tin-res
tz breaths per minute yields an alveolar ventilation of 4,zoo ml per minute.
The values given fbr lung volumes and capacities,as well as for minute
and alveolar ventilation, are only textbook examples-it is not uncommon
to breathe more rapidly and take in a smaller tidal volume for each breath.
If you watch a dozen people closely in casual situations, such as when they
are sitting on a bus with their arms folded acrosstheir chests,you can easily
count the breaths they take per minute, and it is usually faster than the
textbook standard of rz breaths per minute: 24-30 breaths per minute is a
lot more common. This is of no great consequencebecauseeveryone simply
adjusts their tidal volume so that their alveolar ventilation stays within a
normal range (fig. z.r4). In meditation the rate of breathing generally
seemsto slow down, but it can still vary widely and may either be faster or
slower than the standards cited in the medical literature on respiration.
Here too, you adjust the rate of breathing and the tidal volume so that the
alveolar ventilation comes in line with the metabolic requirements of the
practice.
 ATMOSPHERIC,ALVEOLAR,AND BLOOD GASES

The whole point of breathing is to get oxygen from the atmosphere to the
cells of the body and carbon dioxide from the body into the atmosphere,
and to understand how this happens we need to know how diffusion and
pressure differentials drive those processes.Here's how it works: A gas
moves from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration, just
as a drop of dye placed in a glass of water gradually diffuses throughout,
sooner or later equalizing the mixture until it has colored all the water in
the glass uniformly. Very crudely, something similar happens in the body.
There is much concentration of (or pressure from) oxy€lenin the atmosphere,
less in the alveoli, less than that in the arterial blood, and less yet in the
cells of the body that are using the oxygen. By the same token, there is
much concentration of (or pressure from) carbon dioxide in the vicinity of'
the cells that are eliminating it, somewhat less in the veins and alveoli, and
almost none in the atmosphere.
The standard measure of pressure we use for gases is millimeters of
mercury (mm Hg), which is the height of a column of mercury that has the
same weight as a column of gas that extends all the waY out to the strato-
sphere. In other words, if we think of ourselvcs as bottom-dwellers in a sea
of air, which we assuredly are, the weight of a column of air above us at sea
level is the cxact equivalent o1'the weight of a column of mercury of the
same diameter that is 7(ro mm in height. Wc use this unit for measuring

breathingrate 12 breathingrate 24 breathingrate6

breathsper min; breathsper min; breathsper min;
5000
- tidalvolume500 ml; tidalvolume325 ml; tidalvolume850 ml;
E minuteventilation minuteventilation minuteventilation
a 6000ml per min; 7800ml per min; 5 1 0 0m l p e rm i n ;
o
alveolarventilation a l v e o l a rv e n t i l a t i o n alveolarventilation
E 4200ml per min 4200 ml per min 4200 ml per min
.E

V\
a

\4W
c)
E
l
b
2000
v\A/\4/v
I
Cg
p inhalation exhalation inhalation exhalation inhalation exhalation
2.5 sec .1 '1.25 sec
2.5 sec .25 sec 5 sec 5 sec
'1000

0ml
0 15 20 25 30 35 40
time in seconds(sec)

Figure2.14.Three modes of breathing with identical alveolar ventilations.The

n u m e r i c a lv a l u e sa r e s i m u l a t i o n sf o r a h e a l t h yy o u n g m a n .
96 ANA',r'OMY OF IIA1TIA YOGA

many values: total atmospheric pressure; the atmosphere's itemized

content of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases; the decreased oxygen and
increased carbon dioxide in the alveoli; and the content ofoxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood.
Atmospheric pressure decreaseswith increasing altitude. At sea level it
is 76o mm Hg, and of this total, the oxygen share is about r5o mm Hg, the
nitrogen share is about 5tlo mm Hg, and water vapor is about 3o mm Hg,
depending on the humidity. At the summit of Pike's Peak in Colorado
atmospheric pressure is 45o mm Hg (oxygen llj mm Hg), and at the summit
of Mount Everest in the Himalayas it is zz5 mm Hg (oxygen ,12mm Hg).
Going in the other direction to a depth of 165feet under water (which is
considered by diving experts a prudent maximum depth for breathing
atmospheric air that has been pressurized by the depth of the water),
atmospheric pressure is ,1,5oomm Hg and oxygen is 9oo mm Hg.
Returning to more ordinary circumstanccs, let's limit ourselves for the
moment to what we would see inside and outside the body at sea level. If
we are quietly breathing atmospheric air at our favorite seaside resort,
where the oxygen content is about l5o mm Hg, we'll end up with oxygen
levelsof'about ro4 mm Hg in the alveoli,which is reducedfrom r5o mm Hg
because of the transfer o{'oxygen from the alveoli into the blood. passing
on down the pressure gradient, arterial blood contains slightly less ,xygen,
about too mm Hg. Venous blood, or blood that has just released its oxygen
in the tissucs, contains dramatically less, about ;+omm Hg. Carbon dioxide
decreasesin the other direction from the blood to the atmosphere, from a
high of 4(r mm Hg in venous blood to ,1omm Hg in arterial blood and the
alveoli, and finally to a negligible o.3 mm Hg in the atmosphere.
The numbers for atmospheric, alveolar, and blood gasescan all be com-
pared conveniently in table z.r. The ones we are especially concerned with
when we look at pulmonary ventilation and breathing exercisesin yoga are
the pressures for oxygen and carbon dioxide in atmospheric air. alveori.
arterial blood, and venous blood.
Too little alveolar ventilation is hypouentiLation,and too much is lryper-
uentilation. Both conditions will have repercussions in the alveoli, arterial
blood, and venous blood, as well as on tissues throughout the body.
Hypoventilation will result in reduced levels of oxygen and increased levels
of carbon dioxide at all those sites, and hyperventilation drives the figures
in the opposite direction (seetable z.z).

HYPOVENTILATION

Everyone has an intuitive understanding that we have to have oxygen to live,

and most people have experienced an undersupply of oxygen at one time or
another, if only from holding the breath. What's not always recognized, at
Ieast from personal experience, is that the momentary discomfort of smothering
is a warning of something more serious: that the cells of the brain and
spinal cord are acutely sensitive to oxygen deficits, that a severe deprivation
of oxygen will cause temporary damage to the tissue in less than a minute,
and that neurons totally deprived of oxygen for about five minutes (as in
the case of stroke) will die.

ory arr, motslalr, warm alveolar arterial venous

gases anyrem- 75", 80"/" (e8.6') gaseous blood blood
perarure relative wetair pressures gases gases
humidity

oxygen 15 9 . 1 150 149.2 104 100 40

carbondioxide 0.3 0.3 0.3 40 40 46

watervapor 0.0 30 47 47 47 47

nrtrogen 600.6 579.7 563.5 569 J/J 627

totals,in 260 760 760 760 760 760

mm Hg

Table2.1.The abovechartshowspressures in mm Hg (millimetersof

mercury)expectedduringthe courseof relaxedbreathingat sealevel;
the most importanteightvaluesare shown in boldface.Nitrogenis inert:
its valuesare determinedsolelyby altitudeand the summedspecific
pressures for oxygen,carbondioxide,and water vapor.

Hypoventilation, or underbreathing, is a related matter, and another

condition that is familiar to people with respiratory problems. They call it
shortness of breath. Hypoventilation is not usually a serious matter for
anyone who is in good health, for whom a few deep breaths will usually step
up the alveolar ventilation enough to bring the oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels into balance. This is also the aim of several hatha yoga breathing
exercisesthat increase ventilatory capacity, especially the bellows breath.

gases alveolargases arterialblood gases venousbloodgases

relative hypo- normal nyper nypo- normal nyper- hypo- normal nyper-
ventilation vent. vent. vent. vent. vent. VENI. VENI. vent. vent.
oxygen 90 104 140 B5 100 120 32 40 60
carDon 40 15 40
50 51 56 46 30
dioxide

Table2.2.Theabovechart showssimulationsof alveolarand blood gasesin mm

Hg for hypoventilation,
normalbreathing,and hyperventilation.
The sixfiguresin
boldfaceare the norms,repeatedfrom table 2.1.
gtj ANATOMY OF HATIIA '

But vigorous practice of bellows breathing brings up the question of hyper-

ventilation, or overbreathing, and this, paradoxically, can create a deficit in
the supply of oxygen for the cells of the central nervous system where we
need it the most.

HYPERVENTILATION

Let's say you are hyperventilating during the course of an extreme bellows
exercise.If this involves breathing in and out a tidal volume of 5oo ml three
times per second, you will end up with an alveolar ventilation of lllo
breaths per minute times 35o ml per breath, which equals 63,000 ml per
minute, or fifteen times the norm of 4,zoo ml per minute. If you were in
world-class athletic condition and running full speed up forty flights of
stairs, this would be fine. During heavy exerciseyour body will use all the
oxygen it can get, and it will also need to eliminate a heavy overload of carbon
dioxide. It's not, howcver, a good idea for an ordinary person to breathe in
this way. Extreme hyperventilation when you are not exercising strenuously
skews the blood gasestoo much.
Our f,rrst thought is that hyperventilation must drive too much oxygen into
your tissues, but this is inaccurate. Except for a few special circumstances,
such as breathing loo%, oxygen for prolonged periods, or breathing oxygen at
high pressure in deep-seadiving, you can't get too much, and the increased
oxygen in the blood that results from hyperuentilation is certainly not harmful.
The problem with hyperventilation is not that it increases arterial
oxygen but that it decreasesarterial carbon dioxide, and thzrt can have an
unexpected side effect. What happens is that a substantial reduction in
arterial carbon dioxide constricts the small arteries and arterioles of'the
brain and spinal cord. The way this happens, or at least the end result, is
very simple: an arteriole acts crudely like an adjustable nozzle on the end
of a garden hose that can open to emit a lot of water or clamp down to emit
only a fine spray. As carbon dioxide in the blood is reduced, the arterioles
clamp down and the blood supply to the tissue is restricted until there is so
little blood flowing to the brain that it doesn't matter how well it is
oxygenated. Not enough blood (and therefore not enough oxygen) can get
through the arterioles to the capillary beds and adequately support the
neurons.
Hyperventilating vigorously enough to dramatically lower blood carbon
dioxide doesn't necessarily result in death or even obvious clinical symp-
toms, but it can cause more general complaints such as fatigue, irritability,
lightheadedness, panic attacks, or the inability to concentrate. It's not
illogical that the folk remedy for panic attacks, which is still routinely
administered by triage nurses in emergencyrooms, is to have someonewho
is in such a state breathe into a paper bag. Rebreathing our exhaled carbon
 IING I)9

dioxide increasescarbon dioxide levels in the blood and opens the cerebral
circulation. There are better solutions, however, and triage nurses who
have also had some training in relaxed yogic breathing practices would be
more imaginative, perhaps suggesting something as simple as having the
patient lie supine and breathe abdominally with their hands or a moderate
weight on the abdomen.
Extremely low blood levels of carbon dioxide can causeyou to pass out.
Children at play sometimes hyperventilate, hold their breath after a deep
inhalation, and then strain against a closed glottis. If they do this for only
3-4 secondsthey will drop to the floor like stones. Increasing intrathoracic
pressure from straining will have diminished the venous return to the
heart (and thus the cardiac output) immediately after the cerebral circulation
has been partially occluded by hyperventilation, and these two ingredients
combined cut offenough of the blood supply to the brain to causean immediate
but temporary loss of consciousness.The danger of passing out from con-
stricted brain arterioles is also why lifeguards do not allow swimmers to
hyperventilate vigorously before swimming underwater. Hyperventilating
followed by holding the breath after a deep inhalation is not harmful to
children on a grassy lawn who will begin to breathe normally as soon as
they lose consciousness,but it is deadly under water.
One of the most demanding tests of aerobic capacity is mountain climb-
ing without bottled oxygen at altitudes higher than z5,ooo feet. Superbly
conditioned athletes are able to meet this standard and reach the summit
of'Mount Everest by hyperventilating the oxygen-poor atmosphere (42 mm
Hg at z9,ooo feet) all the way to the top. They can jam enough oxygen into
their arterial blood to survive (about 40 mm Hg), and that's good; but the
hyperventilation also drives their alveolar carbon dioxide down to less than
lo mm Hg, and that's not so good. 'I'hey have to train rigorously at high
altitudes to adapt the cerebral circulation to such extremely low levels of
carbon dioxide. If most of us were transported unprepared to such an
altitude (as would happen if we suffered a sudden loss of cabin pressure in
an airliner cruising at 2g,ooo feet), we would experience so much reflex
hyperventilation and subsequent constriction of the cerebral circulation
that without supplemental oxygen we would pass out in about two minutes
and die soon thereafter.
Beginning hatha yoga students who practice the bellows breath excessively
may experience some adverse symptoms of hyperventilation, especially
irritability. But if they continue the practice over a period of time, the cerebral
circulation gradually adapts to decreasedlevels ofcarbon dioxide in the blood,
and they can intensify their practice and safely gain the benefits of alertness
and well-being associatedwith higher levels of blood oxygen.
IOO ANATOMY OI; IIATHA YOGA

CHEMORECEPTORS

The levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and cerebrospinal
fluid are monitored by chemoreceptors,specialized internal sensors of the
autonomic nervous system. Sensory nerve endings associatedwith these
receptors then transmit nerve impulses coded for distorted levels of oxygen
and carbon dioxide directly to the circuits of the somatic nervous system
that regulate breathing (fig. z.t5). Accordingly, the chemoreceptors are
important keys to linking the autonomic and somatic systems.
There are two classesof chemoreceptors: peripheral and central. The
peripheral chemoreceptors,which are located in the large arteries leading
away from the heart, react quickly to substantial reductions of arterial
oxygen and strongly stimulate respiration. If you restrict your breathing, or if

externalcarotidarteryand main branches(suppliesface and scalp)

internalcarotidartery (travelsdeep here to supply brain)

cerebellum

?
:'-',/:'t')
' t::.
:=.' autonomrc a
.i5R
nervous
systemInput:
peripheral /l
chemo-
receprorsro
pontine
respiratory
tA
y't\ l

i L,JI_ cenler common \

carotid
\
anery
centralchemoreceptors \
medulla (in oblongwhitespace) bulbous
a genenc
motorneuron\ are sensitiveto carbon enlargement ol
that innervates -\ dioxidein cerebrospinal carotidsinus,
the diaphragm fluid (CSF);they help with peripheral
or any other regulaterespirationby cnemoreceprors
muscleof way of the medullary that respondto
respiration respiratorycenter (small reducedlevelsol
arrow) blood oxygen

Figure 2.15. Brain stem and cerebellum on the left (with central chemoreceptors
near the front surface of the medulla), and on the right, the carotid sinus (with
peripheral chemoreceptors) just below the bifurcation of the common carotid
artery into the internal and external carotid arteries (Quain).
you are at an altitude that cuts your arterial oxygen in half (that is, from roo
mm Hgto 50 mm Hg), the input of the peripheral chemoreceptorsto the brain
stem respiratory centers will quadruple your alveolar ventilation from a
norm of 4,2ooml per minute to about 16,000ml (16liters) per minute. Even
if you are well enough conditioned to walk up a 3oograde at sea level with
only moderate increases in alveolar ventilation, you will find yourself panting
when you hike up that same grade at a high altitude.
Although the peripheral chemoreceptors respond to large decreasesin
blood oxygen, they do not respond significantly to small decreases.If you
are only somewhat short of oxygen you may simply lose the edge of your
alertness and just feel like yawning and taking a nap, which is the point at
which yoga breathing exercisesare indicated.
Central chemoreceptors,which are klcated on the surface of the brain stem
immediatcly adjacent to the somatic respiratory control centers, stimulate
the rate and depth o{'rcspiration in responsc to increased levels of carbon
dioxide, and dampen respiration if levels of carbon dioxide fall. They arc
more sensitive to small changes than the periphcral chemoreceptors,but
they are slower to react becausethe cerebrospin.rlfluid in which they are
bathed is isolated from thc blood supply and does not rcspond instantly to
changesin blood carbon dioxide.
The differing sensitivities of the peripheral and ccntral chemoreceptors
sometimes results in their working at cross-purposes.For cxample, at high
altitudes decreased oxygen stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors to
increascvcntilation, but this also lowers carbon dioxide, and whcn that happens
the central chemorcceptorsstart to rctard ventilation. You may require the
extra air fbr the sake of the oxygen, but the response to decreasedcarbcln
dioxide confounds that need. lraining the system to adapt to such conflicting
signals is part of the processof'high-altitude acclimation.

THE BOLE OF WILL

Dozensof physical,mental, and environmental factors cooperateto influence

respiration, and some of these work at odds with one another. Our will can
override most of them. You can counter the state of being bored and sleepy
by practicing bellows breathing. If you are bicycling behind a smelly bus
you can hold your breath, at least momentarily, to escapethe fumes. If you
have the habit of breathing irregularly you can learn even meditative
breathing. Ifyou are upset you can breathe slowly and evenly to calm down.
Most important, you can learn to observe healthier breathing patterns
while you are doing hatha yoga postures; then you can carry the refined
habits over into your daily life. To see specifically how this works in the
practical environment of yoga postures, we'll look at four different kinds of
breathing: thoracic, paradoxical, abdominal, and diaphragmatic.
IO2 ANATOMY O]"IIATHA '

THORACIC BREATHING

Specialists in holistic therapies often condemn thoracic, or chest, breathing,

but there are two possible scenarios for this mode of breathing that should be
considered separately: one is empowering and has an honored role in hatha
yoga, and the other is constricting and can create physical and mental health
problems if it is done habitually. First, we'll look at the beneficial version.

EMPOWEREDTHORACIC BREATHING

To get a feel for the best of empoweredthoracic breathing (fig. z.z9a),stand

up, interlock your hands behind your head, pull your elbows to the rear as
much as possible, bend backwards moderately, and inhale' expanding the
chest maximally. Lift your elbows and expand the chest until you feel the
intercostal muscles reach their outermost limits of isometric tension.

lTechnicalnotc:Althoughthe diaphragmis not as obviouslyinvolvedin this method

How?
of brcathingas the intcrcostalmuscles,it supportsinhalationsynergistically.
Its musclelibers resist lengtheningb.ykeepingthe dome of the diaphragmfrom
beingpulledfi.cel.ytowar.dthe headas inhalzrtionproceeds(unlike what we'll soon
seefcrrparadoxicalbreathing),and at the pe:rkof inhalation,it holdsmomentarily
in a stateof isometrictension.I
Next, let your hands hang down and pull your elbows slightly to the rear,
again while bending back moderately and inhaling as much as you can. II'you
observe carefully you'll see that you can slightly increase your inspiratory
capacitywith the arms in this mtlre neutral position. How can you prove this?
Go back to the first posture, inhale as much as possible,then hold your breath
at the glottis zrtthe end of your fullest possibleinhalation. Still holding your
breath, assumethe secondposition with vour hands hanging and elbows back,
'lhen as a
and you will immediately confirm that you can inhale a little more.
control experiment,just to be cerkrin, try it the oppositeway' first a ma-rimum
inhalation with the hands down and elbows back, and second with the hands
behind the head and the elbows strongly lifted and pulled to the rear. Yt-ru'll
find that coming into the latter position secondarily(after locking the glottis
in the first position) mandatesa releaseof air onceyou open the glottis. These
are not yoga practices,ofcourse, but experiments to test the effectsofpartic-
ular arm positions on your inspiratory reserve volume during the course of
empoweredthoracic breathing. You can also experiment with any number
of other standing postures. If, for example, you grasp your elbows tightly
behind your back with your opposite hands, or come into a forward bend
supporting your hands on the thighs just above the knees, you will find
that these arm positions markedly limit your inhalation.
In general, there are three major reasons for variations in inspiratory
capacity that are due to posture. One is obvious: sometimes the position of the
upper extremities compressesthe chest and limits inhalation mechanically.
 2. BREATHING 1O3

The other two are more subtle: many of the muscles of the upper extremities
ser"veeither as synergists or as antagonists to the external intercostal muscles
for enlarging the chest. The relationships are straightforward: any position
that favors the synergistic effects will increase inspiratory capacity, and any
position that favors the antagonistic effects will decreaseit.
One of the most effective training exercisesfor increasing your inspiratory
capacity takes its cue from a standard barbell exercise. In this case you can
simply swing a broomstick or a light barbell without added weights from your
thighs to tUo" overhead, doing to-t5 repetitions while keeping your elbows
extended. Exhale maximally as you bring the broomstick or barbell to your
thighs, and inhale maximally as you bring it overhead. As a barbell exercise,
this is designed to develop and stretch chest muscles such as the pectoralis
major ffi.g. 8.tt-9), but many of the muscles needed for moving the barbell
through its arc also act synergistically with the external intercostals to facilitate
inhalation. This is also a great exercisefor children with asthma, who often tend
to be parsimonious when it comes to using their chests for breathing. If thcir
asthma is typically induced by exercisc,thcy should of course use a broom-
stick instead ofa barbell, and be sensitiveto their cerpacity.
In hatha yoga generally, inhaling as much as you can is an excellcnt
chcst cxcrcisc any time you arc doing simple whole-body standing back-
ward bends (fig. 4.t9), diaphragm-assistedbackbends (fig. i.Z), cobra
postures(especiallythose shown in figs. z.to and 5.9-rz),thc upward-{acing
dog (figs. 5.tj-t,1),prone boats and bow postures (fig. 5.zo z3),variations of
the cat pose in which the lumbar region is arched fcrrward (figs. 3.jo and
-1.-l4b),or possibly best of' all, any one o{' several varizrtions of the fish
posture (figs.-3.t9a,5.zll,and 9.19).In fact, whenever an instructor suggests
taking the deepest possible inhalations, this can only mean placing an
emphasis on empowered thoracic breathing, and it works well in any
relatively easy posture in which it is natural to thrust the chest out.

CONSTRICTEDTHORACIC BREATHING

Constricted thoracic breathing (fig. z.z9b) is typically shallow, rapid, and

iregular. It is commonly associatedwith stress and tension, and our main
interest in analyzing it is to understand why it is inadvisable to breathe
that way habitually. Whenever someone criticizes chest breathing, this is
what they are talking about.
To help students understand why constricted thoracic breathing is
undesirable, ask them to lie in the corpse posture (figs. t.r,1 and to.z),
placing the left hand on the abdomen and the right hand on the chest. First
of all they should concentrate on moving only the front surface of the
abdomen when they breathe; the right hand should be stationary and the
left hand should rise toward the ceiling during inhalation and come back
down during exhalation. Ask them to notice that this is natural and
comfortable. Then, to do thoracic breathing, ask them to breathe so that
the left hand is stationary and the right hand is lifted toward the ceiling.
This feels so unnatural, at least in the supine position, that many students
in a beginning class won't be able to do it. You will probably have to demon-
strate and explain that you are not teaching a relaxed or empowered yogic
breathing practice; you simply want students to experience this form of
thoracic breathing so they can contrast it with other options.
In thoracic breathing the hand on the abdomen is stationary because
rigid abdominal muscles prevent the dome of the diaphragm from moving,
and the only way you can inhale is to lift and expand the upper part o{'the
chest. This is not a relaxing breathing pattern, and some people will know
in advance that the cxercise will be stressful-don't insist that everyone
do it.
When you breathe thoracically whilc standing (fig. t.t(r), you can f'eelthe
external intercostal muscles expand the rib cage, especially during a deep
inhalation, and you can feel them resist its tendency to get smaller during

F i g u r e2 . 1 6 .T h o r a c i c
b r e a t h i n g .T h e d o t t e d l i n e
revealsthe profile for a
moderately empowered
t h o r a c i c i n h a l a t i o n .w i t h
the sternum lifted up and
o u t i n a c c o r d a n c ew i t h
the "pump-handle"anal-
ogy. The abdomen and
respiratory diaphragm
remain relatively fixed in
p o s i t i o n ,a n d t h e h e a d i s
oulled to the rear.The
halftone profiles a normal
exhalation.
exhalation. This is fine for empowered thoracic rr".rrr"-,';";;;:;;;
ofplace in the supine posture.
The role of the internal intercostals, whether standing or supine, is
not so obvious. In the first place they do not become fully active except
in forced exhalation, even in someonewho has healthy breathing patterns.
Second, habitual chest breathers are generally compulsive about
inhalation, as though they are afraid to exhale, and because ofthis they
may not make much use of their internal intercostal muscles under any
circumstances.
Other muscles in the neck, chest, and shoulders also support thoracic
breathing as a side eff'ect to some other action. The scalenes(figs. z.U and
It.t3), which take origin from the cervical spine and insert on the clavicle
(the collarbone) and first rib, have their primary effect on the neck, but
they also lift the chest during the course of a complete inhalation. We call
this cLauicular breathing to differentiate it from lifting the chest with the
intercostal muscles. In addition, as mentioned earlier, most of the muscles
that stabilize the scapula and move the arms also have indirect effects on
breathing for the simple reason that they attach to the chest.

PROBLEMS WITH CONSTRICTEDTHORACIC BREATHING

During constricted chest breathing both inhalation and exhalation arc

hesitant and tentative. This breathing pattern is not common among
experienced yoga students, who have a large repertoire of morc uscful
forms of'breathing, but you see it occasionally in beginning classes.And
once in a whilc during the coursc of a classroom dcmonstration you'll even
hear someonesay "'I'hat's how I always breathe!"'lhe abnormal upper
body tension associated with this firrm of' breathing is palpable-both
literally and figuratively in faces, necks, and shoulders.
Habitual chest brcathing not only reflccts physical and mental problems,
it creates them. It mildly but chronically overstimulates the sympathetic
nervous system, keeping the heart rate and blood pressure too high,
precipitating difficulties with digestion and elimination, and causing cold
and clammy hands and feet. In common usage chest breathing is known as
"shallow" breathing, and if you watch people breathe in this fashion for
any length of time you will notice that every once in a while they will sigh,
yawn, or take a much deeper breath to bring in more air.
If you really want to understand shallow breathing you have to experi-
ment with yourself. In either a supine or upright posture, try taking zo-3o
constricted thoracic breaths, lifting only the upper part ofthe chest. Be care-
ful not to move the abdomen, and try to keep the lower part of the chest from
moving. To do this you have to keep the abdominal wall rigid and hold the
lower part of the sternum and the lower ribs still. If you are healthy this will
give you an unusual and unsettling feeling, and pretty soon you'll have an
irresistible urge to take a deep breath-if not two or three. You'll wonder
how anyone could possibly develop this breathing pattern as a lifetime habit.
Chest breathers often feel short of breath because constricted thoracic
breathing pulls most of the air into the upper portions of the lungs. But
when we are upright it is the lower portions of the lungs that get most of
the blood supply. Why? The pulmonary circulation to the lungs is a low-
pressure, low-resistance circuit in which the average pressure in the
pulmonary arteries is only t4 mm Hg. By contrast, the pressure in arteries
of the systemic circulation averagesabout too mm Hg (chapter tt). The t.1
mm Hg pulmonary arterial pressure is more than enough to perfuse blood
into the lower parts of the lungs, but it is inadequate to push the blood into
the upper parts of the lungs. This means that when you are taking
constricted thoracic inhalations, you are bringing the bulk of the air into
the parts of the lungs that are most poorly supplied with blood. You can't
make efficient use of the extra ventilation to the upper parts of the lungs
becauseof'the poor circulation, and yet you get scanty ventilation to the
lower parts of the lungs that are getting the bulk of the blood supply. It's
no wonder those who breathe thoracically need to take occasionalbreaths
that will fill their lungs from top to bottom.
The disadvantagesof constricted chest brcathing are ordinarily empha-
sized, but this mode of breathing is occasionally necessary.If you should
happen to overindulge in a holiday meal and then fbllow it up with a rich
dessert, try taking a walk. You will notice that the restricted fbrm of'
thoracic breathing is thc only comfortable way you can brcathe. A five-mile
walk can be useful, but the last thing you'll want to do eruroute is to press
against your stomach with your diaphrag-m(figs. 2.9 and 2.2t1b).

THE NEED FOR EMPOWEREDTHORACIC BREATHING

In addition to certain postures in hatha yoga, thoracic breathing works

beautifully in aerobic exercise,in which a freer and more vigorous style of
thoracic breathing is combined with increased cardiac output. The aroused
heart creates pulmonary arterial pressures high enough to perfuse the
entire lungs with blood at the same time they are being ventilated from top
to bottom. In hatha yoga this also happens in a series of briskly executed
sun salutations or in any other postures that stress the cardiorespiratory
system, such as triangles (chapter 4) or lunging postures (chapter;), espe-
cially when performed by beginners. In hatha yoga we also frequently use
an empowered and healthy form of thoracic breathing for the complete
breath (which we'll discuss later in this chapter) and in most other
circumstances in which you are taking fewer than two breaths per minute.
 {ING 7O7

PARADOXICAL BREATHING
Empowered chest breathing carried to extremes is paradoxical breathing
(fi1. z.zgc).Try inhaling so deeply that the abdominal wall moves in during
inhalation rather than out. Or imagine a situation which shocks you. Let's
say you dart into a shower thinking that the water will be warm, and
instead find it ice cold. You will probably open your mouth and suck in air
with a gasp. Try breathing this way three or four breaths under ordinary
circumstances and notice how you feel. This is paradoxical breathing,
so-named becausethe abdominal wall moves in rather than out during
inhalation, and out rather than in during exhalation (fig. z.t7). Unless
someone is in a state of considerable anxiety, we rarely see this in the
corpse posture-it is more common while sitting or standing.
During a paradoxical inhalation, the external intercostal musclesenlarge
and lift the rib cage, lift the abdominal organs and the relaxed diaphragm,
and suck in the abdominal wall. During a paradoxical exhalation, thc
abdomen movcs back out because the rib cage relaxcs and rcleases thc
vacuum on the diaphragm and abdomirtopel.uicrcgion.
Paradoxical breathing stimulates the sympathetic nervous system even
more than thoracic breathing. In an averageclassonly a few students will have

inhalation

Figure 2.17. Paradoxical

breathing. During inhalation,
the external intercostal and
other accessorymuscles of
r e s p i r a t i o nc r e a l e a v a c u u m i n
the chest that pulls the relaxed
d i a p h r a g mu p a n d t h e r e l a x e d
a b d o m i n a lw a l l i n . T h e e n d
stage of a natural exhalation is
proliled by the halftone.
lOtJ ANATO]I'/ OI ]IA7'}TA IOGA

the confidence to try it enthusiastically, and those who do it for to-t5 deep
breaths may get jumpy and neryous. This is its purpose: preparation for fight
or flight. Paradoxical breathing gives you an immediate jolt of adrenaline. The
problem is that some people breathe like that much of the time, making life a
constant emergency.Our bodies are not built for remaining this keyed up, and
keeping the sympathetic nervous system in a constant state of arousal is hard
on the supportive systems of the body. Digestion, circulation, endocrine
function, sexual function, and immune function are all either put on hold
or are stressed by continual sympathetic discharge.

SUPINE ABDOMINAL BREATHING

The antidote for chronic thoracic and paradoxical breathing is abdominal
breathing, or abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing (fig. z.z9d). It is simple,
natural, and relaxing-especially in the supine position. To try it, Iie in the
corpse posture, and again place the right hand on the upper part of the
chest and the left hand on the upper part of the abdomen. Breathe so that
the left hand moves anteriorly (toward the ceiling) during inhalation and
posteriorly (toward the floor) during exhalation. Thc right hand should not
move. Take the same trmount of time for exhalation as inhalzrtion.Notice
that inhalation requires moderate eflbrt and that cxhalation seems
relaxed. This is abdominal breathing. As discussed earlier, it is accom-
plished by the respiratory diaphragm.
Because the contents of the abdominal cavity have a liquid character',
gravity pushesthem to a highcr than usual position in the torso when you
arc lying down. The diaphraEln zrctsas a movable dam against this wall ol'
abdominal organs, pressing them ini'eriorly (toward thc fcet) during
inhalation and restraining thcir movcmcnt supcriorly (toward the head)
during exhalation.As the diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs inf'eriorly
during inhalation, the abdominal wall is pushed out, thus pressing the lefl
hand anteriorly.
We perceive the gravity-induced exhalation as a state of relaxation, but
careful observation will reveal that the diaphragm is actually lengthening
eccentricallythroughout a supine exhalation.In other words, it is resisting
the tendency of gravity to push the diaphragm superiorly. You can f'eelthis
for yourself if you breathe normally for a few breaths, making the breath
'I'hen, at the end of a
smooth and even, without jerks, pauses, or noise.
normal inhalation, relax completely.Air will whoosh out faster, proving that
some tension is normally held in the diaphragm during supine exhalations.
You can relax the diaphragm suddenly ifyou like, but exhalations that are
restrained actively are more natural, at least for anyone who has had some
training in yoga.
 LUNG VOLUMES AND ALVEOLAR VENTILATION

Since the abdominal organs and the dome of the diaphragm ride to a higher
than usual position in the chest in a supine posture, less air than usual is
left in the lungs at the end of a normal exhalation. This is reflected in a
decreasedexpiratory reserve volume. You can prove this to yourself if you
breathe abdominally, first sitting upright and then lying down supine, and
subjectively compare the two expiratory reserve volumes. What you do is
come to the end of a normal exhalation in each case and then breathe out
as much as possible-all the way down to your residual volume. It will be
obvious that the supine position decreases the amount of air you can
breathe out to about one-half of your upright expiratory reserve volume,
Iet's say from t,ooo ml to about 5oo ml (fig. z.rtt).
Supine abdominal breathing is both natural and efficient. Using the
above figures, if you were to maintain a tidal volume of 5oo ml when you
are supine, you will be mixing that tidal volume with only t,7oo ml of air
instead of the z,zoo ml in your functional residual capacity when you are
upright. And becauseyour tidal volume for each breath is getting mixed
with a smaller functional residual capacity,you will not need to breathe as

6000
ml tidalvolume500 ml tidalvolume500 ml tidalvolume500 ml tidalvolume400 ml
functionalresidual functionalresidual functionalresidual functionalresidual
capacity22OOml capacity1700ml capacity1700ml capacity1700ml
5000
ml
a l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n alveolarventrlation a l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n a l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n
- 4200 ml/min 4200ml/min 3150 ml/min 3000 ml/min
-E 4000
9ml blood oxygenand blood oxygenand blood oxygenand
g carbon dioxide
blood oxygen up;
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide carbon dioxide
-'
normal down normal normal
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Y 2000
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tml
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VVVV VVV VVVV
1000
ml sitting posture supineposture supineposture supine posture
12 breaths/min 12 breathsimin 9 breathsimin 12 breaths/min
normal breathing
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time in seconds(sec)

F i g u r e2 . 1 8 .T i d a l v o l u m e s i m u l a t i o n sf o r a b d o m i n a l b r e a t h i n gi n a s i t t i n g p o s t u r e
(far left), and for three conditions of abdominal breathing in a supine position,
the first with alveolar ventilation identical to the sitting posture, second with the
breathing rate slowed down, and third with the tidal volume decreased.
110 ANATOMY OI] ITA'MA YOGA

deeply or as fast. In fact, if you were to keep your alveolar ventilation

constant at 4,zoo ml/minute as a textbook norm, the improved efficiency of
the alveolar exchange would soon be reflected in increased blood oxygen
and decreasedblood carbon dioxide. What happens, of course, is that you
either slow your rate of respiration or decreaseyour tidal volume (or both),
and that keeps blood oxygen and carbon dioxide within a normal range.

SMOOTH EVEN BHEATHING

The corpse posture is a good place to learn one of the most important
skills in yoga: smooth, even breathing. When you are relaxed and breathing
nasally and abdominally, it is easy to inhale evenly, smoothly merge the
inhalation into the exhalation, and smoothly exhale. You may pause at
the end of exhalation, but if you do so for any length of time the
diaphragm will have relaxed completely during the pause and you may
find that you are starting your next inhalation with a jerk. The best
prevention for that disturbance is to begin your inhalation consciously
just as exhalation ends.

USING A SANDBAG

The movements of the diaphragm are delicate and subtle, and not always
easy to experience,but when you are supine you can place a sandbag that
weighs 3 r5 pounds on the upper abdomen just below the rib cage,and you
will immediately notice the additional tension needed for inhalation and
controlled exhalation. Make sure the chest does not move and that the
weight is light enough to push easily toward the ceiling (fig. z.zza). The
exercise is valuable both for training and strengthening. It helps students
learn to sense the activity of the diaphragm by increasing the amount of
work and tension needed for inhalations (concentric shortening of the
muscular parts of the diaphragm) and for controlled exhalations
(eccentric lengthening of the muscular parts of the diaphragm). The
cobra variant and the diaphragmatic rear lift (figs. z.to-tr) give the
diaphragm more exercise by requiring it to lift large segments of the
body, but a light sandbag brings the student more in touch with the
delicacy of its function.
Since breathing evenly with a sandbag increasesneuromuscular activity
in the diaphragm, this makes you aware of the challenges involved in
moving it up and down without starts, stops, and jerks. And developing the
control necessaryto accomplish this is an important aid to learning even
breathing. First try it with a sandbag weighing to-t5 pounds to feel a
pronounced increase in muscular activity, and then try it with a book or
much lighter sandbag weighing t-3 pounds. After you have practiced with
a lighter weight for a while, you will have become so sensitive to the subtle
 2. BRI::ATHING lll

activity ofthe diaphragm that you will be able to sense its delicate eccentric
resistance during exhalation without any weight at all. After about twenty
deep breaths with a sandbag you'll also notice that it is natural to stop
breathing for a few seconds at the end of an exhalation, and that this yields
a moment of total relaxation. Here again, once you have experienced this
with a sandbag you will notice that the same thing can happen with free
relaxed abdominal breathing.
caution: Don't pause the breath habitually. It's unnatural while inhaling
and exhaling, or at the end of inhalation, so those times are not usually a
problem, but at the end of exhalation, it's tempting. Don't do it except as an
experiment in understanding the operation of the diaphragm' The medical
lore in yoga (the oral tradition) is that the habit ofpausing the breath at the
end of exhalation causesheart problems.

THE INTERCOSTALMUSCLES

l I y o u a r e n o t u s i n g a s a n d b a g t. h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n t e r c o s t a lm u s c l e s
are active during supine abdominal breathing is an open question. They
may be serving to maintain the shape of the rib cage isometrically during
inhalation (as in upright postures), but this may not be the casetoward the
end of a long and successfulrelaxation in the corpse posture. At that time
the tidal volume and the minute ventilation are reduced so markedly that
Iittle tension is placed on the rib cage by breathing, and the intercostal
muscles may gradually become silent. It would require electromyography
using needle electrodes placcd directly in the intercostal muscles to settle
the point.
There will be no doubt about the activity o{'the intercostal muscles
if you use a sandbag for this exercise. Now the diaphragm has to push
the sandbag toward the ceiling, and as its dome descends its costal
attachments pull more insistently on the base of the rib cage than
would otherwise be the case. This pull can be countered only by
isometric tension in the intercostal muscles; you can feel it develop
instantly if you make a before-and-after comparison, first without a
sandbag and then with one.

ABDOMINAL BREATHING IN SITTING POSTURES

we discussed abdominal breathing in the supine corpse posture first

becausein that pose we find the simplest possible method of breathing: the
diaphragm is active in both inhalation and exhalation, the intercostal muscles
act only to keep the chest stable, and the abdominal muscles remain
completely relaxed. Abdominal breathing in sitting postures is quite different.
First of all, when we are upright, gravity pulls the abdominal organs
inferiorly instead of pushing them higher in the torso, and this is what
1'12 ANATOMY OF HATHA YqGA

causesthe shift in expiratory reserve volumes from approximately 5oo ml

in the supine posture to about r,ooo ml in the upright posture. It also
means that the diaphragm cannot act as purely like a piston as it can in
supine and inverted postures.
The other major difference between supine and upright abdominal
breathing is that when we are upright we can choose between exhaling
actively or passively.We can simply relax as we do when we sigh, allowing
the elasticity of the lungs to implement exhalation, or we can assist
exhalation with the abdominal muscles, which we do in many yoga breathing
exercises and for all purposeful actions such as lifting a heavy weight or
yelling out a command. A quiet breathing pattern with relaxed exhalations
is simpler, so we'll look at that first.

ABDOMINAL BREATHING WITH A RELAXED ABDOMEN

Breathing abdominally with a relaxed abdomen is a prelude to nteditative

breathing becauseit givcs one an opportunity to unde.rstandthe subtle
problems involved with breathing quietly. 'l'o begin, sit straight ir-rtr chair.
Don't slump but don't pitch yourself forward with an arched luntbar
l.ordosis,either. Make sure the lower abdomen is not restrained bv tight
clothing. Becausethe abdominal muscleswrap around to the rear it is better
not to lean against the back of the chair. Now breathe so that the lorvel
abdomen moves outward during each inhalation and comes passivelr'
inward during each exhalation. Breathe evenly and nasally, making sr.rrc
the chest does not move. 'lhe abdominal muscles have to be con.rpleteh-
free. If they are even mildly tensedyou will not be doing abdominzrlbreathing
Notice, even so, that the abdominal movement is minimal and that the rest
oI'the body is stable except lbr a slight backward movement of the' head
during inhalation (fig. z.r9).
When you are sitting, the two most critical moments for relaxecl.even
breathing are at the transitions-one between inhalation and exhalation.
and the other between exhalation and inhalation. These are tl.re tin'res
when the breath is more likely to jerk or becomeuneven. But if'you irnagrne
that your breath is making a circular pattern it is easier to acconrplish
these transitions smoothly. Pretend you are on a Ferris wheel. Going up is
inhaling; coming down is exhaling. 'I'he upward excursion sntoothll'
decelerates to zero as you circle up to the top; the downward exculsion
smoothly acceleratesfrom zero as you start coming down. At the bottom,
just the opposite happens: a downward deceleration (exhalation) ner-ges
smoothly into an upward acceleration (inhalation).
Ifyou are riding a real Ferris wheel with your eyes closed you know you
have reached the top and bottom of its circular movement by feel-the only
time there is ajerk is when it stops to let someoneoff. And therein lies the nub
 2. BRLATHING 113

of the matter. What we want from relaxed, even breathing is no jerks-just

the sensation that you are making a transition from inhalation to exhalation
and from exhalation to inhalation. The actual pattern of breathing is elliptical
rather than circular, but the image of a Ferris wheel is still useful, espe-
cially for beginners. The main point is that even though no air is moving
in or out at the ends of inhalation and exhalation, you can merge inhalation
with exhalation (and exhalation with inhalation) without effort if you focus
on smooth movement along the ellipse. There will be different challenges
at each junction, so we'll look at them separately.

THE JUNCTION OF INHALATION WITH EXHALATION

The end of inhalation is the least troublesome. Nerve impulses keep

impinging on the muscle fibers of the respiratory diaphragm even after
exhalation begins, and this operates to smooth the transition between the
end of inhalation and the beginning of exhalation. Picture your inhalation
as you feel it. If you make the transition from inhalation into exhalation in
slow motion, initiating your exhalation ever so slowly, you will feel a slight
hesitation as you start to exhale, which reflects the continuing flow of'
nerve impulses into the diaphragrn as its dome begins to ascend. If you
have healthy breathing habits little effort is needed to tune this mechanism
delicately and make an even transition Irom inhalation into exhalation, but if
you find yourself holding your breath at the cnd of inhalation it is better to
first concentrate on breathing evenly in bending, twisting, and inverted
postures-the posesthemselves correct bad habits.

F i g u r e2 . 1 9 .A b d o m i n a l , o r
abdomino-diaphragmatic
b r e a t h i n g .D u r i n g i n h a l a t i o n ,
the lower abdomen comes
forward and the dome of the
diaphragm descends.There
is little movement or
enlargement of the rib cage,
although the external inter-
costal muscles are active
enough to keep the chest
from collapsing inward as
the dome of the diaphragm
is pulled downward. The
head and neck are pulled
slightly to the rear during
i nh a l a t i o n .
I t.+ .I,\-;ro.ul ott IIATHA tooA

lTechnical note: In an upright posture the diaphragm continues to receive nerve

impulses as its dome starts to rise during exhalation, but referring to its muscular
components as lengthening eccentricaily during that time would be pushing the use
of the term eccentric too far. The phrase eccentric iengthening is customarily
applied only to a muscle's resistanceto the force of grauity. There is no doubt that
eccentric lengthening of the diaphragm occurs during exhalation in a supine
posture and even more obviously in inverted postures (in other words, gravity aids
exhalation and the diaphragm resists as its muscular components lengthen), but I
am not using the term eccentric here because the primary cause of the upward
excursion ofthe diaphragm during relaxed exhalations in an upright posture is the
elasticity of the lungs, not gravity. On the contrary, under these circumstances gravity
actually has the opposite effect: rather than aiding exhalation and resisting inhalation,
in upright postures it resists exhalation and aids inhalation. Why? The livcr is firmlv
adherent to the underside of the diaphragm (this association is shown artificiall;r
dissected and pulled apart in frg. 2.9), and the heart is situated just above the
diaphragm. Under these conditions the fbrce of gravity tends to pull all three (the
liver, the dome ol the diaphragm, and the heart) down at the same time, mildlv aiding
inhalation and rcstricting exhalation rather than the other way around. l

WITHINHALATION
T H E J U N C T I O NO F E X H A L A T I O N

As exhalation in an upright posture continues, the diaphragrn finall1'r'ela-xes,

and toward the end of exhalation its motor neurons have largelJ' ceased to
fire. This makcs it difficult to negotiate a smooth transition between the end
of exhalation and the beginning of inhalation because the motor neurons
create a jerk in the system when they start firing again, something like
starting a cold car that cranks in fits and coughs before it runs smoothl]'.
In an average beginning class, two or thrcc times as many students u'ill
f ind it morc difficult to avoid a discontinuity at the junction of exhalation
and inhalation than at the iunction of inhalation and exhalation.

A B D O M I N A LB R E A T H I N GW I T H A C T I V EE X H A L A T I O N S

It is very easy to remedy the jerk at the beginning of inhalation. -\ll .r'ou
have to do is maintain tension in the abdomen throughout exhalation.
especially toward the end, and merge that tension into the cycle of inhalation.
If you are uncertain of how to do this, first learn to emphasize exhaliition ir.r
a contrived situation. Purse the lips so that only a small amount ol ait' can
escape, and blow gently as if you are blowing up a balloon. Notice that the
abdominal muscles are now responsible for the exhalation. Keep blorvir.rg as
long as you can. After you reach your limit notice that inhalation is passive.
especially at its start. Why? If you have exhaled almost to r-our residual
volume, the chest will spring open passively and the abdomir-ral s-all rvill
spring forward you have inhaled 1'oul
of its own accord, at least until
normal expiratory as you begin to inhale 1'our
reserve volume. Then,
normal tidal volume, the diaphragm begins its active descent.
After you have gotten a feel for exaggerated exhalations, tr)' even
abdominal breathing while you are sitting in a chair. Again, your clothing
 'ING 115

must be loose so there are no restrictions on the movement of the lower

abdomen. Begin by taking z-secondexhalations and z-secondinhalations.
Imagine the ellipse, the exhalation going down and the inhalation going up,
one count each second:down, down, up, up, down, down, up, up. Then create
an image in your mind in which you are actively pressing in the abdominal
muscles during exhalation and releasing them forward during inhalation.
Still riding the ellipse, think "travel down" the ellipse and "push in" the
abdomen for exhalation, and think "travel up" the ellipse and "ease out"
the abdomen for inhalation: down and in, up and out, down and in, up and
out. Assisting exhalations with the abdominal muscles does two things:
it masks any jerks and discontinuities that come from starting up the
contraction of'the diaphragm, and even more important, it keeps alive your
intent to breathe evenlv.

THE IMPORTANCE OF POSTURE

No breathing technique will work unless you are sitting correctly, as two
simple experiments will show. First sit perfectly straight and breathe evenly,
remaining aware of the elliptical nature of the breathing cycle and making
sure that you are not creating pauses or.jerks at either end of thc ellipse.
Now slump forward slightly and allow the lumbar lordosis to collapse.Notice
three things: inhalation is more labored, exhalation starts with a gasp, and
it is impossible to use the abdominal muscles smoothly to aid exhalation.
Breathing evenly is impossible and meditation is impossiblc. The lesson is
obvious:Don't slump.
Now sit on the edge of a chair. Keep the lumbar lordosis mzrximally
arched but lean forward, making an acute angle between the torso and the
thighs. Watch your breathing. The abdominal muscles now have to push
strongly against a taut abdomen to aid exhalation. Then, at the beginning
oI'inhalation, if you relax your respiration, air rushes into the airways. Try
restraining inhalation and notice that active abdominal muscles are
required to prevent the sudden influx of air. The lesson here? Don't lean
forward, even with a straight back.

THE BELLOWS EREATH AND KAPALABHATI

The bellows breath (bhastriha) andkapalabhati arc both highly energizing

abdominal breathing exercises. In their mild form they are excellent for
beginners, because they require only that students be acquainted with
even abdominal breathing. The bellows breath imitates the movement of
the blacksmith's bellows, and kapalabhati requires sharp exhalations and
passiveinhalations. The chest should not move very much in either exercise
even though the intercostal muscles remain isometrically active.
To do the bellows exercise,sit with your head, neck, and trunk straight
116 AAATOMY OF HAIIIA 'OGA

and unsupported by a wall or the back of a chair. To begin, exhale and

inhale small puffs of air rapidly and evenly through yout nose, breathing
abdominally and pacing yourself to breathe in and out comfortably about
3o times in t5 seconds.Keep your shoulders relaxed and your chest still'
The blacksmith's bellows operates by pulling air into a collapsible chamber
and then blowing it forcibly into a pile of glowing coals. In the bellows breath
the diaphragm pulls air into the lungs and the abdominal muscles force it out.
And just as the blast of extra oxygen from the air in the blacksmith's bellows
kindles additional combustion in the coals, so does the additional oxygen
pulled into the lungs by the bellows exercise increase the potential for
combustion throughout the body.
The bellows is an easy and rewarding exercise if it is not overdone. The
main problem beginning students encounter is coordinating the actions of
the diaphragm and abdominal muscles without breathing thoracically or
paradoxically.The secret is to start with active, even, abdominal breathing.
Watching yourself in a mirror, breathe evenly, using z-secondexhalations
and z-secondinhalations (ri breaths per minute). Then gradually inct'ease
your speed, taking t-second exhalations and t-second inhalations l-lo
breaths per minute), making sure not to move your shoulders or heave
your chest up and down. Notice that the entire body is stable during
'l'hen take one breath per
inhalation except lbr the abdomen (fig. z.zoa).
second,then two breaths per second,then three, thcn possibly four'.)Iake
sure you give equal emphasis to both phases of the cyclc. When and if -r'ou
Iosecontrol. slow down.
Kapalabhati is similar to bellows breathing except that it consists of'a
sharp inward tap with the abdominal muscles, a quick pressing in that
results in a sharp exhalation. To inhale, just relax. Inhalation is passivc
and requires only releasingtension in the abdominal wall (fig. t.:obt. Trv
the exercise for one breath per secondat first, and gradually increasc 1'our
speed as you get more confidence and experience.
Kapalabhati is one of the six classic cleansing exercisesin hatha 1'oga,
and it is especiallyeffective in lowering alveolar carbon dioxide in the lower
segments of the lungs. Like the bellows, kapalabhati is not only energizing,
it develops strength and stamina, and it teaches you to coordinate the
abdominal muscles for skillful use in other exercises such as ogrlt salo,
uddiyana bandha, and ruauli, all of which we'll discuss in chapter 3.
The physiological correlates ofbellows breathing and kapalabhati differ
(fig. z.zr). If we assume a tidal volume of zoo ml for the bellows and 3oo ml
for kapalabhati, we'll get 50 ml of alveolar ventilation per breath for the
bellows and r5o ml of alveolar ventilation per breath for kapalabhati. At a
rate of three breaths per second,your alveolar ventilation for the bellows
would be r8o breaths per minute times 5o ml per breath, or 9,ooo ml per
 IING 117

minute. By contrast, if you take two breaths per second for kapalabhati,
your alveolar ventilation would be rzo breaths per minute times t5o ml per
breath, or 18,oooml per minute.
Looking carefully at the graph (fig. z.zt), notice not only that kapalabhati
creates more alveolar ventilation than the bellows, but that its functional
residual capacity is smaller. The reason for this is that each sharp exhala-
tion in kapalabhati begins before you have inhaled up to the point at which
an ordinary tidal inhalation would begin in the bellows. On the other hand,
kapalabhati is nearly always practiced for a shorter period of time than the
bellows. So even though the projected alveolar ventilation is 5oo/r, greater
in kapalabhati, doing the bellows for longer times can easily make up the
difference.

Figure 2.20a.The bellows breath, F i g u r e2 . 2 0 b .K a p a l a b h a t ia, n

w h i c h i s a c c o m p l i s h e db y a b d o m i n a l b r e a t h i n ge x e r c i s ei n
breathing abdominally at the rate w h i c h e x h a l a t i o n sa r e e m p h a s i z e d
of 1-4 breaths per second, with by sharply pressingin with the
i n h a l a t i o n sa n d e x h a l a t i o n s a b d o m i n a l m u s c l e s .I n h a l a t i o n s
e q u a l l y e m p h a s i z e da n d e q u a l l y are mostly passiveand the tidal
a c t i v e .T h e e x e r c i s em i m i c s a volume is about 300 ml. The
blacksmith'sbellows, with a tidal exhalations thrust the head, neck,
volume of about 200 ml. and chest slightly forward even as
they drive the dome of the
relaxed diaphragm toward the
head and the abdominal wall to
the rear.
 1IIJ ANATOMY OI: TTA'I7IA YOGA

Which exercise should be learned first? The simplicity and ease of a

moderately pacedbellows (two breaths per second)argues for concentrating
on it first, but if you compare a few secondsof kapalabhati with one minute
of a fast-pacedbellows breath, kapalabhati will be the milder exercise and
less likely to result in hyperventilation. Either choice is fine. After a little
experience students naturally adjust the rate, extent, and depth of their
respiration so that both exercisesare comfortable.
For beginners the most common challengeof these two exercisesis to stay
relaxed and not breathe diaphragmatically, thoracically, or paradoxically.
The chest and shoulders should remain still except for the moderate impact
on the chest of movements that originate from the lower abdomen. It is
easier to accomplish this with kapalabhati becauseall of the emphasis is on
the lower abdomen. In the bellows, if it is difficult to keep the chest still.
the only solution is to return to cven abdominal breathing and start over.
Go slowly enough to maintain control, even if you have to slow dolvn to
3o-(robreaths per minute.

6000
bellows breath kapalabhati
180 breathsimin 120 breaths/min
5000
tidalvolume200 ml tidalvolume300 ml
functionalresidualcapacrty2,200ml functionalresidualcapacity2.000ml
-
:tr 4000
I minuteventilation36,000ml/min
.=
O minuteventilation36.000ml m n
alveolarventilation
9,000ml/min
alveolarventilation
18.000ml min
tr 3000
.E
@
0)
E
f
o -2ooo
--- W ,/\./\,/\,/\ ,a\ ,A ,/\ ,/
\
(d
exhalation, rnhalation, exhalation, inhalation,
E 1/6 sec
.l/6
sec
.1/8
sec 3iB sec
1000

0ml
345

time in seconds (sec)

Figure2.21.Bellowsand kapalabhati, The bellows

simulatedcomparisons.
exerciseis usuallyfaster,but kapalabhatiordinarilymakesuseof a largertidal
volumeand a decreased functionalresidualcapacitv.
 In both exercises it is important not to maintain any tension in the lower
abdomen during inhalation, for if you do, it will impede the downward
displacement of the dome of the diaphragm and force a lateral expansion of
the chest (thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing), or even frankly thoracic
breathing. This is impractical becausethe chest is a cage--rigid in comparison
to the abdominal wall-and except for speedy thoraco-diaphragmatic and
thoracic breathing in aerobic exercise, it is unreasonable physiologically and
unsettling neurologically to breathe by enlarging and contracting such an
enclosure quickly. The most efficient way to breathe rapidly in hatha yoga
exercisessuch as the bellows breath and kapalabhati is to create most ofthe
motion in the softest tissues-and that means the lower abdomen. This is
easier to regulate in kapalabhati than in the bellows becauseof the extra
emphasis on exhalation.
Once you have mastered the technique of quickening the bellows to one
breath per second with even abdominal breathing, it isn't too difficult to
increase the speed to over rzo breaths per minute. Serious students
can speed up gradually to ttlo-z4o breaths per minute, and advanced
practitioners approach joo breaths per minutc. It's fun, and the faster the
better. But beware of hyperventilating: build your capacity slowly but surely.

THE LONG VIEW OF LEARNING AND TEACHING

Bad breathing habits are likely to be insidious, but they are not intractable.
Even though they go on z4 hours a day year in and year out, change is still
possiblebecausethe respiratory motions are entirely controlled by somatic
motor ncurons-you have the potential of thinking thc actions through
and controlling them willfully.
How to proceed?Whether bad breathing habits involve constricted
chest breathing, reversing the movement oI'the abdomen in paradoxical
breathing, jerking the breath, or pausing between inhalation and exhalation,
anyone who has such problems should first master abdominal breathing.
Thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing is not advisable at first; it will be
especially confusing to chronic chest breathers. The best solution for
such students is a regular practice of a variety of postures in hatha yoga,
and the corpseposture is the place to start. In the supine position almost
everyone can learn to breathe in a way that allows a hand or sandbag
on the abdomen to move smoothly toward the ceiling. As soon as problem
breathers have that mastered, they should work with abdominal
breathing while sitting up straight in a chair, first just inhaling and
exhaling naturally. This means: first, making sure that the lower
abdomen relaxes completely and protrudes during inhalation, and that
the chest does not lift up and out; and second, allowing the abdominal
muscles to remain passive during exhalation, thus permitting the
I2O ANATOMY OII HATHA YOGA

abdominal wall to sink back in. It may help to make tiny sighs to insure
that each exhalation is entirely passive.
After mastering abdominal breathing with passive exhalations in an
upright posture, students should learn to use the abdominal muscles to aid
exhalation and cultivate even breathing. This will lead naturally to the
bellows breath and kapalabhati. Both of those exercises should be
approached with a sense of experimentation, observation, and play.
Rushing yourself or someoneelse into developing new breathing habits will
only create anxiety and disrupt rather than benefit the nervous system.

DIAPH RAGMATIC BREATH ING

Yogis are not the only ones who know about diaphragmatic breathing tfig.
z.zge).Martial artists, public speakers, and musicians are all united in its
praise. But even those who practice it have a hard time describing precisely
what they do and how they do it. This is not surprising-it's a difficult
concept. We'll approach it here by looking at how diaphragmatic breathing
differs from abdominal and chest breathing and take note of how it feels
and where you feel it in the body.
Abdominal breathing, or abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing, br.ings
your attention to thc lower abdomen. If you sit with it for a while in
meditation you will be relaxed, but your attention will be drawn to the
pelvis and the base ofthe torso. It is a good technique for beginners, but in
the long run it results in a depressed,overly relaxed sensation. Thoracic
and paradoxical breathing go to the other extreme. 'I'hey bring vour
attention to the upper chest and spin you off into rcalms that are not rvanted
Ibr meditation: heady sensations for thoracic breathing, and tangents of
anxiety and emergencyfor paradoxical breathing. Diaphraggnaticbreathing.
or thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing, is the perfect compromise. It brings
your attention squarely to the middle of the body, to the borderline
between the chest and the abdomen, and {rom there it can balance and
integrate the opposing polarities.
Diaphragmatic breathing is also the most natural way to breathe in
everyday life. Whenever you gear up mentally and physically for any activity,
the additional concentration is reflected in diaphragmatic breathing. And
in the yoga postures that call for it, the effort to maintain the required tension
in the abdominal muscles will bring you more control and awareness of the
torso than any other tlpe ofbreathing.

OIAPHRAGMATICBREATHING IN THE CORPSE POSTURE

We'll start with diaphragmatic breathing in the corpse posture. To begin,

lie supine and breathe abdominally for five or six rounds, allowing the
lower abdomen to relax and protrude during inhalation and to drop back
toward the floor during exhalation. Then, to create thoraco-diaphragmatic
breathing, hold enough muscle tone in the abdominal muscles as you
inhale to prevent the lower abdomen from moving anteriorly during that
phase ofthe cycle.You can feel what happens next. Since the tension in the
abdominal muscles does not allow the abdominal wall to protrude as the
central tendon starts to descend,the diaphragm can act only at its costal
insertion to lift and expand the rib cage. This draws air into the lungs and
at the same time enlarges the upper abdomen, as opposedto the lower. As
in abdominal breathing, the external intercostal muscles remain active;
you can feel them lengthen actively against the resistance of the lungs'
elasticity as the chest wings out during inhalation, especially toward the
end of inhalation. Diaphragmatic breathing in the corpse posture requires
more attention than abdominal breathing, and because of this it is useful
as a concentration exercise and for the deep inhalations and long exhalations
in z:t breathing.

SANDBAG BREATHING

In the corpse posture, sandbags of various weights will strengthen and

further educate the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and abdominal
muscles. As mentioned earlier, a sandbag weighing 3-t5 pounds is best
{br training in abdominal brcathing because it can be comfbrtably
pressed toward the ceiling with each inhalation, and its fall can be com-
fbrtably restrained during cxhalation. The chest is stable, and both the
upper and lower abdomen are thrust anteriorly (along with the sandbag)
by inhalation (fig. z.zza).
To intensify the exercise and create diaphragmatic breathing, increase
the weight of the sandbag to the point at which it is a bit awkward to press
it toward the ceiling. This much weight, about zo--lo pounds for a healthy
young man with good strength, makes it more convenient to breathe
diaphragmatically than abdominally. If you adjust the amount and place-
ment of the weight perfectly, the tension on your upper abdomen will cause
the diaphragm to flare the rib cage out from its base.You have to play with
the resulting sensations and analyze the movements carefully. In this case
(fi,g.z.zzb), if a z5-poundbag of lead shot is placedjust beneath the rib cage,
inhalation lifts the chest and upper abdomen up and forward, but the
movement of the lower abdomen is checked. at least in comparison with
abdominal inhalation shown in fig. z.zza.
If you increase the weight even more, to 3o-5o pounds or so, you will
create so much tension in the abdomen that the dome of the diaphragm
is unable to descend at all. In that event the only way you will be able to
breathe comfortably will be by lifting the upper part of the rib cage and
breathing thoracically (fi.g.z.zzc). Placing two z5-pound bags of lead shot
on the abdomen creates two results: it requires that there will be a
substantial increase in the anterior displacement ofthe upper chest during
inhalation, and it holds the middle and lower portions of the abdomen fixed
in position.

BREATHING IN THE CROCODILE POSTURE

If you still have trouble sensing the ways in which abdominal and
diaphragmatic breathing operate and differ from one another, the distinc-
tions will become more clear if you try breathing in two variations of the

Figure 2.22a.Abdominal, or abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing, with a

1 4 - p o u n d s a n d b a g .T h e d i a p h r a g m p u s h e sa g a i n s tt h e a b d o m i n a l o r g a n s ,
u l t i m a t e l yp r e s s i n gt h e a b d o m i n a l w a l l a n d s a n d b a gt o w a r d t h e c e i l i n g .

Figure 2.22b. Diaphragmatic,or thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing with a 25-

pound bag of lead shot. The extra weight is somewhat more difficult to lift than
the 14-pound sandbag,and this creates more of a tendency for the rib cage to
be enlarged from its base than for the weight to be pushed toward the ceiling.

inhalation

Figure 2.22c.Thoracic breathing, as required by 50 pounds of weight placed

on the abdomen and lower border of the chest.After a modest downward
excursion of the dome of the diaphragm (inhalation),its muscle fibers remain
in a state of isometric contraction and the brunt of inhalation must be borne
by the external intercostals.
crocodile posture. First, to experience abdominal breathing, lie prone, with
the feet apart, the elbows flexed, and the arms stretched out in front. Your
hands should be pulled in enough for the forehead to rest on the bony part
of the wrist. This is the most relaxed variation of the crocodile (fig. z.z:).
The position of the arms restricts thoracic breathing, the position of the
chest against the floor restricts diaphragmatic breathing, and the position
of the lower abdomen against the floor restricts what we conventionally
think of as abdominal breathing. Still, in a modified form, abdominal
breathing is what this is, with the hips and lower back rather than the
front of the abdomen responding to the rise and fall of the dome of the
diaphragm.
Abdominal breathing in this sleepy, stretched-out crocodile requires a
more active diaphragm than abdominal breathing in the supine position.
Why? The weight of the entire torso against the floor in the prone position
restrains inhalation more than the weight of the abdominal organs by
themselves in the supine position-it feels something like breathing in the
corpse posture with a lead apron spanning your entire chest and abdomen.
If you make a nominal effort to breathe evenly, the diaphragm also has to
work more strongly to rcstrain exhalation. At the end of exhalation, of
course, it can relax completely,just as it does in the corpse posture.
Next, to experience an unusual form of diaphragmatic breathing, lie in
the more traditional easy crocodile with the elbows flexed and the arms
at a 45-9o" angle from the torso. The hairline should rest against the
forearms. Adjust the arms so that the lower border of the chest is barely
'_fhisarches the back and creates a mild backbending
touching the floor.
posture (fig. z.z4). Now we ilre entering complex and unexplored territory.
The lower abdomen still cannot protrude because it is against the floor;
thoracic breathing is restricted by the extreme arm position even mol.e
than in the previous posture; and the attempt of the diaphragm to descend
is checked becausethe base of the rib cage and upper abdomen is still held
in position. The only parts of the body that appear to yield for inhalation

type of abdominalbreathingcreatedby a stretched-

Figure2.23.A specialized
ou-tcrocodileposture.The floor cannotyield to the descendingdome of the
diaphragmduringinhalation,so the lower backand hips are lifted by default.
are the lower back and hips (fig. z.z4),just as in the stretched crocodile.
Isolated comparisons of the dashed superimpositions for inhalations in
these two postures is not helpful to our analysis, however, because the
experience of breathing in them is completely different. Although it is not
reflected in the photog:raphs,inhalation in the beginner's crocodile creates
a characteristic tension at the base of the rib cage which is absent in the
stretched-out posture. For that reason we can-indeed we must-classify
breathing in the beginner's crocodile as thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing.

DIAPHRAGMATICBREATHING IN SITTING POSTURES

To experience the center-of-the-trunk sensation that characterizes

diaphragmatic breathing in sitting postures, sit upright in a chair and first
review abdominal breathing as a basis for comparison. Thcn to breathe
diaphragmatically, inhale gently while holding iust enough tension in the
abdominal muscles to make sure that the lower abdomen is not displaced
anteriorly during inhalation. There is a sense of enlargement in the lower
part of the chest and a feeling of expansion in the upper part o{' the
abdomen just below the sternum. The lateral excursion of the rib cage (fig.
z.z5a)is more pronouncedthan the anterior movement (fig. z.z5bt,but,vou
may have to take a few slow, deep inhalations to confirm this.
All of these observations will bc lost on chest breathers because the
difference between the mild lower abdominal tension that creates
diaphrag'n-raticbreathing and the frank rigidity of the cntire abdcrminal
wall that is associatedwith constricted thoracic breathing is far too subtle
for them to feel and comprehend. They will get mixed up every time. As
discussed earlier, anyone who has the habit of chronic chest breathing
should not try to do thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing until they have
become thoroughly habituated to abdominal breathing. 'l'heir first goal
must be to break the habit of constricted chest breathing forever.

inhalation

Figure2.24. Objectively, this beginner's crocodile posture again appears to lift

the lower back and hips as in abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing, but appear-
ances can be deceiving.The subjective feel of the posture is that the mild back-
bending position severely restricts lifting of the lower back; more emphasis is
felt at the base of the rib cage. For that reason,and because the extreme arm
position also restrictsthoracic breathing, this posture is admirably suited for
training in thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing.
 2. BREATHING I25

HOW DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING AFFECTS POSTURE

If you examine your body carefully when you are breathing diaphrag-
matically in the easy crocodlle (fig. z.z4'), the cobra (fig. z.ro), or the
diaphragmatic rear lift (fig. z.u), you will notice that inhalation raises your
posture up and back, and that exhalation lowers it down and forrvard. This
principle also holds true when you are standing, sitting straight, or even
lounging in a soft chair. During inhalation in all such postures the head
moves back, and during exhalation it comes forward. During inhalation the
ceruical lordosis (the forward arch in the neck) decreases,thus raising the
head; during exhalation it increases, lowering the head. The shoulders
move back during inhalation and forward during exhalation. The thoracic
kyphosis (the posterior convexity in the chest) decreasesduring inhalation
and increases during exhalation. Finally, if you are sitting straight the
lumbar lordosis increases during inhalation and decreasesdurins exhalation.

Figure 2.25a.Diaphragmatic, F i g u r e2 . 2 5 b .D i a p h r a g m a t i c
or thoraco-diaphragmatic b r e a t h i n gf r o m t h e s i d e ,
breathing, from a front illustrating the forward
view. Holding moderate movement of the chest
tension in the abdomen when moderatelensionis
dictates that the diaphragm held in the abdominal
will cantilever the base of m u s c l e sd u r i n g i n h a l a t i o n .
the rib cage out and up (the
"bucket-handle" analogy).
126 ANA'IO],IY OF HATTIA YOGA

The movements are subtle, but if you purposely try to make them in the
opposite direction, you will see instantly that they are contrary to the normal
pattern.
An understanding of these principles is of practical value to meditators
because they can take advantage of the slight postural changes caused
by breathing to adjust and improve their sitting postures. Try it. Sit
comfortably on the edge of a straight chair and breathe evenly and
diaphragmatically in a cycle of 4-6 seconds for each round of inhalation
and exhalation. Resolve not to make noticeable movements for the next
five minutes. Now, with each inhalation lift your posture, allowing the
inhalation to pull the head back, flatten the thoracic kyphosis, and
increasethe lumbar lordosis. These adjustments should be so slight that
they are barely perceptible, even to the practitioner. Press the abdomen
in actively during each exhalation so as not to lose ground. Pretend that
the breath is acting like a ratcheting mechanism on a pulley that is
lifting a weight. With each inhalation you gain a single cog, and during
exhalation the ratchet prcvents the weight from falling. You can also
imagine that the breath is a thread which lifts the posture during
inhalation and then holds it from falling during exhalation. The resolve
not to move in this exerciseis critical, so good concentration is required.
If you make adjustments that are externally visible, the body accepts the
habit of moving, and the posture deteriorates when concentration lapses.
Next check the effects of diaphragJrnatic breathing when you are
slouched.You will notice the same problemsyou encounteredwith abdominal
breathing in a slouched posture: Iabored inhalations, an inability to start
exhalations without gasping, and the difTiculty of using the abdominal
muscles to aid exhalation. I'he entire torso is lifted up and back with each
breath, but each exhalation drops it forward. You can seean extreme example
of this if you dip your head forward while you are slouched.Each inhalation
rolls the body up, and each exhalation rolls it down.
Now try sitting perfectly straight (but without arching your torso forward
from the hips). Notice that the posture itself defines diaphragmatic breathing.
Unless you are too flabby, the abdomen is held taut enough by the posture
to make abdominal breathing inconvenient. You can play with the edgesof
this. Hold the posture less rigorously, and you will see that you begin to
breathe abdominally. Sit straight, and the taut abdomen will force you to
breathe diaphragmatically. Carrying this to an extreme, if you bend
forward from the hips markedly while maintaining a prominent lumbar
Iordosis, the abdomen gets so taut that inhalation becomesvery laborious.
You will then either have to resort to chest breathing or make excessiveeffort
to breathe diaphragmatically.
 2. BREATHING 12t-

EVEN DIAPHRAGMATICBREATHING

Many of the principles underlying even abdominal breathing apply to

even diaphragmatic breathing as well. Make sure there are no jerks in
your breath. This is more difficult in diaphragmatic breathing than it is
in abdominal breathing because the process is more complex and you
are constantly monitoring the tension in your abdomen. Until you get
accustomed to doing this, it may create slight disruptions during
inhalations.
Be careful that you are not creating a pause at the end of inhalation.
This is less of a problem in diaphragmatic breathing than it is in abdominal
breathing because the additional tension in the abdomen (as well as the
focus of mental attention at the junction of the chest and abdomen) keeps
the diaphragm in a state of tension well into exhalation. Be even more
watchful that you are not creating a pause at the end of exhalation. As with
abdominal breathing, it is important to assist exhalation with the abdominal
muscles, causing that part of the cycle to flow smoothly and naturally into
the inhalation. As inhalation proceeds, however, there is an important
difference between abdominal and diaphragmatic breathing: during
abdominal breathing, the abdominal muscles facilitate even breathing only
at the beginning of inhalation, but during diaphragmatic breathing, they
remain active throughout inhalation so that their isometric tension can
force the diaphragm to spread its costal attachment laterally and enlarge
the rib cage.
Breathe through your nose, and try not to create noise. Ifyour breath-
ing is noisy, you may have to work with cleansing, diet, allergies, and
breathing exercises to solve the problem, but this is essential. Noisy
breathing will distract your mind as long as it lasts.
Observe in your mind's eye the elliptical nature of the breathing cycle.
Smoothly decelerate your rate of inhalation and merge it into exhalation
exactly as you would round off an ellipse at the top of a chalkboard.
Smoothly accelerateyour exhalation under the control of your abdominal
muscles as you draw the chalk down the ellipse; smoothly decelerateyour
exhalation and merge it into the inhalation as you carry your mark around
the bottom ofthe ellipse.
Until you have mastered even breathing don't try to lengthen your
inhalations and exhalations.A z-secondinhalation and a z-secondinhalation
is fine, or a little faster or slower. The longer you try to make the cycle, the
more difficult it is to make it even. So be completely natural at first with-
out thinking of trying to accomplish anything.
After several months of practice you can slowly work up to making your
breaths longer, so long as you are still not jerking, pausing, or making
noise. If you are taking fewer than six breaths per minute, you will be
125 ANATOMY OF HA7-ITA YOGA

adding a thoracic component to diaphragmatic breathing, which means

that you are activating the external intercostal muscles concentrically,
especially toward the end of inhalation. You will also be pressing more
insistently with the abdominal muscles to lengthen the exhalation. And if
you carry this to an extreme, going slowly, you will finally approach breathing
your vital capacity with each cycle of exhalation and inhalation. This is the
complete breath, our next topic.

THE COMPLETE BREATH

The complete breath is one of the simplest and yet most rewarding of all
the yoga breathing exercises. To begin, breathe in and out a few times
normally and then exhale as much as possible, all the way down to your
residual volume. Then for the complete breath inhale as much as possible,
which will be your vital capacity (fi.g.z.z6). Continue by exhaling and inhaling
your vital capacity as many times as you want.
This is a lot of ventilation even if you breathe slowly. If you inhale and
exhale your vital capacity three times in one minute, your minute vcntila-
tion will be t4,4ooml per minute (,+,llooml per breath times three breaths
per minute), and your alveolar ventilation will be r-j,95oml per minute
(,1,65oml times 3 breaths per minute). After just six such breaths your
blood gaseswill have shifted perceptibly-arterial oxygen will have moved
from perhaps loo mm Hg to tzo mm Hg and arterial carbon dioxide from
perhaps .16mm Hg to 35 mm Hg (fig. z.z7).For this reason the complete
breath is both cleansing and energizing, but if you do it slowly and evenly
it will also produce a senseof calm and stability.
You can practice the complete breath when you are sitting, standing, or
lying down, but it is most commonly done in a supine position with the

Figure2.26.The complete
breath,or inhalationand
exhalationof the vital
capacity. The halftone
showsa profileof the
fullestpossibleexhalation,
and the dotted outline
showsthe fullestpossible
s u b s e q u e ni nt h a l a t i o n .
 hands stretched overhead, usually at the end of a class or at the end of a
series of sun salutations. Most instructors will suggest filling the lungs
from below-expanding the lower, then the middle, and finally the upper
parts ofthe lungs.
A common and less extreme variation of the complete breath is to simply
inhale and exhale your inspiratory capacity instead ofyour vital capacity, and
unless the instructor specifically asks you to exhale as much as you possibly
can before starting the complete breath, inhaling and exhaling the inspiratory
capacity is what most people will do naturally.
lTechnicalnote: In additionto the provenanti-agingeffectsof a calorie-restricted
and high-nutrition diet in experimentalanimals,the ability to quickly inhale a
commodiousvital capacityappearsto bc one of the most reliable predictorsof
longevityin humans.Whether this arguesfor the principle of trying to increase
your inspiratoryand vital capacityis not so certain,but it certainlycan't hurt any-
onewho is in goodenoughhealthto do the postures.In chapterl, we'll concentrate
on exercisesthat focuson exhalationrather than inhalation-increasingyour vital
capacitybv developingthe ability to exhaleyour f'ull expiratoryreservcvolumeand
minimizeyour residualvolume.I

6000
ml
five normalbreaths, I
inhalation
I
exhalation
beginningwith an
exh:lation ancl endinn
10sec 10sec
5000
ml with an inhalation;
- alveolarventilation
is
E 4,200mlimin;blood
4000 oxygenlevelis 100 \ \/
gml mm Hg; blood carbon
dioxideis 46 mm Hg
E
c 3000

WW\A
;ml
0)
E I
=y
l

2000 I
c6
c'F
ml

1000
ml
inr',)ru,iJn
2.5 sec
J"nu,j,,on
2.5 sec
\I I \ I \ I \
threecompletebreaths,alveolarventilationis 13,950
ml/min;estimatedfinalblood oxygenis 125 mm Hg;
estimatedfinalblood carbondioxideis 35 mm Ho
10 20 30 40 50 90
time in seconds(sec)

Figure 2.27. Simulations of three complete breaths (in this case inhaling and
exhaling the vital capacity) following an initial exhalation of the expiratory
reservevolume. Even though the subject is only taking three breaths per
minute, breathing in and out the full vital capacity a few times is expected to
markedly increaseblood oxygen and decrease blood carbon dioxide.
13O ANATOMY O}'ITATHA YOGA

ALTERNATE NOSTRIL BREATHING

One of the best breathing exercises for calming the nervous system is
alternate nostril breathing, or nadi shodanham. This is a concentration
as well as a breathing exercise, and it is possibly the single most impor-
tant preparation for meditation in hatha yoga. There are dozens of
variations to suit differing needs, abilities, and temperaments. At one
extreme, mental patients, flighty or hyperactive children, or anyone who
has difficulty concentrating can simply sit up straight, rest their elbows
on a desk, press the right nostril shut with the right index finger, and
exhale and inhale three times. Then they can press the left nostril shut
with the left index finger and again exhale and inhale three times. This
simple exercise can be repeated for 5 minutes at a pace of t- to z-second
exhalations and t- to z-second inhalations (r5-3o breaths per minute)
using abdominal breathing. It trains concentration because it requires
sitting straight, counting the breaths, switching nostrils at the proper
moment, and, most important of all, breathing evenly with no noise,
jerks, or pauses.
A slightly more complex version of alternate nostril breathing begins
with making the classicalmudra (gesture) with the right hand, curling the
index and middle fingers in toward the palm. Closing the right nostril with
the thumb, exhale and inhale once through the left nostril (fig. z.zl3a).
'lhen, closing the left nostril with the ring (fourth) finger (fig. u.z8b)exhale
and inhale once through the right nostril. Go back and forth like that for 5
minutes. Breathe abdominally or diaphragmatically as your abilities
oermit.

Figure2.28a.Alternatenostril Figure2.28b.Alternatenostril
breathing,closingthe right nostril breathing,closingthe left nostrilwith
with the rightthumb. the rightfourth finger.
 UNG r3l

The following version of this exercise is the one ordinarily taught in

hatha yoga classes even though it is more elaborate and demanding of
concentration than the previous exercises.Using the same hand mudra as
for the secondexercise,exhale through the left nostril and inhale through
the right three breaths, then exhale through the right and inhale through
the left three more breaths. Then breathe three breaths evenly with both
nostrils open. Next, exhale through the right and inhale through the left
three times, then exhale through the left and inhale through the right
three times, and again take three even breaths with both nostrils open.
That's t8 breaths. Repeat this three times, for 5,1breaths total. As before,
your concentration will be on posture, abdominal or diaphragrnatic breathing,
and, above all, on even breathing. Ifyou can avoid sacrificing even breathing,
you can slow down to 3-secondexhalations and 3-secondinhalations, or ten
breaths per minute.
If you do this practice three times a day,it centers the attention and calms
the mind, and it is therefore ideal for anyone who wishes to remain balanced
and focused. For a more advanced practice, students will gradually slow
down the pace of breathing until they are finally taking zo-secondexhalations
and zo-second inhalations. Ultimately they will practice pranayama, or
breath retention (which, as will be discussedshortly, should never be under-
taken except under thc supervision of a competent instructor).

A TRADITIONAL WARNING
Cautions to bejudicious and respectful ofbreathing exercisesabound in the
literature on hatha yoga. And it does indeed seem from anecdotal reports of
explorers in this freld that the rhythm and record of our respiration
resonates throughout the body. It seems to accentuate whatever is in the
mind, whether it be benevolenceor malevolence,harmony or disharmony,
virtue or vice. On the negative side, experiencedteachers report that quirk-
iness of any sort gets accentuated in students who go too far. It might be
an abusive streak, laughing inappropriately, speaking rudely, flightiness,
twitchiness, or nervous tics. Right to left physical imbalances also become
exaggerated. Unfortunately, novices often close their ears to warnings:
having become addicted to their practice, they will not be denied.
Competent teachers of hatha yoga will be watchful of these simple matters
and wary of tutoring refractory students. Even the beginning exercises
discussedin this chapter should be treated with respect.
Apart from psychologicalconcerns, the special physiological hazards
of breathing exercisesis that they can causeproblems without giving us
traditional signals warning us against doing something harmful. In ath-
letics, the practice of asana, experiments with diet, or just tinkering
with any object in the physical world, we depend on our sensesto tell
r32 ANATOI\4Y OF HATHA YOGA

us that we are exceeding our capacity or doing something inadvisable.

But breathing exercises are different. In that realm we are dealing with
phenomena that our senses,or at least our untutored senses,are often
unable to pick up, even though they can still affect the body. And
becauseof this, advanced exercisesshould be undertaken only by those
who are adequately prepared. Given such preparation, and given that
one is enjoying a balanced life of cheerful thoughts, positive feelings,
and productive actions, the yoga breathing exerciseshave the potential
for producing more powerful and positive benefits than any other practice
in hatha yoga. Again, that's a big claim, but experienced yoga instructors
will agree.

"'Vl//lrc.Vu:r/ //L,.n,la L/tr uJe e/'eytirt/hvt, /lnttz,jr 1i a/i'rrtz,ry'

//la/ ru az:tza,/Jeru//l2q r:t.tr,rthrrlta /l/,, ,r/lo/r,orr /l zrtjr
/lr:,Vat.tct Lt/e //z ttttt.t.t e///L 1l/ler/. J/tuy' r.//u a.u' rlzT,rvt eul
a/LL /1ztql, //rr.tr, r/a/2a/rr:l::t /izt'r,rzq 1rlr,n. ry't'autzr//leru
r:/, il nr, /)rr.7"" /rft /iz'./nq a..//z/.t/.."
- John Mayow, in Tractatus Quinque (r67q),quoted from

Proctor's A History of Breathing Physiology, p. 162.

 2. IJREAT'IIING rJ-l

an empowered thoracic inhalation

chestis
expanded
to rts near
maximum

abdominal
wall is
relaxeo
but taut

Figure2.29a.Empoweredthoracicbreathing:inhalation.
1) The dome of the diaphragmresistsbeingpulledtowardthe head,and
therebysupportsinhalationindirectly.
2) The abdominalwall is relaxedbut taut.
3) The externalintercostalmusclesactivelylift the chestup and out.
4) The rib cageexpandsto its nearmaximum.
5) The mentalstateis celebratory.
I.].+ ANAT'OMY OF ITATHA YOGA

a constricted thoracic inhalation

chestis expanded
and lifted,but within
the confinesof
"shallowbreathing"

abdominal
wall held
rigidly

Figure 2.29b. Constricted thoracic breathing: inhalation.

1 ) T h e d i a p h r a g mi s r e l a x e da n d a l m o s t i m m o b i l e .
2 ) T h e a b d o m i n a lw a l l i s h e l d r i g i d l y .
3) The external intercostal muscles actively lift the chest up and out.
4) The rib cage expands to within self-imposed and constricted limits.
5) The mental state can become anxious.
 2. BREATH]NG r35

a paradoxicalinhalation

chest
expanoeo
maximally

\-\

\-.\

\
abdominal
wall is
\ p u l l e di n

passrvely
\

Figure 2.29c. Paradoxicalbreathing: inhalation.

1 ) T h e d i a p h r a g m i s c o m p l e t e l y r e l a x e da n d l i f t e d b y t h e c h e s t .
2) The abdominal wall is pulled in and up passively.
3) The external intercostal muscles actively lift the chest up and out.
4) The rib cage expands maximally.
5) Overdone, the mental state can become anxious and panicky.
116 ANAT'OMY OF IIATIIA YOG,1

an abdominal(abdomino-diaphragmatic)
inhalation

intercostal muscles
are held in a gentle
state of isometric
contractronto keep
the chestfrom
collapsinginward
duringinhalation

abdominalwall
is relaxedand
pushedforward
by the actionof
the diaphragm

F i g u r e2 . 2 9 d .A b d o m i n a l ( a b d o m i n o - d i a p h r a g m a t i cb) r e a t h i n g :i n h a l a t i o n .
1 ) T h e d o m e o f t h e d i a p h r a g m m o v e s d o w n i n a f a i r l y s i m p l e p i s t o n - l i k ea c t i o n .
2) The lower abdominal wall is relaxed and pushed forward by the diaphragm.
3) The intercostal muscles actively hold the chest wall in a stable position.
4) The rib cage remains about the same size in all parts of the breathing cycle.
5) The mental state is relaxed and may get sleepy.
 a diaphragmatic (thoraco-diaphragmatic)inhalation

intercostalmusclesare
held in a gentle state of
_z isomelriccontraction to
-.t/l permit the chest wall to
/ I O. cantilevered up and
/ I out from its lowerrim
-/ I I OVthe actionof the
I // diaphragm(extent
of this movemenlis is..
II II II greatlyexaggerated)
.*'
I I

,\-/ I
il/
upperabdominal
wall is pressed
)>out alongwith
/
the lowerborder
of the rib cage
(movementis
oY2dnaltioa'l\

lowerabdominal
wall is held some
whattaut,either
by a) muscular
resistance,or
b) by sittingor
standingstraight,
or c) by both in
combination

Figure2.29eD . i a p h r a g m a t i c( t h o r a c o - d i a p h r a g m a t i cb)r e a t h i n g :i n h a l a t i o n .
1) The diaphragm pressesdown against the abdominal organs.
2) The abdominal wall is relatively taut, in part from muscular activity.
3) The intercostal muscles maintain the overall integrity of the chest wall.
4) The rib cage is flared at its base by the costal attachment of the diaphragm.
5) The mental state is clear and attentive. and is focused on the mid-torso.
lStt ANATOIIT'OI; IIAI'IIA YOGA
 THRE,E,
CHAPTE,R
ABDOMINOPE,LVIC
EXE,RCISE,S

'(./lc/.'4/.2/l/./
",f'{.qrt, .1./t'.t /t/.1...L.//..J /./i Jrr/itr' .1q..1/rtt,' t/1r atra e/'
tlr' /;lrr/y al:errnlzry' ui//i. ry'.Qr:.t/icrt..,Vqr, .iat'a rz./ic /,/zzftt
/L, 1)u,r,/.j, 1ikrL/rr, /11.t.//.)//.j.lr..lft2tt, rrrzt/).1r,(l .JVl/zztr, ntrry'
rc7ur,/zr,l/r,r: )y.llrttt. (2)1|r//?/it,r,.rrzrr.lr:.J //t., atu, r.1/,/i:,un.1/

1rl,nr/r.ro/.i artr/ r/'/r.tu' il trz.'q l/ter/, r/ ,r.ru /a Vrf,,rrrrr/

,r/?rrr,. "
- Sri Swami Rama, in Exercise Wi,thoutMouemenl, p. 53.

A
-f-\.sure way to developwhat yogis call inner strength is to tonc thc abdominal
region. If energy in the arms and shoulders is weak, a strong abdomen can
give you an cxtra edge, but i['thc abdomcn is wcak, look out, becauseeven
the strongest arms and sh<-rulders are likely to fail you. One of the most
memorable boxing matches of'the century (Muhammad AIi vs. George
Foreman, Oct. 3o, r97.1)is a perfect example. Ali knew hc had lost his cdgc
for dancing around the ring "like a butterIly," and that he probably couldn't
win unless he adoptcd unconventional tactics. Suspecting that Rrreman
would not have the stamina for a long bout, Ali had prepared a steely but
resilient belly with thousands of repetitions of sit-ups and other abdominal
exercises.He called on this secret strenglh early in the match, repcatedly
going to the ropes and letting his opponent punch himsclf to exhaustion.
Reality hit in the eighth round-with a few precise strokes Ali brought
Foreman down for the count.
The structural foundation for abdominopelvic strength and energy (this
is obviously a literary rather than a scientific use of the term "energy,"
something like saying someone has "a lot of pep," or "a lot of guts") is the
pelvis and abdomen, a complex region whose architecture can be under-
stood most easily by studying two simple and familiar exercises:crunches
and sit-ups. Then we'll be able to make more senseof the general design of
the abdominopelvic region in relation to the chest and lower extremities.
This in turn will enable us to discussleglifts, sit-ups, the boat postures, and
the peacock. These seemingly diverse exercises not only strengthen the
torso, they stimulate abdominal energy by using the abdomen as a fulcrum

r39
for manipulating large segments of the body in relation to one another in
the field of gravity.
In the secondhalf of the chapter we'll shift our attention to the anatomical
perineum and discuss practices that work with that region and with the
abdomen and pelvis in relative isolation, in contrast to the abdominal exercises,
which demand use of the body as a whole. The practices in the secondhalf of
the chapter include ashwini mudra, mula bandha, agni sara, uddiyana
bandha, and nauli kriya. Last, we'll take a critical look at contraindications
and benefits.

CRUNqHES AND SIT.UPS

If you asked the instructor at your local health club to show you the best
abdominal exercise,you would probably be told to do crunches.You would lie
down supine, draw the fcet in, bend the knees, interlock the fingers behind
the head, and then pull the upper halfofyour body into a fourth ofa sit-up,
.just enough to lift your shoulders well off'the floor. Then you would lower
yourself back down and repeat the movements as many times as you want.
This is not a bad exercise.It strengthens the abdominal muscles and stretches
the back in one of'the safest possible positions. Sit-ups are a different matter.
In high school ESrmclasscsfrom ycars gonc by, students used to count thc
number of rapid-fire sit-ups (jerk-ups, actually) they could do in a minute
with the knees extended and the hands interlocked behind the neck. Ifyou
are strong and under eighteen this probably won't hurt you, but i{ you are
older and have a history of back problems it is likely to make them worse.
The musclesresponsiblefbr crunches and sit-ups includc both abdominal
muscles and hip flexors. The abdominal muscles encircle the abdomen and
extend from the chest to the pelvis. The hip flexors, which are located deep
in the pelvis (and thus hidden from view), flex thc fbmur at the hip ioint.
They include the iliacus and p.soo.smuscles (or the iliopsoas, considering
the two of them together as a team). They run f rom the pelvis to the upper
part of the femur in the caseof the iliacus, and from the lumbar spine to the
femur in the caseof the psoas(figs. z.lt, ,3.7,and tt.t3).
Crunches are relatively safe becausethe knees are bent and the lumbar
region is rounded posteriorly (to the rear). Under these circumstances,the
abdominal muscles pull you up and forward, and the iliopsoas musclesaid
that movement as synergists by bracing the ilia and the lumbar region (fig.
:.r). By contrast, if you do sit-ups with the knees straight, the psoas mus-
cles first pull the lumbar spine into a more fully arched position anteriorly
(to the front), and then they pull the torso up and forward. Ifyou have back
problems, it is this initial pull on the Iumbar arch that can create problems.
Later in this chapter (fig. 3.zta-b) we'll see several ways to approach sit-up
exercisesmore safelv.
 ]. ABDOMINOPELVIC EXI'RCISI'S I4I

THE FOUNDATION OF THE BODY

To understand how crunches, sit-ups, and leglifts operate mechanically, as
well as to lay the groundwork for discussing standing, backward bending,
forward bending, twisting, and sitting postures in later chapters, we must
look at the pelvis and its relationships with the spine and thighs in detail.

THE HIP BONES AND SACRUM: THE PELVIC BOWL

We'll first examine the peluic bowl, whtch is formed from the combination
of the two peluic bones (the hip bones) and the sacrum-the lowest of the
four main segments of the spine. The pelvic bones have two roles: one is to
link the vertebral column with the thighs, legs, and feet; the other is to
define (in combination with the sacrum) the base of the torso and provide
a skeletal framework for the pelvic cavity and the organs of elimination
and reproduction.
In the fetus each hip bone is made up of three segments: the ilium, the
ischium, and the pubis. We often speak of them individually, but in adults
they are fused together into one piece, with one hip bone on each side. To
the rear, the iliac segments of the pelvic bones fbrm right and left sacroiliac
joints with the sacrum (fig. 3.2-4).
To understand the three-dimensional architecture of the pelvic bowl,
there is no substitutc for palpating its most prominent landmarks. You can
of the ilium on each side at your waistline. Then
start by feeling the cre.s/.s
locate the ischial tuberosities (the "sitting bones") behind and below; these
are the protuberances upon which your weight rests when you sit on a bicycle
seat or on the edge of a hard chair.
To continue your exploration, locate the two pubic bones in front, just
above the genitals. They join one another at the pubic symphysis, a fibro-
cartilaginous joint which keeps the two sides of the pelvis locked together
in front (figs. r.rz and 3.2-4); their rami (ramus means "branch") connect
with the ilia and ischia on each side (frgs. 3.2-+). First trace the upper margln
of each pubic bone laterally. What you are feeling are the superior pubic
rami,bony projections that extend into the groin toward the ilium on each

iliopsoasmuscles(hipflexors)act as synergiststo bracethe pelvis

il
.v
,:iI
F i g u r e3 . 1 . ,,t,''
Crunchexercise, 3
tI
safelyliftingup "{
and forward
with bent knees. abdominalmusclesact as agonists(primemovers)
742 ANATOMY OF ITATTIA YOGA

side. An inch or so lateral to the pubic symphysis, these projections are

overlain by the iliacus and psoas muscles passing out of the pelvis to their
combined insertion on the front of the femur. And beyond the softness of
these muscles, the superior pubic rami connect with the ilia, which are
again easily palpable.
Next Iocate the inferior pubic rami, which connect to the ischia (figs. 3.2-4.
To frnd them, stand with your feet wide apart and locate the bones that
extend from the base ofthe pubic region inferiorly, Iaterally, and posteriorly.
They form a deep upside-down V About halfway back each inferior pubic
ramus merges into the next component of the hip bone, the ischium. It's
hard to locate the lateral border of the inferior pubic ramus because the
tendons of the adductor muscles (figs. z.tt,3.lt-9, and ti.t3 t,1)are in the way.
And in the male it is also difficult to palpate the inside, or medial, border
of the inferior pubic rami because the penis is rooted in the converging
arms of the V In the female the medial borders of these bones are more
accessible.In either case,following them posteriorly will finally lcad you to
the ischial tuberosities.
Returning to the ilium, which continues laterally from each superior
pubic ramus, you will find a prominent bony point, the anterior superior
iliac spine,andjust below this protuberance,the lessobviousanterior inferior
iliac spine (figs. l.z-+). If your abdomen is not in the way, you will become
aware of the right and left anterior superior iliac spines when you lie prone
on a hard surface. From these landmarks, trace the crests of thc ilia laterally
along the waistline. If you are slender and not heavily muscled, you can
poke your thumb inside the iliac crest and feel the top half inch or so of the
inside of the pelvic bowl from which the iliacus muscle originates. 'l'hen, as
you follow the crest of the ilium around to the back, you will come to a soiid
mass of muscle, the erector spinae, below which the ilium articulates with
the sacrum.

THE SACROILIAC JOINTS AND THE SPINE

The two pelvic bones connect with the rest of the torso through the sacrum
at the two sacroiliac joints (figs. 3.2-,1),which are formed on each side of
the sacrum at the junction of two rough but matching surfaces (figs. -1.-land
6.2)-the lateral surface of the sacrum and the medial surface of the pelvic
bone. Even though these are movable synovial joints whose mating surfaces
are bathed in synovial fluid, and even though their matching L-shaped
groove-and-rail architecture permits some movement in children and
healthy young adults, healy bands of deep fasciae and well defined sacroiliac
and iliolumbar ligaments (fig. :.+) bind the joints together on the outside
and restrain their movement in most people over the age of 25. Athletic
young women are notable exceptions; their sacroiliac joints are generally
 .J. ABDOMINOPELVIC I|XER''ISES I,+3

more mobile than those for men in comparable condition. We'll explain the
nature of the complex movements that are possible at the sacroiliac joint
in chapter 6.
Anatomical differences account for some of the variations in sacroiliac
mobility between men and women, along with the female hormones estrogen,
progesterone,and relaxin. The latter all become especiallyimportant in the
last month of pregnancy for loosening up the sacroiliac joints, along with
the pubic connections in front. All must yield to permit the passageof the
baby through the birth canal.
Internally, the sacroiliac joints sometimes become ankylosed, which
means they have formed a partial or complete bony union. Older men are
particularly apt to develop this condition, and once it begins, their sacroiliac
components can slip relative to one another only with considerable difficulty
and unpleasantness.Such slippage usually happens as a result ofa fall, but
any impact that disturbs the partially locked relationship between the two
sides of the joint will traumatize the opposing surfaces and probably cause
extreme pain. Sacroiliac sprains (tears) of the binding ligaments are yet
another problem: in this casc they are a common cause of lower back pain.

crestof the rightilium left

hipbone
top border of sacrum (mates left sacroiliac
righl with intervertebraldisk joint
hipbone betweenL5 and the sacrum
anteflor
superior
iliac
a single
sprne
fused
bone,the
hipbone antenor
includes
? nrrtc'
inferior
iliacspine
t h ei l i u m ,
t h ep u b i s ,
leftacetabulum
and the
(socketfor hip
rscnrum joint)

left superior
pubrcramus
r ght ischialtuberosity left inferior
(s ttingbone) pubic ramus

Figure 3.2. The female pelvis, with sacrum and two hlpbones. The sacrum
ariiculates in the rear with the ilia at the sacroiliacioints, and the two hipbones
articulate with one another in front (by way of the right and left pubic bones) at
. l s o s e e f i g . 1 . 1 2( S a p p e y ) .
t h e f i b r o c a r t i l a g e n o u sp u b i c s y m p h y s i sA
r14 ANATOIUY Ol; IIAT'I1A t

Becausethe sacroiliacjoints in adults bind the pelvic bones so firmly to

the sacrum, every tilt, rotation, and postural shift of the pelvis as a whole
affects the vertebral column, and with the vertebral column, the entire
body. Ifyou rotate the top ofthe pelvis posteriorly (which is by definition a
posterior peluic tilt, or colloquially, a pelvic "tuck"), the top ofthe sacrum
is caruied to the rear, and this causesthe lumbar curvature to flatten and
lose its lordosis (forward arch). or in the extreme to become rounded

spinousprocessof C2

Figure 3.3. The vertebral

column (far right) is viewed
from its right side, and thus
revealsthe sacral articular
surface of the right sacroiliac
joint.The right hip bone
(below and lo lhe left) is
disarticulatedfrom the
sacrum and flipped
h o r i z o n l a l l y ,t h u s r e v e a l i n g
its inside surface and the ilial
face of the right sacroiliac
joint (Sappey).

crestof the ilium

anteflorsuoenorilracsDrne

anteriorinferioriliacspine

^41^\ 1l^. - ;- - -
suoeflorouDrcramus t^^^.^ ^{.^^
\5dLrd| u . r

sacrorac o -:
attachmentsite for
pubic symphysis articularsurfaceir ra r oi
t h e s a c r o i l i alco i n t
inferiorpubic ramus ischialtuberosity
 .J. AISDO]IIINOPIiI.VI'' EX]IRCISES I.15

posteriorly. on the other hand, pulling the top of the pelvis forward, which
is defined as an anterior peluic tilt, increases the depth of the lumbar
lordosis. And if you stand on one foot the tipped pelvis will create side-to-
s i d e d e v i a t i o n so f t h e s p i n e .

transverseorocess.L4 iliolumbarligaments
vertebralbody, L5
left iliac crest

left
anterior sacroiliac
superior j o i n ta n d
iliac sacroiliac
sprne lrgaments
fromthe
anteflor front
inferior
iliac
spine acetabulum
(hip socket)
superiorpubic ramus

inferiorpubic ramus ischialtuberosity

pubicsymphysis

iliolumbarligamenttrom behrnd

left ilium raghtsacroiliac

jointand
ilgaments
q''

anteflor
supenor
iliac
spine

antenor tip of coccyx

inferior (tailbone)
i l i a cs p i n e

left acetabulum(hip socket)

shared border of
leftischium anal and urogenital
leftischialtuberosity triangles

Figure 3.4. Pelvic restraining ligaments from the front (above) and from the
s i d e a n d b e h i n d ( b e l o w ) .T h e b o r d e r s o f t h e d i a m o n d - s h a p e da n a t o m i c a l
perineum are shown below, and include the anal triangle behind (dotted
line), and the urogenital triangle in front (dashed line),-with a shared border
( s o l i d l i n e ) c o n n e c t i n gt h e t w o i s c h i a lt u b e r o s i t i e s( S a p p e y ) .
1,!6 ANATO]IIYOF HATLIA YOGA

THE HIP JOINTS AND THEIR PRIME MOVERS

Most people understand the hip joints intuitively so long as they are deal-
ing with a simple imperative such as "bend forward from the hips," or
understanding that a simple "hip replacement" involves replacing the head
of the femur with a steel ball that will fit into the hip socket. Questioned
beyond that, most people will fall silent; they have no notion of what makes
up the socket or how movements take place. But now we have begun to
develop a distinct image of the pelvic bowl. we have seenhow the two pelvic
bones are united in front at the pubic symphysis and how the pelvic bones
articulate with the sacrum behind, and we have palpated several bony
landmarks on each side. we only need a few more details to complete the
picture.
The acetabulum (socket) for each hip joint is located at the lateral and
inferior aspectsof the pelvic bowl (figs.3.2 and 3'4-5)' You can't feel the
acetabulum, but you can feel the bony protuberance iust below the joint
that sometimes bumps into things-the greater trochanter clf the femur
(figs. -l.l-6). I{'you stand up and locate this landmark near where your
hands fall alongside your thighs, you will notice that it moves around as
you swing your thigh back and forth.

neck of femur headof femur (ball) ilium

antenor
supenor
greater iliac
trochanter spine
antenor
- inferior
r la c
s p in e

superlor
pubrc
ramus

shaft of
femur
(upper
portion)
attachment
siteoi pubic
symphysis

ischialtuberosity inferiorpubic ramus

Figure3.5.Rightfemur (on the left) as viewedfrom the front,and right hip

bdne (on the righfl as viewedfrom the side.The headof the femur fits snugly
i n t o t h e a c e t a b u l u mf o, r m i n ga b a l l - a n d - s o c kjeoti n t ( S a p p e y ) .
 3. A}}DO].[INOP]'L,VI(' EXERCISBS 147

The pelvic bowl is the foundation for all movements of the thighs at the
hip joints, including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation.
To flex the thigh in a leglift (figs. :.r;-rZ) you contract the psoasand iliacus
muscles (figs. 2.8, 3.7, and 8.r3),which, as we have seen, run from the pelvis
to the upper part of the femur in the case of the iliacus, and from the
Iumbar spine to the femur in the case of the psoas. For activities such as
Iifting each knee (as in running in place), or for stepping forward (as in
walking), the origins of these muscles are on the torso and their insertions
are on the thighs, but for sit-ups and crunches (fig. 3.t), the origins and
insertions are reversed-the thighs are fixed and the entire body is pulled
up and forward.
To extend the thigh actively in a posture such as the locust (figs. t.rl-rq)
you tighten the gluteus maximus muscle (figs. 3.1t,and ll.9-ro), which takes
origin from the posterior surface of the ilium and which has two insertions.

iIiac crest
--------=/
anteflor
superior
I
;J:,""\--{
antenor
inferior 'a\i ilialsurfaceof
iliacspine sacroiliacjoint

rectus
femoris
tendon
supenor
g l u t e u sm i n i m u s
ramus
muscle,
and attachment
srteon greater
trochanter

r$ \
tr.'

\-

site of attachmentoI
fibrocartilagenous
pubic symphysis

iliofemoral
ligament
rschrumand
ischialtuberosity inferior
pubic
rAMUS
pubofemoralligament

Figure3.6. Right hip bone. femur, and joint capsule,with the iliofemoral and
pubofemoral ligamentsvisible in front, and the ischiofemoralligament hidden
behind. These three ligamentsin combination become taut during hip extension,
and loose during hip flexion (for example,when the knee is lifted); (from Sappey).
I,+8 ANATOMY OI: HATHA )

one on the femur (fig. 3.tob), and the other in a tough band of connective
tissue-the iliotibial tract-that runs all the way down past the knee to the
leg (figs. 3.tt-9 and u.tz). You can feel the activity of the gluteus maximus
become pronounced if you stand up and pull the thigh to the rear while
pressing against the gluteal region with your hand. By contrast, many
other postures such as the camel (figs. 5.34-35)hyperextend the hip joint
passively,and this is resisted both by the psoas and iliacus muscles (figs.
2.8, 3.7, and tl.tj), and by Lhe rectus femoris component of the quadriceps
femoris muscle (figs. i.9, j.tt, and 8.tt-q).
To abduct the thigh, which you do when you lift the foot straight out tcr
the side, you tighten the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles
(figs.:.tt,,j.toa-b, tt.9-to, and u.tz), which take origin from beneath the
gluteus maximus and insert on the gpeater trochanter. To adduct the
thighs, which you do by pulling them together, you tighten the adductor
muscles, which take origin from the inferior pubic rami and insert below
on the femurs and tibias ({igs. z.tt,3.9, and tt.t3-t4).
If the musclesof the hips and thighs are strongand flexible, and if'you
are comfbrtable extending the thighs fully in any standing, kneeling, or
prone posture, you'll fin:rlly cncounter resistance to extensitln in a decp
spiral of ligaments that surround the ball and socket hip joint-the

rightand leftcruraof tweltththoracrc

respiratorydiaphragm vertebra (T12)
(cutends)

rightquadratus twelfthrib
tumDorum
ITanSVeTSUS
psoasmrnor abdominis

psoasmajor leftquadratus
lumoorum

crestof the
rlracus left ilium

disk
intervertebral cut end of left
betweenL5 and the psoasmuscle
sacrum
s u p e r i opr u b i c
rAMUS

greatertrocnanter
jointinsertionof right
iliopsoascombination inferror
pubic leftfemur
rami

F i g u r e3 . 7 . D e e p d i s s e c t i o no f t h e p e l v i sa n d l o w e r a b d o m e n r e v e a l i n gt h e
p s o a sa n d i l i a c u sm u s c l e sa n d t h e i r c o n j o i n e d i n s e r t i o n so n t h e f e m u r s .
Their contraction lifts the thighs, thus bringing about hip flexion (Sappey)'
 .t. ABDOX,IINOPELTIC EXERCIST:S 149

iliofemoral, ischiofemoral, and pubofemoral ligaments (fig.3.6). You won't

feel this spiral unless you know it is there, but it will become increasingly
taut as the thighs are extended. When that happens, the head of the femur
is driven into the acetabulum of the pelvic bone in a near-perfect fit, and
the thigh will extend no more. The spiral will unwind as the thighs are
flexed. If this spiral is removed and the hip joint opened up, the head of the
femur and the acetabulum become visible (fig'.3.t;.

rightgluteus rightgluteus right flgnr

maximus MAXIMUS: gluteus gluteus
muscle origin(cut) maximus maximus:
intact insertion lnserlron
fasciaoverlyinggluteusmedius on femur in iliotibial

iriaccrest:__qf .
fasciaoverlyingright
side of sacrum

,,t]il greater
trochanter
1li
'll''
1'l piriformis

superior
gemeilus

obturator
Inlernus

inferior
gemeilus
quaoralus
femoris

,5-- iliotiUut
,1 tract
ttl
i hamstringmuscles

lateral head
bicepsfemoris of quadnceps
adductormuscles(*) semrmembranosus

Figure3.8.Rightglutealregionand upperthigh from behind,with superficial

dissectionon the left (a)and deeperdissectionon the right (b).The partialcut-
awayof the gluteusmaximuson the right (b) exposesdeepermusclesof the
hip, as well as a clearpictureof the dual insertionof the gluteusmaximusto he
i l i o t i b i atlr a c ta n d t h e f e m u r ( S a p p e y ) .
r50 A^"A',IOMl',OFHATHA YOGA

THE QUADRICEPS FEMORIS MUSCLE

The quadriceps femoris is the largest muscle on the front of the thigh (figs.
7.2,3.9,and ti.tt-g) and the foremost anti-gravity muscle in the body. Three
of its four components, or "heads," take origin from the femur and act on
the tibia by way of the patellar tendon. Its fourth head, the rectus femoris
(figs.3.9,3.rt,and 8.8-9),takes origin from the front ofthe pelvis (the anterior
inferior iliac spine, figs. -3.2-6)and joins the other three components below.
The quadriceps femoris is the muscle, more than any other, that stands you
up from a squatting position. You can test its strength by standing in a 9o"
bent-knee position for 3o seconds with your back flat against a wall and
then slowly rising. For those who are older and in a weakened condition,

intervertebral
disk between
L5 and L4

adductors

sanorus

ouadricepsfemorismuscle
(threeof the four heads,
includingthe rectusfemoris
are visiblein this superficial
dissection); the fourthhead quadricepsfemoristendon
of this muscleis located
daon in +haea thrao
patella

patellartendon

Figure 3.9. Right side of pelvis (deep dissection),right thigh, and right knee, as
viewed from the front (Sappey).
 .]. ABDOJ'IINOPEII,7'- EXERCISES I51

this is the muscle that gives them pause when they want to climb up or down
stairs without holding onto a handrail. It is also Waterloo for inexperienced
skiers who are trying to negotiate a bowl of deep powder for the first time:
they are firmly (even though wrongly) convinced that they have to keep their
weight back and their ski tips visible to avoid toppling over into the snow.
Although that can indeed happen-it's called a "face plant" 61'('lssds1"-
most novices overcompensate for the possibility and quickly pay for their
error: quadricepsfemoris muscles that are soon burning with pain.

THE HAMSTRING MUSCLES

On the back sides of the thighs are the hamstring muscles, most of which
have their origin on the ischial tuberosities. Like the quadriceps femoris
muscles,the hamstrings insert below the knee joint, in this caseboth medially
and laterally (figs.3.to, ll.to, and tt.rz).Tight hamstrings are the bane of
runners-thousands of repetitive strides make these muscles shorter and
shorter until they arc barely long enough to permit full extension of'the
knees.
As two-joint muscles that pass lengthwise across two joints instea.doI'
one (from the ischial tuberosities of'the pelvis all the way to the proximal
ends of'the tibias and fibulas), the hamstrings contribute both to extension
of the thighs at the hip.joints and to flexion of the legs at the knee joints.
'fhis
architectural arrangement facilitates walking and running beautifully,
but it creates a problem in hzrthayoga. Since the hamstrings reside on the
back sides of two joints-the knee and the hip-each of which is crucial in
its own way for forward bending, these muscles are major obstaclesto such
movemcnts. It's obvious that you could relieve tension on the hamstrings
in forward bends by easing up either on hip flexion or knee extension, but
releasing flexion of the hips would be contrary to the whole idea. What
everyone does naturally is to flex their knees slightly, insuring that the
hamstring muscles don't tug so insistently on the base of the pelvis as one
attempts to bend forward. This was the principle involved in chapter r
when we bent the knees before pulling the torso down against the thighs
in the standing hamstrings-quadriceps thigh pull, and this is why we keep
the knees bent in crunches. It is also why the knees should be bent ifyou
insist on doing high-speedsit-ups. Otherwise the hamstring muscles tug on
the ischial tuberosities from below and create too much tension in the
lower back as youjerk yourselfup and forward.

THE SPINE AND ABDOMINAL WALL

The pelvic bowl is not merely the link between the thighs and the upper
half of the body; it is also the foundation for the torso. Knowing this, if you
look at a skeleton, even with one glance,you will sensean immediate cause
T52 ANA'IOJIIY OF HATHA YOGA

g l u t e u sm i n i m u sa n d
its nervebranches
piriformis(origin
from the underside gluteusmedius
of the sacrum)and and its nerve
its nervebranches branches
gluteusmaximus
and nervebranches piriformis(insertion
on
that emergefrom greatertrochanter)
beneaththe piriformis and its nervebranch
(dottedline)
sciaticnervewhereit
emergesfrom under-
neaththe piriformis

grureusmaxrmus
culaneous (insertionson femur
nerves(to and iliotibial
tract)
skin) and nervebranches

shorthead of biceps
adductormuscles femorisand two of
and some of their its nervebranches
nervebranches
long headof biceps
femorisand its nerve
Drancnes

mainlrunk o{ sciatic
nerve
semrmemoranosus
muscleand its nerve
branches

common peroneal nerve

semitendinosus
muscleand its nerve
Drancnes

medial head, nervebranchesto

and lateral head the lateralhead ol
of gastrocnemius thegaslrocnemrus
muscte,ano muscle
tnetrnerve
Drancnes

Figure 3.10a.Nerves to musclesof the back of the hip and thigh originate from
spinal segments 14, 15, 51, and 52, and run down the back of the thigh on the
extensor side of the hip joint. The large sciatic nerve and associatedbranchesto
the gluteus maximus emerge from just underneath the piriformis muscle (shown
i n t a c t i n f i g . 3 . B b ,i n t w o p a r t s c o n n e c t e d b y t h e d o t t e d l i n e s h e r e i n f i 9 . 3 . 1 0 a ,
and removed except for its tendon of insertion in fig. 3.10b).Nervesto the gluteus
medius, gluteus minimus, and piriformis are shown above, and nerves to the
hamstrings,Bastrocnemius,and adductors are shown below. A superficialbranch
of the common peroneal nerve swings around to an anteriori subcutaneous,and
vulnerable position just below the knee (chapter 10); (from Sappey).
 .J. ABDOMINOPELVIC EXLRa:ISES t5-l

for alarm: there are many bones and much skeletal density in the pelvis
and lots of ribs and vertebrae in the upper torso, but there are only five
lumbar vertebrae connecting the two regions (figs. ,+.3-4;.This arrange-
ment could not provide adequate support to the torso if it were acting
alone. It needs the help of the soft tissues, especially sheets of muscle and
fasciae. To that end the skeleton is supported by a "tube" containing the
abdominal organs, a tube that is bounded in front and on the sides by the
abdominal muscles,braced posteriorly by the spine and deep back muscles,
capped by the respiratory diaphragm, and sealed off below by the peluic
diaphragm. The tube runs all the way from the sternum to the pubis in
front but is quite short laterally.

iliaccrest

it g l u t e u sm i n i m u s

piriformistendon
piriformismuscle
occupiedthis space insertionof gluteus
meoruson greater
superiorgemellus trochanter

obturatorinternus
quadratusfemoris
inferiorgemellus

femoralattachment
of gluteusmaximus

long head of
semitendinosus bicepsfemoris
(shorthead,
with its origin
semrmembranosus on the femur,
is located
deep to long
head)
F i g u r e3 . 1 0 b .R i g h t t h i g h ,
kneejoint and hamstring
musclesfrom the rear.The
hip dissection,now reveal- Iateraland
i n g t h e g l u t e u s m i n i m u s ,i s medialheads of
even deeper than the one gastrocnemrus
shown on the right side of muscle
f i g . 3 . B .T h e p i r i f o r m i sa n d
$:,
g l u t e u sm e d i u s a r e n o w i'l,' =
removed except for their
t e n d o n s o f i n s e r t i o no n fasciaoverlyingthe
the greater trochanter, and soleusmuscle
t h e o n l y r e m a i n i n gp a r t o f
the gluteus maximus is its (from Sappey)
femoral attachment.
I54 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

We have four pairs of abdominal muscles(figs. 2.7, 2.9, 3.77-13,8.8, 8.t1,

and 8.r3). Three of these form layers that encircle the abdomen, and the
fourth is a pair of longitudinal bands. The external abdominal oblique layet
runs diagonally from above downward in the same direction as the exter-
nal intercostal muscles. If you place your hands in the pockets of a short
iacket with your fingers extended, the fingers will point in the direction of
the external abdominal oblique muscle fibers. The internal abdominal
oblique layer is in the middle. Its fibers also run diagonally but in the oppo-
site direction, from laterally and below to up and medially in the same
direction as the internal intercostal muscles.The innermost third layer, the
transuersus abdominis. runs horizontally around the abdominal wall from

s
righttrapezius
w\
right clavicle

deltoid
muscte

peclorails
major

latissimus
dorsl

left external
serratusanterior
(fivesegments abdominal
showing)
muscle
(outermost
fasciaoverlyingrectus layerof
abdominismuscles abdominal
muscres)

spermaticcord

suspensory
ligamentof
rightsartoriusmuscle penrs

rightrectusfemoris testis

Figure3.11.Torso,with superficial musclesof the chest and neck, fasciacovering the

rectus abdominis muscles,and the external abdominal oblique muscles (Sappey).
 .1. ARDOMINOPEIVTC EXER':ISES 155

back to front. These three layers together act as a unit, helping to support
the upper body and contributing to bending, twisting, and turning in a log-
ical fashion. They are also necessaryfor coughing, sneezing, laughing, and
various yoga breathing exercises.
The fourth pair of abdominal muscles, the rectus abdominis muscles
(rectus means "straight"), run vertically on either side of the midline between
the pubic bone and the sternum. As discussedearlier in this chapter, the rec-
tus abdominis muscles are the prime movers (agonists) for flexion of the
spine in crunches, while the hip flexors serve as synergists for bracing the
pelvis and lumbar region. The roles are then reversed for old style sit-ups, in
which the hip flexors becomethe prime movers for jerking the torso up and
forward at the hip joints, and the rectus abdominis musclcs serve as syn-
e r g r s t sf o r b r a c i n gL h es p i n e .

THE CAVITIES AND INTERNAL ORGANS

Within the "tube" of the torso are the thorzrcic, abdominal, and pelvic
cavities, as well as most of the internal organs. The heart, lungs, and
csophaguslie within the thcsraciccauity, which is bounded externally by the
rib cage and inf'eriorly by the respiratory diaphrag'rn (figs. 2.6-9). The

pectoralis.
major serratusanterior
internalintercostals

serralusanlenor externalintercostals
(fivesegments) two of three
tendinous
inscriptions
exlernal
abdominal exposeo
oblique rectus
(right) abdominis

fasciacovering Inlernal
rectusabdominis abdominal
oblique
(middle
layer of
abdominal
muscles;
left side)

spermaticcord in
inguinalcanal

F i g u r e3 . 1 2 .E x t e r n a a
l b d o m i n a l o b l i q u e a n d r e c t u s a b d o m i n i sf a s c i ao n
the torso's right side, and internal abdominal oblique and exposed rectus
abdominis muscle on the torso's left side (Sappey).
r56 ANA',tOMY O1-'IlATtrA YOGA

stomach, intestines, Iiver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys are contained

within the abdominal cauity (figs. 2.9 and 3.r4), which is separated from the
chest by the diaphragm, protected posteriorly by the spine and deep back
muscles, and surrounded anteriorly and laterally by the abdominal muscles.
The urinary bladder, the terminal end of the colon, and portions of the
reproductive systems lie in the peluic cauity (figs. z.[i and 3.7) and open to
the external world by way of passagesthrough the pelvic diaphragm at the
base of the pelvic bowl (figs. z.zga-e, i.t,1, and 3.24-26).The pelvic cavity is
defined above by the upper limits of the bony pelvis and below by the pelvic
diaphragm, but otherwise it is confluent with the abdominal cavity. Thus,
we refer to them together as the abdominopeluiccauity ff:rg.j.r.1, illustration
on the right).
Most of the internal organs are not fixed in position but can slide around
by virtue of slippery external surfaces: pleural and pericardial membranes
in the chest, and peritoneal membranes in the abdomen and pelvis. Within
the thoracic cavity, the pericardial metnbranes surround the hcart zrnd
enclose the pericardial. cauity while the pLeuraLmernbran,essurround the
lungs and enclose the pleural cauilies (figs. 2.,1and z.(r). Within both the

slernum Internalintercostals

rightlatissimus
oorsl
externalintercostals

tnlernal
abdominal
oblique, external
rightside abdominal
oblique
external
abdominal
oDilque tnlernal
abdominal
nh lin lo

paired rectus
transversusabdomrnrs
abdominis
(innermostof three
muscles
layersof abdominal
muscles;leftside)

F i g u r e3 . 1 3 .I n t e r n aal b d o m i n aol b l i q u ea n d e x p o s e dr e c t u sa b d o m i n i so n t h i s
torso'sright side,and transversus abdominisand sectionedrectusabdominis
muscleon the torso'sleft side (Sappey).
abdominal and pelvic cavities, the peritoneal membranes surround the
abdominal and pelvic organs and enclose the peritoneal cauity. Like the
pleural and pericardial cavities, the peritoneal cavities are potential spaces
only, as illustrated by a schematic midsagittal section through this region
(fig. :.t+). These spacescontain only a small amount of fluid which allows
the organs to move relative to one another. The most famous trick question
in a medical gross anatomy course is: Name all the organs in the pleural,
pericardial, and peritoneal cavities. The correct answer is: None.

INTBA-ABDOMINALAND INTRATHORACIC PRESSUBE

Lubricating fluids in the peritoneal cavity impart a liquid character to the

internal orflans in the abdominopelvic cavity and allow that region to act
as a hydraullc (having to do with liquid) system. This means that if some-
thing presses against the abdominal wall, hydraulic pressure is transmitted
throughout the entire reE;ionjust like squeezing a capped tube of tooth-
paste at one site will cause the tube to bulge out everywhere elsc. The

ascending/ rectusabdominis respiratory

diaphragm
descending
colon
3 layersof
abdomrnal
muscles

stomach
peritoneal transverse
erectorspinae cavity colon

smatl
intestine

omentum

male
pubrc urethra
symphysis

vagina femaleurethra prostate

gland

Figure 3.14. Schematic drawings of the peritoneal cavity and a few abdominal
and pelvic organs: male on the right, female on the lower left, and gender-
neutral cross section on the upper left. White spaces indicate the peritoneal
cavity (greatly exaggerated)in all three drawings.The entirety of the
abdominopelvic cavity (within which reside the abdominopelvic organs and the
peritoneal cavity) is illustrated in the mid-sagittal section on the right (Sappey).
15tt ANATOMY Ol" IIATIIA Y-OGA

abdominal wall is the soft part of the tube, and the respiratory and pelvic
diaphragms seal it at either end. A separate unit, the chest, is bounded by
the rib cage and the respiratory diaphragm. The glottis can seal the air
within the chest, with the result that the chest can act as apneumcrllc (having
to do with air')system.Such a system remains at atmospheric pressure any-
time the glottis is open, but if you inhale and close the glottis, the system
can be compressed (and is indeed often compressed)by the action of the
abdominal muscles and external intercostals.
Even though the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions are anatomically
independent, the former functioning as a pneumatic system and the latter
as a hydraulic system, the trunk as a whole operates as a cooperative unit.
For example, if you bend over from an awkward position to pick up a heavy
object, and if you have to do that with your knees straight, your spine is
vulnerable to injury from too much stress on the lumbar region. If you
were to try that maneuver from a bent-forward position when you are
breathing freely-or even worse, if you were to hold your breath after an
cxhalation-the weight of the object would create a frighteningly efficient
shearing cff'ect on all the intervertebral disks between the chest and the
sacrum. Were it not fbr our ability to supplement skeletal support with the
hydraulic and pneumatic pressureswithin the abdominopelvicand thoracic
cavities, the intervertebral disks in the lumbzu region would quickly degenerate
and rupture. To protect yourself you will have to increase intra-abdominal
pressure, and you can do this with or without the aid of'compressedair in
the chest.
You can protect your spine with respect to how you use your hydraulic
and pneumatic systems in one of three ways. First, before you lilt yolr can
inhale, close the 6;lottis, and hold your breath. l'hen you can tighten your
abdomen, pelvic diaphragm, and internal intercostal muscles all at the
same time so that the pneumatic pressure in the chest comes into equilibrium
with the hydraulic pressure in the abdominopelvic cavity. This allows the
respiratory diaphragm to remain relaxed and increases pressure in the
torso as a whole. That increased pressure then supports the action of'the
back muscles in two ways: it creates a taut, reliable unit from which to lift
the object, and it produces a lengthening effect on the spine which spreads
the vertebrae apart and easesstrain on the intervertebral disks. (It should
be noted that for older people, especially those who might be vulnerable to
cardiovascular problems, this is an emergency measure only, becauseit will
result in an immediate increase in blood pressure.)
A second way to protect your back, if you have a strong respiratory
diaphragm and know how to use it, is to keep the glottis and airway open
as you lift, and at the same time press down with the diaphragm, in with
the abdominal muscles, and up with the pelvic diaphragm. This is a very
 .J. ABDO]TINOPF:LWC BXI':RCTSES I59

different situation from the first one. Here it is the respiratory diaphragm
rather than the glottis that seals the top of the tube and counters the
action of the abdominal muscles and pelvic diaphragm. Just the same, it
easesstrain on the intervertebral disks in the critical lumbar region. The
main difference between the two techniques is that now the thoracic region
is not involved becausethe airway is open and intrathoracic pressure is not
increased.
The third way to protect the spine, and one that comes naturally to most
of us, is to mix and match the options. Prepare yourself with an inhalation,
partially close the glottis, press down with the diaphragm, and coordinate
your lifting effort with a heary grunting sound, which is a signal that the
glottis has been partially closed.What happens exactly? Yru start with an
intent to use method number two increasing intra-abdominal hydraulic
pressure alone-but augment that ef{brt by increasing pneumatic pressure
in the chest at the precise moment that maximum protcction for the back
is needed. This is thc choice of championship weightlifters, who continue
to breathe during the easier portions o{'thc lift, and then emit a mighty
grunt to complete it.
In all hatha yoga postures that involve bending fbrward and then lifting
back up in a gravitational field (for practical purposesthis means anywhere
but in a swimming pool), it is increased intra-abdominal pressure far more
than the action of individual muscles that protects and braces the back. If
you want to strengthen thc abdominopelvic region to the maximum, and if'
you want this region to link thc upper and lower halves ol'the body in the
most effective and cfficient manner, you will have to exercise the second
option kecping the glottis open-when you do the exercisesand postures
that follow. This means always placing the burden for creating intra-
abdominal pressure on the respiratory diaphragm, the abdominal muscles,
and the pelvic diaphragrn. The first option, holding thc breath at the glottis,
should be used only as an emergency measure for extricating yourself safely
from a posture that is beyond your capacity.

ABDOMINOPELVICENERGY

Yoga is concerned first and foremost with the inner life, and the
abdominopelvic exercisesare no exception. On the most obvious level yoga
postures strengthen the abdominal region and protect the back. But when
you do them you also come alive with energy that can be felt from head to
toe. Leglifts, sit-ups, the sitting boat postures, and the peacock all create
these effects through manipulating the limbs and torso in a gravitational
field while you are using the abdominal region as a fulcrum for your efforts.
And the harder you work the more energizing the exercise.
160 ANAT0JIIY OF IIAI'IIA I'OGA

SUPINE LEGLIFTS
"Safety first" is a wise slogan, and the frailties (or challenges) of the
human frame offer us many opportunities to practice it. If you have not had
much experience with abdominopelvic exercises, please read the section on
contraindications at the end of this chapter before doing them. Even the
simplest leglifts and sit-up exercises should be approached with caution.
The first rule: Until you know your body and its Iimitations well, your first
line ofprotection is to keep the lower back flattened against the floor as you
do these exercises.With a little training you can confidently make skillful use
of the hydraulic nature of the abdominopelvic region, and after you are
certain ofyourselfyou can explore other options.

SUPINE SINGLE LEGLIFTS

Supine single leglifts are the safest beginning leglifting exercisesbecause

they are not likely to strain an inexperienced or sensitive back. Start with
the thighs adductcd, the knecs extended, the feet extended (toes pointed
away from you), and the hands alongside the thighs, palms down. Slowly
raise one foot as high as possible (fig. -l.tS)and thcn slowly lower it back to
the floor. Repeat on the other side. Keep breathing. If you are comfortable
you can try several variations of this exercise. One is to kccp the knec
extended, pull the flexed thigh as close as possible to the head (using the
hip flexors, not the upper extremities), and hold it therc for 3o 6o seconds.
And after you have come most of the way down you can hold the foot iso-
metrically an inch or two away from the floor.

.,t
.::}
,,li

.',:'
i::1f
:
i

::]]s-.'

Figure3.15.Singleleglift.Thispostureis a safehamstringstretchfor the flexed

thigh becausethe pelvisand lower backare stabilizedagainstthe floor.
 3. ABOOMINOPI']I.WC EXERCISES 16I

What happens in single leglifts is that the psoas and iliacus muscles flex
the hip while the quadriceps femoris muscle keeps the knee extended. The
rectus femoris (the straight head of the quadriceps femoris) assists in both
roles: it aids flexion of the hip becauseof its origin on the anterior inferior
iliac spine, and it assists the rest of the quadriceps in keeping the knee
extended (fig. :.S). The posture itself creates the stable conditions that
make single leglifts an easy exercise. First, the hamstring muscles of the
side being lifted pull inferiorly on the ischial tuberosity on that same side,
which keeps the pelvis anchored in a slightly tucked position and the lumbar
spine flattened against the floor, and second, keeping the opposite thigh
and leg flat on the floor improves the stability of the pelvis and lumbar
spine even more. The combination permits flexion of one thigh with little
or no stress on the lower back.

THE BICYCLE AND OTHER VARIATIONS

To further prepare for more difficult yoga postures, and to get both lower
extremities into the picture but still without placing a great deal more
stress on the lower back than is occasioned by single leglifts, flex both
knees, draw them toward the chest, and bicycle your feet around and
around. Next, and a little harder, lower your feet closer to the floor and
pump them back and forth horizontally. Intensifying even more, straighten
your knees and press your feet toward the ceiling. This is easy ifyou have
enough flexibility to keep your thighs and legs perpendicular to the floor. If
you can't do that, bend your knees slightly, and from that position, keep
one leg lifted and slowly lower the opposite foot to within an inch of the
floor, straightening the knee on thc way down; then raise it back up and
repeat on the other side. Keeping one foot up while lowering and raising
the other is almost as easy as keeping one leg flat on the floor. You can also
create a scissoringmotion, with the feet meeting midway or near the highest
position. And any time you need to create less pull on the underside of the
pelvis from the hamstrings, bend the knees.
When you do variations that are more demanding than the simple bicycling
motion, you'll find that your abdominal muscles tighten, increasing intra-
abdominal pressure and pressing the lower back against the floor in coop-
eration with the respiratory diaphragm. This assumes,of course, that your
airway is open; if you lock it at the glottis, the diaphragm will remain
relaxed and you will miss one of the main points of the exercise.

THE FIRE EXERCISE

As soon as you are comfortable doing single leglifts and their variations for
;-ro minutes, you can try the fire exercise, named from its energizing
effects on the body as a whole. To get in position for this one, sit on the
162 ANATOMY OI: HATHA:

floor, lean back, support yourself on the forearms, and place the hands
under the hips or slightly behind them, palms down, or up, if that feels easier.
Keeping the feet together, extend the toes, feet, and knees, and draw the
head forward while keeping the back rounded. Exhale, and at the sametime
slowly lift the feet as high as possible, drawing the extended knees toward
the head (fig.3.t6). Slowly come back down, not quite to the floor if your
strength permits. Come up and down as many times as you can without
strain, inhaling as required and always breathing evenly. If coming all the
way up and down is too difficult, simply tighten the muscles, lift the feet
an inch or so, and hold in that position isometrically. After a few days you
may have enough strength to do the full exercise.
The fire exercise is intended for breath training as well as for building
abdominal strength, and if you watch your breathing carefully, you'll notice
that the posture feels more powerful when you exhalc. As is true for many
day-to-day activities, inhalation is mostly a preparation for the intensity
associatedwith exhalation. In the casc of the fire exercise,it's a matter of
muscle mechanics: to support the posture efficiently with intra-abdominal
pressure, the diaphragm must be continuously active, and to do this it must
operate within a fairly narrow range with its muscle fibers moderately
stretched and its dome high in the torso. For this reason you will find your-
self exhaling almost as much as you can and taking small inhalations. If
you take a deep inhalation as an experimcnt, you will immediately sensea
loss of abdominal and diaphragrnatic strenE$h.As always for exercisessuch
as these, unless you are faced with an unexpectcd emergency keep the air-
way open, supporting the posture only with hydraulic pressure in the
abdominopelvic unit.

F i g u r e3 . 1 6 .F u l l yl i f t e d
positionfor the fire
exercise.lts key feature
is that the back remains
roundedposteriorly. An
alternativeand slightly
easierhand positionis
to placethem under
the pelvis,palmsup.
 L Aut)o.r4t.\'oPEL\TL
EXtikct.sF.s l6l

Like health club crunches, two features of this practice make the fire
exercise safe: the back is rounded posteriorly, and the psoas muscles help
lift the thighs from a stabilized origin on the inner curvature of the lumbar
spine (fig. 3.16).If you start with the back straight or less firmly rounded
to the rear, the psoas muscles will destabilize the lumbar region by pulling
it forward before they begin to flex the hips; this is fine if your back is
strong and healthy, but too stressful ifit is not.
You will immediately sensethe difference between the straight and the
curved-to-the-rear positions of the spine if you do the following experiment.
First round your back and try the fire exercise in its standard form. Sense
your stability. Then (provided your back is sound) try lifting your feet after
lowering your head and shoulders to the rear and letting the lumbar region
relax and come forward. The instability of the secondstarting position will
shock you. The lesson: if'you are unable to maintain a stabilized posterior
curvature, don't do the fire exercise.Instead, work with crunches and the
single leglift variations until you are strong cnough to keep the back
rounded to the rear.

THE BASIC SUPINE DOUBLE LEGLIFT

No matter what kind of leglift you try, if you do not do it while keeping you r
Iower back flattened against the {loor in the supine position or rounded to
the rear when the head and upper back are lifted, it has to be considered
an advancedpractice. The supine double leglift is a casein point. Lying flat
with the legs extended, a small amount of space will usually be found
between the lumbar region and the floor, and if this is allowed to rcmain
when the psoas muscles flex the thighs, those muscles will not be pulling
from a stabilized lower back that is pressed to the reaq but from a wavering
and inconstant lumbar lordosis. It is therefore essential,before starting the
supine double leglift, to press this region to the floor with a posterior pelvic
tilt and hold it there for the duration of the exercise.
To begin the supine double leglift, lie down with your thighs adducted,
knees extended, feet and toes extended, and hands alongside the thighs,
palms down. Next, in order to establish enough intra-abdominal pressure
to dominate the lumbar region decisively,strongly engage the abdominal
muscles along with the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms, and holding
that position tenaciously, slowly lift the feet (by flexing the hips) as high as
possible(fig. :.rZ) and then lower them to within an inch of the floor. Come
up and down for as many repetitions as you want, breathing evenly
throughout the exercise.
Since the muscular leverage for pressing the lumbar region to the floor
comes from the abdominal muscles, especially from the rectus abdominis,
learning to activate those muscles is the most important part of the exercise.
164 ANATOMY OF HAIITA YOGA

Ifyou cannot get the feel oftightening them when you are lying flat on the
floor, which is the case for most beginning students who have never been
very athletic, lift your head and shoulders while holding your hands
against your abdomen for feedback-it is impossible to lift your upper body
without engaging the abdominal muscles. Then try to generate that same
feeling as a preparation for the leglift, but without lifting the upper body.
Double leglifts are difficult not only because they depend on strong
abdominal muscles that are acting in a manner to which they are not accus-
tomed, but also because the knees must be kept fully extended. To flex the
hips with the knees straight, a tremendous force has to be exerted on the
insertions of the iliopsoas muscles at the proximal (near) end of the femur,
and this is like trying to lift a board by gripping it with your fingers at one
end. The rectus femoris muscles aid leglifts as synergists becausethey are
pulling from the front of the pelvis to their insertions onthe patello (kneecap)
instead of from the pelvis to the proximal portion of the femur, but even
with help from these muscles, the exercise is still a test of strength for
many students. The endeavor is further complicated by the {act that keep-
ing the knees straight during the leglift stretches the hamstring muscles,
which are antagonists to the iliacus, psoas, and rectus femoris muscles.
That stops a lot of people in a hurry.

TRAINING ALTEBNATIVES

There are fewer sights more unnerving to a yoga instructor than watching
a group of be6;innersstruggle with doublc leglifts, permitting their lumbar
regions to lift off the floor as they start to raise their feet, and at the same
time holding their breath at the glottis. II'you are teaching a class in which

Figure3.'17.Endpositionfor
the supinedouble leglift.
The key requirementof this
postureis to activelykeep
the lower backflattened
againstthe floor usingthe
a b d o m i n am
l uscles.
 .1. Al3l)OMIb"OPlil.Vrc IiX]IRCISE.S 165

several people are struggling, you should stop everything and demonstrate
the proper technique. Try this: Lie down and ask two volunteers, one on
either side of you, to press their right hands against your abdominal wall
and place their left hands under your lower back. Then tighten your
abdominal muscles. This will push their right hands toward the ceiling,
and at the same time it will flatten your lumbar region to the floor against
their left hands. Then do a double lift showing first how the Iower back
should be kept down, and second,letting it lift inappropriately away from
the floor. Keep up a stream ofconversation to prove that you are supporting
the effort with your diaphragm and not holding your breath.
If students have the knack but not the strength to keep their backs
against the floor during the double leglift (which is very common), another
trick is to try this exercise:before beginning the lift tell them to bend the
knees enough to raise the thighs to a 3o-45' angle, then lift the feet off the
floor and straighten the knees. This will make it easier to keep the back
against the floor and make it possible to complete the leglift properly from
the higher angle. They should come partially down in thc same way, being
sensitive to when they can no longer keep their back braced against the
floor, at which time they should bend their knees and either lift back up or
come all the way down.

BREATHING

l'he respective natures of the chest and the abdominopelvic regions of the
torso are very different from one another: the abdominopelvic cavity is like
an oblong rubbery egg filled with water, and the egg is toppcd by a cage o{'
bone filled with air. Everyone doing leglifts should increase prcssurc only
in the egg. You will havc to squeezedown from above with the respiratory
diaphragm, up from below with the pelvic diaphragm, and in with thc
abdominal muscles. To maintain this pressure the respiratory diaphragm
has to be strong enough during both inhalation and exhalation to counteract
the effects of the abdominal muscles, and this effort must be sustained
throughout the exercise.So when do we breathe? A1l the time. And how? lt
depends. If you have excellent hip flexibility, you will be able to lift the
thighs 9o', exhaling as you lift, and when you have reached that position
you can relax and breathe any way you want. But if your hip flexibility is
limited, and if you have to keep working against tight hamstring muscles
even in the up position, your breathing will be intense and focusedon exhalation
all the time. You will be taking tiny inhalations whenever you can.
You can take breathing one step further and intensify the energizing
effect of leglifting exercises,as well as their difficulty, by keeping as much
air out of the lungs as possible, exhaling all the way to your residual volume
and then taking small inhalations. If your residual volume is t,2oo ml, you
 166 ANATOMY OI: HATHA YOGA

might breathe in and out a tidal volume between 1,2oo ml and l,4oo ml
instead of between t,4oo ml and t,6oo ml, which approximates what would
be most natural in the active stages of double leglifts (fig.3.t8). Breathing
this way is more difficult because the already hard-working abdominal
muscles (especiallythe rectus abdominis) now have to work even harder to
keep air out of the lungs.

THE SUPERFISH LEGLIFT

We have seen that the lumbar region can be stabilized for leglifts either by
rounding it posteriorly as in crunches or the fire exercise,or by keeping it
flattened against the floor. But anyone with a sound back can also try
leglifting with the lumbar region stabilized in an arched forward position.
This is a variation of the fish posture (figs. 3.t9a,5.zll,and 9.19)-a posture
I'm calling a superfish leglift (fig 3.r9b).
To do this posture place your palms up under the hips, stretch your I'eet
out in front, and support all or most of your weight on your forearms. Let
your head barely touch the floor. Now arch up maximally by lifting the
chest and abdomen into the most cxtrcme possible position. This will
stabilize the lumbar arch (fig.:.r9a). l'hen kecping the f'eettogether,and
the toes, f'eet, and knces extended, slowly raise the heels away from the

6000
sitting posture supine posture normal leglifts intense leglifts
normal breathing normal breathing accelerated accelerated
(see fig. 2.18) (see lig. 2.18) breathing breathing
.12
breathsi min 12 breaths/min 60 breaths/min 60 breathsimin
tidalvol. 500 ml tidalvol. 400 ml tidalvol. 200 ml tidalvol. 200 ml
FRC2200ml F R C1 7 0 0m l F R C1 4 0 0m l F R C1 2 0 0m l
4000
alveotar atveotar alveolar atveotar
- ventilation ventilation ventilation ventilation
5 4200 ml/minute 3000 ml/minute 3000 ml/minute 3000 ml/minute
I annn
vvvv
o

=
E
2000
\-/ v
nnnnnnnN\ ,nnnnnnnnn,
1000
blood oxygen blood oxygen blood oxygenup blood oxygenup
ano carDon and carbon blood carbon blood carbon
dioxidenormal dioxidenormal dioxidedown dioxidedown
0ml .15
20 25 30 35 40

time in seconds(sec)

F i g u r e3 . 1 8 .S i m u l a t e ds h i f t si n r e s p i r a t i o nd u r i n g l e g l i f t i n g T
. he two conditions
on the leftare repeated from fig.2.1B. FRC: functional residual capacity.
 .J. ABDO\UNOPELIT( EXLIICISES 167

floor. Raise up only as far as you can without degrading the arch in the
back. If you have excellent hamstring flexibility you may be able to flex
your thighs to a 3o' angle (fig. 3.I9b), ol even more, but most people will
only be able to raise their feet a few inches before the hamstrings start tugging
so much on the base of the pelvis that they pull the lower back toward the
floor. So you have a choice: either Iift your feet up and down and allow the
back to follow in reverse-back down feet up, followed by back up feet
down-- or lift your feet only until the lower back starts to lose its emphasized
forward curve. The main benefit of the exercise comes not from how far
you raise the feet but in experiencing the intense pull ofthe hip flexors on
the accentuated lumbar arch. Keep breathing, but for this posture focus on
inhalation rather than on exhalation, becauseemphasizing exhalation will
press the lumbar reE;ionposteriorly and defeat your purpose.

THE SLOW LEGLIFT WITH A RELAXED ABDOMEN

This next leglifting exercisc turns evcrything wc have said so far on its
head becausc it is carried out with relaxcd abdominal muscles; fbr this
reason it is only for advanced studcnts with healthy, flexible, and adven-
turesomc backs. The sequence of movements is not only an excellent
strenglh-building exercise for the iliopsoas muscles, which will bc doing

F i g u r e3 . 1 9 a .F i s hp o s t u r e . T h e c h e s t a n d a b d o m e n a r e l i f t e d a s h i g h a s p o s s i b l e
and the posture is supported mainly by the upper extremities.

k 'il '

'Y
:\

Figure 3.19b. Superfish leglift. The thighs are flexed as much as possible without
degrading the lumbar arch, which is stabilized in the forward position.
166 ANATOMY OT'HATHA YOGA

most of the work, it is also a golden opportunity to observe complex

muscular action.
Begin in the supine position. Keep the abdominal muscles relaxed, and
in slow motion developenough tension in the iliopsoasmusclesto prepare to
lift your feet. Notice that as tension develops, the lumbar arch increases
(fig. -l.zoa).This is a formidable concentration exercise.What you are doing
is diametrically opposed to the standard double leglift, and keeping the
abdominal muscles relaxed as you increase tension in the hip flexors goes
against every natural inclination.
It is important to sensethat the iliopsoasmusclesare raising the lumbar
arch maximally before they lift the heels off the floor. Follow the movement
of the lumbar region to its limit. As soon as that point is reached the arch
will be stabilized and the hip flexors will finally begin to lift the thighs (fig.
-3.zob). At that precisemoment focusyour concentrationon not, repeat not,
tightening the rectus abdominis muscles.Although this is counter to your
natural predilections,any tcnsion in those muscles pulls the lower back
toward the floor. As with the superfish leglift, unless you have long
hamstrings and exceptional hip flexibilitv you will not be able to lift up
very far and at the same timc maintain the deep lumbar lordosis. Nearly
everyone will find that their hamstrings start pulling the lower back
toward the floor before they can even get their thighs flexed -15',much
Iess c)o".

\ lt{ 1

-- ,,ddirN'Pr
<_ *-.. ir'

Figure 3.20a. For the first stage of a double leglift with a relaxed abdomen,
tension in the iliacus and psoas muscles lifts the lumbar arch forward as the
a b d o m i n a l m u s c l e sr e m a i n c o m p l e t e l y r e l a x e d .

{::,.-
. ii\.

l;i:&iiii;;:

Figure3.20b.completion of slow legliftwith relaxedabdomen.Its key featureis

keepingthe lumbararchstabilizedin the forwardpositionbeforeand while the
feet are lifted slightlyoff the floor.
 . t . A l J t ) O t l t \ O P F L WlL. X f . R tI . \ E S 1 6 9

AN ADVANCED BREATHING EXERCISE

In a secondvariation of the leglift with relaxed abdominal muscles,instead

of focusing primarily on exhalation as we do for the fire exercise and ordi-
nary double leglifts, inhale slowly as you develop tension for raising the lum-
bar region and for starting to lift the feet offthe floor. This facilitates arching
the lumbar region forward. Then to continue the leglift, exhale as you flex
the thighs to 9o' while your lower back is being pulled down against the
floor by the hamstrings and abdominal muscles. Breathe to suit yourself
while resting at 9o' of hip flexion. Then braceyourself and exhale while low-
ering the feet back to a few inches away from the floor. Next, inhale as you
cautiously relax the abdominal muscles, which allows the lumbar arch to
become re-established. lhen lower the feet the rest of the way, exhale and
rest with your fect on the floor, and inhale again to begin a new lifting
cycle.
'l'his method of brcathing hclps
.you coordinate thc challenging musculo-
skeletal requirements of'the excrcise. When yt-ru start the scquence, the
thighs arc the fixed origins fbr the iliopsoasmuscles,zrndthc lumbar region
:rnd pelvis scrve as the insertions. Then, as soon as the lumbar regicrn is
lifted to its mzrximum, the origins and insertions reverse: the lumbar
rcgion and pelvis serve as origins and the thighs become the insertions.
Coordinating the breath with all o1'this while you are watching thc activity
of the rectus abdominis musclesand thc hamstrings, and at the same time
keeping in mind everything else that is going on, will make you aware of
the architecture o{'the abd<tminopelvicrcgion more than any other exercise.

YOGA SIT-UPS

Ylga sit-ups are a far cry frorn the fast, icrky exerciscsin a high schtltll gym
class.lbr one thing, they should always be donc in slclwmotion' Rrr another,
thcy should always bc done with full awareness of thc spine as you roll up
into a sitting position "onc vertebra at a time," as hatha yoga teachers like
to say.Ycrgasit-ups also difT'erfundamentally from leglifts in that fbr sit-ups
you are rolling up the part of'the body (the torso) that controls the move-
ment itself, while in leglifts you are raising up a part of the body that is
merely connected to the lifting unit.
The initial position for sit-ups is lying supine, keeping the thighs together,
flexing the feet and toes, extending the knees, and pressing the lower back
tr,rthe floor. Then, with the hands pointed toward the f'eet and the lower
back held against the floor, flex the head toward the chest. Breathing evenly,
continue to roll up one vertebra at a time (fig. 3.zta) until you are in a sitting
position. Concentrate on the action of the abdominal muscles, and stretch
the hands forward as much as possible. Come down from the posture in
reverse order, slowly rolling down, first the sacrum, then the lumbar
 r7o ANATOLIY OI; HAI'IIA yOGA

region, chest, and finally the head and neck, breathing evenly all the way.
If you are unable to lift up significantly, just squeeze up as much as is
comfortable, hold the position isometrically for a few seconds,and slowly
roll back down. You will still benefit from the posture. work on it every day,
and you will soon be lifting up with ease.When you have developedenough
strength to do sit-ups with the hands pointing toward the feet, you can
work with progressively more difficult hand and arm positions-placing
the fists in the oppositearmpits (figs. 6.r3-r4),catching the oppositeearlobes,
interlocking the hands behind the head, and stretching the arms overhead.
Holding your back flat against the floor while initiating a sit-up power-
fully activates the abdominal muscles, and this enables them to act as
prime movers for rolling you up and forward, but if you start with the
lower back arched forward, beware. The abdominal muscles will be relaxed
and less effective, and the psoas muscles will create excesstension at the
lumbar krrdosis,exactly as in old-style sit-ups. Do not let that happen. If you

{
Jgej-

Figure 3.2-la.Intermediate position for a slow easy yogic sit-up.

iliacusand psoas rectusabdominis

musclesfirst brace, musclesact as
then pull forward primemoversfor 3
activelyto complete initiatingsit-up

rectusfemorismusclespull
forwardon pelvic bowl -:
the posture

w
-

Km
i
:il''-::''

quadricepsfemorismuscleskeep knees
extendedand thiohsbraced

F i g u r e3 . 2 1 b .L o c a t i o n so f m u s c l e si n v o l v e di n s l o w s i t - u p s .
 15)rS r7r

don't have enough control to keep the back against the floor, bend the
knees before you do the sit-up just as you would in crunches.
Sit-ups in yoga, whether done with extended or flexed knees and hips,
complement leglifts because they involve some of the same muscles. But
there the similarities end. Leglifts simply flex the hips, but for sit-ups,
muscles from head to toe on the front ofthe body act first to brace and then
to bend the torso up and forward like an accordion. The iliopsoas and rectus
femoris muscles first act as synergists, bracing the pelvis and lumbar
region and merely supporting the action of the rectus abdominis. Then as
the upper body is pulled further up and forward, the hip flexors take a more
active role. Picturing the locations of all three hip flexors plus the rectus
abdominis muscle from the side makes it obvious that the rectus abdominis
is the only one of the four that has a good mechanical advantage fbr initiating
the sit-up, especially when the knees are straight and the thighs are flat
against the floor (fig. t.ztb).
Even if'you are careful to keep the lower back against the floor as you
start the sit-up, the exercise still compressesthe spine and should be done
for only a few repetitions. If you are kroking for an athletic abdominal exercise
that can be rcpeated hundreds of'times, all modern trainers recommend
that you do sit-ups by lirst bending your knees and pulling your heels
toward your hips. When the hips are partially flexcd as in fig. 3.1,the iliopso:rs
and the rectus l'emoris arc able to act morc powerfully as syncrgists from
the bcginninpJto support rolling up and forward, keeping the pelvis stabilized
at the crucial moment the sit-up is being initiated by the rectus abdominis
muscles.

THE SITTING BOAT POSTURES

Leglifts and sit-ups are dynamic exercisesthat feature isotonic movements,

whereas sitting boats are classic yoga postures that arc held isometrically.
The latter resemble boats when viewed from the side, and are even as tippy
as boats because of the way you must balance your weight on the pelvic
bowl. And since the sitting boat postures are ordinarily held for -3o-6oseconds,
they require more coordination and balance than leglifts or sit-ups. We'll
explore two variations: one makes use of a rounded back-a flat-bottom
boat; and the other makes use of a straight back-a boat with a keel.

T H E F L A T - B O T T O t \ , IB O A T

The boat posture with the back rounded should be mastered first because
it is safer and more elementary, and because it doesn't require nearly as
much hip flexibility as the posture with the straight back. Start from a sit-
ting position with the fingers interlocked behind the head or neck, the feet
and toes extended (pointed away from the head), and the knees extended.
172 ANA'I'OMY OII IlA'I7IA \

Round the back posteriorly and slowly lean to the rear. You will be lengthening
the iliopsoas and abdominal muscles eccentrically as gravity pulls your head
and shoulders closer to the floor. Then lean back even further while flexing
the thighs, and right after that pull the torso forward with the abdominal
muscles. Finally, flex the thighs as much as possible with a combination of
the psoas, iliacus, and rectus femoris muscles. Keep the knees extended
and hold the pose isometrically for ro-6o seconds (fig. 3.zza). If you start
shaking, you've gone beyond your capacity and should come back down.
Your back should be rounded enough for your weight to be supported on the
relatively flat surface of the sacrum-the flat bottom of the boat-so
balance ought not be a serious problem, but if it is, sit on a softer surface
or a pillow.
'Ihe other way to come into
this posture is to raise up from a supine position.
With the toes, f'eet, and knees extended, press the lower back to the floor
using the abdominzrl muscles. Holding that position, raise thc hcad and
pull the shoulders up and forward, and when that movcment is partially
underway, tighten the psoas trnd iliacus muscles concentrically to flex the
thighs. If y<-ruhave developed thc rcquisite strength lrom lcglifts nnd
sitting-up exercises, the entire scquence should be easy. 'l'ry it slowly to
analyze its componcnts. You will probably find yourself minimizing your
tidal volume and focusing on cxhalation, exactly as you did with the fire
exercise and most of the other lesli{ts.

THE BOAT WITH A KEEL

The back is kept straight in the second sitting boat posture, and this may
not bc casy.From a sitting position with the I'eettogcther and with the toes
and knees extended, sit rermrod straight, which includes arching thc lower
back forward. Next, strctching your hands out in front of you, lean back-
ward, keeping the hips flexed at a 9oo angle, which of course lifts the I'eet.
You will be supporting the posture with the psoas,iliacus, and abdominal
muscles, and especially (in contrzrst to the round-bottom boat), with the
rectus femoris muscles(figs.1.9, t1.9,and t3.rr),which are prime movers for
keeping the front of the pelvis pulled fbrward and for maintaining the 9o"
angle between the pelvis and the thighs. Hold the pose isometricaiiy for
r0-60 seconds(fig.3.zzb).It is harder to balancein this posture than in the
previous one becauseyou are poised on your sitting bones (the keel of the
boat) instead of'the flat of the sacrum. Again, use a pillow if balancing is
too difficult.
If you have limited hip flexibility becauseof tight hamstrings, you will
find yourself struggling to keep your back straight. The problems are com-
parable to those faced by students trying to do 9o" leglifts while keeping
their lumbar regions arched forward in the superfish leglift, as well as in
 -J.AIIDOMIIIOPELVIC ]tXERa:ISES r73

trying to lift up in a double leglift while keeping the abdomen relaxed. All
such postures, including this straight-back boat pose, are impossible if hip
flexibility is poor. And even intermediate-level students find it difficult to
resist the hamstring stretch and at the same time summon the strength to
calmly hold the posture in its ideal form.

THE PEACOqK

Peacocksare said to have extraordinary powers of digestion and assimilation,

and that is one reason the posture has been given this name. The hatha yoga
literature tells us that the peacock pose so enlivens the abdominopelvic
region that if you have mastered it and hold it regularly for three minutes
a day, you can ingest poison without harm. It might be wise to take that
with a grain of salt, but the peacock is certainly the supreme posture for
developing abdominopelvic energy. What is more, the completed posture
Iooks like a male peacock as it struts its stuff with a long plume of colorful
f'eatherstrailing behind.
There are several ways to approach and complete the posture. Here's
one: To come into the preparatory position, you first kneel with the thighs
abducted and the toes flexed. Then you lower the top of the head to the
floor, and place the palms on the floor between the knees with the fingers

Figure 3.22a. FIat-bottomed \*

boal.I his is a beg,inner's $
r o u n d e d - b a c kp o s t u r e ,a n d
is especiallyvaluable for
those with poor hip
flexibility.

?,..
'i. iil',...

Figure 3.22b. Straight-back

keel boat, for advanced
students who have good
strength and hamstrings
long enough to permit 90"
of hip flexion.
T74 ANATO]IIY OF HATHA YO(;A

pointing behind you. Bring the wrists and elbows together tightly, and pull
the hands toward the head until the forearms are perpendicular to the floor
and the elbows are in contact with the abdomen (fig. 3.23a).The wrists will
be extended about 9o'. If this is a problem because of previous wrist
injuries or wrist inflexibility, you may not be able to do the peacock until
the situation has been corrected with other stretches. Most women will
have to squeezetheir breasts between the arms above the meeting point for
the elbows. If you try to create more room for the breasts by allowing the
elbows to come apart, one or both elbows will slip to the side and off the
abdomen when you attempt to complete the posture.
Holding this position, take the knees back as far as possible and then
straighten them, sliding the toes as far back as you can, supporting your
weight on the top of the head, the hands, and the feet (fig. 3.2jb). This may
be all you can do. If so, remain in this position for zo 6o secondsto build
your capacity.
Still keeping the elbows in position, lift the head. Thcn slowly take your
weight forward by extending the elbows, supporting most of your weight
on the hands and some of your weight on the extended fect (fig. -3.:.-3c).
Again, you may find it useful to remain in this position for zo-(ro seccinds
rather than go further and fall fbrward.
Now, while bracing the back and thighs to keep the body as straight as
possiblc, pitch your weight Ibrward by extending the elbows until you are
balancing all of your weight t-rnthe hands, paying special attention to the

),]

Figure 3.23a.Preparatory position, peacock.

Figure 3.23b. Second position, peacock, with elbows flexed about 90'.
 3. ABDOMINOPEIW(' EXIiRCISF:S 175

fingertips. You have to keep the body rigid enough for the toes to lift off the
floor (fig. 3.23d),and the back muscles have to be very powerful to accomplish
this, especially if you want to keep the back relatively straight in the final
pose. Although we'll delay detailed comments on the design of the upper
extremities until chapter 8, the muscles that stabilize the two scapulae(the
shoulderblades)are also crucial to this effort, especially one-the serratus
anterior-that keeps the scapula flat against the back and pulled to the side
(figs. 3.rr-rz and tt.9).
Assuming that your abdominal muscles, back muscles, and scapular
supporting musclesare strong enough to support the posture, and assuming
that you have been able to keep the elbows in position, the main problem
fbr most people is developing enough strength in the flexors of the fore-
'Io
arms to permit a slow and controlled eccentric extension of the elbows.
complete the posture, the forearm flexors have to support the entire weight
of the body. They lengthen eccentrically as you bring your weight forward,
and as you try to come into the final isometric position you may exceed
their limits. One of three reactions is typical: you may fall forward on your
nose as the flexors suddenly relax and give way under the in{luence of'
inhibitory input to motor neurons from Golgi tendon organs; you may fall

,,,
\l
t,i

Figure 3.23c.Third position for the peacock,with weightsupportedonly

between the feet and the hands.

forearmflexors

Figure3.23d.Peacockposturecompleted.As the weightcomesfurtherforward,

the forearmflexorslengtheneccentrically
to supportthe posture.
176 ANATOMI OI'-HATHA YOGA

to one side, usually as the weaker arm slips off the abdomen; or your motor
pathways may just deliver up a resounding objection becausethey senseat
some level that you will not have the strength to support the final posture.
In this last case students often do something silly, like tossing their feet
into the air as if they were trying to levitate. Their feet, of course, fall back
to earth just like anything else that is tossed in the air. You can complete
this posture, at least using the approach described here, only by bringing
your weight forward.
A successfulpeacock pose depends to a great extent on your body type
and weight distribution. If you have a big chest and small hips and thighs
the bulk of your weight will be forward and you will not have to extend the
elbows a lot to complete the posture. But if you have a small chest, big hips,
and heavy thighs and legs, a greater proportion of your weight will be tcr
the rear and you will have to extend your elbows more fully. As you do that,
however, the forearm flexors start losing their mechanical advantage and
the pose becomesmorc difficult to complete and hold. This is easy to prove.
If it happensthatyou can completethe posturc easilyyou'll not have any
trouble supporting a z5-pound weight on your midback without additional
extensionof the elbows.But if someoncwere to place a 5-poundweight on
your feet, the increasedclbow extension neededto bringyour weight forward
to a point of'balance will probably drop you to the floor like lead.
It is commonly said that the peacock is more difficult for women than
for men bccause they havc less upper body strength, but the main reason
that women have more difficulty is that a greater proportion of' their
wcight is distributed in the lower half of the body. It follows, then, that to
make the posture easier,all they necd to do is to fold in some ol'their lower-
body weight. The classic solution: do the posture with the legs fblded r"rpin
the lotus pose so the elbowswill not have to extend as much to support it.
This is possible,of coursc, only if you are comfortable in thc lotus.
The pcac<-rck develops more intra-abdominal pressure than any other
posturc becausethe abdominopelvicunit (which is boundedby the respiratory
diaphragm, the pelvic diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles) is support-
ing the weight of'the body through the elbows and arms. And becausethe
diaphragm is working so hard, you can breathe only under dur-ess.
Nevertheless,you should always keep breathing. It is tempting to hold the
glottis shut and equalize intra-abdominal pressure with intrathoraclc pres-
sure, but that is impractical becauseyou can hold your breath for onl-v so
long. In addition, the substantial increase in intrathoracic pressure could
be dangerous to the heart and circulation. It is much better to keep the air-
way open and limit the increase in pressure to the abdominopelvic cavity.
Obviously the peacock is only for those who are in splendid athletic
condition.
 .J. ABDOMINOPELV|C }.:,XER':ISE.' IlJ

THE PELVIS AND THE ANATOMICAL PERINEUM

A famous conductor, rehearsing the chorus for the Yerdi Requiem, orlce
stopped the music and shouted to the performers, "No! No! Squeezeit in-
push it up!" He may not have known it, but he was telling them to seal off
and control the anatomical perineum-the base of the pelvis-and thereby
cultivate what we have been calling abdominopelvic energ5'.All trained
singers have learned that the purest and richest sound originates from this
region. In the languageofsingers, the baseofthe body "supports" the voice.
The perineum and pelvis not only establish a foundation for creating an
intensely \rric sound, they form the lowermost portion of the abdominopelvic
unit, support the weight of the abdominal and pelvic organs, and bear their
full share of intra-abdominal pressure. As an experiment, next time you
sense an impending sneeze or a fit of violcnt coughing, notice that you
prepare for the sharp increasesin intra-abdominal pressure by pulling the
base of the body in and up with an intensity that will match the expected
explosivenessof the cxpected sneezeor cough.
For singers and public speakers who are engaging an audience, a tripartite
muscular effort within the torso is apparcnt. The anatomical perineum
pushes up against the pelvic organs, the abdominal muscles squeezein from
the front, the sides, errd behind, and the musclc fibers of the respiratory
diaphragm lengthen against resistance, slowly submitting to the ascent of
the dome of'the diaphragm during exhalation. All three act together to
oversee a whole-body regulation of the passageof'air past thc vocal cords
in the larynx.

THE PELVISAND THE PERINEUM

'l'he pelvis
and the perineum contain the pathways for elimination, serve as
fbcal points for sensual pleasure, and accommodate all aspectsof procreation;
but even though these functions are all enormously significant to us
personally and are treated at length by all esoteric traditions, our main
purpose here is to understand how the pelvis and perineum are important
in postures and breathing exercises.To that end we'll simply outline thcir
anatomy and concentrate on several important practices that enable the
student to sensetheir architecture experientially and lay the groundwork
fbr more advanced study.
The pelvis and perineum are difficult terms to comprehend becausethe
rvords "pelvis," "pelvic," and "perineum" each have more than one meaning.
First consider the pelvis. The way we used this word in the first half of the
current chapter was in reference to the pelvic bowl, which, in addition to
the two pelvic bones, includes the pubic symphysis plus the sacrum, the
sacroiliacjoints, and all the pelvic restraining ligaments (fig. ,.*.,. But lay
people occasionally refer to the pelvis more generally as including the
r78 ANATOTI| OF IIATTIA YOGA

region of the body between the upper portion of the thighs and the lower
abdomen, and indeed, in the section of this chapter on intra-abdominal
pressure, we referred to the pelvic cavity as a part of the combined
abdominopelvic region. And finally, we commonly make reference to the
contents of the pelvic bowl, that is, to the pelvic organs.
The word "perineum" also has more than one meaning. Gross anatomy
textbooks usually include a chapter titled "The Anatomical Perineum" that
describes the contents of a diamond-shaped region that forms the base of
the pelvis and that contains the anus, the genitals, and their suppolting
muscles. The more common definition of the perineum, however. refers to
a much smaller region, not inclusive of the anus and the genitals. but
between them. This is the site hatha yoga teachers are referring to u'hen
they tell you to place one heel in the perineum, and this is the region the
obstetrician slices through to do an episiotomy. These variations in usage
are rarely a problem, however, Ibr anyone who has awareness of both
possibilities, becausethe meaning of the term is nearly alwa1'scleal fi'om
its context.

CONTENTS OF THE PELVIC BOWL

'I'he contentsof the pelvic bowl are best seenin a dissectionin s'hich a mid-
sagittal cut has been made from the waist down (figs. ,t.:1-:5 t. The reason
for this is simple: most of the pelvic structures in which we are interested
either lie in the midline or are visible from the perspective of a frclnt-to-
back cut that runs straight down the middle of the bodl'. In both sexes,the
skeletal framework of the lumbar, sacral, and cocc-l'gealspine are visible
behind, along with the pubic symphysis in front. Also in both male and
female, the rectum, anus, bladder, and urethra are plainly seen. The penis,
prostate gland, and scrotum are found exclusively in the male (fig. l.z4),
and the uterus, vagina, labia, and clitoris are Ibund exclusively in the
female (Iig 3.25).

THE ANATOMICAL PERINEUM

The anatomical perineum is shaped roughly like a diamond. It is defined by

four points: the inferior border of the pubic symphysis, the tip of the coco,.r
(the tailbone), and the two ischial tuberosities. The diamond is made up of'
two triangles: the urogenital triangle anteriorly, and the anal triangle
posteriorly (figs. 3.4 and 3.27).These two triangles share a common base,
which is an imaginary line between the two ischial tuberosities, but except
for this one line, the two triangles lie in different planes. The anal triangle
extends up and back to the coccyx,and the urogenital triangle extends up
and forward along the inferior pubic rami to the pubic symphysis (fig. :.+).
The line connecting the two ischial tuberosities is lower than any other
 179

part of the perineum, which is obvious to any slender person sitting

upright on a hard seat.

THE PELVIC DIAPHRAGM

We can best understand the structures included within the anatomical

perineum if we build our understanding from the inside out. The deepest
layer, the peluic diaphragm, is a broad, thin sheet of muscle and fasciae
that spans the entire diamond-shaped region, encircling the anus posteriorly
and lying deep to the genitals anteriorly. Seen in three dimensions it is
shaped like a deep hammock. Stand up and envision such a hammock at
the base of the body. It is suspendedbetween the pubic bones in front and
the sacrum behind, and it supports the internal structures of the pelvic

vertebralbody,fifth lumbarvertebra

sigmoidcolon

pubic
sympnysrs

corpus
tip of spongrosum
coccyx

\\
\+ maleurethra
(darkprofile)

connective
tissue
seprum
oelween
rearmidsagittal corpora
portionof pelvic cavernosa
diaphragm of penis

prosrare prostatic glanspenrs

gland urEtrrrd s c r o t u m ,w i t h t e s t i s

Figure 3.24. Midsagittal (longitudinal,front-to-back) section through the male

pelvis revealing midline parts of the reproductive system,the midline terminal
portions of the digestive and urinary systems,and the rear portion of the pelvic
diaphragm (front portion is interrupted by the genitals).(Sappey)
IIJO ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

cavity just as a hammock in your back yard supports the human frame. The
midsagittal segment of the hammock that runs from the anus to the coccyx
is visible to the rear in figs. 3.24-25.The pelvic diaphragm is interrupted by
the anus and its sphincters to the rear, and by the midline structures of the
genitals in front. A frontal section (male) through the prostate gland and
urethra illustrates how the borders of the hammock extend up and to
either side (fig. 3.26). In a superficial dissection of either male or female
only the rear half of the funnel comes into view becausethe genitals cover
it in front (figs. 3.28-29); in a deeper dissection (female) with the genitals
removed (.fig.3.27),it becomes obvious that the pelvic diaphragm forms a
sling around cross sections ofthe vagina and urethra.

intervertebral
disk spinousprocessof
betweenthe fifth lumbar fifth lumbarvertebra
vertebraand the sacrum

sigmoidcolon

sacralpromontory

u_ ur",u"
left ovary
,/,
urinarybladder

pubrc
symphysrs

sagittalsec-
tion through
rear portion

diaphragm
labia(leftside)

d femaleurethra

Figure3.25.Midsagittalsectionthroughthe femalepelvisrevealingmidline
partsof the reproductivesystem,the midlineterminalportionsof the digestive
and urinarysystems,and the rearsegmentof the pelvicdiaphragm(Sappey).
 .J. ABDOMINOPT]].VIC ]JXI.)I?CISIiS IUI

In hatha yoga the pelvic diaphragm is activated consciouslyby two practices:

ashwini mudra and mula bandha. There are subtle and not-so-subtle
differences between the two. We'll besin with ashwini mudra.

ASHWINI MUDRA
Ashwini is the Sanskrit word for "mare" ("horse" would be an appropriate
translation except that the word mudra, which means "gesture," is a
feminine noun in Sanskrit and requires a feminine modifier), and ashwini
mudra in hatha yoga is named for the movement of the pelvic diaphragm
in a horse after it has expelled the contents of its bowel. During the expulsion
phase, the cone-shapedpelvic diaphragm moves to the rear, and after the
contents of the bowel are dropped, the muscles of the pelvic diaphragm pull
strongly inward. In so doing they cleansethe anal canal. In human beings
the same thing happens-you first bear down, opening the anus and
expelling the contents of the bowel, and then the pelvic diaphragm pulls
inward zrnd upward while contracting the anal sphincter. The pulling
inward motion, which we also do reflexly from moment to moment during
the day. is ashwini mudra. This is not as obvious as it is in a horsc. bccause

uretersopening
prostategland into urinarybladder

pelvic diaphragm pelvic diaphragm

inferiorpubic ramus

male urethra corpusspongrosum (from

Quain)

F i g u r e3 . 2 6 .F r o n t a l( l o n g i t u d i n a l s, i d e - t o - s i d e )s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e m a l e p e l v i c
diaphragm, urinary bladderi prostate gland, prostatic urethra, and corpus spon-
giosum, as well as the paired corpora cavernosa,inferior pubic rami, and ilia.
The pelvic diaphragm forms a deep hammock that extends lengthwise from the
pubis to the coccyx and that supports the internal pelvic organs. Here we see a
section through the sides of the hammock, and in fig.3.27 we see it as a whole.
in humans the whole region is enveloped in loose connective tissue and
coveredwith the superfrcial structures of the perineum, but it is the same gesture.
As a natural movement, ashwini mudra is often forceful, especially when
it is associated with keeping the base of the abdominopelvic cavity sealed
during sharp or extreme increases in intra-abdominal pressure, or when it is
used as a last-ditch means for retention (think of restraining diarrhea). As a
yoga practice, ashwini mudra is not so intense, but it still acts as a perineal
seal, fortified in this case by tightening the gluteal muscles along with the
pelvic diaphragm and anal sphincter. The mudra is applied for a few seconds,
released, and repeated. Ideally, only the gluteals, the pelvic diaphragm, and
the anal sphincter are activated, but the proximity of muscles overlying the
genitals anteriorly sometimes makes this diff,rcult, and you will often feel
them tighten along with the rest when you try to create the gesture.

femaleurethra rightinferiorpubic ramus

urogenitaltriangle(dashed
lineplus solid line) p e l v i cd i a p h r a g m ,
right side

rrghtischial
tuberosity

a
q

" l

I
r
I

analtriangle
(dottedline
plus solidline)
(from
joinl Morris)
leftsacroiliac r i g h ti l i u m

Figure 3.27.A deep dissection of the pelvic diaphragm of the female (view from
below). The superficial muscles and external genitals (see figs. 3.28-29)have all
been removed, revealingthe underlying hammock-like pelvic diaphragm (see
figs.3.24-26),as well as the urogenital and anal triangles (see also fig.3.a). A
comparable male dissection is almost identical, except that a cross-sectionof
the penis and male urethra is substituted for the vagina and female urethra.
 .J. ARDOMINOPELWC F:XI:RCISLS 183

Some postures make a pure ashwini mudra easy, and others make it
difficult. If you stand with the feet well apart and bend forward zo-3o", you
will find it awkward to contract the anus and pelvic diaphragm, and almost
impossible to contract them without activating the muscles around the
genitals as well. Now stand upright with the heels and toes together and
try it again. This is easier. If you don't tighten too vigorouslyyou may be
able to isolate the pelvic diaphragm and the gluteals from the muscles of
the genitals. Next, bend backward gently, keeping the heels together and
the thighs rotated out so the feet are pointed 9oo away from one another.
Keep the knees extended. Then tighten gently behind and try to release in
front. This is one of the easiest upright postures in which to accomplish a
pure ashwini mudra. Last, bring the toes together and rotate the heels out.
This again makes it difficult.
These simple experiments illustrate the general rule: any posture that
pulls the hips together will make ashwini mudra easier, and any posture
that pulls the hips apart will make it more difficult. That, as it happens, is
one problem with all cross-leggedsitting postures. Try it. When the thighs
are flexed with respect to the spine and abducted out to the sides, it is
almost impossible to contract the glutcals and on-[ya little less difficult to
isolate the anus and pelvic diaphragm from the genitals. But if you try the
mudra in the shoulderstand or headstand with the heels together and the
toes out, you will find that it is easy becauseEpavity is already pulling the
pelvic diaphragm toward the floor. Little or no effort is neededto achieve a
fully pulled-in feeling, and that effort need not involve the genitals. Now lie
supine on the floor and notice that you can easily tighten up in thc rear
without recruiting muscles around the genitals. Prone, it is more difficult,
at least in men, in whom the muscles associated with the genitals are
stimulated by contact with the floor.
One of the best postures for ashwini mudra is the upward-facing dog. As
long as the pelvis is lifted slightly off the floor (figs. 5.rj-r4), it is impossible
to do this pose without activating the pelvic diaphragm, yet it does not
stimulate the muscles in the urogenital triangle in the least. The down-
facing dog (figs. 6.t7 and tl.z6), not surprisingly, creates the opposite effect:
this posture is one of the easiest poses for recruiting the muscles of the
urogenital region in isolation, but a pose in which it is almost impossible to
isolate the muscles associatedwith ashwini mudra.

MULA BANDHA
In ashwini mudra we strongly activate the pelvic diaphragm, the anus, and
the gluteals. Mula bandha is more delicate. Here we mildly activate the
pelvic diaphragm plus-more strongly-the overlying muscles of the
urogenital triangle, which includes the muscles associated with the
1u.+ ANATOMY OF HATHA IOGA

genitals and the urethra. Therefore, to understand mula bandha we have

to examine the anatomical disposition of these muscles.

THE MUSCLES OF THE UROGENITALTRIANGLE

Looking at a superficial dissection,we seethat three pairs of musclesoverlie

the genitals. In both male (fig. 3.ztt) and female (fig. :.zg), tLresuperficial
transuerseperineal muscles course laterally in the shared border of the
urogenital and anal triangles, extending laterally from a heavy band of
centrally located connective tissue-the central tendon of the perineum-to
the ischial tuberosities. The bulbospongiosusmuscles in the male encircle
the base of the penis; in the female those same muscles encircle the vagina
and urethra. The ischiocdt)ernosusmuscles in both the male and female lie
superficial to the erectile tissues of' the corpord cauernosa, which them-
selves course from the inferior pubic rami to the body of the penis in the
male and to the clitoris in the I'emalc.In a slightly deeper plane of the
urogenital diaphrzrgm (in both malc and female), Lhe deep trartsuerse
perineal muscles spread out laterally in sheets that attach to the inferior
pubic rami, and the urethral sphincters encircle the urethrae.

MULA BANDHA THE ROOT LOCK

Unlike ashwini mudra, which is o{ten a response to sharp and sudden

increascs in abdominopelvicpressure, mula bandhzr (the root lock) is a
gentle contraction ofthe pelvic diaphragm and the musclesofthc urogenital
triangle. It does not counter intra-abdominal pressureso much as it seals
urogenital energy within the body, controlling and restraining it dur-ing
breathing exercisesand meditation (again, this is a literary rather than a
scientific use of the term "cnergy"). What actually happens is more easily
sensedthan described, so we'll begin with a series of'exercises.
First try sitting in a hard chair covercd with a thin cushion. In a neutral
position, neither perfectly upright or slumped, try to blow out but without
Ietting any air escape.Try hard. Notice that the pelvic region contracts and
lifts up involuntarily enough to counter the downward push from the chest
and abdominal wall. Now try the mock blowing maneuver again, but this
time keep the pelvic region relaxed, and notice that it feels like straining
for a bowel movement. Try it one last time, but this time lift the entire
anatomical perineum consciously,and you will quickly sense that these
efforts bring both the pelvic diaphragm and the muscles of the urogenital
region into play.
Next sit really straight, arching the lower back forward. Exhale, pressing
in with the abdominal muscles, and notice that it is natural to find a focus
for your attention at a point between the anus and genitals. You may sense
a slight tension in the muscles of the genitals, but little or none in the anus,
 .J. AIJI)OMII;OPELWC EXERCI.S}iS IIJ5

and certainly none in the gluteal muscles. This describesthe root lock. You
don't have to make extreme efforts. The cushion on which you are sitting
places enough pressure on the muscles of the urogenital triangle to focus
your awarenesson the lock.
Now try the same exercise in a slumped posture with the back rounded
to the rear. This changeseverything. It shifts your attention from the front
of the anatomical perineum to the rear, and it elicits a mild ashwini mudra
instead of mula bandha becauseyou are tipping backward toward the plane
of the anal triangle and away from the plane of the urogenital triangle.

glanspenrs
corpusspongrosumol penls
(with male urethra)
left side of scrotum
nght corpuscavernosum with lefttestis
of penis
bulbospongiosus
muscle(leftside)

superficialtransverse
perinealmuscle(left)

externalanal
sphincter

internalanal
sphincter

li\\N
pelvicdiaphragm,
N rear portion,left side

leftgluteusmaximusmuscle
rightischialtuberosity tip of coccyx

Figure 3.28. Male anatomical perineum. The anal portion of the pelvic
diaphragm is shown below (in the anal triangle).The external genitals and their
associatedmuscles are shown above (in the urogenital triangle), where they are
superimposed over (and thus hide) the front portion of the pelvic diaphragm
(from Sappey).
186 ANATO]4Y OF HATHA YOGA

(The angle between these two planes is shown clearly in fig. :.+). Sitting
straight rocks you up and forward so that contact with the cushion favors
the root lock. The lesson: sit straight if you wish to apply mula bandha.
If this is still confusing, it will be helpful to first experience a gross version
of the root lock. The best concentration exercise for this is to sit upright
and try breathing in concert with slowly increasing and decreasingtension
in the perineum. With the beginning of exhalation gradually tighten the
muscles of the pelvic diaphragm and genitals, aiming for maximum
contraction at the end of exhalation. As inhalation begins, slowly relax.
Repeat the cycle for ten breaths several times a day. At first it may be
difficult to tighten the muscles without also tightening the gluteal muscles,

femaleurethralorifice

right v a g i n a lo p e n i n g
ischial
tuberosity
t! bulbospongiosus
f'
muscle,leftside
I

superficialtransverse
perinealmuscle
t/t
i
7

iI centraltendon
of the perineum

externalanalsphincter

p e l v i cd i a p h r a g m ,
rearportion,leftside

leftgluteusmaximummuscle
anus tip of coccyx

F i g u r e3 . 2 9 .F e m a l ea n a t o m i c a lp e r i n e u m .T h e a n a l p o r t i o n o f t h e p e l v i c
diaphragm is shown below (in the anal triangle).The external genitals and their
associatedmuscles are shown above (in the urogenital triangle), where they are
superimposed over (and thus hide) the front portion of the pelvic diaphragm
(from Morris).
 3. ABD()MINOPI:LI'1C EXERCISES 187

but if you are careful to sit straight it will become easy.

With practice you will be able to sensethe contraction of successivelayers
of muscles from the outside in. Starting superficially and with a minimal
effort, you can feel activity in the ischiocavernosus,bulbospongiosus, and
superficial transverse perineal muscles. And with a little more attention
you can activate the deep transverse perineal muscles and the urethral
sphincter. And with yet more effort you can activate the pelvic diaphragm.
The central tendon of the perineum, which as discussed previously is
located at the dividing line between the anal and urogenital triangles,
appears to be the key structure around which the more delicate versions of
mula bandha are organized. This is an extremely tough fascial region into
which the superficial and deep transverse perineal muscles insert. If you
can learn to focus your attention on this tiny region while creating minimal
physical contraction of'the nearby muscles,you will be feeling the root lock.
(Yogateacherswho speakofplacing awarenesson the perineum are referring
to this region.) Concentrate on the sensation, and in time mula bandha will
f e e l n a t u r a l a n d c o m f o r t a b l e . W i t h e x p e r i e n c ey o u c a n h o l d t h e l o c k
constantly, which is what yogis recommend for meditation'

A MODIFIED CAT STRETCH

In addition to the down-facing dog (tigs. 6.t7 and 8.26), which was just
mentioned in the section on ashwini mudra, one of the best ytlga postures
for helping you come in contact with the delicacy and precision of thc root
lock is a modified cat pose.From a kneeling position, bring your chin to the
floor, swing your elbows out, and bring the upper part of the chest as low
as possible,arching your back deeply and mimicking a cat peering under a
couch (fig. l.lo). Then tighten the perineal region generally.You will imme-
diately notice that the exposedanus in this position brings the sensations
toward the front of'the diamond-shapedperineum rather than behind, and
that even if you squeeze vigorously the gluteal muscles remain relaxed.
After you have practiced this pose several times and gotten accustomed to
its associatedsensations, you can try to find the same feelings when you
apply the root lock in sitting postures.

.-.;:,. ,,:ll]i@:

-:
P*Y-
Figure 3.30. Modified cat stretch, for sensing mula bandha in preference to
a s h w i n im u d r a .
I88 A^"ATO]W'' OF HATTA YOGA

AGNI SARA
Agni sara, or "fanning the fire," is a breathing exercise,an abdominal exercise,
and a powerful stimulus to abdominopelvic health. When it is done with
full attention and for an adequate span of daily practice, it stokes the fire
of the body like no other exercise.But before trying it we'll first do a train-
ing exercise for active exhalations, and then we'll work with a moderate
practice-A and P breathing-that is accessibleto everyone.

ACTIVE EXHALATION

During the course of relaxed, casual breathing, you make moderate efforts
to inhale and you usually relax to exhale, but all of the exercises that follow
make use of active exhalations, in some cases breathing out all the way
down to your residual volume. To get an idea of what is involved, try the
following exercise:Inhale moderately through the nose, purse the lips, and
exhale as if you were trying to blow up a balloon in one breath. 1'ry this
several times. If you slowly breathe out as much air as possible through the
resistanceof the pursed lips, you'll noticc that exhalation is accompanicd
bv a tightening cf the musclesthroughout the torso, including the abdominal
muscles,the intercostal musclesin the chest, and the musclesin the florlr
of'thc pelvis. At first you will notice thc abdominal musclcs pressing the
relaxed diaphrap;rnup (and pushing the air out) with thc chest in a relatively
fixcd position; thcn you'll notice the chest being comprcssedinward; and
finally, toward the end of exhalation, you will notice thc contraction of the
pelvic diaphragm. This sequence of events will also take place if you
breathe out normally, but creating resistancc through the purscd lips
makes the muscular efforts much more obvious.

A AND P BREATHING

This preliminary exercise to agni sara, called akuncltana prosorena, or

A and P breathing ftlr short, involves active exhalations and relaxed inhalations.
The literal meaning of the phrase is apt: "squeezing and releasing." Stand
with the trunk pitched forward, the hands on the thighs just above the
knees, the elbows extended, the feet about a foot and a half apart, and the
knees slightly bent. Much of the weight of the torso is placed on the front
of the thighs. Breathe in and out a few times normally, and observethat the
posture and the angle of the body pulls the abdominal organs forward and
creafes a mild tension against the abdominal wall. Notice that countering
the tension produced by the force of gravity requires that a mild effort be
made even at the beginning of exhalation, and the greater the forward
angle the greater the effect.
To do A and P breathing, assume the same posture as in the trial run,
and press in slowly (squeezing)from all sides with the abdominal muscles
 -1.ABDOMINOPELT,I(; EXERC|SI|S 169

as you exhale, all the while bolstering the effort with the chest. Your first
impulse is to emphasize the upper abdomen. Try it several times, observing
exactly where the various effects and sensations are felt. Notice that the
effort in the upper abdomen is accompanied by a slight feeling of weakening
in the lower abdomen. The lower region may not actually bulge out physically,
but it feels as if it might. Now try to exhale so that the upper abdomen, the
lower abdomen, and the sides are given equal emphasis, as though you are
compressing a ball. Exhalation might take 6-7 secondsand inhalation -l--+.
Inhalation is mostly passive (releasing) and manages itself naturally. Take
to-t5 breaths in this manner.
Much of inhalation is passive in A and P breathing because the chest
springs open and the abdominal wall springs forward of their own accord.
The strong emphasis on exhalation means that you are breathing in and
out a tidal volume which is the combination of your normal tidal volume
for an upright posture plus part o{'your expiratory reserve. Your revised
tidal volume for A and P breathing might be about 9oo ml fbr each breath
rather than the textbook tidal volumc of 5oo ml, and along with this, your
new expiratory rcserve volumc would becomc about (roo ml rather than
r,ooo ml (fig.:.-tz, left-hand panel). In any casc,A and P breathing boosts
your ener$/ by increasingblood oxygen and decreasingblood carbon dioxide.
It is a simple exercise,but one that is both rclaxing and invigorating.

THE CLASSIC AGNI SARA

A and P brcathing can be done by anyonc, but agni sara and its more complex
variations are intense practices that require training and conditioning.
Their effects on the body zre powcrful enough for them to be contraindicated
by several medical conditions (see the end of this chapter). They should
also be done only on an empty stomach and after evacuating the bowels.
Like A and P breathing, the classic agni sara is usually done standing
with the torso at a 6o-7o" angle from upright, the feet apart, the knees
slightly bent, the hands on the thighs just above the knees, the elbows
extended, and the arms supporting the torso. And like A and P breathing,
the practice focuseson exhalation. But instead of utilizing a mass contraction
of abdominal muscles, agni sara requires a step-by-stepmuscular effort. To
do the practice, focus your attention on the areajust above the pubis, and
press the abdomen in at that site before pressing in with the middle region
of the abdomen. Then continue to exhale, gradually recruiting muscles
higher in the abdominal wall and ending with the internal intercostal muscles
of the rib cage-all the time holding tension below. Exhale as much as possible.
Notice that exhalation not only pressesthe abdomen and chest in, it also
pressesthe back to the rear (fig. 3.31).For inhalation reverse the process,
relaxing the chest and upper abdomen first and lower abdomen last.
 1go ANAIOl4Y OF HATHA YOGA

Ifyou watch yourselffrom the pubis to the sternum when you have nothing
on, it will be easier to learn, but even then it may take several weeks of daily
practice and concentration before you can do the exercise with confidence.

lTechnicalnote: There's no unambiguouslanguagefor indicatingin a simplephrase

the sourceof the movementinvolvedin exhalation.Sometimesteacherssay"push the
abdomenin," but muscles,of course,neverpush.Otherssay "pull the abdomenin,"
but this soundsas though somethingother than the abdominalmusclesthemselves
might be responsible,as we'll soon see is the casefor uddiyanabandha.Although
"pressthe abdomenin" isn't perfect,it's at leastgeneralenoughnot to be misleading.l
The rectus abdominis muscles are not single muscles extending from the
pubis to the sternum, but a series of short muscles that are isolated from
one another by horizontal lines of connective tissue called tendinous
inscriptions, which are responsible for the muscular segmentation and
washboard look in the abdomen of a bodybuilder. The wave of abdominal
contraction in agni sara is possible only becauseeach segment is separately
innervated and can be controlled individually.
In agni sara the modifications of the lung volumes and capacities are
more extreme than in A and P breathing. Here exhalation combines your.
normal tidal exhalation (5oo ml) with your entire expiratory reservevolume
(t,ooo ml), creating a tidal volume of r,5oo ml, an expiratciry rescrve
volumc of zent, and a functional residual capacity which is now equal to
your residual capacity of'r,2oo ml (fig. l.-lz). As with A and P breathing,
inhalation takes care of itself and is passive except for the last ;oo ml.
Inhalation ordinarily takes about half to three-fburths the time as exhalation
and is accompaniedby the gradual relaxation of the intercostal and abdominal
muscles.

Figure 3.31.Agni sara.

The halftone reveals
the profile for full
e x h a l a t i o n .a n d t h e
dotted line revealsthe
profile for inhalation.
Exhalationis taken all
the way through the
expiratory reserve
volume (in other
words, to the residual
v o l u m e ) ,b u t i n h a l a t i o n
doesn't extend into
what would ordinarily
be the inspiratory
reservevolume.
 3. ABDO]IINOPI]LVIC T)XI)RCISES 191

For those who are interested in numbers, minute and alveolar ventilations
are easily calculated (fig. :.:z). A reasonable practice is to breathe out and
then in 4 times per minute, which would yield a minute ventilation of 6,ooo
ml (r,5oo ml per breath times ,1 breaths per minute), and an alveolar
ventilation of 5,4oo ml per minute (t,35oml per breath times 4 breaths per
minute). With practice and self-control you can slow down even more, to as
little as two breaths per minute, yielding a minute ventilation of 3,ooo ml
and an alveolar ventilation of z,7oo ml per minute. You might be concerned
that z,7oo ml per minute will not supply enough fresh air to the alveoli in
comparison to the standard 4,zoo ml per minute mentioned in chapter z,
but in that casewe were mixing 35o ml of fresh air with a functional residual
capacity of z,zoo ml, and here we are mixing t,35o ml of fresh air in each
breath with only t,zoo ml of residual volume. It's plenty.
During agni sara the diaphragm remains generally passive. It is relaxed
throughout most of exhalation, although it probably resists lengthening
toward the very end of exhalation as it opposesthe upward movement of
the abdominal organs. And likewise, during inhalation the dome of the
diaphrapJrnmoves downward passively as you breathe in what is ordinarily
your expiratory reserve volume. II'you have controlled the releaseinto this

A and P breathing; agnr sara; agni sara;

6 breaths per min 4 breathsper min 2 breaths per min
5000
tidalvolume900 ml; tidalvolume1500ml; t i d a lv o l u m e1 5 0 0m l ;
minuteventilation minuteventilation minuteventilation
5400ml per min; 6000ml per min; 3000ml per min;
4000
- alveolarventrlatron alveolarventilation alveolarventilation
E
q
4500ml per min 5400 ml per min 2 7 O Om l p e r m i n
c.) 3000
=
E
\AAAAA
V\ AAA A I
V
V v\v
2000

.1000 7'\" VA/TV

exhalation inhalation exhalation inhalation
t
exhalation inhalation
6.67sec 3.33 sec 10 sec 5 sec 20 sec 10 sec
0ml
30 90 120
time in seconds(sec)

Figure3.32.Simulatedcomparisons of agnisarawith A and P breathingin a

youngman.Comparethesethree modesof breathingwith normalbreathingin
Iig.2.1a.Eventhoughtakingonly two agnisarabreathsper minute(aboveright)
dropsthe alveolarventilationprecipitously(to 2700ml per minute),exhalingall
the way to the residualvolumeis adequatefor maintainingthe blood gases.
 YOGA

phase of inhalation slowly,you'll notice that it is not the diaphragm but the
abdominal muscles that are in command, lengthening eccentrically to
restrain the gravity-induced drop of the abdominal organs until you reach
what would have been your normal tidal range. At that point they release
more completely and allow the diaphragm to preside over an ordinary tidal
inhalation of the last 5oo ml.
Although the chest does not at first glance seem to play a prominent role
in agni sara, the internal intercostal muscles do become activated for
compressing it inward during exhalation, especiallyin the last stageswhen
you are approaching your residual volume. Then, as you begin to inhale,
the chest springs open passively,restrained only by the abdominal muscles
and internal intercostals. since the emphasis ofagni sara is on exhalation,
the chest shows only a modest enlargement during the period of what
would have been an ordinary tidal inhalation in normal breathing.
The airway is open in agni sara, and intra-abdominal pressure remains
in approximate equilibrium with atmospheric pressure,so it is not necessary
to apply mula bandha. And it is not only unnecessary to apply ashwini
mudra-in the bent-Ibrward position it is impractical. Beginners, howeveq
may find it help{ul to establish the rcnt lock while they are learning to activate
the wavelike recruitment o{'abdominal muscles from below. Focusing their
attention on the front of the perineum mav help them develop and refine
the practice. Aftcr that they should stop paying specialattention to the root
lock. It is not a part of'this practice.
We are not looking for speed in agni sara, but for control. A common
mistake is to whoosh air out too quickly at the beginning of each exhalation.
Iry to make the rate approximately equal throughout so that you still have
a third of your agni sarertidal volumc left when you have a third of your
time to go. Approach thc end oI'exhalation by recruiting the highest of the
abdominal muscles, and keep pressing. Your time for exhalation and
inhalation will lengthen with practice, working up quickly to 6-ro seconds
for exhalation and 3-5 secondsfor inhalation; with a little more practice it
is easy to manage three or even two breaths per minute. In the beginning
it helps to set a clock on the floor and watch the secondhand. but this will
soon become a distraction. Discard the clock after a few days and concentrate
on the sensations.
For an even more intense practice of agni sara, and for an occasional
change ofpace, you can exhale as usual, and then instead ofreleasing fully
into inhalation, take a minimal chest inhalation and then immediately
re-establish an even more powerful exhalation. Repeat this several times
before inhaling as in the traditional agni sara discussed above. This
exercise,which can only be repeated a few times before you have to inhale
fully, dramatically increases the power of agni sara.
 .3.ARI)O;\IINOPELVIC
EX]IRa:ISES lq1

AGNI SAHA IN OTHER POSITIONS

Ifyou have a problem doing agrri sara standing, you can try it in other postures.
First you can kneel, with the body lifted up off the heels, the hands on the
thighs, and the torso pitched forward (fig. :.::). Or you can rest the
buttocks on the heels and drop the hands or elbows either to the thighs or
to the floor just in front of the knees. Or you can place the elbows on the
knees and touch the abdomen with one hand to give yourself feedback and
encouragement when you try to exhale and inhale in a wavelike motion. It
is also comfortable to do agni sara in cat stretch variations, arching the
back up as much as possible during exhalation (figs. 3.34a-b, halftone
images). And for a potent combination of breathing practices, the cat
stretch posesare also excellent for going back and forth between agni sara
exhalations and empowered thoracic inhalations (chapter z) that take you
to the outermost limits of your inspiratory capacity for these postures (figs.
-t.1,+a-b,superimposeddotted lines).
If these standard poses for agni sara are inconvenient for you, you can
still do the practice in a chair or in a meditative sitting posture. It works
best to sit up straight, arch the lumbar lordosis, and pitch yourself forward
at a slight angle. This will enablc you to feel the countering tension of'the
abdominal muscles in each region of the abdominal wall.
If'you are chronically short ofbreath you will have a fine personal practice
if you aim for to-t5 breaths per minute for only one minutc. Every bit of
extra exhalation induced by agni sara is a blessing. Even ifyour alveolar
ventilation remains exactly the same as it is in ordinary relaxed breathing,
it will be more efficient for bringing in oxygen and removing carbon dioxidc
from the blood, just as we saw for kapalabhati (chapter z). If you have
chronic obstructive pulmonary diseaseand do agni sara several timcs each
day you will please and surprise yourself, your family, and your doctors.

Figure 3.33.Agni sara kneeling.

Again, the halftone revealsthe
profile for full exhalation, and
the dotted line revealsthe
profile for inhalation. The tidal
inhalation and exhalation
c o m b i n e sa n o r d i n a r y t i d a l
volume with the entire
expiratory reserve volume.
191 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

If you are in ordinary good health a meaningful practice of agni sara will
require at least ro minutes at the rate of 3-,1breaths per minute, and as you
gr:adually increase your time you will achieve an enriched sense of well-
being. If you get up early in the morning and do agni sara before doing
hatha, it will give you a burst of energy and enthusiasm. And if you are
unable for one reason or another to practice hatha yoga postures, agni sara

F i g u r e3 . 3 4 a .H a n d s - a n d - k n e e sp o s e .T h e m a x i m u m i n h a l a t i o n( d a s h e dl i n e )
w i t h h e a d u p a n d m a x i m u m l u m b a r l o r d o s i si s s u p e r i m p o s e do n t h e m a x i m u m
exhalation with head down and the back arched toward the ceiling (halftone).

Figure 3.34b. Cat stretch. The maximum inhalation (dashed line) with the head
a n d r i g h t f o o t u p i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e m a x i m u m l u m b a r l o r d o s i s ,i s s u p e r -
imposed on the maximum exhalation with the head down and knee to nose
(halftone).
 3. ABDOX,IINOPEI.VTC EXERCISES T95

is probably more important. Finally, if you really want to learn agni sara,
you have to both stay within your capacity and at the same time explore
your limits. You'll not sense the power of this practice unless you do it
3o-4o minutes a day for to days in a row.

AGNI SARA WITH OTHER HATHA YOGA PRACTICES

Ifyou are an advanced student, you can use ag'ni sara (or A and P breathing)
to intensify the hatha yoga postures in which you are comfortable. You will
have to breathe faster than usual, of course, because the postures will
increase your needs for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.You will also
have to modify the patterns of exhalation according to the demands of the
posture. For example, in a deep standing forward bend you can both see
and feel what is happening, but a standing backbend or spinal twist permits
little obvious movement in the abdomen. 'Ihat's fine. Either way, it's the
attempt to press in from below that generates the surge of energy.And for
all standing postures in which you are emphasizing an empowered thoracic
inhalation (chapter 2), you can not only increase your inspiratory reserve
volume by trying to inhale more deeply,you can use agni sara to exhale
most or all of your expiratory reserve volume, thus inhaling and exhaling
your vital capacity (the volume of which is specific to the particular posture)
with every breath.
A1ter you have worked successfullywith agni sara, bellows breathing, and
kapalabhati for some time, you can experiment with an agni sara type of move-
ment during the exhalation phases of the bellows breath and kapalabhati.
Exhalation will produce an upward-moving wave of contraction-a pushing in
and up sensation, rather than a mass contraction of the abdominal muscles.
You can f'eelthis if you span your hand acrossyour abdomen with the middle
firngeron the navel, the thumb and index fingers above,and the ring finger and
little finger below. You will feel the little finger on the lower abdomen moving
inward during exhalation, and little or no movement where the thumb is located
on the upper abdomen. Using this technique for the bellows and kapalabhati
createsa mild scooping-upsensation.It requires more control than the standard
techniques for bellows and kapalabhati, so you will need to slow down-perhaps
to as few as 6o breaths per minute. You will never be able to do it as fast as the
standard technique, but it is still a powerful abdominopelvic exercise and is
excellent for training the abdominal muscles for more advanced practices.

UDDIYANA BANDHA, THE ABDOMINAL LIFT

Mula bandha sealsthe anatomical perineum, and agni sara teaches us special
skills for using the abdominal muscles. When you have become proficient
in both, you are ready to learn the second great Iock in hatha yoga:
uddiyana bandha, or the abdominal lift. To do it you must exhale, hold
196 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

your breath out (as it's said in yoga), and create a vacuum in your chest
that sucks your diaphragm and abdominal organs to a higher than usual
position in the torso. This can happen only ifthe body is sealed above and
below-above at the glottis and below at the perineum. Without these seals
air would be drawn into the larynx and lungs above, and into the eliminatory
and reproductive organs below. You hold the root lock reflexly and without
having to think about it, but the glottis has to be held shut voluntarily.

UDDIYANA BANDHA

The best time to practice the abdominal lift is early in the morning,
certainly before breakfast, and ideally after having evacuated the bowels.
The same contraindications apply as in agni sara (seethe end of this chapter).
To begin, stand with your knees slightly bent and your hands braced
against the thighs. As with agni sara, this stance lowers the abdominal
organs downward and forward. Exhale to your maximum. Notice that you
do this by pressing in first with the abdomen and then with the chest. 'fhen
do a mock inhalation with the chest, closing the glottis to restrain air from
entering the lungs, and at thc same time relax the abdomen. You should
fcel the chest lift. Holding the glottis closcd for a few seconds,try harder to
inhale, keeping the abdomen relaxed. The upper abdomen will form a deep
concavity that extends up and underneath the rib cage. This is uddiyana
bandha (fig. :.:S). Ifyou get confusedabout how to prevent air from entering
the lungs, fbrget about the abdominal lift for a week or so and simply practice
trying to inhale after full exhalations while you are blocking your mouth
and nose with vour hands.

F i g u r e3 . 3 5 .U d d i y a n ab a n d h a :A
maximum exhalation is followed by a
mock inhalation with locked glottis
a n d c h i n l o c k i n c o m b i n a t i o nw i t h
r e l a x e da b d o m i n a l m u s c l e s .
 .3. AI]DO]IIINOPELI.T'' EXERCTSI|S 1q7

To make holding the glottis shut feel more natural and comfortable, a
third lock, jalandhara bandha (the chin lock), can be established by flexing
the head forward so the chin is tucked into the suprasternal notch, the little
concavity above the sternum at the pit of the throat. It is possible to do the
abdominal lift without the chin lock. but its addition will make the closure
of the glottis feel more secure, and many teachers consider it absolutely
necessary.Fixing the eyes in a downward position also complements both
uddiyana bandha andjalandhara bandha. Try Iooking up as you try them
and you'll quickly sensethe efficacy of looking down.
Come out of uddiyana bandha in two stages.First, while still holding the
glottis shut, ease the vacuum in the chest by relaxing the external inter-
costal muscles,which will lower the dome of the diaphragm and the abdominal
organs to a iower position in the trunk. Then, as soon as the abdominal
wall is eased forward, press inward strongly with the chest and abdomen
until the pressure above and below the glottis is equalized. You have to
compress inward just as forcefully as when you first exhaled for uddiyana
bandha; if you don't, er.iw r ill rush in with a gasp when you open the
glottis. As soon as the pressure is equalized, open thc glottis and breathe
in gently.
Where does thc vacuum come from? In uddiyana bandha we are tryingJ
to inhale without inhaling, and this makes thc thoracic cage largcr, expanding
it from side to side and from front to back. And since no air is allowed in,
the air prcssure insidc the chest has to decrease, which in turn creates
cnough of a vacuum to pull the diaphragm up (providcd it is relaxed) in
proportion to the expansion of the rib cage. Coming down fr.om uddiyana
bandha, the side-to-sideand front-to-back expansions of'thc chest are first
relaxedand then compressedback into their starting positions of full exhalation,
and the dome of the diaphragm and abdominal organs move inferiorly.
Uddiyana bandha is the only practice in hatha yoga that lrankly stretches
the respiratory diaphragm. It's true that you get a mild stretch of the
diaphragm when you exhale as much as possible in a6Jnisara and for the
exhalation stage of uddiyana bandha, both of which push the dome of the
diaphragm (from below) to the highest possible position the abdominal
muscles can accomplish. But uddiyana bandha goes beyond this because
the vacuum in the chest that is superimposed on full exhalation pulls the
diaphragm (from above) to an even higher position. We can surmise that
regular practice of uddiyana bandha will stretch, and in time lengthen the
diaphragm's muscle and connective tissue fibers, as well as keep the zone
of apposition (fig. z.q) between the diaphragm and the chest wall healthy
and slippery. You will be able to exhale more completely as you gradually
lengthen the muscle fibers, and you will be able to breathe more comfortably
and efficiently as you increase the diaphragm's mobility.
198 AN"A'IOMY OF HATHA YOGA

PROBLEMS

Many people, including yoga teachers, surprisingly, seem to have a great

deal of difficulty Iearning uddiyana bandha. It is partly a matter of poor
body awareness in the torso, but the most constant factor is simply your
history. Many youngsters grow up doing the abdominal lift in play, often
combining it with other manipulations such as rolling the rectus abdominis
muscles from side to side or up and down. In a typical group of children,
almost half of them will be able to do uddiyana bandha after only a few seconds
of instruction and demonstration, and in a beginning hatha class for
adults, those who did uddiyana bandha in play as children will usually be
able to learn the yoga version immediately.
Ifyou're having trouble, you are doing one ofthree things wrong. First,
you may not be exhaling enough at the start. The less you exhale, the less
convincing will be the lift. You have to exhale the entire expiratory reserve
volume-only the residual volume of air should remain in the lungs. The
secondpossibility is a corollary to the lirst. You may be letting in a little air
'lhat
on your mock inhalation. You have to try to inhale without doing so.
is the wh<-rlepoint of locking the airway at the glottis. Thc third, and
usually the most intractable, problem is that you are not relaxing the
abdomen during the mock inhalation. You must learn to distinguish
between pressing in with the abdominal muscles, which we want only Ibr
the preliminary exhalation, and allowing the abdominal wall to be pulled
in passively by the vacuum in the chest. Many students hold their abdom-
inal muscles rigidly or even try to keep pushing in with them during the
lifting phase of the practice, and this prevents the abdominal organs and
abdominal wall from being sucked in and up. It is also common for students
to relax their abdominal muscles momentarily but then get mixed up and
try to assist the inward movement with an active contraction. It won't
work. You have to relax the abdominal muscles totally and keep them
r e l a x e dt o d o L h i se x e r c i s e .

F i g u r e3 . 3 6 .A
modified cat
stretch encourages
k e e p i n gt h e
abdominalmuscles
relaxed during the
mock inhalation
phase of uddiyana
bandha.
 .J. ABDOMIAIOPELVIC EXER'-ISES 199

ANOTHER MODIFIED CAT STRETCH

If you consistently have trouble relaxing the abdominal muscles for

uddiyana bandha in a standing position, try it in a cat stretch, similar to
the one we used for exploring mula bandha (fig. 3.3o),except more relaxed.
Rest on the knees and forearms and lower the forehead down against the
crossedhands. Press the shoulders toward the floor and increase the lumbar
arch as much as possible. This position pitches the abdominal and pelvic
organs forward and toward the chest. Now all you have to do is exhale as
much as possible (which rounds your back posteriorly) and hold your
breath at the glottis. Now relax, allowing the lower back to arch forward
again, and notice that in this position it is unnatural to hold the abdominal
muscles firmly. Uddiyana bandha comes effortlessly as your chest cooperates
with gravity in pulling the abdominal organs to a higher position in your
torso (fig. l.j6). Finally, continuing to hold your breath and keeping the
abdomen relaxed, slowly lift your head and shoulders. Come up on your
hands, walk them toward your knees and onto your thighs ever so delicately,
and carefully come into an upright kneeling position without tightening the
abdomen. If you are successfulyou will be doing uddiyana bandha.

FIRE DHAUTI

Here is a simple exercisethat some texts call agni sara, and others re{'cr to
as fire dhauti. Come into uddiyana bandha (standing), and continuing to
hold your breath, alternately lower and again lift the abdominal organs by
decreasing and increasing thc size of the chest cage with the intercostal
muscles. Each time thc abdominal organs are lowered, thc abdominal wall
is pushed out, and each time the abdominal organs are again lifted into the
typical uddiyana bandha position, the abdominal wall is pulled in. It's a
pumping action, and it is sometimes done fast, up to two times per second,
but more frequently it is done about once per second.
Doing fire dhauti, keep in mind that you see and feel most of the action
in the belly, but that the control o{'the maneuver depends on the chest as
well as holding your breath after a full exhalation. The abdominal muscles
themselves remain passive: they are pulled up passively by uddiyana bandha,
and they are pressedback out by gravity and by the action ofthe chest. You
keep holding the breath at the glottis, but the vacuum in the chest is diminished
and even converted momentarily into a positive pressure as the diaphragm
and abdominal organs are pressed inferiorly. You can do the pumping
action, of course, only for the length of time that you can hold your breath.
This practice is an excellent training exercise for those who are having
trouble releasing the abdominal muscles in uddiyana bandha, because its
vigorous up and down motion has the effect of freeing you from the habit
of holding the abdominal muscles rigidly.
2OO ANATOMYOF HATHA YOGA

THE ABDOMINAL LIFT SUPERIMPOSED ON AGNI SARA

Agni sara pushes the abdominal organs from below, and uddiyana bandha
Iifts them from above. After mastering these two practices individually,
advanced students will benefit from combining them. Start in the standard
stance for agni sara and the abdominal lift, supporting the body with the
hands resting on the thighs. Exhale completely by pressing in the abdominal
muscles in a wave from the pubis to the rib cage. As soon as you have
exhaled to the maximum, lower the chin to the top of the sternum, close
the glottis, and do an abdominal lift. Relax the abdomen and diaphragm
completely, and form as deep a concavity below your rib cage as you can
manage. The moment you reach your limit of lifting, start lowering. Then
as soon as you start the dropping action, initiate a gradual mass contraction
of the abdominal muscles.
During the lowering phasc you must develop just as much abdominal
'l'his
contraction as you felt befrrre you initiated the lift. is difficult to
accomplish smoothly. The abdominal organs are like a baton that is being
passed.The abdominal musclcs press them toward the chest, which then
grabs and lifts them as high as pt-rssible
with lhe external intercostal muscles.
In preparation for the releasing phase, the external intercostals lower the
abdominal organs eccentrically back to the point at which the abdominal
muscles retrieve them gracefully. As soon as the abdominal muscles and
internzrl intercostal muscles team up and re-compress thc chest, which
equalizes the pressure on both sides of'the glottis, you can open it knowing
th:rt air will not rush into the lungs. This is important. If'you don't quite
equalize the pressureyou will hear a slight click in your throat as the glottis
opens. Finally, after opening the airway, release the chin lock and the
abdominal muscles as though you were coming out of aEJnisara, first just
below the rib cage,then in the middle of the abdomen, and last in the lower
abdomen and perineum. The whole exerciseshould be done noiselesslyand
with infinite smoothness, so much so that an observer who is not familiar
with the practice will not realize that you are doing an abdominal lift or
r e s tr a i n i n g i n h a l a l i o n .
A practice of z-3 cycles per minute is reasonable for those who are in
good condition. For example, if you are doing a complete cycle in -3o
s e c o n d s ,o r 2 b r e a t h s p e r m i n u t e , y o u c a n t a k e a b o u t r 5 s e c o n d sf o r
exhalation, 5 secondsfor the abdominal lift, and ro secondsfor inhalation.
You should develop a rhythm that you can maintain without obvious effort;
otherwise you are trying to do too much. You can do about to cyclesper day
for the first week, and increase by to each week as long as you are
comfortable.
 .J. AI]DOMIJVOPI)].1'rcLXLR''ISES 20I

UDDIYANA BANDHA WITH OTHER POSTURES

Ifyou are well-practiced in both uddiyana bandha and hatha yoga postures,
you can combine the two to create a more aggressivepractice. As with agni
sara, when you are bending forward you will feel the effects as well as
notice the movements externally, and when you are bending backward or
twisting, you will feel the effects without seeing them. As in the case of
combining agni sara with postures, this is not a practice for beginners,
becausethe vacuum developedin the chest and abdomen completely nullifies
the intra-abdominal pressure we depend on to protect the back in stressful
positions. You should be confident in both the abdominal lift and your
hatha yoga postures before trying it.

NAULI
Nauli, which means "churning," is one of'the most rewarding, if not the
crown iewel, of the various abdominopelvic practices. To do it you must
first do uddiyana bandha and then contract the rectus abdominis muscle,
first on one side and then thc other, crcating a wavelike, side-to-side
motion in the abdomen. lhe other abdominal muscles remain relaxed.
leaving concavities lateral to the rectus abdominis on each sidc. 'I'o learn
the exercise,most people first lcarn to isolate both rectus abdominis mus-
clcs trt the same time aftcr having esttrblisheduddiyana bandha. Then, still
holding uddiyana bandha, they learn to contract each rectus abdominis mus-
clc individually, and linally they learn to coordinatc the sidc-to-sidemotion
for the linal practice.

NAULI MADHYAMA

Uddiyana bandha creates a deep concavity in the abdomen because all oI'
the abdominal muscles are relaxed. Looking at somcone in profile, the
abdominal wall has the appezrranceof an upside-down J, with the short
limb of the J attached to the sternum, the arc of'the J sucked up by
uddiyana bandha, and the long limb of the J attached to the pubis. The rectus
abdominis muscles, which run vertically on either side of the midline
between the rib cage and the pubis, are included in this inverted J.
Contracting them selectively-that is, superimposing their contraction
onto uddiyana bandha-pulls the inverted J into a straight line, leaving the
rest of'the muscles relaxed (fig. j.j7a, middle image). This is nauli mcLdhyama,
the first step to learning nauli. It is another one ofthose practices children
sometimes learn in play, and anyone who has done that can easily learn
nauli after a month of so of trial and error.
Several exercises may be necessary for learning to isolate the rectus
abdominis muscles. The most straightforward method is to apply uddiyana
bandha in the standard position with the hands braced on the thishs. Then
bring your attention to the lower abdomen and create in that region what
teachers sometimes describe as a forward and downward push. Although
muscles don't push, and in this case are merely pulled taut, a "push" is
what the untutored observer sees, and the image seems useful for many
students.
The most common problem with trying to isolate the rectus muscles is
that the external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, and
transversus abdominis muscles also tend to become recruited. But the
whole effort to pull the rectus muscles forward is meaningless unless you
keep the rest of the abdominal muscles relaxed. If the nauli madhyama
technique doesn't work, don't struggle, but try it once a day on an empty
stomach or whenever you feel adventuresome or energetic.
Another trick is to apply uddiyana bandha when you are in a supine
position: press your fingers into the abdominal wall lateral to the rectus
abdominis musclcs on each side, and then lift your head up an inch or scl
off the floor. As you start to make an effort to lift your head, you will f'eel
the rectus abdominis muscles contract just before the rest of the superficial
muscles. Adiust your ef'fbrt so that you engage thc rectus muscles whiie
keeping the others relaxed.If'you make too much effort and lift the shoulders
along with the head, you will engage the abdominal muscles en lrlasse,
which defezrtsthe purpose of the exercise. Lift the head up and down to
explore this. Mechanical feedback also helps, for which there are three
possibilities. You can give yourself some little punches laterally to remind
your other muscles to stay relaxed, you can squeezeyour hands against the
rectus muscles from thc side as you feel them become engaged,or you can
roll the overlying skin up and out to encourage the rectus muscles to
contract in isolation.
If all else fails, you may be able to learn how to isolate the rectus
muscles by coming into the cat stretch with the deepest possible uddiyana
bandha, and then arching your back up. The rectus abdominis muscles are
the prime movels for creating the arched posterior curvature, while at the
same time partially straightening out the inverted J, so they will be
activated selectively.Then all you have to do is concentrate on keeping the
rest of the abdominal muscles relaxed. Try supporting yourself with one
hand so the other hand is free to feel the preferential contraction of the
rectus muscles.

NAULI

If you can learn to superimpose the contraction of the rectus abdominis

muscles onto uddiyana bandha in various positions, you will sooner or later
be able to do so in a standing position with your hands on your thighs. And
if you cultivate this until it is secondnature you will be able to learn nauli
 .3. ABDOMINOPI':LVIC EXERCISES 2O3

in short order. Here's how. Holding nauli madhyama, place both hands on
the thighs just above the knees. Press diagonally in strong lunges first to
one side and then the other to activate the individual rectus abdominis
muscles. Do this one-two lunge at the rate of about t-z times per second.If
you need to waggle the hips at the same time, that's fine. It will look silly
for a while, but after a month or so of practice you will be able to produce
the rolling movement that is characteristic of nauli, and be able to do so
without much hip motion or side-to-sidelunging. Refining the practice, you
can go ten times from right (fig. 3.37b)to left, and ten times from left (fig.
3.37c)to right on one round ofholding your breath. You can start practicing
for one minute a day and add a minute each week. As with uddiyana bandha,
many teachers consider it important to hold the chin lock for this practice.
In any case,if you build up to zo minutes a day you will find out why nauli
is valued so highly in hatha yoga.

.P{"'*
*

a*xl

,':t;r:Li
-ix {r:,
;Utr'

', li:'

,{:
$iiiii'

F i g u r e3 . 3 7 b N
. auli F i g u r e3 . 3 7 a .N a u l i F i g u r e3 . 3 7 c .N a u l i
right,with contraction madhyama, with left, with contraction
of the right rectus contraction of both of left rectus
a b d o m i n i sm u s c l e r e c t u sa b d o m i n i s abdominismuscle
s u p e r i m p o s eodn m u s c l e ss u p e r i m p o s e d s u p e r i m p o s e do n
uddiyanabandha. o n u d d i y a n ab a n d h a . u d d i y a n ab a n d h a .
2O,L ANATOMY OIT]IA1'LIA '

qONTRAINDIqATIONS

For practices in the first half of the chapter, contraindications for leglifts,
sit-up exercises,and the boat postures are obvious: lower back problems.
And it ought not surprise anyone that the peacock, as well as other
exercises that greatly increase intra-abdominal pressure, should be
explored with caution, at least by anyone who is not already quite athletic.
It is a myth, although a common one, that women in general should not do
the peacock. For practices in the second half of the chapter, there are no
contraindications for ashwini mudra and mula bandha, but agni sara,
uddiyana bandha, and their derivatives are powerful exercises whose
indiscriminate use is not recommended.

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE

If you have high blood pressure, even the mildest of abdominopelvic

exercisesshould be approachedgingerly. Even ifyou are on mcdication that
s u c c e s s f u l l yl o w e r s y o u r b l o o d p r e s s u r e , a l l i n t c n s c a b d o m i n o p e l v i c
exercises should be avoided. Holding .your breath at the glottis after
inhalation is alwavs contraindicated. Holding your breath after exhalation,
as in uddiyana bzrndha,is less dangerous but also inadvisablc becausewe
would expect it to quickly increase venus return, that is, the flow <-rfblood
back to the heart.

ULCERS

Intense abdominopelvic practices are all contraindicatcd for everyone with

stomach and duodenzrlulcers except in the case of practices recommended
by a holistic physician who is willing to advise you-

HIATAL HERNIA

T h e e s o p h a g u sp a s s e st h r o u g h t h e r e s p i r a t o r y d i a p h r a g m t h r o u g h t h e
e s o p h a g e a Lh i a t u s ( f i g . 2 . 7 ) , a n d u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h e u p p e r
part of the stomach may herniate through this region of the
diaphragm into the thoracic cavity.This is calledhiatal hernio.If you
have occasional discomfort in that region after eating, or if you have
acute discomfort just under the left side of the rib cage while trying
the peacock, uddiyana bandha, or vigorous versions of the cobra, it
may be that the differential between intra-abdominal pressure (which
is higher) and intra-thoracic pressure (which is lower) is causing the
problem. It is important to seek medical counsel from someone who is
conversant with hatha yoga before continuing with any posture or
exercise that causes such svmptoms.
 l. ABDOXT^TOPELWC EXER(,-ISES 2O5

INGUINAL HERNIA

The inguinal canal, through which the testis passes around the time of
birth on its way to the scrotum, is another region of weakness in which
abdominal organs, or more commonly a little fatty tissue, usually from the
greater omentum (fig. z.q) can herniate out of the abdominal cavity. This
condition-an inguinal hernia-can also occur in women, although it is
Iess common than in men. If a little outpouching of soft tissue appears on
one or both sidesqfthe groin when you are upright, and ifthat outpouching
disappears back into the abdominal cavity when you are lying down, it is
almost certainly an inguinal hernia.
Inguinal hernias will become more pronounced in any standing posture
and in all exercisessuch as the peacockthat increase intra-abdominal pressure.
Bicycling, walking, running, and sun salutations also commonly make
inguinal hernias more prominent. But they are unpredictable: they can get
worse quickly or remain about the same for months or years. If the condition
is not repaired surgically, a support (truss) that pressesagainst the hernia
from the outside may be effective in keeping the contents of'the abdomen
out of the inp;uinal canal, but in the absence of such a device, strenuous
upright postures and the peacock should be avoided.

M E N S T R U A T I O NA N D P R E G N A N C Y

No exercise involving breath retention should be practiccd during

menstruation or pregnancy, but the regular and cnthusiastic practice of
abdominopelvicexercisesappears to be helpful in preventing premenstrual
symptoms and cramping. During pregnancy, most practices in hatha yoga
a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e t h a t i n c r e z r s ei n t r a - a b d o m i n a l
pressure but also those few that decrease it, such as uddiyana bandha.
Ashwini mudra and mula bandha are fine and are even recommended
during pregnancy,but agni sara is contraindicated becauseof its intensity.
One caution Ibr expert hatha yogis who have just given birth: the fascia
that connects the two rectus abdominis muscles in the midline may have
become weakened by preglancy and childbirth, and women who were able
to do the peacockeasily before having children are sometimes unable to do
so afterwards becausethe rectus abdominis muscles are now pulled uncom-
fortably apart in the effort to come into the posture.

BENEFITS
Everyone knows that developing strength, improving aerobic capacity,and
increasing flexibility is important for physical conditioning. The
question of how to accomplish these goals is less certain, but yogis insist
that these are the benefits of leglifts, the peacock, agni sara, uddiyana
bandha, and nauli. Why that happens is still something of a mystery, but
206 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

we can call on our experience to make some reasonable guesses.If you are
hungry and tired, but feel great after doing twenty leglifts and ten minutes
of agni sara instead of eating and taking a nap, something obviously
worked-and anyone who has a little knowledge of anatomy and physiolog'
can make intelligent guessesabout what, where, and how: you increased
your blood oxygen and decreasedyour blood carbon dioxide; you stimulated
the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline) and steroids; you
stimulated the release of glucagon from the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas; and the liver released extra glucose into the general circulation,
cutting your appetite and preparing you for getting on with your day.
We can also look at the physiology of any specific practice and comment
on events that are certain to result. For example, we can note that any
activity that increases intra-abdominal pressure while the airway is being
kept open will force blood more efficiently than usual from the venous system
in the abdominal region up into the chest. Quantities can be debated,
measurements taken, and opinions stated regarding how and why that
might be beneficial, but there can be no argnment about the reality of the
effccts.

", -fr rrrrr4 /rz/L zuzrt4.rrtrlrl/h /a arVuur' /L' rez./tz/atry'J/ttttlitn

//r.
/// / / .l.l//,/'// lr,7tr ti/t"tzl //tt.t r .rt t'rt.tr /z4rtr' .ttt,rrt / ,'rtt, r'//r/.

tal 1,lra,vu, r/.ilrzratzgz,r/ ,|/aru' r//)rh ,rr///.'1'1, n,ttaz'r/r,r/ u,///t'

"
trrz, //itt l,/iz, r, 1/./i 1.
Swami Rama, in Exercise Without Mouement, p. 55.
 CHAPTERFOUR
STANDINGPOSTURE,S

" 7/L utettz ncl Jeru./itzra,tt

ft;"Lt lTrahldn aeattzre.t. .7/)1t
ur'r, antltray'J cTttigz lc ,rr.'/./l ,n t/Lto /iz/ lryzt. .fi utal a
rrrl/Q c/.rc2/ar lluzt ta tz*: u7z,,r"t/u'r, arr: ll.ty'y'7tayit4 //zz,
rtL/a.//tu:n./1. ,7/o ,rrrr.rrr,rrrrt/lo,r,yr.te r:ta/.tr,ry' ar,r,r' rz /irarlzry'
,r"//-rryr,ntlasry'rr,a.r'/l)r/a/l,r;,g/l,y'2'gtrr.o/r//orrnVnz//L
rz:1.:ltzttVt/ntt. /./}r/ rtttt tttta./j .tt? rtr.:.t/tt?.1 trr|//'r.tttr., /L7 al rrtrl

..]t'/t(t' anry' //irt/ l,/ky ,ro/1.' ,ri//l L/*,r.t' .17trttz: 12 a /tzru.azktl

'11111Lz'
7r/2ru,. /.//al, ,'r,rrl7tal.t //tr /l/LrVu'n./ t azz, //ltz/
,rrarr//y' r'rrnttta,rrry' l/2' arlttut'ttl/etz ,/)rru.nr/l tJnnrt/rtrVrhz,rt'

. . . . "'/1tc./i rr rnrt rtrrtt.lrrlr,ztlllll ,r ,r,rr//,,.rnl l)rrlVz,. "

- Elaine Morgan, in The Scars of Euolution, p. 25.

(\
\-ureatures with an upright two-leggedpostureappearedalongthe coastal
regions of Africa 4-6 million years ago. How this came to be is still controversial,
but the posture is one of the defining characteristics of the modern human
form. Another is that we are able to stand erect with minimal muscular
activity in our thighs, hips, and backs. By contrast, the stance and gait of
a dog or cat, or of the occasional monkey who choosesto walk upright at
times on two legs, is dictated by joints in the supporting extremities that
are always bent. This enables them to pounce or run at a moment's notice,
but it also requires them to use muscular activity just to stand upright. The
secret of our stance is simple-we can relax when we stand becausewe can
lock our knees and balance on our hip joints without much muscular activity.
Most of us are only vaguely aware that we can balance our weight on top
ofthe relaxed thighs, but everyone learns about knees injunior high school
cafeteria lines when someonesneaks up behind you and buckles your knee
as you are leaning on one leg. Your ensuing collapse shows you clearly that
you were depending on the locked knee joint to hold you up and that your
tormentor caught your relaxed muscles off guard.
"Locking the knees" is a phrase that has two implications: one is that
the hamstrings will be relaxed, and the other is that additional extension
will be stopped by ligaments. Instructors in dance, athletics, and the martial
arts generally caution against this, arguing instead that the backs of the
207
2OtJ ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

knees should never be thrust to the rear in a completely locked and hyper-
extended stance. Although this thinking is widely accepted in the movement
disciplines, and although it is certainly sound advice for all fields of study
in which whole-body standing movements must flow freely, weary mountain
climbers glatefully learn about a slow, choppy, "rest step," in which they
stand for z-,1secondsor even longer on a locked knee joint-just bones and
Iigaments-to save muscular effort before lifting their opposite foot
onward and upward. And assuming that you are not preparing to pounce
on someone at a social gathering, locking one knee is hard to fault for
standing and engaging in quiet conversation first on one leg and then the
other. This is a uniquely human gesture-a natural consequence and
indeed the culmination of the evolution of our upright posture. An all-
encompassingcondemnation of the practice is ill-advised if not downright
foolish.
Hatha yoga directs our attention to the knees in many postures-the sitting
boats (figs. -t.zza-b), the superfish leglift (fig. l.tqb), sitting forward bends
generally (chapter 6), the celibate'spose(fig. lt.u5),and the fullest expressions
of'many inverted poses (chapters lJand 9), just to mention a few-in which
generating tension in the hamstrings or releasing tension in the quadriceps
femoris musclesto permit frank bending ol'the knees would alter thc funda-
mental nature of the posture. In such cases there is nothing inherently
wrong with simply saying "lock the knees." On the other hand, movement
therapists are cortect in noting that such a directive all too frequently gives
students permission to absent themselves mentally from the posture.
Rather than experimenting with the nuances of'partially relaxing the ham-
string muscles,and of alternating this with tightening both the quadriceps
femoris muscles and hamstrings at the samc time, students often take the
lazy way out by simply locking their knees. They might remain unthink-
ingly in a sitting forward bend for several minutes using a combination of
tight quadriceps femoris muscles and relaxed hamstrings, or they might
hyperextend their knees in a standing forward bend and support the
posture with no more than bony stops and ligaments. The result: they end
up in a few minutes with a sense of vague discomfort in their knees.
Therefore, throughout the rest of this book, I'll acknowledge the current
preferences in movement studies by referring not to locking but to extension
of the knees, and I'll suggest accompanying this at selected times with
relaxed hamstrings----essentiallylocking the knees without using that trouble-
some phrase.
That we can stand with knees locked is obvious; sensing how our weight
is balanced over the hip joints is more subtle. Feel the softness in your hips
with your fingertips as you stand erect. Then bend forward j,-5' from the
hips and notice that tension immediately gathers in the gluteal muscles to
 '|RES
209

control your movement forward. Next, slowly come back up and feel the
gluteals suddenly relax again just before your weight is balanced upright.
Our relatively relaxed upright posture is possible becausea plumb line
of gravity drops straight down the body from head to foot, passing through
the cervical and lumbar spine, behind the axial center of the hip joint, in
front of the locked knee joint, and far enough in front of the ankle joint to
keep you from rolling over backward onto your heels (fig. +.r). (Becausethe
ankle joints do not lock, keeping your balance will require you to hold some
tension in the calf muscles.) This architectural arrangement allows you to
balance your weight gracefully from head to toe and accounts for whv you
can stand on your feet without much muscular effort.
The fact that we can remain in standing poses when we are relaxed,
tensed, or anywhere in between often prompts spirited discussion among
hatha yoga teachers. One instructor says to relax in standing postures;
another saysdon't for a secondrelax in standingpostures. Both can be correct,
and we'll explore how and why later in this chapter. Putting first things
first, however, we'll begin with the skeleton. we'll follow that with the general

F i g u r e4 . 1 .A p l u m b
line of gravity drops
perpendicular to the cervicalspine
gravitational field of
the earth from the
crown of the head to
the feet in a frontal
plane of the body. This
plane passesthrough
lumbarspine
the cervical spine, the
l u m b a r s p i n e ,b e h i n d
the axial center of the
hip joints, in front of
hip joint
the axial center of the
knee joints, and in
front of the ankle
j o i n t s .T h e d i s p o s i t i o n thigh
of this plumb line of
gravity allows us to kneejoint
b a l a n c eu p r i g h t i n a
relaxed posture except
for enough tension in leg
the leg muscles (front
and back) to keep the
l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o anklejoint
eartht gravitational
field.
rlo ,'llillTOMY OF'HAI'IIA I

principles that underlie standing postures, looking first at a few simple

exercises:the mountain pose, a side-to-side stretch, an overhead stretch,
a twist, three backbends, six forward bends, and four side bends. Then
we'll study the more complex dynamics of triangle postures in detail. Last,
we'll look at two balancing postures: the eagle and the tree.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND MOVEMENT

Every artist who wants to do figure drawing must first learn about the
skeleton-the shape and placement of the skull, rib cage, pelvis, and sctrpula,
as well as the rest of the bones of the extremities. Every curve. bump,
indentation, and bulge in the body is superimposed on the underlf ing
bones, and life-drawing instructors could hardly conceiveof a better \\-avto
start their courses than to ask students to draw a skeleton covered u'ith
translucent plastic shrink-wrap-just skin and bones. Looking u'ithirr sr,rch
a model, students would see two distinct skeletal units: the ctppertdicular
skeleton and the axial skeleton. fhe former refers to the bot.resof thc
appendaples(the upper and lower extremities), and the latter ref'els to the
bonesthat lie in the central axis of thc body-the sftul/, the tertebral trtlturtrt,
and the rib cage,including the sternwn. The appendicularskeletort.a,sthe
name sug€iests,is appended to the axial skeleton-the upper ertt'et.nities
are attached to the sternum at the sternctclauicuLar joints. ar.rdthe lttu'er
'l'aken
extremities are attached to the sacrlt,m at the sacrrtiliac ,ioints.
together, the two units form the frame upon which the entire bodv is organized.

l'I'echnical note: It is noteworthy and perhaps surprising to nlanl that lhe hip
.joints, which:rrc the sites fcrr flcxing, extending, and rotating the thighs. do not
fbrm erxial-appendiculerr .junctions. The reason is simple: both the fet.t.tttt'ancl ther
pelvic bonc are part ofthc appendiculzrr skelcton, and it is the pelvic bone ulone that
articulates with the axial skeleton. I

We'll discuss the skeletal system and movement in more detail. but first
we need to review some common anatomical terms that u'e'll be using
routinely from this point on. "Anterior" refers to the front of the body;
"posterior" refers to the back of the body; "laterol" refers to the side;
"medial" means toward the midline; "superior" means above: "irtfbrior"
means below; "proximal" means closer to the torso; and "c1is1a1'means
away from the torso. Sagittal planes lie from front to back, top to bottom;
the one and only midsagittal plane is the sagittal plane that bisects the
body in two right-left halves, and parasagittal planes include ali sagittal
'lhe
planes that are lateral and parallel to the midsagittal plane. coronal or
frontal planes lie from side to side, top to bottom, such as a plane that runs
through the ears, shoulders, torso, and lower extremities. The transuerseor
cross-sectionalplanes lie from side to side, front to back (fig. +.2).
 1. STANDING POS'I'IiRLS 2IT

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The appendicular skeleton for the lower extremities forms the foundation
for standing postures. From top to bottom, it includes the peluic bones, the
femur, patella, tibia, fibula, and the bones of the ankles and feet (fig. a.-r,.
The pelvic bones and the sacrum comprise the peluic bowl (figs.2.11,-3.2,and
3.4), which is thus an axial-appendicular combination of three bones. The
femur is the single bone in the long axis of the thigh, and the patella is the
"kneecap." The tibia and fibula are in the leg. The anterior border of the
tibia-the shin-is familiar to everyone as the front surface of the leg that
is so vulnerable to painful bumps and bruises. The fibula is located
laterally, deep to the calf muscles. The tibia and fibula remain in a fixed
position parallel to one another, the tibia medial to the fibula from top to
bottom. The bones of the ankle and foot include the tarsaLs.metatarsals.
and phalanges.
The appendicular skcleton for the upper extremities is used fbr manip-
ulating obiects in our environment and is ollen an important accessoryfor
bracing difficult standing poses.The bones of the upper extremity include

supenor

tI
V
I
interior

coronalor frontalplane

transverseor cross-
7)'""''
sectionalplane

kneers proximal
to the ankle;
ankleis distalto
the knee
Figure 4.2. Planes of
the body, and terms
for orientation of
body parts in space
and relative to one
another(Dodd).
2I2 ANATO]VY OI: HATHA YOGA

left clavicle

left scapula

I
left
rightforearm
is partially ll humerus
pronateo / lil ,(
left forearm
is supinated

'
l/ left
radrus
nght (thumb
hrp
DOne
(pelvic
DOne left
ulna
(liftle
finger
side)
in the hands
and wrists:
leftfemur
carpels,
metacarpals,
and phalanges

left patella

F i g u r e4 . 3 .T h e
appendicular
skeleton is
defined as all
the bones of the
upper and lower
extremities,
i n c l u d i n gt h e
pelvicbones,
scapulae,and
clavicles.

in the feet ano

(from ankles:tarsals,
Heck) F metatarsals,and
phalanges
 ,'REt 213

the clauicle (the collarbone), the scapula (the shoulderblade), the hurrr.erus,
radius, ulna, and bones of the wrist and hand (fig. +.:). The clavicle is the
only bone of the upper extremity that forms a joint (the sternoclavicular
joint) with the axial skeleton. It also happens to be the most commonly
broken bone in the body. Ifyou fall on the point ofyour shoulder, the dead
weight of your upper body can snap the clavicle like a dry branch.
The humerus is the single bone of the arm, and the radius and ulna are
the two bones of the forearm. If you stand upright, palms facing forward in
the "anatomical position," the radius and ulna are parallel, with the ulna
on the medial side near the hips and the radius on the lateral side. This
position for the forearm is called supination; its opposite is pronation. You
supinate your right forearm when you drive a wood screw into a plank
clockwise. If you rotate the same screw out of'the plank, turning your right
hand counter-clockwise,you are pronating the forearm. During pronation
the radius and ulna shift to form a long, skinny X so thtrt the distal part of
thc radius is rotated to an inside position, and the distal part of'the ulna is
rotated to an outside position. Here (fig. ,+.-l)the left forearm is shown
supinated and the right forearm is shown partially pronated. 'lhe bones clf
the wrist and hand include the carpels, netacan'pels,trndpltalanges.

THE AXIAL SKELETON

'Ihe
axial skeleton fbrms the bony axis oI'the body (fig. .1.4).In addition to
the vertebral column (the spine),it includesthe skull, thc rib cage,and the
sternum, or breastbone. Looking at the vertcbral column {rom its right
side reveals that the spine lbrms a reversed double S, with one revcrscd S
on top of the other (viewed from the left side, envision a plain S on top of
the other). The top curve faces right, the next one left, the third one again
right, and the bottom one again left (figs. 4.roa-b). 'l'his reversed double S
represents the fcrur curves of the vertebral column. From the top down, thc
first and third convexities face anteriorly, and the second and fourth
convexities face posterioriy. These are also the sites of the four main
regions of the vertebral column: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral (figs.
2.2()a-e,4.,1,and '+.ro).A curve facing anteriorly is a ktrdosis, and a curve
facing posteriorly is a kyphosis. The curves alternate: ceruical lordosis,
thoracic hyphosis, lumbar lordosis, and sacral kyphosis. Each regron
contains a specific number of uertebrae:seven in the cervical region (Ct-7),
twelve in the thoracic region (Tt-tz), and five in the lumbar region (Lt-5).
The sacrum is a single fixed bone.
In the fetus the entire spine is curved posteriorly, as mimicked by the
child's pose (or fetal pose) in hatha yoga (fig. 6.ru). When an infant begins
to crawl, and later walk, secondarycurvatures that are convex anteriorly-
the cervical lordosis and lumbar lordosis-develop in the neck and lumbar
211 ANA'TOMY OF HAT]IA YOGA

cervicalvertebrae.:
(lordosis)

spinousprocess,7th
cervicalvertebra

thoracicvertebrae-
(kyphosis) rib cage and
SIETNUM

lumbarvertebrae'
(lordosis)

sacrum ano coccyx

(kyphosis)

F i g u r e4 . 4 .T h e
axial skeleton
i n c l u d e st h e
vertebral
1
column,skull,
rib cage, and
sternum.

(from
Heck)
 iRES 2r5

regions, while the posterior convexities-the thoracic kyphosis and the

sacral kyphosis-are retained in the adult. The four curvatures act together
as a spring for cushioning the upper body from the impact of running and
walking. In standing postures the curvatures are easy to keep in their
optimal configuration, neither too straight nor too pronounced, but in
cross-leggedmeditative sitting postures the lack of hip flexibility makes
this morechallenging.

ANATOMY OF THE SPINE

Just as the spine of a book forms an axial hub around which pagesturn, so
does the human spine form the axial support around which the body
moves. It forms the skeletal core of the torso, and it is the axial support for
all hatha yoga postures. We cannot understand hatha yoga without under-
standing its structure and function. To begin, we'll examine the individual
bones of'the spine-the vertebrae-and then look at how they join together
to form the vertebral column as a whole.

TYPICAL VERTEBRAE

We'll bcgin by looking a typical lumbar vertebra (L4) from abovc and from
its left side. Viewing its superior surface from front to back (fig. .1.5a),
anteriorly we see the upper surface of a cylinder, the uertebral.body;
posteriorly we see a uertebral arch that surrounds a space, the uertebral
fbrarnen, in which the spinal cord residcs. Pointing backward from the rear
of the vertebral arch is a bony projection, the spinous process.If'you lie on
your back and draw your knees up against your chest, you feel the spinous
processesof the lumbar vertebrae against the floor. And because this is
what everyone notices, laypeople often mistakenly refer to thc tips of thc
spinousprocessesas "the spine."
Still looking at the upper surface of L'1, we see that the fbundation for
the vertebral arch is composedof two columnar segments of bone, the right
and left pedicles, which project backward from the posterior border of the
vertebral bod5rFrom there, flatter se6gnentsofbone, the right and left vertebral
laminae, meet in the midline to complete the vertebral arch posteriorly and
provide the origin for the midsagittal spinous process.When surgeons have
to gain accessto the spinal cord or to interuertebraLdisks in front of the
spinal cord, they do a laminectomy to remove the posterior part of the
vertebral arch, including the spinal process.Near thejunction ofthe pedicles
and the laminae, the superior articulating processesare seen facing the
viewer, and robust transuerse processes point laterally in a transverse
plane, as their names imply. It is possible to feel the latter from behind in
the lumbar region, but it requires a determined, knowing fingertip.
A lateral view of L4 from its left side (fig. ,+.5b)shows two articulating
216 ANATOMY OF IIANIA YOGA

protuberances: the left superior and,inferior articuLating processes.The

bilateral superior articulating processesofL4 form synovialjoints with the
inferior articulating processesof L3, and the bilateral inferior articulating
processesof L4 form synovial joints with the two superior articulating
processes of L5. In this manner the articulating processes connect the
vertebral arches to one another from the neck to the sacrum. The left
transverse process is visible extending toward the viewer, and a side view
ofthe spinous processjuts to the rear. Looking from the left side ofL4 also
confirms the cylindrical shape ofthe vertebral body. In this view the vertebral
foramen is hidden by the left side of the vertebral arch.
We saw in chapter z that the lumbar spine deeply indents the respiratory
diaphragm, and that its front surface (L4 and L5) can be palpated through
the abdominal wall in someoneslenderwho has a normal or overly prominent
lumbar lordosis-the abdominal organs just slip out of the way as you
probe. l'hese two views of L,1 reveal this anterior-most surface of the lumbar
spine, and if'you ever have occasion to palpate it directly. the term "axial"
will gain new meaning. The spine really doesform the axis of'the body.
Moving up the spinal column, the top view of the seventh thoracic
vertebra (fig.4.6) revealsa smaller vertebral body than we seein the

lumbarrotationis no1 on rightside of vertebra:

readilypermitted vertebrallamina,
aroundthis axis superiorarticulatingprocess,
pedicle,and
lrtne\/area nrnaoee

posterior
functional
unit
anterior
functional
unrt

vertebral a.
foramen process
leftinferiorarticulating
process

Figure 4.5. superior view (from above) of fourth lumbar vertebra ;

"":level
view from its left side (b). The heavy dotted line in "a" indicates at the
of a single vertebra the separation of the anterior functional unit from the
posterior functional unit. Notice also in "a" how the parasagittalorientation of
the superior and inferior articulating processes,along with an axis of rotation
that is located near the base of the spinous process (large dot), will be
expected to inhibit lumbar twisting (from Morris).
 .IRES 2r7

lumbar region. And near the ends of the transverse processeswe also see
tiny facets (smooth articular regions) that represent sites for articulation
with the ribs on each side (figs. 4.6a and t.33). A side view from the left of
the thoracic vertebrae (fig. +.Zb) reveals sharp spinous processespointing
downward rather than straight back, as well as vertebral bodies that are
composedof shorter cylinders than those found in the lumbar region. This
view also shows several other features: spacesfor intervertebral disks; sites
(from the left side) where the superior and inferior articulating processes
meet; and spacesbetween the vertebral arches, the interuertebral foramina
(again from the left side) through which spinal nerves Tt-tz pass on their
way to the chest wall.
Further up the spinal column, the cervical vertebrae have yet smaller
vertebral bodies than those found in the thoracic vertebrae, but their
vertebral arches are wider than you might imagine (fig. '+.u).If you feel
your neck from the side and press deeply,you can feel the underlying hardness
of the transverse processesof the cervical vertebrae.
The top two cervical vertebrae are specializcd for articulation with the
skull. Cr sits just undcrncath the skull, and Cz provides thc axis around
which Ct plus the skull rotate when the head is turned. We'll take a closcr
look at those two vertebrae and their articulations in chapter 7.

on rightside of vertebra:
sprnous vertebrallamina,
vertebral process
foramen superiorarticulatingprocess,
pedicle,and
+rr ne\/araa
left superior
articulating
process

arltcular
facet on
transverse
process

a.
left inferiorarticulatinoDrocess
thoracicrotationis
permittedaroundthis axis process
sprnous

Figure4.6.Superiorview of the sevenththoracicvertebra(a)and a view from

its left side (b).Noticehow thoracictwistingwill be permittedby the frontal
orientationof the facetson the superiorand inferiorarticularprocesses.
Rotationof one vertebral body with respectto the next is alsoencouragedby
an axisof rotation(largedot in "a") in the centerof the vertebralbody (Sappey).
218 ANA'IOMY OF HATIIA I

At the base of the vertebral column is the sacrum, composed of what

were originally five vertebrae that became fused together into one bone
during fetal development (fig. ,+.9).It is pointed at its lower end and has an
articular surface on each side that mates with the ilia for forming the
sacroiliac joints. You can feel the relatively flat posterior surface of the
sacrum against the floor in the corpse posture. And if you are able to

a. b. c.
anterior view of lateral view (from the left posterior view of
thoracic vertebrae side) of thoracic vertebrae thoracic vertebrae
T.l vertebralbody process
T1 transverse T1 spinous T1 superiorarticular
process processes

articular

for ribs:
on trans
VETSE
processes,
ano on
vertebral T5 laminae
bodies .\\

T8 \
vertebral
oooy

spaces
for inter-
vertebral inferior
disks articular
processes
.l
of T.l

supenor
articular
pr
ot f12
intervertebral
foramina
(bothsides) inferiorarticular
betweenT11 processesof T12
andf12

Figure4.7. Thoracic vertebral column, from an anterior view (a), lateral view (b),
and posterior view (c). Notice in the middle thoracic region how the spinous
processespoint sharply downward (Sappey).
palpate someone'sL5 vertebral body through their abdominal wall, you can
also feel t}re promontory (the top front border) of the sacrum. Below this
promontory, the sacral kyphosis rounds so much to the rear that you can't
feel its anterior surface. The coccyx (the "tail bone") is attached to the tip
of the sacrum (figs. 4.4 and 4.to).

THE ANTERIOR FUNCTIONAL UNIT

The vertebral column is composedof two distinct functional units: an anterior

functional unit composedof a stack of vertebral bodies and intervertebral
disks that together form a flexible rod, and behind the anterior functional
unit, a tubular posterior functionctl zznll composed of a stack of vertebral
arches and associatedlieaments. We'll look first at the rod.

crantum
denS Of axis transverse
processof atlas
^r /^+t^^\
v | (duaJ,,

transverse
processesof
C2, C3, and C4

firm finger
pressure
agarnsr
metaldisks

intervertebraldisks

Figure 4.8. Skeletal structures of the neck in relation to finger pressure against
metal disks from the side, drawn from two roentgenograms (X-rays).The images
were taken from the front. Compare with the atlas and axis infig.7.2. Credits to
Dr. Donald O. Broughton for the roentgenograms.
 If we were to locate an isolated spine and saw off all the vertebral arches
at the base of the pedicles, we would be left with a stack of vertebral bodies
and intervertebral disks (fig. 4.roa).Each intervertebral disk forms a
symphysis between adjacent vertebral bodies that allows a small amount of
c o m p r e s s i o n ,e x p a n s i o n , b e n d i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , a n d t w i s t i n g . T h e
flexibility of the anterior functional unit, at least in isolation, is therefore
restrained only by the integrity of the intervertebral disks and by antcrior
and posterior longitudinal ligaments that support the complex in front and
back (figs. 4.r2b and 4.r3a-b).
Each intervertebral disk (fig. 4.rt) has a semi-fluid core,the nucleuspulposus,
which is surrounded by a tough but elastic connective tissue exterior, the
annulus fibrosis. The nucleus pulposus comprises only about t5q( of the
total mass, but that's enough liquid to allow the disk to act hydraulically-
every time you shift the angle of one vertebral body with respect to its
neighbor, thc nucleus pulposus shifts accordingly, bulging out the elastic
zrnnulusfibrosis on one side, and cvcry time you twist, the nucleus pulposus
presses the annulus fibrosis outward all around. The tough fibrclelastic
conncctivc tissue comprising the annulus fibrosis fuscs each intervcrtcbral
disk to thc vertebral body above and below. They cvcn run continuously
from the disk into the bone. That is why an intervertebral disk never
"slips." It can only rupturc, exuding somc o{'the gel-like nucleus pulposus
through a weakened annulus librosis, or degenerate.
As with other connectivetissucs,intcrvcrtcbral disks contain living cells
which require nutrients for their survival and which produce mctabolic

sacralarticularsurface articularfacets of sacralarticular

for intervertebral
disk superiorarticular surfaceof right
betweenL5 and 51 processes sacroiliacjoint

foramina
for spinal
nerve
orancnes

medran
sacral
crest

Figure 4.9. Anterolateral view (on the left) and posterolateralview of the sacrum
(on the right), the latter also showing the sacral surface of the right saooiliac
joint. The sacrum is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly,an architectural
feature which is even more apparent in fig. 4.10a (Sappey).
 1, S'TANDIiVG POST'L:I]LS 22,1

waste products that have to be disposed of. But one thing is missing, at
least after we have reached our mid-twenties, and that is blood vessels.The
capillary beds that serviced the intervertebral disks during our youth are
lost during the natural course ofaging. So in older people, how do the living
cells receive nourishment, and how are waste substances eliminated?

a. b. c.
side view of the four curvatures
and of the anterior and posterior anterolateral posterior
functionalunits of the spine view of spine view of spine

transverse
cervrcal processol
lordosis the atlas

sprnous sprnous
processes:C7 processof C7
and T1
sprnous
thoracac processof T1
kyphosis

transverse
processes
interverte of thoracic
bral disk vertebrae
between T7, T9, and
L.l and L2 T 11

sacrum

Figure 4..10.Three views of the spinal column: a lateral view from the right
side (a), an anterolateralview from right front (b), and a posterior view from
behind (c). The middle image (b) is enough from the side that the four spinal
curvatures start becoming apparent. The anterior and posterior functional
units are shown separated from one another in the figure on the left (a).The
tubular nature of the posterior functional unit, however, is apparent only in
views of individual vertebrae from above (fig. a.5) or from below (Sappey).
The biomedical literature suggests that nutrients are "imbibed," or
absorbed, into the intervertebral disks from the vertebral bodies, which
themselves are well supplied with blood, but little is known about this
processexcept that healthy intervertebral disks contain 7o-8oc/oliquid and
that the spine gets shorter during the day and longer during the night.
Taken together, these two pieces of information suggest that when the
intervertebral disks are compressed by gravity and muscular tension during
t h e d a y , l i q u i d i s s q u e e z e do u t , a n d t h a t w h e n t e n s i o n i s t a k e n o f f t h e
vertebral column at night, the vertebral bodies can spread apart, allowing
the intervertebral disks to absorb nutrients. This would help explain why
it has long been thought that one of the most effective treatments for acute
back pain is bed rest, and why a thoughtful combination of exercise and
relaxation is therapeutic for most chronic back ailments.

THE POSTERIOR FUNCTIONAL UNIT

If we were to locate another isolated spine and saw off most of the anterior
functional unit from top to bottom, we would be left with the posterior
functional unit a tube made up of the stack of vertebral archcs, all the
restraining ligaments between the arches, andjust enough of the posterior
brlrders of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks to complete the
tube anteriorly (figs..+.5aand 4.roa). I'he interior of the posterior functional
unit is the vertebral canal, which housesthe spinal cord and spinal nerves.
Flach vertebral arch Ibrms small synovial .joints with its neighbors
through the agency of little facets, or flattened joint surfaces, that are
located on adjacent superior and inf'erior articular processes.Like other
syncrvial joints, these movable lacet .joints are characterized by .ioint
surfaces covered with cartilage on their articular surfaces, synovial
membranes and fluid, and joint capsulesthat envelop the entire complex.

annulus
fibrosus

nucreus
pulposus

Figure 4.'l1.The intervertebral disk, in a cross-sectionfrom above (left), and in a

mid-sagittal section between two vertebral bodies (right). In the figure on the
right, the nucleus pulposus is being squeezed anteriorly by a backbend (Sappey).
 1. s,rANprN6 P()STLI?I,:S 223

Two inferior articular processes,one on each pedicle, form facetjoints with

matching surfaces on the superior articular processes of the vertebra
below.Although the orientations of the articular processesrestrict twisting
of the spine in the lumbar region (fig. r.ll), their orientations permit it in
the cervical and thoracic regions. You hear and feel the facet joints moving
when a skilled bodyworker cracks your back. And many young athletes can
twist their spine when they get up in the morning, and hear a sequenceof
pops, indicating that facet joints are being released one after another.
Just in front ofthe superior and inferior articular processes,andjust to
the rear and to each side ofthe intervertebral disks, are the intervertebral
foramina, the openings in the vertebral column out of which the spinal
nelves emerge(fig. +.zb).In the lumbar region the locationsof'theseforamina
and their spinal nerves make them vulnerablc to ruptured intervertebral
disks, which may impinge against a spinal nerve and cause shooting pains
down the thigh.

SPINAL STABILITY AND BENDING

The anterior and pclsterior f'unctional units are described separately to

'l'he
clarify the concepts, but in fact they are bound together inextricably.
architectural arrangement that links them is propitious: it permits spinal
movements and at the samc time it insures spinal stability. Iror example,
backward bending will compress the vertebral arches together posteriorly
while spreading the front surfaces tlf the vertebral bodies apart anteriorly,
and forward bending will pull the vcrtebral arches slightly apart while
compressing the intervertebral disks in front. Thesc movements, however,
can be taken only so far because the entire ctlmplex is stabilized by
ligaments (figs. 4.rz r3). As just mentioned, the anterior and posterior
longitudinal ligaments reinforce the flexible anterior functional unit,
and the joint capsulesfcrr the facet joints help hold the vertebral arches
together. In addition, there are yet more ligaments superimposedon the
posterior functional unit interspinous ligaments that run between
adjacent spinous processes,a supraspinous ligamenl that connects the
tips of the spinous processes,flat elastic ligaments known as ligamenta
flaua thaL connect adjacent laminae, and the cervical nuchal ligament,
which is an elastic extension of the supraspinous ligament that reaches
the head.

[Technicalnote: Quadrupedssuch as dogsand cats have well-developed nuchal

ligamentswhoseelasticitykeepstheir headson axiswithout constantexpenditure
ofmuscular energy.Becauseofour upright posture,the significanceofthe nuchal
ligamentin humansis greatlyreducedin comparisonwith that of quadrupeds,but
it probablyhas a leasta minor role in helpingto keepthe headpulled to the rear.
It's no substitutefor musculareffort, however,as evidencedby droopingheadsin
a room full of sleepymeditators.l
221 ANATOMYOF HATHA YOGA

THE SPINE AS A WHOLE

We've seen representative vertebrae at each segment of the spine, and

we've seen how their linked front portions form the anterior functional
unit and how their linked vertebral arches form the posterior functional
unit. Then we looked at how the combination of anterior and posterior
functional units along with their restraining ligaments permits and yet
limits bending. Now we need to examine the spine as a whole within the
body (fig. 4.4). The depth ofthe four curvatures can be evaluated from the
side (figs. ,1.roa-b).If they are too flat the spine will not have much spring-
like action when you walk and run, but if the curvatures are too
pronounced, especially in the lumbar region, the spine will be unstable.
Excesscurvatures are more common-an orthopedist would tell you that a
"lordosis" is an excessanterior curvature in the lumbar region and that a
"kyphosis" is an excess posterior curvature of'the chest. And sometimes
p e o p l eh a v e w h a t i s c a l l e d a r e v e r s e c u r v a t u r e i n t h e n e c k , o n e t h a t i s
convex posteriorly instead of' anteriorly.
From either the front or the back, the spine should look straight. If it
doesn't, it is usually becauseof'an imbalancesuch as one leg being shorter

portionof ligamentumflavum pedicles posteriorlongitudinal

removedto revealjoint lrgament

it,r.

laminae intervertebral
disks
a. b.
Figure 4.'12. Views of the ligaments in the lumbar portion of the vertebral canal
from inside looking out. On the left (a) is an image looking posteriorly toward
the vertebral laminae, ligamenta flava, pedicles (cut frontally), and transverse
processes.On the right (b) is an image looking anteriorly toward the posterior
Iongitudinalligament the posterior surfacesof the vertebral bodies, intervertebral
disks (indicatedby dotted lines),and pedicles(againin frontal section;Morris).
 1. STANDING POSTURES 225

than the other, which causes the pelvis and spine to be angled off to the
side. This creates a side-to-side curvature known as scoliosis, a condition
which always includes a right-left undulation of compensatory curvatures
higher up in the spine that ultimately brings the head back in line with the
body. These compensatory curvatures develop becauseour posture adjusts
itself to maintain the plumb line of gravity from head to toe with the least
possible muscular effort, even if it results in distortions and chronic aches
and pains.

THE DEEP BACK MUSCLES

We can't make a posture with just bones,joints, and ligaments: something

has to move them. An engineer designing a plan for putting the body into
motion might suggest using three layers of rope-and-pulley systems. The
innermost layer would consist of miniature systems of ropes and pulleys
connecting the smallest adjacent skeletal segments,the intermediate layer
w o u l d c o n s i s t o f l a r g e r s y s t e m s c o n n e c t i n g b i g g e r s e g m e n t s ,a n d t h e
outermost layer would consist of the largest and longest systems connecting
the segments of the skeleton which are the furthest apart. And indeed, we

occipitalregionof cranium supraspinousligament intervertebralforamina

interspinous anterior
ligaments longitudinal
ilgamenr

ligamentum antenor
longitudinal
ligament
atlas(c1)
disks
sprnous
processof
axis (c2)
vertebral
interspinous bodies,
ligaments L3-4
spinous
processof C7
posterior
suprasprnous fourthlumbar longitudinal
inferior
---
ligament vertebra(L4): ligament
articular
sprnousprocess, process,
spinous processof T'1 vertebral superior
(vertebraprominens) body of Tl L3
articularprocess,
Iransverseorocess

a. b.
Figure4.13.Sideviews(from the right)of the ligamentsassociated with the
cervicalportion of the vertebralcolumn (a)and with the lumbarregion(b).
(from Morris).
226 ANATOMY OI; HATHA '

can see elements of such a plan within the human body. The smallest and
shortest muscles of the spine act between adjacent vertebrae. The middle
Iayer of muscles-the deep back muscles-operates between the torso and
the lower extremities to hold us upright. To see them (fig. 4.t4 and 5.5)you
would have to remove the upper extremities, including the third and
outermost layer of muscles that act from the torso to manipulate the scapulae
and arms {figs. t{.t{-t,1t.
The main component of the middle layer is the erector spinae, which
runs between the neck and the pelvis on either side ofthe spinous processes.
This muscle erects or extends the spine, as its name implies; it also
restricts forward bending, aids side bending, and influences twisting of the
torso in conjunction with the abdominal muscles. And in static postures
such as sitting upright in meditative sitting postures, it acts as an extensile
ligament, holding the spine straight with a mild isometric elTort (chapter
to). Our main concern here is how the deep back muscles operate either to
facilitate or restrict standing postures.

semispinalis
capitis

strapmusclesof the neck

erectorsprnae

transverseprocess
of L1
internalabdominal
oblique
Figure4.14.Deep
musclesof the
b a c ka n d n e c k
( r i g h ts i d e ) .
Upperand lower
extremitieshave \acetabulum of hip joint
been removedin
their entirety
(from Morris).
 iRES 227

SYMMETRY AND ASYMMETRY

The axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton, and muscles throughout the
body all contribute to determining our bilateral symmetry. For perfect
symmetry, every right-left member of every pair of bones, skeletal muscles,
joints, and ligaments must be identical on both sides of the body-right and
left knee joints, hip joints, femurs, and clavicles; and right and left erector
spinae muscles, quadriceps femori, hamstrings, adductors, and gluteals.
To check out the symmetry in your own posture, look at yourself frontally
in a full-length mirror, preferably in the buff. Place your feet about twelve
inches apart and let your hands hang relaxed. Look carefully. Do the right
and left extremities appear to be of equal length? Is one shoulder higher
than the other? Do you lean slightly to one side? Do both forearms hang
loosely, or is one elbow more bent? Does the waistline make a sharper
indentation on one side than the other, creatin6l extra space between the
body and elbow on one side? Is the crest of the ilium higher on one side
than the other? Is one nipple higher than the other? If'you draw an imaginarli
line from the umbilicus to the center of the sternum, is it perpendicularto
thc floor, or slightly off?
Look down at your feet. Are they comf<lrtablein zrperf'ectly symmetrical
position, or would it feel more natural if one or the other were rotated
laterally? Do the toes all spread out and down squarely.or do some ol'them
seem to clench in? You are not tryrng to change any'thing; you are just mzrking
observations.Don't despair if'your body is not perfectly symmetrical; f'eware.
Most of us were born symmetrical, but our habitual activities have
undermined our balance. Carrying a handbag on one shoulder, always
lowering thc chin to the same side against a telephone receiver, swimming
freestyle and always turning the head in the same direction for breathing,
and countless other right-left preferences create habitual tension on one
side of the body that eventually results in muscular and skeletal misalign-
m e n t sa n d d i s t o r t i o n s .
So far we've been discussing only static anatomical symmetries and
asymmetries. But these terms are also used in the context of movement.
In that realm a symmetrical movement is one in which both sides of the
body move at the same time and in the same way, while an asymmetrical
movement is one in which each side of the body moves sequentially. As it
happens, most of our everyday activities are accomplished asymmetrically.
You don't hop forward two feet at a time-you walk, swinging your right
hand forward in concert with your left foot, and swinging your left hand
forward in concert with your right foot. Likewise, a boxer hits a
punching bag with one hand and then the other, not with both hands
at the same time. And every karate master knows that the power of a
punch with one hand depends on simultaneously pulling the opposite
228 ANATOMY O]: HAI'ITA YOGA

elbow to the rear. In swimming we see both possibilities-the butterfly,

the breast stroke, and the beginner's back stroke involve symmetrical
movements; the freestyle and the back stroke crawl involve asymmetrical
movements.
You can correct some right-left asymmetries with patience, persistence,
and a well-thought-out practice plan. In fact, right-left balancing is an
important quest in hathayoga ("ha" is the Sanskrit word for "right," and
"tha" means "left"). And apart from its importance in hatha yoga postures,
bodily symmetry is beneficial to our overall health and comfort.
The best approach for correcting right-left imbalances is to concentrate
on asymmetrical postures and activities, working first with one side and
then the other, and watching for differences between the two. If you spot
an imbalance you can do the same posture three times, starting and
ending on the more difficult side, and over timc this will tend to correct the
situation. Symmetrical postures, by contrast, are often not very effective
for correcting right-left imbalances. Both sides may get stronger and more
flexible, but they will remain different. In certain casesthe differences can
even become exaggeratcd becausemaking an identical elfort on both sides
may favor the side that is more flexible, and this leaves the constricted side
even more out of balance.
If right-left imbalances are best remedied with asymmetric postures,
front-to-back imbalances are best remedied with symmetric postures. Let's
say you can't bend forward and backward very far, or that you perceive that
your backward bends are more convincing than your forward bends, and
you can't detect any difference in tightness when you compare the two
sides of the body. The solution to this problem is to develop a personal
program of symmetrical forward bends and backbends to redress the
imbalance. But keep watching. These improvements are sooner or later
likely to uncover asymmetrical limitations which until that time had been
hidden: limitations to forward bending in the hip or hamstrings on one
side, limitations in the hip flexors on one side for eccentric backward
bending, or limitations to side bending on one side. Don't complain. Start
over. Enjoy.

STANDING POSTURES
In addition to correcting muscular and skeletal imbalances, standing
postures as a whole form a complete and balanced practice that
includes twisting, forward bending, side bending, backward bending,
and balancing. A standing forward bend even serves as a mild inverted
posture for those who are flexible enough to bend all the way down.
Before studying specific postures, however, we must examine some
fundamental principles.
 /. .SIA \D/lV(, PU'TI RE.\ 229

DEVELOPINGA STRONG FOUNDATION

Should you stand relaxed, or should you purposely hold some tension in the
hips and thighs when you are doing standing postures? This was our opening
question, and the answer is not the samefor everyone.Through long experience,
advanced students know exactly when and where it is safe to relax, so they
can do whatever they want. Beginners, however, who are embarking on a
course of standing postures should be told straight out to plant their feet
firmly and to hold the muscles of the hips and thighs in a state of moderate
tension. The many muscles that insert in joint capsuleskeep them taut and
establish a strong base for the posture. This not only reinforces the joints,
it brings awareness to them and to the surrounding muscles-and where
there is awareness there is saf'ety.Tightening the muscles of the hips and
thighs limits the range of motion, it is true, but it prevents torn muscles
and injuries to the knee joints, sacroiliacjoints, hip joints, and the lower
back. In addition to these immediate benefits, developing er.strong base
over a period ofyears builds up the connectivetissucsin both thejoints and
their capsules.And zrsthe joints bccomc stronger, it becomcssafcr to rclax
the body more generally and at the sarne time intensify the stretches.
Experts take this all for granted; they protect themsclves without realizing
it and are often not aware that beginners unknowingly place themselves
in danger.

SETTING PRIORITIES

Rrr novices, standing postures are the best training ground frlr experiencing
the principlc of learning to establish priorities from the distal to the
proximal parts of the limbs. l'his means you should construct standing
poses from your f'eet to your hips to your torso, and from your hands to
your shoulders to your torso, rather than the other way around. 'I'hat's
desirable becauseyour awareness of thc body gets poorer and your abilitv
to control the muscles diminishes as you move from distal to proximal, and
if you first bend or twist the trunk and then manipulate the extremities,
the latter movements take your attention away from the proximal structures
ofthe body over which you have less awareness. By contrast, ifyou settle
the distal portions of your limbs first, you can keep them stable with minimal
effort while you place your attention on the central core of the body.

FOOT POSITION

The feet are the foundation for standing postures. This can be taken literally:
small adjustments in how the feet are placed will affect your posture from
head to toe. To see how this happens, stand with your feet together and
parallel, draw lines straight down the front of your bare thighs with a
marker, and imagine parasagittal planes through each of them. What we
23O ANATOMY OIt HATHA I

are going to see is that movements of the lines reflect rotation of the
planes, and that rotation of the planes reflects rotation of the thighs. So
keeping the knees straight, first rotate your feet so that the big toes remain
together and the heels swing out 45'each (a 9o" angle opening to the rear),
and then rotate them in the opposite direction so that the heels are together
and the toes are out (again a 90" angle, but now opening to the front). By
definition, the thighs will have rotated medially in the first case and laterally
in the second.We should note that in both situations the thighs account for
only about two-thirds of the total rotation--lo' at the hip and r5" at the
ankle.
This experiment makes it clear that most of the rotation of the foot is
translated to the thigh. If a foot slips out of position in a standing posture,
it indicates weakness on that side, and to allow the weakness to remain
indefinitely can only accentuate problems throughout the foundation of
the body. The situation should be corrected, but don't force matters.
Instead of hurting yourself by stressing the weaker side, ease up on thc
healthier side and resolve to take as long as necessrrryto make long-term
adjustments. In any case,watch your fbot position constantly.

FOUR SIMPLE STRETCHES

'l'he
best way to approach stzrnding posturcs is to start simply, and thc
simplest standing stretches are those that do not require us to counteract
g r a v i t v b v t i g h t e n i n g o u r l o w e r e x t r e m i t i c s b e y o n d w h a t i s n e e d e dt o
b a l a n c eu p r i g h t . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e t o r s o i s n o t b e n d i n g b a c k w a r d ,
furward, or to the side. We'll start with the mountain pose.

THE MOUNTAIN POSE

The mountain pose is the basic beginning standing posture (fig. 4.r5), from
which all others are derived. To begin, stand with the feet together and
parallel, and the hands alongside the thighs with the forearms midway
between supination and pronation (the thumbs toward the front). Create a
firm base by pulling the hips tightly together in ashwini mudra and by
keeping the thighs tight all around. The quadriceps femoris muscles keep
the kneecaps lifted in front, the hamstring muscles keep tension on the
ischial tuberosities and the base of the pelvis, and the adductor muscles
keep the thighs squeezedtogether. Keep the knees extended, but not hyper-
extended beyond tllo". Find a relaxed and neutral position for the shoulders,
neither thrown back artificially nor slumped forward. Just stand smartly
erect. This is the mountain pose. It will keep the abdomen taut without any
special effort and produce diaphragmatic breathing.

[Technicalnote: Most studentsdo not haveto be worriedabout hyperextension

of
the kneesprovidedthey keepsometensionin the hamstrings.The few individuals
 '1. .STANDTNGPOS',|TTRES z3r

who can hyperextend their knees beyond r8o" should be watchful not to lock them,
but to maintain a balancing tension all around their thighs-especially between
their hamstrings and their quadriceps femoris muscles-which keeps their lower
extremities on axis. It should also be mentioned that some instructors, perhaps a
minority, suggestkeeping the knees "soft" for the mountain posture, by which they
mean keeping them ever so slightly bent. What's most important is awareness.Do
whatever you want but be attentive to the results.l

THESIDE.TO-SIDE
STRETCH

Next we'll look at a simple side-to-side standing stretch (fig. ,+.r6).Stand

with your feet a comfortable distance apart and tighten the muscles of the
hips and thighs to make a solid pelvic base. Raise the arms to shoulder
height. Now stretch the hands out to the side, palms down, with the five
fingers together and pointing away from thc body. Observe the sensations
in the upper extremities. At {irst you may tend to clench the muscles, trying
to force the hands out, but that's too extreme. Just search out rcgions,
especiallyaround the shoulders, which, when relaxed, will allow the fingcrs
more leeway frlr reaching. You arc still using muscular eflbrt for the side
stretch, but thc muscles you are relaxing are now allowing others fullcr
sway. Gradually, delicate adjustments and readjustments will pcrmit your
fingertips to move further and further to thc sides.

:i$
::@
a.*:
:l:
]i:
::]l
. o u n t a i np o s e :
F i g u r e4 . 1 5 M
the basicstandingposture,
from which all othersare
derived.
232 ANATOMY OF HATHA '

If you suspect that there is something mysterious about this, that some
force other than your own muscular effort is drawing your fingertips out,
a simple experiment will bring you back to reality. Stand in the same
stretched posture and ask two people to pull your wrists gently from each
side while you relax. As the stretch increases, the feeling is altogether
different from the one in which you were making the effort yourself.
Stretching once again in isolation will convince you that nothing but
muscular effort is doing this work.
Like the mountain pose, the side-to-sidestretch is excellent training for
diaphragmatic breathing becausethe posture itself encouragesit. The arm
position holds the lower abdominal wall taut and the upper chest restricted,
and this makes both abdominal and thoracic breathing inconvenient. You
would have to make a contrived effort to allow the lower abdomen to relax
and release for an abdominal inhalation, and you would have to make an
unnatural effort to force the chest up :rnd out for a thoracic inhalation.
Students who tend to get confused when they try to breathe diaphragrnatically
in other positions learn to do it in this stretch in spite of'their confusion.
All the instructor has to do is point out what is happening.

F i g u r e4 . 1 6 .S i d e - t o - s i d e
stretch.
 1. .S,r.AN1)tNGI'OSl.tiRti.S 2-13

Right-left imbalances also become obvious in the side-to-sidestretch. If

students watch themselves in strategically placed mirrors, they will be
acutely aware if one shoulder is higher than the other, if extension is
limited more on one side than the other, or if there are restrictions around
the scapula, often on one side. And with awareness begins the process of
correction.

THE OVERHEAD STRETCH

Next try a simple overhead stretch ffig. q.r7l. Stand this time with your
heels and toes together, and with your base again firmly supported by
contracted hip and thigh muscles. Bring the hands comfortably overhead
with the fingers interlocked, the palms pressed together, and the elbows
extended. Stretch up and slowly pull the arms to the rear, lifting the knuckles
toward the ceiling. You can feel some muscles pulling the arms backward,

Figure 4.17. Overhead

stretch, a simple and
superb posture for
learning to use the
distal portions of the
extremities to access
proximal parts of the
extremities and the
core of the body.
 YOGA

and others resisting. Now you have to watch the elbows. It is easy to keep
them extended in the first position, but as the arms are pulled back, one of
them may begin to reveal weakness or restriction in its range of movement,
or one forearm may show weakness that permits the interlocked hands to
angle slightly off toward the weaker side. Take care to keep the posture as
symmetrical as possible.
As you lift with more focused attention, you will feel the effects of this
stretch frrst in the shoulders, then in the chest, abdomen, back, and finally
the pelvis. As in the side-to-side stretch, the posture requires selective
relaxation. Many students find this difficult and will keep all their muscles
clenched, but any excesstension in the neck, shoulders, or back will make
it difficult to feel the effects all the way down to the pelvis. If you only feel
the posture affecting the upper extremities, you need to make more
consciousefforts to relax selectively.
In the overhead strctch the extensors of the upper extremities will all be
in a state of'moderate tension and the flexor muscleswill be in a statc of
relaxed readiness, simply countering the extensors. Ihe posture's
effectivenesswill depend on how naturally this takes place. If the extensor
musclesin the arm and shoulder are noticeably limited by their antagonists,
you may not be able to straighten your forearms at thc elbow joint. Or even
if the forearms can be fully extended you may not be able to pull the arms
backward. And if you feel pain in the arms and shoulders, you will not be
able to direct much energy and attention to the trunk. But if'you practice
this stretch regularly, you will g'radually notice that your ellbrts are affecting
the central part of the body as well as the extremities.
The overheadstretch is also one ofthe best postureslbr learning how to
work from distal to proximal because the proximal parts of the body are
af{'ectcdso clearly by each successivelymore distal segment. As with the
side-to-sidestretch and thc mountain pose,the overhead stretch encourages
diaphragmatic breathing. It doesn't restrict abdominal breathing as much
as the side-to-sidestretch (at least not unless you bcnd backward in addition
to stretchin6;up), but it restricts thoracic breathing even more.

THE STANDING TWIST

The last and most complicated of these simple stretches, and the only one
that is asymmetrical, is the simple standing twist. First, to understand the
dynamics of the pose, try it while holding as little tension in the hips and
thighs as possible.We'll call this a relaxed standing twist. With the medial
borders of the feet about twelve inches apart, twist to the right, leading
with the hips, with the arms hanging. As you twist, the opposite hip projects
backward and you dip forward almost imperceptibly, as though you were
planning a twisted forward bend from the hips. This may not feel natural:
 1. STANDING PO,SI'tIRES 235

in fact, it shouldn't, because the healthy norm is to hold some tension in

the hips and thighs when you twist. But this relaxed standing twist is a
concentration exercise in doing just the opposite. In this manner you can
get a feel for what not to do. Paradoxically,students who are not very body-
oriented can do this exercisewith little or no prompting, in contrast to the
athlete or hatha yogi who finds it odd to relax and allow the opposite hip to
move posteriorly.
Now twist again, but this time first plant the feet, hold the knees
extended, and tense the gluteal muscles on the side opposite the direction
of the twist. When you twist to the right and contract the left gluteus
maximus, at least three things are noticeable: the left thigh becomesmore
extended, the left side of the hip is pulled down, and the torso straightens
up. Now tense the quadriceps femoris muscles on the front of the thighs,
paying special attention to the side toward which you are twisting. This
complements the action o{'the opposite gluteus maximus. Last, tense the
'l'he entire pelvis is now strongly
adductors on the medial sides of the thighs.
supported by muscular activity (fig. 4.rtt).This is the correct feeling lbr a
standing twist; it comes naturally to those who are in good musculoskeletal
health but it feels artificial to those who arc not-

F i g u r e4 . 1 8 .S t a n d i n g
twist. In this and all
other asymmetrical
stretches,the text
descriptions refer to
what is seen in (and
felt by) the model
s i n c et h a t i s o r d i n a r i l y
a student's frame of
reference in a class.
All such postures
should be done in
both directions.
236 ANAIOMY Ort ttA',I'HA YOGA

BACKWARD BENDING
It is logical to examine standing backward bends next because they are
easy,simple, symmetrical, and natural. For beginners they are simply an
extension of standing up straight.

WHOLE-BODY BACKWABD BENDING

Whole-bodybackward bending, more than any other posture, demonstrates the

principle of setting priorities from distal to proximal. Try this experiment:
stand, lift your hands overhead, and clasp your hands and fingers together
firmly. Press the palms together solidly, making sure that the hands do not
angle to the right or left. Now extend the forearms at the elbows. Lock
them firmly. With the heels and toes together, grip the floor gently with the
feet. Tighten all the muscles of the thighs, Iifting the kneecaps with the
quadriceps f'emori, tensing the adductors medially and the hamstrings
posteriorly, and squeezingthe hips together. This stabilizes the knee.joints
a n d p e l v i s , c r e a t i n g a s t r o n g b a . s eP
. ull your arms backward as far as
possible and lift your hands toward the ceiling. If all of the priorities have
been set in order, the lifting feeling in the posturc can be f'elt progrcssively
in the thorax, abdomen,and pelvis.
Noq with all the distal-to-proximal priorities established,you can placc
your attention on the totality of the posture. Bend backward in a whoie-
body arc, but without throwing your head back excessively.You will feel a
whole-body bend as you accessthe core of the body. Hold your attention <ln
the abdomen. Tissues are pulling on your torso from fingertips to toetips
fingcrs to hands, hands to fbrearms, forcarms to arms, arms to shoulders,
and shoulders to chest, abdomen, and pelvis; toes to feet, feet to legs, lcgs
to thighs, and thighs to pelvis and vertebral column. Notice the whole-body
tension, especiallyon the front side of the chest, abdomen,and thighs {fig.
4.r9).Breathc cvenly; do not comeback so far that you have a desireto hold
your breath at the glottis or that you hesitate to exhale. Within those
limits, as soon as you are settled, pull back isometrically to exercise and
strengthen the back muscles. With every breath, inhale deeply with thoracic
inhalations that explore (within the limits of the posture) the fullness of
your inspiratory capacity.
Numerous mechanisms protect you in a whole-body backward bend.
Eccentric lengthening and finally isometric contraction of the iliopsoas
muscles turn them into extensile ligaments, and these muscles, acting as
short but powerful cables, resist excessextension at the hip joint. In the
case of the iliacus they act between the femur and the pelvis, and in the
caseof the psoas they act between the femur and the lumbar region. They
are not alone, of course. The spiraled ischiofemoral, pubofemoral, and
iliofemoral ligaments back them up on each side, keeping the head of the
 1. STANDING POSTTiRES 237

femur pulled into congruence with the hip socket as you reach your limits
of hip extension.
Tensing the quadriceps femoris muscles lifts the patellas and extends
the knees, and this allows you to drop backward only so far. To come back
further you would have to bend the knees and bring your lower body forward,
but we do not want that here. In this standing whole-body backward bend
we are thinking of beginning and intermediate students who should learn
to protect their joints, muscles, ligaments, and tendons before trying more
challenging postures.
The femoris quadriceps has another action that affects the backbend
more subtly. As we saw in chapter 3, three of the four heads of this muscle
take origin {rom the femur and do not have a direct effect on the pelvis, but
the fourth, the rectus femoris (figs. 3.6, 3.9, and 8.8-S),attaches to the ilium
at the anterior inferior iliac spine. The rectus femoris is a football-kicking
muscle, for which it has two roles: acting as a hip flexor for helping the
iliopsoas muscle initiate the kick, and then acting with the quadriceps

,1
fJ head not
thrownback
excessrvery
pectoral.rr",", /;

back muscles
contracl
concentrically

glutealmuscles
rectusabdominismuscles- squeezehips
together

osoasand iliacusmuscles
ischiofemoral,
pubofemoral,
rectusfemorismuscles and iliofemoral
ligamentsare all
quadricepsfemoristendons taut

patellartendons extendedknees
leg muscles
and anklejoints
adjustedto
keep balance
Whole-bodybackwardbend.
Figure4..19.
Tensionat the sitesindicatedlimit and
definethe bend from top to bottom.
23tJ ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

femoris muscle as a whole for extending the leg at the knee joint and assisting
completion of the kick. The rectus femoris acts isometrically, however, in a
standing backward bend, helping the iliopsoas muscles stabilize the pelvis
and spine, and helping the rest of the quadriceps femoris stabilize the knee.
Without its tension the knees would bend and the top of the pelvis would
tip backward, thus pitching the trunk to a more horizontal position and
accentuating the lumbar portion of the backward bend, which is not our
aim in this beginning posture.
Lifting the hands overhead and pulling the arms back as much as possible
protects the upper half of the body and provides lift and traction to the
chest and abdomen. The rectus abdominis muscles resist this stretch in two
ways: they provide further stability to the pelvis by way of their attachments
to the pubic bones, and they support the role of the rectus femoris muscles
in preventing acute bending in the lumbar region. What we want, and what
our efforts give us from top to bottom, is a continuous arc of tension in
muscles, tendons, and fasciae between the fingertips and toes. And that is
why it can rightfully be called a whole-body backward bend.
It is important to keep your hcad upright in this posture and in an arc
with the rest of the vertebral column because the head has more density
than any other part of the body and is situated at the end o{'thc most llexible
part of the vertebral column. Allowing it to drop backward brings your
attention to the neck and shilts your center o{'gravity to the rear so that
you have to bend more in the lumbar region to keep your balance. Just
draw the arms backward and keep the head betwcen them if you can;
otherwise, keep the head in a natural line with the rest of the spine. This
precaution will also help prevent lightheadedness and fainting in those
with low blood pressure.
The effects of gravity in this bend depend on the individual. Those who
are strong and flexible will arc their bodies back and be aware of how
gravity is affecting them from head to toe, but those who have a hard time
standing up straight will be working against gravity just trying to pull
themselves upright from a bent-forward position. Even so, it will still be
useful for them to make the effort becauseit will improve their flexibility
and help them balance their weight more efficiently in day-to-day life.

A RELAXED STANDING BACKBEND

When you are thoroughly confident with whole-body backward bends, you
are ready to deepen the bend by exploring the nuances of relaxation in a
standing backward bend. There are many posesthat illustrate this principle,
but for starters place your hands overhead without lifting them fully, and
then bend backward without tensing the muscles of the thighs (fig. 4.zo).
Notice that this posture is entirely different from the last one. Relaxing the
upper extremities allows more bending because the rectus abdominis
muscles are under less tension, and relaxing the lower extremities takes
tension off the iliopsoas and quadriceps femoris muscles, which in turn
takes tension off the pelvis and the knees. The main place where stress and
tension are felt is the lower back. For this reason, it is apt to call this a
backbend rather than a backward bend.
A relaxed standing backbend such as this, with slightly bent knees and
an arched-back lumbar region, places you more in the grip of gravity than
a whole-body backward bend. But this gravitational assist is unwelcome
unless you have a healthy lumber regfon as well as strong abdominal
muscles and hip flexors. Even advanced students may find they are not
comfortable holding this posture for a long time. So keep a watch on the
lower back, and do not bend beyond your capacity to recover
gracefully.

THE ROLE OF BREATHING IN STANDING BACKWARD EENDS

One of'the secrets of successfulstanding backward bends is to maintain an

even breathing pattern, but this cannot be ttken for granted among beginners.
'fhose who are not comfortable will tend to hold their breath after an
inhalation, and this will obviously limit the time they can hold the posture.
'feachers can spot at least three breathing patterns that should bc avoided.

Figure 4.20. Relaxed

s t a n d i n gb a c k b e n d . slightlybent knees
This posture is
advisable only for
intermediate and
advanced students
because of the stress
placed selectivelyon
the lumbar region.
24O ANATOMY OI: HATHA YOGA

Some students will close the glottis entirely but come out of the posture
with an "aaagh." Others will keep the glottis partially closed but make a
soft grunting sound when they exhale and come up. Yet others will resist
exhaling but without closing the glottis. Teachers may not notice this last
pattern unless they are watching for it becauseit doesn't make noise. But
in any case,students who hold their breath or breathe aberrantly in standing
backward bends speak their discomfort and anxiety clearly, at Ieast to those
who have educated eyes and ears. If students cannot inhale and exhale
smoothly in the posture, it is better for them to limit the bend-breathing
constantly, keeping the lungs open to the atmosphere, and consciously
depending for security on strong and healthy pelvic and respiratory
diaphragms, abdominal muscles, and hip flexors.
A simple experiment will show two distinct ways that breathing can
work in standing backbends.Ask a class of beginning students to come into
the whole-bodybackward bend with their hands claspedoverheadand lifted.
Then ask them to breathe gently and notice that their hands move forward
during inhalation and to the rear during exhalation. After they have come
in touch with this, ask them to notice when they feel the most discomfort,
or if not discomfort, wariness.Most of them will say it is at the end of exhalation,
when their hands drop to the rear. It so happens that this is the moment in
the breathing cycle that corresponds to the least tension in the abdominal
muscles and in the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms, which furnish the
most important support for the posture in everyone who is keeping the air-
way open. Becausethe spine is most vulnerable when tension is releasedin
these supporting muscles, many teachers wisely suggest an alternative:
that students consciously reverse their natural breathing patterns in
relation to the bend. Instead of letting inhalation restrict the bend and
exhalation accentuate it, they will suggest that students inhale their
maximum inspiratory capacity during the deepest part of the bend and
then purposely ease forward during exhalation.

FORWARD BENDING
There are three big issues in forward bending: gravity, the site where the
body is bending, and breathing. Gravity plays only a minor role in whole-
body standing backward bends, but it becomes somewhat more important
in relaxed standing backbends, and it becomesan overwhelmingly imporuanr
issue in forward bending. The reason for the latter is obvious: the upper
part of the body is tipped far off axis. With this in mind, our first concern
is whether to bend forward from the waist or from the hips, and our second
concern is how to use breathing to purposely further our aims.
If you watch people bending forward in daily life, you will notice that
they nearly always bend from the waist. This is the more natural movement.
 1RES 241

You would look very odd indeed if you kept your back straight and bent for"ward
from the hips to pick up an object from a coffee table. It is also easier to
bend from the waist because there is less upper body weight above the
waistline than above the hip joints. In hatha yoga we use both options.
Bending forward from the hips is nearly always considered more desirable,
but it is also more difficult, not only because there is more weight to control
but also because by definition it requires a reasonable measure of hip
flexibility, and this can't be taken for granted.
Our next concern is how to support the bend. Do we support it within
the torso itself, which we'll call internal support, or do we support it with
the help of the upper extremities, which we'll call external support. If you
brace a forward bend externally with your hands on your thighs, it's natural
to relax the torso, but if you slowly bend forward while allowing your hands
to hang freely, your torso has to support itself internally all the way down,
and under those circumstances it will be anything but relaxed. Every
standing backbend, forward bend, and side bend should be consideredwith
lespect to these matters. As in backward bending, breathing is an important
lelated issue: the more a posture is supported internally, the morc it will
have to be assisted by adjustments in the way you breathe.

FORWARD BENDS FROM THE WAIST

\!'e'll begin with two simple and easy exercisesin which you can experience
the difference between externally and internally supported bends. Lean
forward, bend your knees slightly, and, bending Ibrward from the waist,
slide your hands down the front of thc thighs, gripping all the way. Settle
vour hands in place just above the knees, lower your head fbrward, and
observe your posture. Your back is slightly rounded and relaxed, which is
possible becauseyou are supporting the torso with the upper extremities
r:rther than with the back muscles (fig. +.zr). Your breathing is also relaxed
because your respiratory diaphragm, pelvic diaphragm, and abdominal
n.rusclesare not having to contribute much to the posture.
Next, carry this processone step further. Drop your handsjust below the
knees and grip your legs firmly. Now we'll start to see big differences
among students. If you are strong and flexible you will still be relaxed, but
if you are stiffer you will start to feel some pulling in your erector spinae
muscles.If that pulling is uncomfortable you will not be eager to go further
down. So try to find a position that is just right, one that creates a little
stletch but that minimizes discomfort. Next, sense the level of relaxation
in your back, in your abdomen, and in your breathing, and then slowly
lelease your hands without dropping further forward. The moment you
start to releaseyour hands, observe carefully and you will notice that you
have automatically tightened up your lower back, your abdomen, and your
212 ANATOMY OF HATHA
"

respiratory and pelvic diaphragms (fig. 1.zz').The difference between bracing

the posture with your hands and releasing your hands without dropping
down is the difference between an externally and an internally supported
forward bend. If you are explaining and at the same time demonstrating
this exercise to a class with the hands settled in place just above or just
below the knees, your voice will be at ease before you release your hands,
but the secondyou release them and yet hold the posture, your breathing
and voice will become noticeably more labored.
Now that you can feel the differences between the two kinds of bends,
stand in a relaxed position and roll forward slowly from the head, neck,
upper back, Iower back, and last of all from the hips. The hands can simply
dangle. As you gradually pitch your upper body forward, you will sensetension
gathering in your back and abdomen as well as in the respiratory and
pelvic diaphragrns. Work with this tension rather than struggling to resist
it. Notice that the deep back muscles lengthen eccentrically and control
your descent,but that purposely tightening the abdominal muscles and the
respiratory and pelvic diaphragms provides the all-important incrcased
intra-abdominal pressure that makes thc movement safc. Come back up in
reverse order, that is, beginning with the hips, and without too much delay.
Muscles throughout the torso are already in a state of stretch and tension
from supporting the posture internally, and they will lift you up naturally.
Be aware of concentric shortening of muscles in the back as you lif't up, but
at the samc time fbcus on the abdominopelvic unit as a wholc. which is
boundedby the abdominal muscles,the respiratory diaphragm, and the pelvic
diaphraEJrn.Activating this region will protect the lower back by spreading
the vertebrae apart hydraulically, as described in chapter j. Being attentive
to the abdominopelvic unit will give you thc scnse of controlling the
posture rather than the posture controlling you.

Figure4.21.Externally
supportedforwardbend.
With the posturesupported
b y t h e u p p e re x t r e m i t i e s ,
the back,abdomen,lower
extremities, and respiratory
and pelvicdiaphragmscan
all remainrelaxed.
 1. STA^IDING POS! trRt:S 213

It is better not to explore your limits at this stage.Just repeat the down
and up movement several times without a lot of concern about stretching.
Finally, roll down to wherever gravity carries you and explore the feelings-
stiffness and discomfort if you are not accustomed to these stretches, a
deep pull and comfortable tension if you are in good condition, or more
complete relaxation if you are in excellent condition. Again, come up naturally.

FORWARD BENDS FBOM THE HIPS

As you improve your hip flexibility, you will soon want to accomplish the
more elegant forward bend from the hips. Let's start with an internally
supported bend for beginners. Stand in the mountain posture with your
feet either together or (r to inches apart and parallel. Establish a strong
base in the lower extremities, and be aware that the lumbar region of the
back is convex anteriorly. You are going to try to keep that arch intact as
you bend forward.
Now bend forward from the hips. Average beginncrs will be able to bend
about ro .lo', but advanced students with excellent hip flexibilitv may be
able to bend up to 9o" or evcn more. As with {brward bending from the
waist, if'you are not bracing the posture with your upper extremities, you
will have to support it with your back muscles,abdominal musclcs, and res-
piratory and pelvic diaphragms. Even morc than before, pay attention to
pressing in gently but purposcly with the abdominal muscles. Be aware of
when you reach your limit of hip flexibility, and bend from the waist from
that point on. Let the arms hang or interlock the hands with the opposite
forearms. Ilo not tug against the anklcs or bounce your torso up and down.
Relax as much as you can and still maintain your posture. llven though
you started with a strong foundation and kept it while you were bending
from the hips, you had to relax to some extent when you started bending

Figure 4.22. Internally supported

forward bend. With the upper
extremities dangling, abdominal
muscles,back muscles,and the
respiratory and pelvic diaphragms
must support the posture along
with the muscles,bones, and
joints of the lower extremities.
24tL A\ATOIVY OF HATHA YOGA

at the waist. Your kneecapsare no longer lifted, and the hamstrings are in
a state of relative relaxation, although your nervous system is keeping
them in a holding pattern of activity. Depending on your flexibility and
conditioning, the deep back muscles may be fairly relaxed or they may be
active, eccentrically Iengthening as gravity slowly easesyou down. If you
are in excellent condition you will be relaxed as soon as you are settled;
everyone else will still be resisting gravity with the back, hamstring
muscles, and the triumvirate of abdominal muscles, pelvic diaphragm, and
respiratory diaphragm.
'fhe lumbar area is flexed forward
Stay in this posture, breathing evenly.
as part ofan arc oftension extending from the upper back to the heels. The
tensions shift as vou breathe' since the crus of the diaphrag'rntakes origin
from the relatively stable lumbar vertebrae, and since the contents of the
abdominal cavity are slightly compressed from the forward bend, each
inhalation lifts the base o{'the thoracic cage, producing a slight lifting
effect in the upper body and a slight increase in intra-abdominal pressure.
Each exhalation then lowers you down slightly and relieves pressure from
the diaphragrn against the abdominal organs. Just fccl that h:rppening fbr
about 3o seconds,and then gently roll up out ofthe posture while prcssing
in mildly with the abdominal muscles. Do not do any kind of intense
maneuver such as lifting the head, then the upper back, and then straight-
ening up from the hips; .iust roll up naturally.
This version of'fbrward bending assumes that ytlu are able to remain
relatively relaxed in the posture. If you are struggling, all you'll notice is
marked intra-abdominal pressure, difficulty breathing, and a tense back,
abdomen, and respiratory diaphragm. The p<,rstureis fbr healthy beginners,
and is contraindicated for anyone with acute lower back pain. If you go into
this posture with pain in the lower back, you are likely to come out with more.
After you are comfortable in the beginning internally supported fbrward
bend from the hips, you are ready for the intermediate version. Start with
'fhis time develop a firm base and keep it, with the feet
the feet together.
solidly on the floor, the kneecaps lifted, and the hips strong. Hold tension
in the thighs, not only in the quadriceps femori but in the hamstring muscles
and adductors as well. Bend from the hips as before. Now, howeveq when
you reach your limits of hip flexibility, keep a strong base as you continue
to bend at the waist. Hold tension purposely in the hips, thighs, and
abdominal muscles as you bend down. Let gravity pull you down, and
notice that you are aware of more subtleties of the posture, especially
around the pelvis, thighs, and knees, than in the previous version.
After r5-3o seconds,experiment with assisting gravity by pulling yourself
down actively toward the end of exhalation using the hip flexors (iliopsoas
muscles). The abdominal muscles will now operate above and beyond a
 1, STANDING POSTIiRES 2.1\

general effort for pressing in; they will assist the hip flexors
synergistically in drawing you forward. Hold this pose, breathing as evenly
as possible (fig. 4.23).As in the earlier exercise,each inhalation will lift you
up and each exhalation will lower you down. To come out of the posture
e a s ey o u r s e l f u p a l i t t l e b i t a t t h e h i p s a n d i n t h e l o w e r b a c k , p r e s s i n
purposefully with the lower abdominal muscles, and then come up in
reverse order, first lifting the head, then the upper back to create a good
lumbar arch, and finally extending the trunk back up from the hips. It is
important to keep tension on the hamstring muscles as you come up to
prepare for the extra tension on them when you raise the upper part ofthe
back.
This is an impressiveposture. It placesso much tension on the musclesof
the abdomen, pelvis, and thighs that you will hardly notice the accompanying
increase in intra-abdominal pressure and increased tension in the deep
back muscles. Nevertheless, it's all there-an experience of entering and
exiting a forward bend from the hips that envelopsyou from hcad to toe.
Advanced students can take this posture one step further. Go into the
forward bend cxactly as in the intermediate posture, bending first from the
hips and coming down with Epavity,but thcn grasping the ankles or feet
and assisting gravity with a combination of' thc abdominal muscles, hip
flexors, and upper extremities (fig. .1.24).Once settled, this posture affects
your breathing differently from the beginning and intermediate variations
because now you are holding the trunk in place with the hands during
inhalation. You'll senselittle or no movement, only an increasein tension
during exhalation and a decreasc in tension during inhalation. Finally, iI'
you wish to come out of this posture with an arched back, you should ease
offthe stretch slightly before lifting the head and upper back, exactly as in
the intermediate version.

abdominalmuscles
can assistgravityin
pullingyour torso hip flexors(iliacus
down and back and psoasmuscles)
,,i;:r' can aid the bend
t,: concentrically
Figure 4.23. Intermediate
,i.i'f\
forward bend. Unless you \
are holding on firmly, \ - namstnno
, muscles
each inhalation lifts you
up and each exhalation
drops you down. Be sure
to keep tension in the
thighs, especially in the
hamstrings.Never stand
in a positionlike this with
t h i g h s r e l a x e da n d k n e e s
completely locked.
246 Ar\ATOM\'Ol" IIA'|IIA YOGA

Standing forward bends separate everyone roughly into two groups.

Those with good hip flexibility have a gratifying experience: if their hips
are flexible enough to press the chest against the thighs with the knees
straight, the torso is inverted and the back is only mildly bent. The posture
is rewarding and relaxing for this group of students becausethe full inversion
of the torso, which is now hanging passively from the hips, allows the spine
to stretch, much as it would if you were hanging upside down. In most
people, however, short hamstring muscles and poor hip and back flexibility
prevent this, and the torso arcs out from the lower extremities in a big
semicircle. Teachers who have always been flexible enough to bend fully at
their hips often find their students' situation incomprehensible.

MEDIAL AND LATERAL ROTATORS OF THE HIP

Up to this point we have dwelt only on the fundamentals of bending from

thc waist and from the hips. We'll now turn to the more subtle aspects of
how shifts in fbot position affect fr-rrward bending. We saw earlier thtrt
rotating thc fcet out (toes out, heels in) rotates the thighs laterally, and
that rotating the feet in (toes in, heels out) rotates the thighs medially.
What is more, rotating the thighs laterally stretches their medial rotators,
and rotating the thighs medially stretches their lateral rotators. And thcse
shifts are all important to us in forward bending. We'll soon see that both
the medial and lateral rotators of the hips resist deep forward bending, at
least in those who are not very flexible, so anything that stretches them
even mildly at the start will limit performance of these postures.
'lhe mcdial rotators of'the hip joint are the gluteus mcdius and glutcus
minimus, which lie beneath the gluteus maximus, take origin from thc
back of'the ilium, and insert on the greater trochanter (figs. -t.tib,-l.tob,

Figure4.24.Advancedforwardbend.
With the chestpressedtightly
againstthe thighs,inhalationcannot
lift you up significantly;
it merely
increases tensionin the torso.
 1, STANDING POST'TIR]i,S 217

8.9-to, 8.t2, and 8.r4) of the femur, which is located laterally, posteriorly,
and inferiorly to the bulk of the muscle. This architectural arrangement
enablesthese muscles to both rotate the thigh medially and lift it out to the
side for abduction. Three experiments will clarify their roles. First, stand
with your heels together (for adduction of the thighs), toes out (for Iateral
rotation ofthe thighs), and knees straight (so that our experience with the
medial rotators will be superimposed on stretched hamstrings). Now bend
forward and notice how far you can come down and where you feel the tension.
It's mostly in the hips, whose medial rotators will be rock-solid and resisting
the bend from start to finish. Second,bringyour feet parallel to one another,
and you will immediately come further forward. Third, swing your heels
out and toes in, and down you will go even more. What has happcned is
simple: when you rotated your thighs medially, you took tension off the
gluteus medius and gluteus minimus, which were being stretched in the
beginning by adduction and lateral rotation, and this permitted you to
come further fbrward.
The main antagonists to the gluteus medius and minimus muscles arc
two of the lateral rotators of the thigh: the adductor Longus and adcluctor
tn,agnus (see figs. 3.lt 9 and ll.r.j-r4 for general trezrtment clf adductors).
These musclestake origin from the inferior pubic rami and insert posteriorly
enough on the back of the femur to rotate the thigh laterally as well as
pull it in fbr adduction. To tcst thcir actions, we need to start with them
in a stretched position, so stand with your I'eet about 3-4 I'eet :rptrrt for
abduction of the thighs, and with your toes in and heels out fbr medial
rotation. 'fhen bend fbrward and pinpoint the site wherc you {'eelthe most
tcnsion, which will be in your inner thighs. Next, swing your toes out
enough to make your feet parallcl, and notice that you can come further
forward. Finally, swing your toes even further out to create latcral rotation
o{'the thighs, and this will lower you down even more. Again, what has
happened is straightfbrward-the exact counterpart to the expcriments
with the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus: when ycru takc tension off
the adductor longus and adductor magnus muscles by rotating the thighs
Iaterally, it permits you to come more deeply into the forward bend.

THE ANGLE POSTURE

An excellent elementary posture, the angle pose,is a forward bend from one
hip that further illustrates how foot position can affect forward bending.
With the feet a comfortable distance apart, rotate the right foot 9o'to the
right and the left foot slightly to the right (about 3o'). Keep them both
firmly planted. Swivel the hips around so you are facing directly over the
right foot. Grasping the right wrist behind your back with the left hand to
help pull the torso atound, bend backward slightly, and then bend forward
2:18 ANATOMY OII ITATTTAYOGA

first from the hips (fig. +.2;) and then at the waist (fig. 4.26). Keep the
forearms flattened against the back for this variation. As you come into the
posture you will be bending primarily at the right hip joint, so this is where
it is most natural to place your concentration. Unless you are unusually
flexible, you will notice that there will be a slight twist in the spine. Come
up and bend back again moderately before swiveling around and repeating
on the other side. Becauseyou do the posture in both directions it is excellent
for working with right-to-left imbalances, first and again last on the less
flexible side. If your forearms are flattened against the back, this pose will
be especiallyeasy and you will be able to relax more into it. The alternative
posture (figs. 6.26a-b) of lifting the arms away from the back is more
demanding and will create a more intense experience.

bend from the hips

initiallyas much as
possible

right foot is rotated

90" to the righl

left foot is
rotated
Figure 4.25.Angle
,, aboul 30"
posture, intermediate ,/ to the rioht
stage. Forearmshere /
are shown flat against .,/
the back.Hips are
swiveled to face the
right foot.

Figure4.26.Angle
posturecompleted,
with lumbarflexion
addedto flexionof
the right hip joint.
 Again returning to the importance of foot position, the angle posture is
easiest ifyour rear foot faces straight out to the side, but when you rotate
it somewhat medially, as suggested, or even more (up to 6o'), it places
increasing stretch on the lateral rotators of the thigh (the adductor longus
and adductor magnus), and this starts to limit your forward bend. This is
surprising: we might at first think that only the thigh which you are facing
would limit a forward bend, since that's what's getting the hamstring
stretch, but experimenting with different angles for the rear foot will make
it plain that the rear lateral rotators can easily becomethe limiting elements
to the bend.
'I'he rear foot brings
attention to the roles ofthe lateral rotators, but the
front foot, the one you are facing, brings awareness to the medial rotators
of the thigh (the gluteus medius and minimus) in addition to the obvious
stretch in the hamstrings. The medial rotators are in a neutral position
and are only moderately stretched any timc the foot is pointed straight
aheerd,as is usual for this posture, and they will be relieved even of that
tension if the foot is rotated medially to t5". For something really different,
try rotating the front fo<-rtlaterally, and you'll quickly sense the rolc of
these muscles as medial rotators, becausethey instantly tighten up and
limit the bend. Thcse experiments reveal that analyzing the angle
posture only with respect to the hamstrings of the front thigh is f ine for
an introduction to the posture, but just the bcginning for anyone who is
interested in serious studv.

SIDE BENDING
In day-to-day life you bend forward to pick up obiects, bend back
moderatcly to stretch, and twist to look and reach. But except fbr
c o c k i n g y o u r h e a d s i d e w a y s ,y o u d o n o t o f t e n b e n d y o u r s p i n e t o t h e
side. We call this movement lateral flexion. It is unnatural in daily
lif'eand uncommon in hatha yoga, at least in comparison with other
bends,but is usually just slipped in here and there during the course
of more complex postures.Here we'll look at it in its pure form so we
c a n r e c o g n i z ei t w i t h i n m o r e i n t r i c a t e p o s e s .

ITechnicalnote:'l'heideaof a "pure" sidebendis an oxymoron.Thereis no such

thing becausethe vertebral column, in adapting to lateral flexion, actually
rotatesslightly both aboveand belowthe main regionof the bend rather than
generatinga strictly lateral movement.'fhe same thing can be seen in a
mechanicalmodel in which metal cylindersrepresentvertebral bodies,and
interposedshort cork cylindersrepresentintervertebraldisks.In accommodating
to a bend, the combinationof metal and cork cylinders(which togethermodel
the anterior functional unit of the spine) reveals mirror image rotations on
either sideof the middlesectionof the bend.l
25O ANATOTIYOF HA1'HA YOGA

THE STANDING SIDE BEND WITH FEET TOGETHER

For a whole-body side bend, stand with your feet together, including both the
heels and big toes. Lift your hands overhead as in the whole-body backward
bend, with the fingers interlocked and the palms tightly together. Lock the
forearms and then pull the arms backward until they are even with the ears.
Create a firm base with the lower extremities by tensing all the thigh
muscles and squeezing the hips together as tightly as you can. Then lift
and stretch the upper extremities, and at the same time bend to the side in
a minimal arc (fig. 1.2). You should lift so strongly with both arms and
hands that when you bend to the right, the right arm does not feel weak in
comparison with the left, and when you bend to the left, the left arm does
not feel weak in comparison with the right. You will feel a whole-body bend
from your ankles to your fingertips, with stretch throughout the side opposite
to which you are bending. Don't relax anywhere; if'you ease up on your
eflbrt even slightly, the emphasis changes from a whole-body bend to a side
bend that is felt mostly in thc lower thoracic region of the vcrtebral column.

Figure 4.27.Whole-body side

bend, with priorities set by
concentrating on Iifting the
h a n d s a s h i g h a s p o s s i b l ea s i n
the overhead stretch (fig. a.17)
and maintaining equal strength
in the two upper extremities.
Assuming that both feet are
planted firmly and that the
lower extremities are the same
length, no bending can occur at
the hips.lt's all in the spine.
 1. STANDING POSl',IiRE.t 25r

Notice as well that the posture changes character if you place your feet
even a few inches apart.

STANDING SIDE BENDS WITH FEET APART

Now we'll turn to side bends that are comparable to externally and internally
supported forward bends. The movements for side bending are more limited
than for forward bending, but some of the principles are similar. To illustrate:
with your feet a comfortable distance apart (about two feet) and parallel, bend
straight to your right while grasping your right thigh. Keep the body true to a
frontal plane: bending straight to the side implies that you are keeping the hips
facing the front. By contrast, if you let the right hip drop to the rear as you
bend, you will shift from a relatively pure side bend to a combination of a side
bend, twist, and forward bend. Watching carefully, notice that part of the bend
is taking place at the hip joint on the side to which you are bending, and that
the rest is taking place in the spine. As with supported forward bends, settle
your right hand in a position on the thigh that allows you t<-rremain relaxed

F i g u r e4 . 2 8 .S i d e b e n d
supported by the right
upper extremity. As with
externally supported
forward bends, this is a
comparatively relaxed
posture. With each
thigh abducted about
1 5 o ,o n l y t h a t m u c h
bending (by definition)
is occurring at the hip;
the rest is taking place
in the spine.
252 ANATOM'' OF IIATITA YO(;A

(frg. +.28). You'll not reach past your knee unless you are especially flexible.
Then do the same experiments as for the forward bend-sequentially releasing
and re-establishing your grip several times, noticing the effects on your
abdominopelvic region in each case,and finally releasingyour grip and coming
up. Repeat on the other side.
Next, again starting from an upright position, make blades with your
hands, palms facing the front, and bend to your right while keeping your
right little finger near but not touching your right thigh. Now you will be
supporting yourself internally all the way down, and because of that you
will not need to make special preparations for coming up-your internal
support system remains primed from start to finish. Come up and repeat
on the other side.
Side bending is more complex than forward bending. For one thing side
bending is asymmetric by definition, so to keep in balance you have to bcnd
first to one side and then to the other. For another, forward bending
involves flexion of both the spine and the hips, but side bending involves
lateral flexion of the spine and abduction of the hip on the side toward
which you arc bcnding. Think this through: In a wholc-body side bend with
thc fcct togcthcr (in othcr words, with the thighs adducted),the pelvis can
only remain perfectly in line with thc thighs (fig. q.z7l-Lhere is no such

at

Figure4.29.Advancedside bend,
minimallysupportedby the right
upper extremity,and a fairly
relaxedposturefor anyonethis
flexible.Nearlyall of the side
b e n di s i n t h e s p i n e .
 1. STANDING POSTTiRtiS 253

thing as a side bend at the hip except in proportion to how much the thighs
are abducted (fig. +.28). Even in the case of an extreme 7o' side bend in
someonewho is quite flexible (.fig.1.2qJ,no appreciable bending takes place
at the hips when the feet are kept together.
To come in touch with the "side bending" movement permitted at the
hip joint, locate the greater trochanters (figs. 3.5-7 and tt.t3-t4) with your
fingers and press your thumbs in the groovesjust above them on each side.
Then, keeping your spine straight and standing on one foot, swing your
opposite foot to the side, noticing that the groove just above the greater
trochanter is the site where the bend hinges. Abduction of the thigh at this
joint varies from as little as zooto as much as 9o'in a full side-to-sidesplits
position.

SIDE BEND WITH ONE KNEE ON THE FLOOR

Here is an alternative side bend that curves the entire spine to its maximum
in lateral flexion (about zo" each in the lumbar and thoracic regions, and
i5-,15"in the cervical region), and that also produces maximum abduction
at the hip joint. Although this is not strictly a standing posture, it allows
you to bend further than can be accomplished standing up. Assume a
kneeling position. Keeping the lef't knee on the {1oor,stretch the right foot
out to the side and slide the right hand down the right thigh and leg. At the
same time stretch the left arm up and over the head, with the palm down,
and bend to the right (fig. +.:o). Keep your right foot flat on the Iloor in thc

Figure 4.30.
K n e e l i n gs i d e
bend. Keep
the hips in line
with a frontal
plane through
the body, but
allow the right
foot to rotate
to the most
comfortable
position.
2\1 AI\"ATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

most comfortable position (probably rotated out about 4j'), but don't permit
the hips to rotate out ofthe frontal plane. Come back up and repeat on the
opposite side.
The overall sense of this posture is one of relaxation, in contrast to the
standing side bend with the feet together or to externally and internally
supported standing options. For this poseyou maintain only enough tension
to keep the body grounded in its frontal plane. In most students the posture
is restricted in the lumbar region, mainly by the rib cage (in this case,the
eleventh rib) butting up against the ilium. You can feel this for yourself if
you insert your fingers between the rib cage and the ilium as you bend.
Laterally, you can feel the tip of the eleventh rib, and just in front of that
you can feel the inferior edge of the tenth rib, but the twelfth rib ends
posteriorly beneath the erector spinae muscle, and you will probably not be
able to locate this one unless you are slender and lightly muscled.

WHAT MAKES POSTURES DIFFICULT?

I'he standing postures we have discussed so far illustrate the principles
that underlie standing stretches,bends, and twists, but they are not
generally demanding. As we have seen so far in this chaptcr, thc simplest
and safest thing anyone can do standing is to stretch without either
twisting or bending, and this is why we started with the mountain posture,
the side-to-side stretch, and the overhead stretch. 'fhen camc stretchinc
and twisting at the same time, but still without bending.
Next in difficulty are the three bending postures (backward bending,
forward bending, and side bending) in which we have to be concerned with
two more compliczrtions:how and to what extent we counteract Egavity,and
how bending affects our breathing. First we discussed backward bending,
the most elementary of the three, in which the hip joints don't permit you
to go back very far, in which gravity is not a major issue, and in which
breathing helps you regulate your capacity for stretch. Next came forward
bending, in which hip flexibility and the pull of gravity becomeall-important,
and in which perhaps half the middle-aged students in a beginning class
start asking themselves serious questions about the safety of their backs.
Last came side bending, the least common movement in ordinary life and
one in which the anatomical restrictions that protect you are not as well-
honed and dependableas those for forward bending and backward bending.
We have focusedon simple movements so far to illustrate fundamentals,
but more demanding standing postures are also widely practiced. Apart
from generally requiring more strength, aerobic capacity, and flexibility
than the poses so far discussed,what specifically makes them challenging
is that they usually involve complications-combining twisting with bending,
doing twists and bends when some particular joint is in an unnatural
 ]RES 25S

position of stress, coming into a difficult internally supported stretch in

which strength becomesa primary issue, and going from the final position
of one difficult posture directly into another difficult posture. The triangle
postures that follow illustrate all of these principles.

THE TRIANGLE POSTURES

Imagine two sticks, their bottom ends planted into the ground about three
feet apart and their upper ends inserted loosely into sockets on either side
of a ball, sockets which will allow the ball to rotate and swivel from side to
side. Then imagine a flexible rod fixed to the top of the ball that can twist
and bend to the front, back, or side in all possible combinations. Last, imagrne
a bamboo pole that runs perpendicularly acrossthe back ofthe rod near its
upper end, forming a cross. The sticks are the lower extremities, and the
ball with which they articulate is the pelvis. 'lhe sockets that permit
swiveling on either side of thc ball are the sockets of the hip .joints. The
flexible rod is the spine, with the head on top and the pelvis on the bottom,
and the pole is a combination of the two upper extremities that will remain
lifted straight out to each side in one line in the triangle posturcs. In the
advanced classic triangle, the rod-and-ball combination is bent straight to
the side so that one end of the bamboo pole touches the bottom end of thc
stick on the same side. In the revolving triangle, the rod-and-ball combination
is bent forward and then twisted ltloo, so that the end of'thc pole touches
the bottom end of the opposite stick.

THE PRELIMINARY STANCE

In all of the triangle postures you will abduct the thighs, rotate thc feet
asymmetrically, and then complete the specific pose.And becauscthe triangle
postures place unusual asymmetric tensions on thc hip joints and on the
muscles of the thighs, we'll look {irst at how we creatc internal resistance
to simple standing twists with the thighs abducted. Start with the f'eetparallel
and about two feet apart. As usual, tighten the thigh muscles all around.
Then twist. This should be easy; nearly everyone can create a comfortable
resistance to the twist if the feet are this close together. Now increase the
distance to three feet, and a few people will start to get mildly uncomfortable
in their hips and lower back. Finally, if we increase the distance to four feet,
even good athletes may not find it reasonable to remain twisted for more
than half a minute or so. The idea is to settle on your own personal stance,
one that will allow you to keep the lower extremities comfortable and yet
firm while twisting right and then left for a half minute each.
Next, with a stance established that allows you to keep the thigh
muscles firm, turn the right foot fully to the right and the left foot about
-lo" to the right, that is, lacking 6o' of being in Iine with the right foot.
256 ANATOMY OI; HATHA )

Assume this position, however, without swiveling the pelvis and permitting
the right hip to move markedly to the rear. The right thigh will be rotated
laterally and the left thigh will be rotated medially. The medial rotators (the
gluteal medius and minimus) of the right hip will now be in a state of
stretch and resisting lateral rotation. Ifyou are not convinced ofthis, allow
the right hip to rotate back medially by swinging your right toes in, and you
will notice that this instantly relieves tension in the right gluteus medius
and minimus. On the left side,the lateral rotators-the adductor longus and
adductor magnus-will be in a state of stretch and poised for resisting more
medial rotation. And if you are not convinced of that, just allow the left hip
to rotate back laterally to a more neutral position and you will notice that
this immediately relieves tension in the left inner thigh. Instructors, of
course,never describethe preliminary stance in this much detail. They usually
iust say "try to keep your hips in line with your chest and facing the front."
Notice that you can't hold the preliminary stance properly unless the
left gluteal muscles remain tensed. If you are flexible this tension will not
be too noticeable, but if you are stiff and relatively inflexible, you will need
to contract the gluteals strongly or thc posture deteriorates. You should
also firm up the quadriceps f'emoris muscles,first on the right and then on
the left, which lifts the kneecaps. 'lhen tighten the hamstring muscles,
again first on the right and then on the left, to make sure that the knee
joints do not come into an undesirable state of hlperextension. Don't tighten
the hnmstring muscles enough to flex the knees, but take the effort up to
that point. The only thing remaining is to check the placement of the toes,
making sure you f'eelall of them solidly against the floor.
Finally, maintaining your stance, raise the arms and forearms until they
and the shoulders are in a single line from right fingertips to left fingertips.
The shoulders, arms, chest, and hips should all be facing the front. Don't
bend; just stretch the fingertips lateraily. Repeat everything on the other
side. This is the basic preliminary stance.We'll now examine several
different ways to complete the postures.

THE INTERNALLYSUPPORTED TRIANGLE FOR BEGINNERS

Stand with the feet parallel and z-3 feet apart. 'Iurn the right foot to the
right 9o", and for this particular variation ofthe triangle keep the left foot
facing straight to the front. Establish a solid base. Stretch the hands out to
the sides and hold them at shoulder height with the palms facing forward.
Bring the fingers together to make blades ofthe hands. To prepare for flexion
ofthe trunk to the right, stretch out, reaching toward the right side and at
the same time creating a feeling of lift in the torso. This will automatically
create a priority for emphasizing the existing bend at the right hip in
preference to the spine, and that is what we want.
 1, STANDING POSTT]RIiS 257

Slowly flex the trunk to the right, being careful not to allow the right hip
to swing to the rear any more than you have to. Letting that happen will
enable you to bend more, but only at the expenseof changing the side bend
to a mixed side-and-forward bend. This is hard to avoid: just realize that
any additional bending that you experience, at least over and above the initial
sidebend that is defined by abduction of the right thigh, is in reality a
forward bend. To complete this stage of the posture, bring the right hand
toward the right thigh, knee, leg, ankle, or foot-whatever you can reach
easily-keeping the palm facing forward and not making contact with the
little finger (fig. +.:t). Move slowly; this will be an internally supported
posture all the way down and up. Point the left hand straight up and twist
your head to look up at it, but go only as far into the posture as is reasonable.
The idea is to construct a personal posture that explores your comfortable
limits while you are breathing evenly without pauses or jerks. If you are
straining or feel you need to hold your breath, you have gone too far. Slowly
come up and repeat on the other side.

F i g u r e4 . 3 1 .I n t e r n a l l y
supportedtrianglefor
beginners.Don't drop
down so far in this
oosturethat it is no
i o n g e rp r i m a r i l ya s i d e
b e n d .T h e p e l v i s
s h o u l dr e m a i ni n l i n e
with a frontalplane
throughthe body.
25tI ANATOMY OF'HATHA YOGA

There are many things to notice about this posture. As in the preliminary
stance,to keep from swiveling the hips while flexing to the right, beginning
students have to keep the right quadriceps femoris muscle and the left
gluteal muscles strongly engaged.Test this by allowing the hips to rotate
slightly into more neutral positions, and then tighten these muscles, especially
the left gluteals, to make the correction.
You initiate the move to the right with muscular activity on the right
side of the body, and this stretches the skin, fascia, and muscles on the left.
Then, as gravity carries you further to the right, the left side of the body
resists that force and keeps you from tipping to the right too suddenly. To
feel this, it is important to come into the posture supported internally by
the abdominal muscles and the pelvic and respiratory diaphragms, and
without resting your right hand on the right lower extremity. (If you do
that, the left side of the torso will no longer need to restrain the movement
to the right, and you will be doing the next posture-the externally
supported triangle for beginners.)
The muscles and fasciaethat are stretched on the side opposite the bend
define your progress and stability in the internally supported triangle. If'
you are bending to the right, the left abdominal muscles, deep back
muscles,and latissimus dorsi all lengbheneccentrically,keeping the beginner
from lowering too fast into an unfamiliar position. With more experiencc
these muscles yield to gravity, and the emphasis is now felt in the strctch
of their connective tissues. The left adductor longus and magnus muscles
are not stretched in this posture becausc the left foot is pointing straight
to the front and the left thigh is not rotated medially. This is casily proven.
If you ct-rmeup momentarily and rotate the toes of the left foot in, and then
return to the posture, you'll feel a substantial increase in tension in those
muscles.
In the internally supported triangle the diaphragm tends to lift the
trunk during inhalation and lower it down during exhalation, and hence
you can drop further into the posture at the end ofeach exhalation. Then,
during each ensuing inhalation you will feel additional tension from gravity,
which will be resisting the diaphragm's tendency to lift you up. These
effects will not be obvious unless you refrain from inhaling for a moment
or two at the end of exhalation.
One of the lessonsthis posture teachesis the same one we explored with
internally supported forward bending and side bending: you do not have to
make any preparations to come out of it. Facing the palms forward and not
touching the lower extremity forces you to evaluate your capacity con-
stantly as you are flexing to the side. And since you are supporting yourself
internally the whole time, you can come out of the posture without readjusting
muscular tension, intra-abdominal pressure, or breathing.
 Beginners will probably be consciouslyresisting their flexion reflexes on
the side of the body that is being stretched, but experts move smoothly and
unerringly into the finished posture with their flexion reflexes remaining
well in the background. The muscles being stretched resist gravity without
stress or strain, the connective tissues of the body limit the posture to a
safe, predictable, and comfortable stance, and the action ofthe diaphragm
works on those tissues when they are in a state of balance and equilibrium.

T H E E X T E H N A L L YS U P P O R T E D T R I A N G L E F O R B E G I N N E R S

To do an externally supported beginner's triangle, keep the same stance,

with the right foot still go'to the right and the left foot straight forward.
Stretch the arms and forearms out, face the palms down, and lower the
right hand to the right thigh. Grip it firmly. Then bend, sliding the right
hand down the thigh and leg, but gripping and re-gripping all the way.
Raise the left hand and look up at it. It is easy to come into this posture
becauseyou are supporting the weight of the torso with the right upper
extremity, and the natural reaction of the torso under these circumstances
is to rcmain relaxed (fig. +.:z). As a result you are more confident in the

Figure4.32.Externally
supportedtrianglefor
beginners. The right
h i p w i l l u s u a l l yh a v et o
moveslightlyto the
rear,but adjustthe
h a n dp o s i t i o nh i g h
enoughon the leg to
keepthe hipsfacing
the front as much as
possible.
260 ANATOMY OF HATIIA YOGA

posture and can move more deeply into it, increasing the commitment to
side bending at the right hip joint. It should be mentioned that many modern
schools of yoga recommend resting the lowermost hand on one or more
blocks of wood, which accomplishesthe same end.
One important lesson of this posture, Iike that of externally supported
forward and side bends, is learned coming out of it. Becauseyou are sup-
porting the posture all the way down with the arm, forearm, and hand,
when you decide to come out of it you may be in trouble, like the cat that
is able to climb a tree but unable to come back down. To come up you'll
have to release your hand, and when you do that you will have to support
the weight of the upper half of your body using only the internal muscles
of the torso, which may not be prepared for the effort. The solution is
twofold: first, don't go down very far until experiencetells you that you can
come back up gracefully; second,before you even attempt to come up, prepare
yourself by tightening the muscles of the legs, thighs, and hips. This effort
will naturally recruit more muscles in the pelvis and torso, and you will
soon feel enough confidence to releaseyour hand and come out ofthe posture.

THE CLASSIC TRIANGLE

As defined here, the classic, or standard, triangle is more of a balancinp;

posture than the previous two because the left foot is turned 3o'to the
right (as in the preliminary stance) rather than pointing straight ahead.
Stretch the arms out at sht-rulderheight and face the palms down instead
of to the front. Keep a sense of f,rrmnessin thc lower extremities and a
senseof stretch in the upper. Reach to the right and then bend, keeping a
lifting sensation in the upper half of the body. As you go into the posture,
twist your head around so that you are looking up at the outstretched
thumb, and contact the floor (fig. 4.r,,, foot, or ankle with the right hand.
Keep a strong stance. Be aware that the gluteus medius and minimus
remain under tension on the right side because the lateral rotation of the
right thigh stretches the gluteals on that side. Tension should also be held
willfully in the left inner thigh, the quadriceps femori on both sides, and
the hamstrings, especially on the right side. The focus of the posture
should be on the thighs, the hip joints, and the vertebral column. Just to
experience what not to do in this regard, relax as much as you can without
falling down and notice that this alters the dynamic of the posture
completely-the hips will tend to swivel, the knee to which your bend is
directed may become hyperextended and stressed, and the focus shifts
away from the foundation of the body.
As you bend, keep the arms and forearms stretched out to form a single
line, with the forearm of the upraised limb supinated and the fingers and
thumb together in the same plane. If you cannot go very far, that's fine, but
 1. STANDING POSTI]RES 261

try to find some position in which you can be relatively comfortable for 5-to
seconds. Remember, in the beginning you are not going to try to accomplish
any semblance of a finished posture. Your primary objective is to learn to
move into and out of the pose without hurting yourself and without being
in a state of pain or anxiety. If you bend so far that you are not at peace,
you have gone too far.
Come out of the posture as you came into it, but make sure your stance
has not deteriorated before you do so. If the pose has become slovenly, the
movement back to the upright position presents new hazards, and a different
pattern of sensationsand nerve impulses will emerge from the muscles and
joints of the lower extremities. If you have allowed the arm to act as a strut
to support the pose you have two choices: either relax and ease yourself
back up as gently as possible, or prepare to come out of the posture more
confidently by first firming up the muscles of your extremities and torso.
Intermediate students can work with the classic triangle with the feet
wider apart, so that the lower cxtremities approach a 90" angle from one
another. But if the feet are so wide apart that you cannot maintain good
control of the musclesof the thighs, back off. Thc triangle is the worst posture
in the world for getting compulsivc about increasing abductit-rnof the hip
joints: with the left adductors stressed from medial rotation, increased
abduction, and gravity, it's too casy to pull a muscle in the groin.

tl\r
'\)

1
*
*
#
F i g u r e4 . 3 3 .C l a s s i c
ffi
{tr
t r i a n g l e .B r i n g i n g
the right hand all
the way to the floor
will necessitate
a l l o w i n gt h e r i g h t
hip to drop even
further to the rear
than in the case of
t h e e x t e r n a l l ys u p -
ported triangle for
beginners, but at
least try to keep in
the spiritof a side
bend rather than
letting the hips
swivel freely.
 .oGA

As you become stronger and more comfortable in the posture, you can
intensify your efforts to bend, still being careful not to allow your base to
deteriorate. By nowyou should have learned to use the postural muscles of
the torso to control moving into the posture, using the hand as a guide, not
as a stick for resting. An intermediate student may stay in the posture for
30-60 secondsbefore repeating on the other side.
In this posture the effects of breathing will be a little different from
what we saw in the internally supported triangle for beginners. Since you
will be maintaining your hand position, inhalation will no longer lift you up
and exhalation will no longer drop you down. Nevertheless, as you bend
toward your limit you will notice that each inhalation brings an increase in
tension in the torso. Each exhalation then brings a release of tension,
which gives you the option of slipping your hand down a little further.
Gravity draws your head and chest downward and is sufficient to hold the
upper half of the bodv in the krwer position during the ncxt inhalation. The
tissues ofthe body gradually adjust to the increased tcnsion and come into
a new steady state. The complex unilateral dynamics of the classictriangle,
as well as the manner in which this posture is aIl'ected by gravity and
respiration, are what make it a more advanced posture than the internally
supported triangle for beginners, in which there is no chancc to get into a
position from which you cannot gracefully rise.
Alter some practice it will be possibleto come into the pose without
compromising the dynamic aspects of maintaining it, and yet find ]o-6o
secondsoI'quiet and silence in the posture. An intermediate student should
now take a little time to simply enjoy. You can come into a provisional
stance, thinking mostly about maintaining your base. Then you can use
breathing to ease your body more completely into the posture, observe it
one-pointedly,and then slowly come up.
The manner in which you come out of'the posture is important. If you have
established the habit of maintaining your base even while you are in repose,
you can just keep everything solid and come out of the posture as you came in.
But if you have not maintained your base, coming out of the pose should be
approached with care, especially if you have pulled yourself more fully into it
with deep exhalations. If you have inadvertently rela-red the thigh and pelvic
musculature, it may be hazardous to suddenly tighten everything up before
rising becauseyou will be stressing some of the deepest and least accessible
muscles of the body when it is in an awkward position. So if you have relaxed
those critical muscles,it will be better to simply rise out of the posture as grace-
fully as you can, or at the least, back off first into a position in which you are
more comfortable, re-establish a firmer base, and then come out dynamically.
Nternatively, if you are feeling too stressed,another possibility for exiting the
posture safely is to bend the outstretched knee before coming up.
 1. STANDING POSn|RES 263

The feel of the advanced student's triangle is yet more refined from that
of the intermediate student's triangle. It is the same posture, but you are
now flexible and strong enough to go gently into it without much effort,
placing your palm on the floor and looking directly up at the outstretched
thumb. Becauseyour thighs are more fully abducted, a greater proportion
of the bend takes place in the hip joint. Now, as you breathe, your
adjustments are almost all internal, and outside observers would not be
mistaken if they thought that you looked comfortable. Each inhalation
still brings a slight increase, and each exhalation a slight decreasein
internal tension, but little of this results in changes in the position of
the trunk or extremities.

T H E R E V O L V I N GT R I A N G L E

The revolving triangle differs from the classic triangle in so many ways we
could argue that it is completely unrelated. Ideally, the classic trizrngle is zr
modified side bend combined with hip abduction and torque-like stresses
which act to minimize fbrward flexion and twisting. By contrast, thc
revolving triangle is an extremely complex posture which involves forward
bending with the lower extremities in a partial splits position plus an
additional twist of the trunk to the rear.
The first difference between the two triangles is in the placement oI'the
f'eet. If you start with a bend to the right side (feet z--t feet apart for the
beginner), the right foot is turned fully to the right (in this case laterally),
and the left foot is turned to the right (in this casemedially) about (ro",thus
lacking only 3o" of'being parallel with the right foot. lbr beginners the (ro"
rcltation of the left {bot makes this posturc cvcn more wobbly than the classic
triangle, in which the foot is rotated only 3o". And more than that, the
extreme medial rotation of thc left foot will increase tension in the adductors
of the left thigh (recall: these are lateral rotators) cven beyond that found
in the classic triangle.
The next step is to twist to the right so that you are facing over your
right thigh, much as you did for the angle posture. Everyone says "twist,"
but for those with excellent mobility in their hips this is not so much of a
twist as it is a swivel, one in which the pelvis rotates 90" (fig. ,1.J4),causing
the thighs to move from a position of abduction to one in which the right
thigh is flexed with respect to the torso and the left thigh is hyperextended.
In this sense the revolving triangle is diametrically opposed to the classic
triangle, in which you maintain the abducted hips more or less in line with
the frontal plane of the trunk.
For the next stage of the revolving triangle, draw an imaginary line
through the pelvis from side to side, that is, perpendicular to the body's
midsagittal plane, and slowly bend forward around that axis. Now we begin
 264 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

to see fundamental differences between beginning and advanced students.

For advanced students it is easy to bend forward around that ideal axis (fig.
,1.35),but those who are Iess flexible can come into the forward bend only
by twisting their spines at the same time. Be watchful: either forward
bending or twisting may be safe by themselves,but combining the two with
your right thigh already flexed nearly to its maximum may not be within
your reasonable capacity.
If you feel confident in continuing, you can move into the revolving triangle
in one of two ways. In the first, bend forward from the hips with the arms
stretched out to the sides.Proceed to your limit of forward bending, and as
soon as that is reached, initiate a spinal twist so that you are facing the
rear. Bring the left hand to the right leg or ankle, and swing the right hand
upward in the same line with the left. Look up at the outstretched hand
(fig. ,1.36).'Ihe secondand more common way of'coming into the posture is
to simply take the left hand to the right ankle in the most direct coursepossible,
thus combining a fbrward bend with a spinal twist in one movement. This
is more customary and natural, but the piecemeal method is more useful
fbr precise exploration and analysis. After coming out of the posture in
reverse order, repeat on the other side.
Flexible and not-so-flexiblc students will have completely different
experiencesworking toward this final stage of'thc revolving triangle. 'lhose

Figure4.34.Revolving
triangle,first position.
Thispostureis identical
to the beginningposition
for the angleposture
e x c e p t h a t t h e l e f tf o o t
i s r o t a t e da b o u t6 0 ' t o
the right insteadof 30'.
 1. STANDING I'OS'I'|]RES 265

who are especially flexible can twist enough so that their chest will be
facing to the rear and their upper extremities will lie in one line, just like
the bamboo pole in our introductory description of the triangles. But those
who are stiff will not be able to go nearly that far. First, it will be impossible
for them to bend forward all the way down to the right thigh; second,their
spines will already be twisted maximally just to come moderately forward,
so they will not have much chance of furthering the twist in order to face
their chest to the rear: and third. because their chest is still more or less
facing the floor, they will have no chance of bringing their upper extremities
into one line when they reach the left hand to the right foot and extend the
right handup in the air.
When we bend forward in the revolving triangle, almost every right-left
member of paired muscles and ligaments on the two sides of the thigh and
hip is stressed differently. As in any forward bend, the hamstrings are
resisting stretch with a constant influx of nerve impulses, but much more
so on the right side than the left. Likewise, the rectus femoris and iliopsoas
muscles will be more active on the right than on the left, especially if you
'-lhc adductor longus and
use them to pull yourself forward activcly.
magnus will be placed under extreme tension on thc left but not so much
on the right.
The stretches lbr the calf muscles on the two sides are also reverscd.
With the le{t fbot pulled around to a (ro" angle and the left ankle flexed
accordingly, the gastrocnentius and soleus muscles (the muscles that makc
up the bulk of the calf; figs. 3.toa b, 7.(r,ll.9-ro, and tt.tz)on the left side are
stretched maximally, but on thc right side, in which the ankle is extended,
thc cal{'muscles are not stretched in thc lcast. Slight changcs in the angle
of the left foot alter the stretch on the calf muscles markedly; if the lefl
foot is only at a 4i" angle, the stretch on the le{t calf muscles is greatly
moderated.

Figure 4.35. Revolving

triangle, intermediate
p o s i t i o n .A g a i n ,t h i s
stage of the revolving
triangle is similar to the
angle pose except for
reaching forward with
the upper extremities.
266 AAATOMY OF HATHA I

As you bend forward, the ligaments of the hip joint are also affected
differently on each side. As discussed in chapter 3, the ischiofemoral,
iliofemoral, and pubofemoral Iigaments form a taut spiral when the thigh
is extended; when it is flexed, the spiral unwinds. So during the course of
swiveling into the revolving triangle facing the right, which leavesthe right
thigh flexed and the left thigh extended, the spiral of these three ligaments
is loosenedon the right and tightened on the left. The resulting slack in the
right hip joint is not cause for alarm-indeed, it would not be possible to
come fully into the revolving triangle without the release of these
ligaments-but it does caution us to watch the flexed hip joint carefully
becausethat is the site where injuries are most likely to occur.
The all-important issue of hip flexibility is the main reason this posture
is difficult. Beginning students who have gone to their limits in twisting
just to get into a forward bend position over their front thigh can't be
expected to twist an additional 9o" to swing their chest, shoulders, and
arms into one line. This is not a posture lbr them to st:ry in for more than
a few seconds.The poseis so complicatedthatiust attempting to approximate
it requires full concentration.
Intermediate students will be more comftrrtable. Their fect can and
should be further apart. Experience will allow them to maintain strength

,/,11
,;l
:
!

'&
'$&

l:

F i g u r e4 . 3 6 .
Revolving
t r i a n g l e .T h e
additional
twist of the
torso needed
to complete the
final position
m a k e st h i s a :lr.

challenging
pose for every-
one who is not
strong and '..:::::,:::];
/."i,;"
flexible.
in the hips and thighs, and the posture * r, ,""t';;;;;;J"..t";
frustrating. This will start to happen when it becomespossible to hold the
upper extremities in line with the shoulders and with one another. As the
Iower hand reaches further down and the upper hand reaches further up,
intermediate students are empowered to work harder and with more
directed concentration-reaching, stretching, breathing evenly, and exploring
the postural base. Finally, advanced students are able to find repose in this
posture without struggle or stress.

POSTURAL SEQUENCES AND TRIANGLES

Coming into a single posture, supporting it internally, and returning the

same way you went in is the saf'estway to explore standing postures, but
many instructors teach sequcncesof triangles and related poses.'l'heseare
fine for intermediate and advanced students who havc had a lot of
experiencc, but they present particular dangers to beginners. Going from
<lnestrenuous position directly to another will rcquire you to revise your
musculoskeletal priorities at thc same time you are bcing challenged,
sometimcs maximally, and this may require too much simultaneous f'eeling,
analysis, and decision-making for novices.
We'll consider two examplcs, one easy and one hard. If you start in the
classic triangle, you can confidently come into the frrrward bcnd position
and work yourself into the revolving trianglc. All you have to do is rclcasc
the torque that is holding your hips facing the front, allow thcm to swivel
around, and twist your torso to the rear, letting your arms folklw naturally.
It's easy.Coming from the rcvolving back to the classic triangle is another
matter. You can come out of the twisted position of the revolving triangle
into a forward bend without dilliculty, but pulling your hips back into a
straight position from the swiveled position, and at the same time reversing
your arm positions, will crcate extraordinary strains in the hips and
spinc-strains for which the beginner is ill-prepared. Beginning students
should try this kind of exercise only by moving back and forth between
partial positions. If you go only halfway into a revolving triangle, and then
go back halfway into the regular triangle, you will gradually develop the
skill and confidence to do more demandins seouences.

TWO BALANCING POSTURES

All standing postures are balancing postures-it's just a matter of how
much emphasis is placed on this property. But usually when we think of
balancing postures in a standing position, we think of standing on one foot.
Two such postures are the eagle and the tree.
268 A^"AI'OMY oF HATI]A YOGA

THE EAGLE

In the eagle posture you stand on one foot as a sentinel, with one thigh, leg,
and foot intertwined around the other. It's easy for those who are strong,
slender, and flexible, but most students find it difficult to wrap their
extremities around one another even when they are not balancing on one
foot. To give it a try, stand first on your left foot, bend your left knee and
hip slightly, and if you are a man, place your genitals either forward or to
the rear. Then swing your right thigh forward and pull it tightly around
your left thigh. Last, wrap your right ankle tightly behind your left leg and
interlock your right foot even further around to the medial side of your left
leg. Sometimes this is referred to as "double-locking" the legs. To complete
the beginner's posture, swing your right elbow across to the near side of'
your left elbow, pull the forearms together, and interlock your wrists and
h a n d s ( f i g . + . : Z ) . F i x y o u r g a z e ,b r e a t h e e v e n l y ,a n d h o l d a s l o n g a s i s
comfortable. Come out of the posture and repeat on the other side.
This is as much as most people will want to do. tsut to continue into a
m o r e a d v a n c e dp o s t u r e , b e n d y o u r l e f t k n e e a n d h i p j o i n t s a s m u c h a s
possibleconsistentwith keeping your bnck straight and upright (fig. +.;U).
Yru miss the point of the posture if'you bend your back and head forward.

Figure4.37.Eagleposture.
Interlockingthe upperand
lower extremitiesare the main
c h a l l e n g eosf t h i sb a l a n c i n g
pose.
 1, S'IA^"DING POSN|RES 26q

This version of the eagle should be approached with caution. If you hold it
for more than a few seconds, it may create cardiovascular effects that can
causeyou to faint when you come out of the posture, especially if you do it
after other strenuous postures or exercises.Develop your capacity to lower
your weight and increase your time in the posture over a long period of
time.
If you consistently have trouble with balancing in the eagle, try the
posture only at the end ofleisurely hathayoga sessions.Students who have
difficulty at the start of a class may be able to do the posture easily at the
end. And the eagle will also be more diffrcult if you have just had a strenuous
musculoskeletal workout which has left you in a momentarily weakened
condition.

THE TREE

After the complexity and contrived nature of the triangles and the eagle,
we'll end this chapter with the most popular of all balancing postures-the
tree-which is simply standing quietly on onc foot. This pose speaks
volumes not only for your state of physical balance, but also for your
emotional and mental balance. Standing quietly on one ftlot is not as easy
as it sounds.

'$?
-.w
4
Figure 4.38.Advanced eagle.
Until you are certain of yourselt
be wary of cardiovascular
r e s p o n s e sa s y o u c o m e o u l o [
this posture, especiallyif you
#
i:xi
'

remain in it more than 15-30

seconds. **t'
27O ANATO]VY OF HATHA

Begin by standing on both feet, breathing evenly. As soon as you are

calm and centered, lift one foot and place it on the opposite extremity. You
can use one ofseveral foot positions. In the beginning it is best to place one
foot on the opposite ankle, but after a little experience, Iifting the foot to
the inner thigh (fig. ,1.39)or into the half-bound lotus position (fig. ,1.4o)is
more stable. At first the hands can be in the prayer position in the center
ofthe sternum (fig. ,1.19),but as you develop confidence they can be raised
overhead, with the palms together and the fingers pointing away from the
body.You can keep your eyes open and focused on a spot on the floor about
six feet in front of you, or you can focus on some point in the distance. The
room should be well lighted-for a real challenge, go to the opposite
extreme and close your eyes.
You have to keep the knee extended in the tree posture, and you automati-
cally crcate a solid pelvic baseand root lock. And since both the hip and knee
are extended,only the ankle is in a state of'uncertainty. After you are able to
stand quietly and confidently, you can start to examine how the muscles of
your supporting toes, Ibot, and ankle balance the posture. You'll notice that
as your weight shifts you compensatewith muscular effort to avoid losing
your balance; with experiencethe shifts in position becomeless obvious.

Figure4.39.Treeposture.A
plumb line of gravityin this
balancingposturehasan axial
centerin a slightlytilted off-
sagittalplanethat runsthrough
the navel.
 IRES 27r

Yogis tell us that the tree posture is both grounding and centering, and
that it will generate a sense of deep calm and endless patience. The lower
extremity is like the trunk of a tree; the arms overhead are like its branches;
and if you stand in the posture for ten minutes or so daily, you will feel as
ifyour toes are rooted in the earth.

BENEFITS

A few hundred years ago, when everyone in agrarian societieswalked and

worked for hours at a time on their farms, there was little need to begin or
end a day with standing yoga postures. But today most ofus have sedentary
.iobs and are sorely in need of more exercise than we can get sitting at a
desk. standing postures, coupled with a moderate amount of aerobic exercise
such as walking, running, or swimming, can fill the gap.

Figure4.40.Treeposture,
i n a h a l f - b o u n dl o t u s A
.
p l u m bl i n e o f g r a v i t y
comescloserto beingin
the mid-sagittalplaneof
the body than in the case
of the previousposture
b e c a u s et h e r i g h tk n e ei s
not thrustout so far to the
side.
272 ANA]OMY OF HATIIA YOGA

Standing postures develop overall strength and flexibility, mildly

stimulate the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and accustom the
nervous system to a range ofbody positions that are otherwise ignored.
They flood the nervous system with information from all over the body,
and they integrate the energy of the body from top to bottom and from
inside out. They integrate the limbs with the torso, and they bring
awareness to the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms as well as to the
deep muscles of the abdomen, pelvis, and back. You can satisfy yourself
of their special value by practicing them in the early morning for a few
weeks, and then skipping them for a week, substituting sitting postures,
lying-down postures, and inverted postures. When you reinstate them
into your routine you'll know what you were missing.

" (4)t',y'.rtltnt/ antrr:..:t/et.Jr1zVa.t.krL/ian

l/ltJ /nrc-/}utr.urry'rter1r
l//)r'arurhan/quolzV,.,r/tt//azuy'rez.rrt.l',r/LLrt.tr/ir.tnla
u,,a//i)rq /eur:t'.l, t,r/./tn //ql rzzhr e/ ,qz.ar'/2/ 2zr/ r.
na/t./// /la.tr' . . . .,|a./rurl/nu//.trt///7 ,/r.Vr/)yrr;t1/ l./tr irqt
',(,y'lrcen)ltrtr:lrvrt
tL "'?t.e9uz:ll, ,'7/i ,.lrrt rrqr,rrr.,rr/ nr7tr lJ nrty
'
rnranlrrtulttz: //l,rz.lnrtu 1i rra.u.lrry'. "
- Elaine Morgan, in The Scars of'Euolution, pp. 26-22.
 CHAPTERFIVE
POSTURE,S
BACKBE,NDING

" !y'ar:a.te, 9rhlay, Oo,t/t, ,fznr1r,e,lrrrc, .|//v/Z

Jlrena/lrp'V)orgt"//iz*ttlazrltttrl,.,46rt-nl/a'uznts:tt/"ft./"

Trliort ,rto/ .fluto/illrV, tftl" zun/tty' 121/t'ar/tatzJ ,rt", //L

trtTtz,rLunz..ttlJ,(4zLt, lz7z:c/tbtt, uttllz:a/iu:.1J o/' /trr.L'),
ttt:17tu'altaz azry' r,l7ut'a/ren ntr //) rtazTta'ttianl e/ L/)
r/Ll.znrhanl ,7o, f/Lt .lt'ertrzt'/tctt, //2 7rar/kz o/'nrt,
7ro7/1.- ,7/L 1t'az.ytatrrt.7 a/ //L n.ii,ry' r:rtzlzJ //rrl //,
1az,7,/)77tttzrtl r//zz'z.rr'l/i.7, r:ettrr.:untt. 7nv. ,rrr/rrrt/r'a/rt/,y
,r,qrr".r1ilq. //i: yr&2rl1 e/7.1.a.tror, 7zth, r,L'/nr, ,rlry' ,rr'r'
"
rcftzchvr://-
Bengali Baba, in The Yogasutra of Patanjali, pp. t5 17.
'T-
Ihe next three chapters bring us to the heart of hatha yoga-to postures
that involve backbending, forward bending, and twisting. Of'these thrce,
backbending is the logical place to begin our discussion becauseit is relatively
simple. But the two categories of backward bending and forward bending
postures form a pair: the muscles that resist the bend in one category are
the same muscles that pull us into the bend in the other category,and we
need to see and understand them in reference to one another. To keep the
comparisons in perspective this chapter will be u6oLt1tlo%, backbending
and ro%,forward bending, and the next chapter will be about 9on/,,forward
bending and too/nbackbending.
The plan here will be to first sum up the possibilities for forward and
backward bending in the standing position, concentrating on limitations in
the hip joints and lower back, and then to build on our discussion of the
vertebral column by examining the spinal limitations to backbending in
more detail. Next, we'll look at the relationships between breathing and
backbending, and finally we'll turn to the myriad forms of backward bending
in hatha yoga, beginning with the famous prone backbending postures-
the cobra, locust, boat, and bow-and continuing with more specialized
postures such as the fish, the wheel, and the camel. Two more backbending
postures, the arch and the bridge, are traditionally part of the shoulder-
stand series and will be deferred to chapter 9.
Ll )
274 ANA'IOMY OI" HATHA YOGA

Some of the postures discussedin this chapter are only for those who are
in excellent musculoskeletal health. A few guidelines are given in the
course ofthe descriptions, but ifin doubt about whether or not to proceed,
take note of the specific contraindications at the end of the chapter.

THE ANATOMY OF FLEXION AND EXTENSION

To understand any function, envision being without it. For example, we
can see at a glance how vertebral bending, both forward and backward,
contributes to whole-body bending by examining how someonewould bend
if their spine were fused from the pelvis to the cranium. This is not an
academic hypothesis. One who has had such surgery for severe osteoarthritis
will bend forward only at the hip joints, .just like a hinged stick-arms
dangling, head, neck, and torso stuck out straight and stiff as a board. And
yet this person may be comfortable and relaxed enough to practically take
a nap. He may be able to bend forward up to 9o" and hyperextend to thc
rezrr about ro"-cntirely from the hips.

THE HIPS ANO BACK IN COMBINATION

Hip flexibility in isolation is only of theoretical interest to us, at Ieast {br

the moment, but the question of how hips and backs operate togcther for
backward bending is eminently practical. I3eginning with extremes,
occasional circus perfbrmers-always women in images I've located-are
able to extend their spines backward rtlo", plastering their hips squarely
against their upper backs. Images of' rlio" backbcnding can be seen in fig.
7.3 of Alter's Scienceof'Flexibility, as wcll as in a bc.rutiful sequcnceof'
video frames 7 ll minutcs into the tape of Cirque du Solcil's l,louuelle
Experience.
M a x i m u m h i p h y p e r e x t e n s i o na p p c a r s t o b e a b o u t + i " , w h i c h i s s e e n
in occasional women who can drop down into the wheel posture and

&., .,..',
F i g u r e5 . 1 . 1 2 0 ' f l e x i o n a t t h e
hips is a common maximum,
and is enough for laying the
chest down easily against the
t h i g h s w h e n a c c o m p a n i e db y
moderateflexion of the soine.
 i. BACKT]]JN|)ING POSTT RES 2J5

then scamper around on their hands and feet looking like daddy-long-leg
spiders in a hurry. Both extremes-l8o" of back extension and ,15' of hip
hyperextension-are anomalous, and it is not advisable for anyone to
attempt extending either the hips or the spine this much unless one's
profession requires it. Even highly flexible dancers, gymnasts, and hatha
yogis rarely try to bend backward more than 9oo,ordinarily combining zo"
of extension at the hips with an additional 7o" of extension in the lumbar
region. In this casethe right angle between their thighs and their chests is
more than enough to permit them to touch their feet to their heads in
advanced hatha yoga postures (fig. 5.tz).
Unlike the outermost limits for backbending, the outside limits fbr
forward bending are all within a normal range for anyone with excellent
general flexibility. Dancers, pymnasts, and hatha yogis, including both men
and women, can often bend forward up to l2o" at the hips with the lumbar
lordosis arched and the knees straight (fig.5.t). These same pcoplc may
also be ablc to bend an additional 9o" in the lumbar region, making a total
of z.ro". Since tllo" is all that is required to lay the torso down against the
thighs in a sitting forward bend (fig. 6.tz), their full capacitv for forward
bending can't be tested except by measuring hip and spinal flexibility
separately.

?y
./ .,*!f

Figure 5.2. A relaxed standing

backbend with straight knees
i n c l u d e sa b o u t 2 0 ' o f l u m b a r
b e n d i n ga n d 1 0 ' o f h i p
hyperextensionfor a total of
30'of "backbending."
 276 ANATOMY OIr HATIIA YOGA

Next, let's consider the limits of backward and forward bending in some-
one more typical, say a thirty-year-old male beginning hatha yoga student
who has always been athletic and in good musculoskeletal health, but who
has never shown an interest in any kind of stretching. He won't be able to
bend backward very far, and what he can do is hard to appraise becausehe
will invariably bend his knees and exaggerate his lumbar lordosis in
preference to hyperextending the hips. without a sharp eye it is difficult to
differentiate among these three components.
To assess this young man's capacity for hip versus spinal backward
bending as best we can, first have him warm up with an hour of vigorous
hatha so we can see him at his best. Then, to make sure his knees do not
contribute to the bend, ask him to do a relaxed standing backbend with his
knees extended. His chest will probably be off vertical by only 3o", which
suggestsa combination of about zo" of backbending in the lumbar region
with about ro" of hyperextensionin the hips (fig. 5.2).
Forward bending in this same student is easier to evaluate. you can ask
him to bend forward from the hips while keeping his krwer back maximally
arched. Then, just before his lumbar lordosis begins to flatten you can estimate
the angle between his torso and thighs, which is likely to be about 3o". This
represents forward bending at the hips (fig. 5.1). Then ask him to relax

Figure5.3.A moderately
flexibleyoungathletecan
t y p i c a l l yb e n do n l y a b o u t
3 0 "a t t h e h i p sw h i l e
keepinga sharplydefined
l u m b a rl o r d o s i s
(simulation).
 5. I]ACKBENDING POSN,

down and forward to his capacity. If he can bend forward a total of 9oo,
which allows him to reach down a little more than halfway between his
knees and his ankles, it suggests that has achieved the additional 6o'of
forward bending in his lumbar spine (fig. i.+).

CERVICAL, THORACIC, AND LUMBAR FLEXIBILITY

The spine's flexibility varies from region to region. Starting with the neck,
the cervical region is especially mobile. If you have normal flexibility, your
head can extend backward on the first cervical vertebra about zo", and you
can flex forward at this same site about to'. The rest of the cervical region
can bend backward 6o" and forward another llo', in this case touching the
chin to the sternum. We'll look at these movements in detail, along with rota-
tion, in chapter 7. Just below the sevencervicalvertebrae, the thoracic region
permits little forward or backward movement because the rib cage is too
rigid. This means that most of the backbending in the torso takes place in
the lumbar region betwecn the bottom of the rib cage and the sacrum, that
is, between l'tz and St. That's where we'll concentrate our attention.
Young people with good flexibility who have been practicing hatha yoga
regularly (Table l.r) might reveal a total of 6o" o{'lumbar flexion for forward
bending and 45" of lumbar extension for backbending. This is in addition to
hip flexibility, which we'll say is 9o" for forward flexion and t5'for backward
bending. The knees, oI'course, must be kept straight to get accurate
measurements.Someonewith hip Ilexibility this good will be able to do an
intermediate level posterior stretch (fig. 6.rs) and will be able to arch back
comfortably to touch their feet in thc camel (fig. f .:;). If we brcak this down
we can estimate the approximate mobility for flexion and extension that
would be permitted between individual pairs of adjacentvertebrae (table 5.t).

Figure 5.4. Limited hip flexibility

prevents this young man from
r e a c h i n gf u r t h e r d o w n . T h i s
simulation revealsa combination
of about 30' of hip flexion with
60' of spinal flexion for a total of
90o of forward bending. Such a
student can and should bend the
knees slightly to find a more
rewarding pose, one that at least
allows him to grasp his ankles.
 276 ANATOMYOF TIA'I'IIA YOGA

WHAT LIMITS BACKWARD BENDING?

In chapters 3 and 4 we discussed the muscles and ligaments that limit

backward bending in the hips. These include the psoas and iliacus muscles
(figs. 2.t9,3.7, and U.r-l);the quadricepsfemoris muscles (figs. r.z,
1.9, ft.tt,
and 8.rt), especiallythe rectus femoris component (figs. 3.9 and tt.tt-9);
t h e a b d o m i n a lm u s c l e s( f i g s . 2 . 7 , 2 . 9 ,- 1 . 1 1 - l ft ,l . t l ,t l . r r ,a n d U . t , l ) e
, specially
the rectus abdominis (figs.3.rr-r3 and tl.rr); and the spiraled ischiofemoral,
iliofemoral, and pubofemoral ligaments (fig. 3.6).
Turning to the torso, the main structural limitations to backbending in
the thoracic region are the rib cage (figs. 4.j-4; and the spinous processes
(figs. 4.6b and +.Zb), which extend so far inferiorly in the thoracic region
that they quickly butt up against one another during extension. And in
the critical lumbar region the first line o1'resistanceto backbending is
muscular-intra-abdominal pressurc generated by a combination of the
respiratory diaphragm (figs. z.(r-9), the pclvic diaphraggn (figs. -3.2-1-29),
and thc abdominal muscles(figs.3.rr rj, tt.tt,ll.rr, and lt.r-t).As far as major
skeletal and ligamentous restrictions to lumbar bending is concerncd,there
are four: thc phvsical limitzrtionsof the vertebral archcs (iigs. 4.5a,4.(ra,and
,+.tz-t-l),thc anterirlr longitudinal ligament that runs along thc front sides of
the anterior {unctional unit (fig. 4.rl), the interwertebral disks, whose nuclei
pulposi are driven anteriorly within thc intervcrtebral disks
(fig. +.rt), and fina"lly,thc superior and inf'erior articular processcs(figs. 4.5 (r
and 4.t3b),which bccometightly interlocked during extension.
It's anyone's guessas to which of thesc structurcs yield to permit rtlo"
backbcndsin circus perfrrrmers.It is possible,although I have not personally
checkedthis out in anyonc, thertunusually mobile sacroiliacjoints (chapter (r)
might account for some of the capability of laying the hips down against
the shoulders. In any event, after the bend is an accomplishcd fact the
healy spinous processescharacteristic ot'the lumbar rcgion (figs. -1.5b,
4.toa, and 4.r3b) are probably butting up against one anothcr.

siteswhere DCI. bet. bet. bet. oeI. Det. bet. total.

flexionand r12 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 r12 the s p i n e
exlensronare ano and and and ano and and hrp and
permitted L'I L2 L3 L4 L5 S1 S1 jornts h i p s

degreesflexion 5 6 8 v 14 1B 60 90 150

degreesextension 4 4 / I 14 10 Atr
t3 60

Table 5.1. This chart estimates the degrees of flexion and extension permitted
between individual vertebrae between T12 and the sacrum in someone who is
moderately flexible. With 90' of additional flexion at the hip joints, the total
forward bending permitted between T12 and the thighs is about.l50., which
amounts to about 2.5 times as much forward bending as backward bending.
 POST'I]RES 279
'. ISACKr3ENDING

WHAT FACILITATESBACKBENDING?

What limits backbending is generally straightforward, but if you were to

ask what assists backbending, the answer would have to be, "It depends."
In standing backbends, as well as in passive supine backbends, which we'll
cover later in this chapter, the answer is gravity. Standing, you simply lean
your head and upper body to the rear, thrust your pelvis and abdomen
forward, and let gravity carry you into the backbend. Ifyou bend backward
naturally, you also bend your knees, and that is why you have to extend the
knees fully to evaluate backward bending in the hips and spine.

suboccipitalmuscles
(seefig. 8.20) sprenrus
capitisand
splenius
splenrus
cerviciscul
udPruJ
and
splenrus reflected
cervtcts
iliocostalis
reflectedand spinalis
pulledto the
stoe longissimus

oeeper
ano
shorter
muscles
exposed

internal
abdominal
oblique
ischial leftquadratus
tuberosity l u m b o r u mm u s c l e

F i g u r e5 . 5 . D e e p b a c k m u s c l e se x p o s e d i n s u c c e s s i v e ldy e e p e r d i s s e c t i o n s
following removal of the upper and lower extremities.The erector spinae are
b y d e f i n i t i o n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s p i n a l i s I, o n g i s s i m u sa, n d i l i o c o s t a l i s
(Sappey).
 2UO ANATOMY OI.'HAMA YOGA

In prone backbending we are lifting one or more segments of the body

against gravity. In this casethe bend is accomplishedby the deep back mus-
cles (which lift you actively by extending the spine) or by the arms and
shoulders (which can support a semi-relaxed prone backbend in any one of
several ways). As we saw in chapter 4, the erector spinae muscles are
responsiblefor extending the spine. They rrrn from the pelvis to the cervical
region and are composedof a complex of three muscles on each side-the
iliocostalis,thelongissimus,and the spinalis (fig. S.;).Continuing into the
neck are the splenius ceruicis muscles, and to the back of the head, the
splenius capitis (fig. 5.t.).These latter muscles, which are also kn'wn as
strap muscles from their characteristic appearance,run longitudinally.
Deep to them are small, short muscles that run more or ress obriquely
between the spinous processes and the transvcrse processes-the
semispinali.s (fig. 8.t0, multifidus, and rotatore.smuscles. Deeper yet
are the interspinales muscles between adjacent spinous processes,and
the intertransuersarii muscles between adjacent transverse processes
(shown in fig. 5.5 but not specifically labeled).

BREATHING AND BACKBENDING

It is obvious that muscles and gravity play major roles in creating hatha
yoga postures, but anyone who has stood, lain, or sat quietly in a pose lbr
a few minutes knows that something else is superimposcd upon its
equipoise. That something is breathing. A formal statement of the mattcr
might run as follows: under most circumstances of normal breathing,
inhalations will either lift you more fully into a posture or create more
tension in the body, and exhalations will either relax you further into
the posture or reduce tension. From the perspective of the first four
chapters of this book, we can now examine this statement with respect
to backbending.
In whole-body standing backbending (fig. +.rq) we saw that it was natural
to allow exhalation to lower you maximally to the rear (relaxing you further
into the posture). Inhalation then lifts you up and forward (creating more
tension in the body). we also saw that you could reverse this pattern on
purpose by pulling backward more vigorously into the posture during
inhalation (taking you more fully into the posture), and then relaxing and
easing off the posture during exhalation (thereby reducing tension). We'll
see variations on these principles in all the remaining postures in this
chapter. In every case the diaphragm either restricts backbending, which
we'll call diaphragm-restricted backbending, or assists it, which we'll call
diaphragm-assistedbackbendins.
 POSTT
5, BACKISI]NDING

D I A P H R A G M - R E S T R I C T E DB A C K B E N D I N G

When you are breathing naturally, inhalation restricts a standing backbend

and exhalation assists it (fig. 4.t9) becausethe diaphragm increases intra-
abdominal pressure as it presses the abdominal organs inferiorly during
inhalation. As we saw in chapter 3, it does this in cooperation with the
abdominal muscles and the pelvic diaphragm: the increased intra-abdominal
pressure restricts the bend by making the torso a taut, solid unit' thus
protecting the critical lumbar region by spreading the vertebrae apart
hydraulically and easing compression on all the intervertebral disks
between the rib cage and the sacrum.
A simple experiment demonstrates diaphragm-restricted backbending.
Stand up straight and interlock your hands behind your head, take a deep
inhalation, and hold your breath while keeping the airway open' Then pull
to the rear as hard as you can by tightening the muscles on the back of the
body from head to heel (but don't pull your head back beyond the natural
arc created by the torso). Ifyou have taken a deep breath and your
respiratory diaphragm is healthy, you'll feel the diaphragm stop the
backward bend almost before it gets underway. Next, let just a littlc air out,
and notice that your efforts ttl pull to the rear will be met with less resistance.
Kcep the airway open to make sure it is the respiratory diaphragm' acting
in combination with the abdominal muscles, pelvic diaphragm, and the
hydraulic nature of the abdominopelvic cavity, that is restricting and thcn
easing the backbend. Increasing pneumatic pressurc in the chest by closing
the glottis would eliminate tension in the diaphragm and invalidate the
experiment.
A propped backbending stretch will illustrate the same phenomenon.
Stand with your back about two feet from a wall, and swing the hands
overhead and backward to make contact. Adjust the distance so that you
are in a comfortable backbend. work the hands down the wall until you are
just short of your comfortable limit of extension, but keep the knees
straight. After you have relaxed and made yourself comfortable in the
posture for ro-zo seconds, notice that each inhalation will diminish the
bend in the lumbar region and straighten the body as a whole, and that
each exhalation will allow your back to become more fully arched. More
specifically,inhalation does two things: it pulls the thighs and legs slightly
to the reaq and it lifts the chest and shoulders up and forward (fig. 1.6). It
is easy to prejudice these results, however, and a fair test of diaphragm-
restricted backbending requires that you keep constant tension in the
upper extremities at all times and search out your most natural inclinations
for bending and breathing. As we saw in chapter ,+,you can easily reverse
the results by purposely pressing more deeply into the bend during inhalation
and then consciously easing off during exhalation.
 282 ANATOMYOF HANIA YOGA

D I A P H R A G M - A S S I S T E DB A C K B E N D I N G

You can feel the opposite phenomenon if you face the wall, bend forward from
the hips, and support the bent-from-the-hips posture with your forearms. Keep
the lumbar region arched forward, making the posture a backbend from the
hip joints up (fig. 5.7). Breathe in the posture and watch careful\z The most
natural result is that inhalation deepens the backbend and that exhalation
easesit. Keep the abdominal muscles relaxed during inhalation. If you tense
them the dome of the diaphragm can't descendvery far, and you will lose the
senseofbeingable to assistthe backbendwith inhalation. Ifthere is ary ques-
tion about the results, aid exhalation with the abdominal muscles,and this will
immediately and markedly diminish the lumbar lordosis (chapters z and 3). As
with the propped backbending stretch facing away from the wall (fig. 5.(r),you
have to keep all conditions constant except for rcspiration. You can always pull
yourself down consciously during cxhalation to increase the lumbar bend. but
that misses the point. Here wc want to examine the cffects of inhalation and
exhalation in relative isolation.
The mechanisms underlying diaphragm-assisted backbending are
straightforward. First of all, the depth ol'the backbend has becn defincd
initially by the position of the feet on the floor and the forearms against the
wall. This means that the abdominal muscles do not havc to be tensed to
keep you from falling, and it also means that intra-abdominal pressure will
not bc as pronounced as in a free-standing, internally supported backbcnd

Figure 5.6. Diaphragm-

restricted backbend.
I n h a l a t i o np u l l s t h e l e g sa n d
thighs slightly to the rear, lifts
t h e c h e s t a n d s h o u l d e r su p
and forward, and increases
intra-abdominal pressure,all
of which combined straighten
the body as a whole and
d i m i n i s ht h e b a c k b e n d .
 5. BACKI]ENDING POSTI]RES 2d3

(fig. +.rq) or in the propped standing backbend (fig. 1.6). What is more,
since the rib cage is relatively immobilized by the arm position, the crura
of the diaphragm can only pull forward on the lumbar lordosis during
inhalation to deepen the backbend. It's a three-part situation: the static
body position defines the extent of the backbend in the first place,
decreasedabdominal tension and pressure allows the diaphragm to deepen
it, and an immobilized rib cage requires the diaphragm to deepen it.
One more variable determines whether the diaphragm assists or
restricts backbending in general, and that is how much the lumbar region
is arched forward on the start. If students are stiff and wary, the arch will
not be pronounced, the abdominal muscles will be tensed, and inhalation
will create more stability, thus restricting the bend. That is what we usually
seein beginning classes.With strongcr and more flexible students, inhalations
are more likely to increase the backbend, deepening it in proportion to how
readily they can release intra-abdominal pressure and allow the iliopsoas,
rectus femoris, and rectus abdominis musclesto lengthen. As we experiment
with the prone backbending postures that follow, kecp all possibilities in mind:
notice that the descending dome of the diaphragm will cither maintain
restrictions in the torso and create diaphragm-restricted backbending, or,
depending on the student's flexibility and on the positions of the upper and
lower extremities, the diaphragm will {brce thc Iront of thc body forward
during inhalation and deepen the bend.

Figure 5.7. Diaphragm-assisted

backbend. In this forward
bend from the hips, inhalation
increasesthe depth of tne
l u m b a r l o r d o s i sp r o v i d e d t h e
a b d o m i n a l m u s c l e sa r e k e p t
relaxed.The relaxed position
against the wall permits the
a b d o m i n a l m u s c l e st o c o m e
forward and allows inhalation
to occur freely, in contrast to
the case of diaphragm-
restricted backbending that is
illustrated in fig. 5.6.
 281 ANA'rOMY OF HA|'HA YOG,4

THE COBRA POSTURES

of the many forms of backbending postures, the prone backbends-the
cobra, locust, boat, and bow-are the most widely practiced in hatha yoga.
In contrast to standing backbends, in which g::avity assistsyour movement
into the postures and resists your efforts to come up, in the prone backbends
you lift parts of the body away from the floor against the pull of gravity and
then return to your startingposition with the aid ofgravity. prone backbends
are harder than standing backbends because you are trying to overcome
the resistance of connective tissues and skeletal muscles on the front side
of the body while simultaneously opposing the force of gravity, but they are
easier because coming out of the postures does not have to involve an1-thing
more than dropping slowly to the floor.
The cobra posture is named for the manner in which the magnificent
king cobra lifts its head and flattens out its hood in preparation for striking
its prey. It is probably the most well-known prone backbending pose in
hatha yoga. considercd along with all its variations, it is worth the attcntion
of everyone from beginners to the most advanced students.
Every variation of the cobra and its close relatives begins from a prone
position and ends with the ncck and back extcnded.In contrast to the caution
we exercised in extending the head and neck in standing backbends, we have
no reason to restrict that movement here, and we can work confidently with
the cerwicalregion without being concerned about losing our concentration on
the rest ofthe posture or getting lightheaded from carcliovascularresponses.
other characteristicso{'the postures vary. Dcpending on thc specificexcrcise,
from the top down, you can start either with the forehead or the chin on the
floor, the deep back muscles cither active or relaxed, the hip and thigh
muscles firm or relaxed, the knees extended, relaxed, or flexed, and the feet
together or apart.

THE CLASSIC BEGINNING COBRA

To introduce the seriesof cobra postures, we'll begin with the classicbeginning
pose even though it is not the easiest one. Start with the hands alongside
the chest, with the palms down, the fingertips in line with the nipples, the
heels and toes together, and the elbows close to the body. In this posture
arch the neck enough to the rear to place the forehead against the floor,
thus creating a reverse cervical curvature (fig. i.g). If that position is
uncomfortable, you can start with the nose or chin against the floor. on an
inhalation, slowly lift the forehead, brush the nose and chin against the
floor, and lift the head, neck, and chest slowly, vertebra by vertebra. Lift
mainly with the back and neck muscles,using the hands only as guides. As
you extend the spine, try to create a lengthening feeling. you should be at
ease; if you are straining you have come up too far. Try to remain in the
 5. BACKts].:ND]NG POS'IT]RI':S 2IJ5

posture, breathing evenly, for ro-zo seconds,and then come back down in
reverse order, ending with the forehead against the floor. This is the classic
beginning cobra (fig. 5.9). If you are a novice, you may do little more than
raise your head, and it might appear as if this involves only the neck muscles.
But even this slight movement will engagethe deep back muscles from the
head to the pelvis, and over time you will slowly develop the strength and
flexibility to come up further.
To relax you can turn your head to one side and rest. Ifthat is too stressful
for your neck, you can place a large soft pillow under your chest and head,
which permits your head to be twisted more moderately. Or another
alternative is to twist a little more insistently and at the same time press
the side of the head firmly against the floor with isometric contraction of
the neck muscles, which will stimulate the Golgi tendon organs and cause
reflex relaxation of the associatedmuscles. In any case, turn in the other
direction after the next variation, and then alternate sides each time you
do another.
Teachers often tell students to place their heels and toes together but to
stay relaxed while coming up into the pose. That can be confusing because
anyone who tries to do this will find that holding the heels and toes together

-r-.--16

Figure 5.8. Classiccobra, starting position.

,'t.*
Figure5.9.In the classiccobra posture,the upper extremitiesservemainlyas
guides,and the headand shouldersare lifted usingthe deep back musclesas
prime movers.The musclesof the hipsand thighsthen act as synergistsfor
moderatelybracingthe pelvis.
286 A!"ATOJIIY OF HAI,I IA YOGA

in itself requires muscular activity. It is best to explain at the outset that

the classiccobra should be done with no more than moderate tension in the
Iower extremities, and that the act of holding the heels and toes together
serves this purpose. Students should also pay close attention to their
breathing; they will notice that each inhalation lifts their upper body and
creates more pull in their lower back and hips.

THE COBRA WITH TIGHT LOWER EXTREMITIES

Now try a variation of the cobra with the lower extremities fixed solidly.
With the chin against the floor, place the hands in the standard position.
Then, keeping the feet together, tighten all the muscles from the hips to
the ankles and lift up as high as you can with the back muscles, leading
with the head and looking up. With the sacrum and pelvis stabilized by the
tension in the lower extremities, you will be using only the erector spinae
muscles to create the initial lift. As soon as you are up, each inhalation will
lift the torso even more, and each exhalation will lower it down: both
movements result from the action oI'the diaphragm. Inhale and exhale
maximally if you are confused. The respiratory motion is more apparent
here than with the classic cobra because the lower extremities are held
more firmly in position. Except for the hand position, this posture is
identical to the cobra variation we did in chapter z (fig. z.ro). There the
movements of the upper body were discussedin terms of lifting the base of
the rib cage in dizrphragmatic breathing. The same thing happens here
except that now we're calling it a diaphragm-assistedbackbend.

A RELAXED COBRA WITH MILD TRACTION IN THE BACK

If'your lower back is tender the classiccobra will be uncomfortable, and the
most natural way to protect and strengthen the region will be to tighten
everything from the waist down as in the previous variation. But there is
an alternative-you can push up mildly into the cobra with the arms in a
modified crocodile position. Instead of using the deep back muscles to
extend the spine, which pulls the vertebrae closer together and conrpr.esses
the intervertebral disks, we'll push up with the arms to lift the shoulders,
place traction on the lumbar region, and remove tension on the intervertebral
disks.
Start this posture with the hands on top ofone anotherjust underneath
the forehead and with the elbows spraddled out to the side, or place the
hands flat on the floor with the thumbs and index fingers making a diamond-
shaped figure, the tips of the thumbs under the chin. Then, keeping the
elbows, forearms, and hands planted against the floor, lift the head actively,
push up with your arms, and create a gentle isometric pull with the arms
as though you were wanting to pull yourself forward. At the same time
 5. BA'-KBENDIJVG POST'T]RF:S 267

observe that the leg, thigh, hip, and back muscles all remain relaxed. You
are not going anywhere with the isometric lift and pull with the arms;
you are only creating a mild traction in the back that encourages relaxation.
This exercise protects the lower back just as effectively as keeping the
hips and thighs firm becausethe back and lower extremities automatically
stay relaxed as you Iift up. The oddity of protecting yourself with both
mechanisms at the same time will be obvious if you come into the posture
and then tighten muscles generally from the waist down.
Notice how this posture affects your breathing. The tension on the chest
from the arms and shoulders keeps it immobilized, in contrast to the
diaphragm-assisted lift in the classic cobra and the previous variation.
Most oI'the respiratory movement is felt as abdominal breathing exactly as
in the stretched crocodile posture (fig. 2,.23):the lower back lifts with each
inhalation as the dome of the diaphragm descends,and the lower back drops
toward the floor with each exhalation as the domc of thc diaphragm rises.

CREATING TRACTION WITH THE HANDS AND ARMS

For this variation start with the hands alongside thc chest, the heels and
'l'hen,
toes together, and the chin rather than the forehead on the floor.
instead of creating traction with the elbows and forearms, crcate it by
pressing the heels of the hands toward the feet isometrically.This is similar
t o c r e a t i n g t r a c t i o n b y p u l l i n g f r o m t h e e l b o w s ,b u t t h e a c t i o n i s m o r e
dillicult to control. Yru startcd this posture with just enough tension in the
lower extremities to hold the feet together. Now try to let that melt away.
Also try to minimize your tendency to push the torso up with the hands,
even though that is hard to avoid while you are creating tension for pulling
fbrward. This is a demanding whole-body concentration exercise. Noticc
how your breathing differs from that in the previous variation. The chest
is not restricted-the diaphragrn both flares the chest wall from its lower
border and lifts the upper body, creating diaphragmatic rather than
abdominal breathing.

RAISING UP AND DOWN WITH BREATHING

For this variation, start withyour chin on the floor, the hands in the standard
position alongside the chest, the heels and toes together, and the hips
squeezedtogether. Then inhale while lifting your head and shoulders, and
exhale back down until your chin touches the floor, breathing at the rate of
about four breaths every ten seconds.You can experiment with keeping the
hips somewhat relaxed, but it is more natural to keep them firm so that
inhalations lift you higher. This exercise differs from the classic cobra in
that it involves constant movement. You come all the way up and all the
way down using a combination of the diaphragm and the back muscles,
 288 ANATOMY OF HAT'TIA YOGA

while in the cobra you hold the position as much as possible with the back
muscles alone and allow the diaphragm to bob you up and down from there.
A nice variation on this exercise is to turn your head to one side or the
other with each inhalation: inhale, up (right); exhale, down (center);
inhale, up (left); exhale, down (center); and continuing with a natural
cadence for ro-zo breaths. During each successiveinhalation, twist more
insistently, lift more insistently, and expand your inspiratory capacity as
much as possible with empowered thoracic breathing. This is a powerful
and yet natural and comfortable exercise.

THE DIAPHRAGMATICREAR LIFT

The next several variations of the cobra depend on reviewing the diaphragmatic
rear lift (fig. z.rr). Summarizing from chapter 2, come into the standard
preparatory posture for the classic cobra except that now the chin instead
of the forehead is against the floor. Relax the entire body, especially below
the chest, and then breathe deeply while keeping the chest and chin against
the floor. Provided the deep back muscles, hips, and thighs are all free of
tension, inhalation will arch the back and lift the hips, and exhalation will
allow the lumbar region to flatten and drop the hips back down. At first,
b r e a t h c q u i c k l y , a l m o s t a s i n t h e b e l l o w s e x e r c i s e ,a n d t h e n s l , w y o u r
respiration down to observe the finer changesin tension and movement. In
chapter z this exercise illustrated the connections of'the diaphragm. Herc
it illustrates how lifting the hips (instead of the base of the rib cage) with
the diaphragm creates another variation of diaphragm-assisted backbending.

ANOTHER COBRA WITH RELAXED LOWER EXTREMITIES

This next variation involves doing the cobra with the lower extremities
completely relaxed, which is a posture that will challenge the concentration
of even advanced students. start with your chin on the floor and let your
feet fall slightly apart into the position in which you will be most reraxed
(heels in and toes out, or vice versa). Then slowly lift the head and chest,
monitoring muscles in the lower half of the body to make sure they do not
contribute to the lifting effort. This is easy enough at first, but it starts to
feel unnatural as you rise more fully into the posture. come up as far as
you can, hold, and then come down slowly. Keep checking to make sure you
do not feel a wave of relaxation on your way down, indicating that you
tensed up as you lifted into the posture.
It's the gluteal muscles that are the most difficult to hold back in this
pose. When you lift up into the cobra, you ordinarily support the effort of
the deepback musclesby bracing the pelvis with the gluteus maximus muscles,
and this insures that the erector spinae and other deep back muscles will lift
only the upper part of the body. But if you relax from the waist down, the
 5. BACKBENDTNG POSTITRES 2ttg

erector spinae muscles have two roles instead of one. They still lift the
upper half of the body by way of their insertions on the chest, but now they
also pull on the ilium and sacrum from above, deepening the lumbar
lordosis and rotating the coccyxto the rear for an anterior pelvic tilt. Ifyou
have ever had back problems, this exercise will at once make you aware of
your vulnerability, so do it only if you remain comfortable from start to
finish.
Not surprisingly, the diaphragm contributes importantly to this posture;
it acts in perfect cooperation with the erector spinae muscles by lifting both
ends of the torso at the same time, thus assisting the backbend both from
above and below. As we saw in chapter z, this happens because the costal
portion of the diaphragm lifts the rib cage and becausethe right and left
crura lift the relaxedhios.

THE COBRA WITH REVERSEBREATHING

For an even more difficult concentration exercise, lie prone with your
hands alongside your chest in the standard position, and come in and out
of the cobra posture while reversing the natural coordination of diaphragmatic
inhalations with the concentric shortening of the back muscles. Do this as
follows: First, keep the chin on the floor while inhaling. Then exhale while
tightening the hips and thighs (which holds them against the floor), and at
the same time raise the head and shoulders. Next, inhale and relax the hips
completely (which causesthe hips to rise) as you lower the head and shoulders.
Putting it differently: raise the head and chest during exhalation, and
lower them during inhalation; tighten the hips and keep them down
during exhalation, and relax them and permit them to rise freely during
inhalation. This is disorienting until you master it. The exercise will work
best ifyou take about one breath every four seconds.
After several exhalations up and inhalations down, try breathing more
slowly. Relax completely during a deep but leisurely inhalation, and allow
the crus of the diaphragm to deepen the lumbar lordosis from below. As
exhalation begins, tighten the gluteals so the back muscles can lift the
upper part of the body concentrically from a strong base without any help
from the diaphragm. Then, during the next inhalation the chest will drop
slowly to the floor, and the diaphragm will again lift the Iower spine and
hips as the back muscles and lower extremities relax. This is a difficult
exercise,but after you have mastered it, along with the other variations of
the cobra, you will have experienced all the possible combinations of
breathing in relation to lifting up and down in the cobra. This posture
helps place all the more natural possibilities in perspective.And apart from
its value as a training tool, once you have succeededin learning to do the
sequencesmoothly and rhythmically, the exercise is very soothing.
zgo ANATOMY Ots HATHA YOGA

THE SUPPORTED INTERMEDIATE COBRA

Here is a good way to prepare for the advanced cobra. Lying prone with the
chin on the floor, stretch the hands overhead with the arms and forearms
parallel and the palms down. Keeping the elbows extended and the heels
and big toes togethea lift the head as high as possible, and pull one hand
and then the other back toward the head in small increments. This will lift
the upper half of the body. The back is passive; it is not doing the work of
lifting you. One arm braces while the other pushes the body up, inch by
inch. When you are up, find a relatively relaxed position with your weight
resting on a combination of the hands, the lower border of the rib cage,and
the pelvis. Or you can suspend the weight of your chest and abdomen
between the hands and pelvis if that feels comfortable (fig. 5.to). Keeping
the elbows extended is a feature of this posture alone. We'll dispense with
doing that when we come to the full expression of the advanced cobra.
Most beginners make two mistakes in this cxcrcise. One is to hang pas-
sively between their arms. Don't do that. Lift the chest and pull the scapulae
down and laterally. With experience, you can find a position in which you are
keeping the pelvis, or possibly the pelvis and thc rib cage in combination,
against the floor without hanging passively.The other common error is to let
your attention stray from the forearm extensors, which pcrmits the clbows to
becomc slightly flexed.
Everyone will have a different limit l,ohow Iar they can lift up and at the
same time keep the pelvis on thc floor. It will depend, obviously, on how
much passive extension their lumbar spines can accommodate. Some will
end up with their shoulders lifted up off the floor only a few inches; others
may have enough flexibility to face the ceiling (fig. S.tt).If you are inflexiblc,
notice that you feel r-ulnerable with the back muscles relaxed. Find a position

*..i

Figure5.10.Supportedintermediatecobra.ln this posethe handsare pulled

backincrementally(alwayskeepingthe elbowsextended)until the pelvisis
almostlifted off the floor.The headis pulledbackwardand the scapulaeare
pulleddown and laterally(seechapterB for detailsof scapularmovements),
beingcarefulnot to hangthe chestpassively betweenthe shoulders.
 ', BA(,-KBENDTNG POSTTIRES 2qI

in which you can feel some of that vulnerability and yet remain still
without pain or anxiety. As in other variations of the cobra, take deep
empowered thoracic inhalations.
As soon as you are accustomed to the relaxed posture, pull the head
back further and engage the back muscles isometrically. Now the inner
feeling of the posture changes. The engaged back muscles make it feel
safer even though your position has not shifted. Then, as soon as you
have accommodatedto this new feeling, bend the knees carefully, drawing
the heels toward the head while keeping the elbows fully extended.
Don't hurt your knees. This is an unusual position for them. It is fairly
safe for the back because you have engaged the erector spinae muscles,
but lifting the feet increasesthe intensity of the posture, so be watchful.
You also have to concentrate on keeping the elbows straight because
neurologic interconnections between motor neurons for flexors and
extensors are such that the act of flexing the knees reflexly inhibits the
motor neurons that innervate the extensors of the forearm (chapter r),
especiallyif the movement causesthe slightest pain in the back or knee
joints. Hold the posture for to-zo secondsif you can do so confidently.
Then slowly lower the f'eetback to the floor and slide the hands forward
to the beginning position.
If you are not very flexible the lumbar region is bent to its maximum,
especially when the feet are raised, and you will notice that breathing
does not create marked external effects on the posture. Inhalation
increases(and exhalation decreases)internal tension, but we do not see
much accentuation or flattening of the lumbar region. In company with
this, it may feel appropriate to breathe cautiously if you are at your
limit. And even if you are flexible and comfortable, breathing deeply in
this posture is not easy because the rib cage is constrained by the arm
position. Nevertheless, if you would like to expand your inspiratory
capacity (chapter z), inhale thoracically as much as the posture permits.

Figure 5.11.
Supportedcobra
facingthe ceiling.
Flexiblestudents
c a n b e n dt h e i r
s p i n e se n o u g h
(about70' in this
case)to face the ,,{g,
c e i l i n ga n d y e t
k e e pt h e i rt h i g h s
on the floor.
THE ADVANCED COBRA

To do the advanced cobra, start from the same beginning position as the
classic cobra, with the forehead on the floor and the fingertips in line with
the nipples. Next, brush your nose and chin along the floor and slowly start
lifting the head and chest with the back muscles. Then, keeping the back
muscles engaged, slowly start to straighten the elbows until you have
extended the back and neck to their limits. The extent to which the elbows
are straightened will be a reflection of how much the spine is extended, as
well as a reflection of the lengths of the arms and forearms. Beginners will
not be able to come up very far, and it will be rare for even advanced
students to straighten their elbows completely. It's not necessaryanyway.
The idea of this posture is to keep everything active. The deep back
muscles, specifically,should be monitored constantly to make sure they are
supporting the lift and not relaxing as the forearms extensors start
contributing to the posture.
Keeping the back muscles active sounds like it ought to be easy,but for
those whose spines are inflexible these muscles will be working against the
antagonistic actions of the iliacus and psoas muscles, which maintain the
first line of protection for rcstricting the bend, as well as the abdominal
muscles, which stay tight to maintain the intra-abdominal pressure that is
so important for minimizing strain on the intervertebral disks. It is a
natural temptation to simply rclax and support the posture entirely with
the upper extremities. Don't do it. That's more like the next posture, the
upward-facing dog.
As you pro€tressin your practice of the advanced cobra, you will gradually
become confident and flexible enough to allow the iliopsoas muscles and
the abdominal muscles to lengthen eccentrically and even relax without
releasing tension in the back muscles, and when that happens the back
muscles will contribute to extension more effectively. The last step, after
acclimating to the posture in its essential form, is to draw the feet toward
the head (fig. r.rz).

F i g u r e5 . 1 2 .I n t h e a d v a n c e d
cobra, highly flexible students
can bend their lumbar spines
90' and touch their feet to
their head. For most students
s p i n a la n d h i p i n f l e x i b i l i t y
(along with resistant hip flex-
ors and abdominalmuscles)
limit coming fully into this
pose.
 i. I}A':KB]:NDING POSTL.IRES 293

As with the supported intermediate cobra, it is most important to keep

the chest lifted and the shoulders pulled down and back. Nothing will
violate this posture as certainly as allowing the chest to hang passivery
between the arms. And if you take the option of bending the knees and
pulling the feet toward the head, be careful of stressing the ligaments that
surround the knee joint.
Breathing issues in the advanced cobra are similar to those for the
supported posture. The diaphragm will contribute to keeping the pose
stable and restrict the bend for those who are less flexible, and it will deepen
the backbend for those who find themselves flexible enough to come
convincingly into the posture. In general, the advanced pose will not be
very rewarding for anyone who is not flexible enough to sense that the
diaphragm is either deepening the bend or creating tension for doing s', as
well as getting out of the way of empowered thoracic breathing.

THE UPWARD-FACINGDOG POSTURES

The upward-facing dog is not a cobra posture, but it begins in the same way
and then goes one or two steps beyond. It is like a suspension bridge. Thc
arms and forearms support the posture from above, the knees or f'eet
support it from below,and the chest, abdomen, pelvis, and thighs are
suspended between. Four variations are presented here, and in each one
you support your weight differently.
To prepare for the upward-facing dog, start with the chin on the floor,
the hands alongside the chest a little lower than for the cobra, the feet
together, and the toes extended. Slowly lift the head and then the shour-
ders, keeping the muscles of the lower extremities engaged.As soon as
you reach your limit of lifting with the back muscles, extend thc elbows
slowly, lifting your body even higher until your weight is supported by the
arms, knees, and the tops of the feet. It is important to do this without,
relaxing the back muscles (fig. l.r:). The pose should be active front and
back. Those who are especially flexible will have to keep the abdominal
muscles engaged to avoid dropping the pelvis to the floor; those who are
not flexible will not have this difficulty because their abdominal muscles
are already tense. As in the advanced cobra, lift the head, neck, and chest.
Don't allow the chest to hang passively between the shoulders. come
down in reverse order, taking a long time to merge the releasing of
forearm extension into supporting the posture entirely with the deep
back muscles.
Now try the same exercise with the toes flexed instead of extended.
Keeping your knees on the floor and supporting yourself on the bails of the
feet at the same time makes this a tighter posture because now the
gastrocnemius muscles in the back of the calf are stretched. This places
2A4 ANATOMY OII IIATHA I

additional tension on the quadriceps femoris muscles, which (among their

other roles) are antagonists to the gastrocnemius muscles; the tension in
the quadriceps femoris is in turn translated to the front of the pelvis by
way of the rectus femoris. The tension from the rectus femoris then
restricts how far the pelvis can drop toward the floor. It's easy to prove. If
you go back and forth between the two postures you'll feel immediately
how the two alternative toe positions affect the pelvis-toes flexed and
curled under, the pelvis is lifted; toes extended back, the pelvis drops.
In the full upward-facing dog, the knees are extended and you are
supporting yourself between the hands and feet instead of between the
hands and knees. This is a whole-body commitment requiring a lot more
muscular tension in the quadriceps femoris muscles than the simpler
posture. You can support your weight on your feet either with the toes
flexed (fig. 5.14)or with the toes extendedto the rear.'I'ry both positions.
Neither one is stressful if your feet are comfortable.
Breathing mechanics in the upward-facing dog are different fiom any
other posture becausethe body is suspendedin mid-air. You can easily rock
bzrckand forth or move from sidc to side like a suspension bridge in the
wind, and this Ireedom of movemcnt allows for deep thoracic inhalations
and yet permits the diaphragm to deepen the backbend even in students
who are not very flexible.

THE OPEN-AIR COBRA

'I'his exercise requires good strength and athletic ability, healthy knees, and
a prop made up of two cushioned planks; one (cushionedon top) is several
fcet off the floor, and another (cushionedon its underneath side) is slightly
'fhe front plank will support the
higher and situated to the rear of the first.
body at the level of the mid-thighs, and the rear plank will prevent the knees
from flexing and the I'eet from flying up. Such a contraption is often found in
health clubs. You will climb into the apparatus and lie in a prone position-
The thighs will be supported from below by the front plank and the calves
will be anchored in place from above by the rear plank. First, you allow the
torso to hang down, flexed forward from the hips. From this position, you
straighten the body and raise your head and shoulders as high as you can.
The body from the thighs up will be suspendedin mid-air as soon as you lift
away from the floor.
This exercise is an excellent example of the manner in which g::avity
operates in relation to muscular activity. Little effort is required to initiate
the movement for swinging the torso up the first ,+5".Then, as the body
comes toward the horizontal position you start getting more exercise.This
feels similar to the classic cobra posture, except that it is more difficult
becauseyou are lifting the body from the fulcrum of the thighs instead of
 '. ]}ACKBLNDING POSTTIRES 295

the pelvis. Then, as you arch up from that site you can begin to look right
and left like a real cobra appraising its environment. Coming yet higher,
the iliopsoas and abdominal muscles finally becomethe main line of resistance
to the concentric activitv of the back and neck muscles.

COBBAS FOB THOSE WITH RESTRICTEDMOBILITY

The vertebral columns in older people sometimes become bent forward

structurally, reverting to the fetal state ofa single posterior curvature. The
main problems with this, apart from not being able to stand up straight,
are that the intervertebral disks have lost their fluidity, the joint capsules
have become restricted, extraneous and movement-restricting deposits of
bone have accumulated near jt-rints,and muscles have become rigid. Those
who have this condition are rarely able to lie comfortably on the floor in a
prone position. But if they lie on cushions that support the body in a slightly
flexed position and ifthe height ofthe cushions is adjustcd carefully, all the
simple variations of thc cobra are feasible and will have beneficial eff'ects
throughout the body.

F i g u r e5 . 1 3 .
Upward-facing
dog with knees
down and toes
extended.
Come into this
first of four
dog postures
systematically,
and never
hang between
relaxed
shoulders.

F i g u r e5 . 1 4 .
Upward-facing dog
w i t h k n e e su p a n d
toes flexed. Whole-
body tension is
required except in
those who are so
i n f l e x i b l et h a t t h e i r
body structure
keeps their thighs
off the floor. The
pose is like a
s u s p e n s i o nb r i d g e . _t,
1i'
2O6 ANATOMYOF HATHA '

ASHWINI MUDRA AND MULA BANDHA IN THE COBRAS

Ashwini mudra (chapter 3) is more natural in the upward-facing dog than

in any other hatha yoga posture. The urogenital triangle is exposed,the
genitals are isolated from the floor, the muscles of the urogenital triangle
are relaxed, the gluteal muscles are engaged, and the pelvic diaphragm is
automatically pulled in. Mula bandha (chapter 3), on the other hand, is
natural in all of the postures in which the pelvis is resting against the floor,
which means all the postures just covered with the exception of the
upward-facing dog. Anyone who is confused about distinguishing between
ashwini mudra and mula bandha can go back and forth between the
upward-facing dog and an easy-does-itversion of the classic cobra (in this
casewith the heels and toes together but with the gluteal muscles relaxed),
and their confusion will vanish.

THE LOCUST POSTURES

fhe locust posture is named fbr the manner in which Epasshoppers
(locusts)move their rear ends up and down. The locust postures complement
the cobras,lifting the lower part of'the body rather than the upper, but they
are more difficult because it is less natural and more strenuous to lift the
lower extremities from a prone position than it is to lift the head and shoulders.
We can test the relative difficulty of one of the locust postures with a
simple experiment. Lie prone with the chin on the floor and the backs of
the relaxed hands against the floor alongside the thighs. To imitate the
cobra, Iift the head and shoulders. Look around. Breathe. Enjoy. This
exploratory gesture could hardly be more natural. Notice that it doesn't
take much effort to lift up, that it is easy to breathe evenly, that the upper
extremities are not involved, and that the movement doesn't threaten the
lower back. By contrast, to imitate the locust we'll need three times as
many directions and cautions. Starting in the same position, point the toes,
extend the knees by tightening the quadriceps femoris muscles,and exhale.
Keeping the pelvis braced, lift the thighs without bending the knees. Don't
hold your breath, and be careful not to strain the lower back. What a
difference! While almost anyone new to hatha yoga can do the first exercise
with aplomb, the second is so difficult and unfamiliar that new students
have to be guided from beginning to end.

THE HALF LOCUST

The easiest locust posture involves lifting only one thigh at a time instead
of both of them simultaneously. This is only about a tenth rather than half
as hard as the full locust becauseone extremity stabilizes the pelvis while
the other one is lifted, and this has the effect of eliminating most of the tension
in the lower back. To begin, lie prone with the chin on the floor, the arms
 5. ITACKBENDTNG POSTtiRE.t 297

alongside the chest, the elbows fully extended, and the backs of the fists
against the floor near the thighs. Point the toes of one foot, extend the
knee, and lift the thigh as high as possible, but do this without strongly
pressing the opposite thigh against the floor (fig. ;.r;). Breathe evenly for
ten seconds,come down slowly, and repeat on the other side.
The half locust is a good road map for the full posture becausewe seesimilar
patterns of muscular activity, but it is easier to isolate and analyze the various
sensations when one thigh is braced against the floor. To create the lift, the
gluteus maximus and the hamstring muscles hyperextend the thigh against
the resistance of the abdominal muscles, the iliopsoas muscle, and the
quadriceps femoris. The hamstring muscles don't insert directly on the
thigh. They insert on the back of the tibia, but in this casethey act only on
the pelvis becausetheir tendency to flex the leg at the kneejoint is prevented
by strong isometric contraction of the quadriceps femoris muscle, which
keepsthe kneejoint extended.It is as ifyou have attached a rope to the most
distant of two boards that are hinged end-to-end; the far board is the tibia,
and the near board is the femur. You want to lift the two boards as a unit to
keep them aligned, but the rope gocs only to the distant board. So another
set of'supporting lines has to run on the front (ktcking) side of the hinge to
prevent the boards from folding up. The hamstring muscles are the r.opes;
the quadricepsfemoris muscles are the supporting lines.
The half locust posture is worth more attention than it usually gets. In
a slightly different form it is commonly prescribed by physiatrists and
physical therapists for the recovcry period that follows acute lower back
pain. If you are on the mend from such a condition, and if you are able to
lie in the prone position without pain, you can rapidly alternate what
might be called thigh lifts-extending the knees and raising them (one ar
a time) an inch off the floor at the rate of about four lifts per second.If you
repeat the exercise twenty to thirty times several times a day, it will
strengthen the back muscles from a position that does not strain the lower
back.

F.igure 5.15.Half locust.Thisposture,which shouldbe done without pressing

the upper extremitiesand the oppositethigh stronglyagainstthe floor,is
e x c e l l e nfto r l e i s u r e l ay n a l y s iosf c o m p l e xm u s c u l aar n d i o i n t a c t i o n s .
298 ANATOXIYOF ItA',tTlA Y()(;A

THE SUPPOHTED HALF LOCUST

A more athletic posture supports the lifted thigh with the opposite leg and
foot. Lie in the same prone position with the chin on the floor. Place the
right fist alongside the right thigh, with the back side of the hand against
the floor, and place the left hand, palm down, near the chest. Twist your
head to the left and bend the right knee, flexing the right leg 9o". Then,
using an any-which-way-you-can attitude-in other words, the easiest way
possible-swing the left thigh up and support it on the right foot just above
the left knee. Nearly everyone will have to lift their pelvis off the floor to
get the left thigh high enough, and that is the purpose of twisting the head
to the left and of having the left hand near the chest to help you balance.
Try not to end up with the entire body angled too far off to the right, however.
Use your breath naturally to support coming into the posture, taking a
sharp inhalation on the lift, and thcn breathing cautiouslv but evenly while
the fbot is supporting the thigh. Even though you came into the posture
with a swinging movement, try to come dt-rwnslowly by sliding the right
fbot down the left leg. Repeat on the other side.
You can refine this exercise to make it both more difficult :rnd more
elcgant if you come up slowly instead tlf with a swinging mtlvement-
Concentrate cln breathing evenly through<tut the effort and on keeping the
pelvis squarc with thc Iloor. Settle into the posture bv slowly rclnxing thc
abdominal musclesand hip flexors, which increasesextension of the back.
Finally, ifyou are flexible enough, deepen the backbend with your breath-
ing, supporting thc full posture both with the diaphragTnand with dccp
thoracic inhalations (fig. 5.t6).

THE SIMPLE FULL LOCUST

As soon as your are comfortable with the half locust you can begin to practice
the full locust. Ihe basic posture, which we'll call the simple full locust, is
a difficult pose,but we place it first to give an idea of'the posture in its pure
form. 'lhe last three variations form a logical sequencewhich we'll call the
beginning, intermediate, and advanced locusts.
To do the simple full locust, place the chin on the floor, the arms alongside
the thighs, the forearms pronated, and the backs of the fists against the
floor. If you want to make the posture more difficult, supinate the forearms
and face the backs of the fists up. In either case point the toes to the rear,
tighten the gluteal muscles, and last, keeping the knees extended, hyper-
extend both thighs, allowing them to become comfortably abducted at the
same time. Do not try to aid the effort for hyperextension of the thighs with
the arms at this stage. That will come later. If you are a beginner you may
not have enough strength to make any external movement at all, or you
may barely be able to take some of the weight off the thighs, but you will
 5. ]JACKBENDIi\iG PO.'TT]RES 299

feel the effects in the lumbar, lumbosacral, sacroiliac, and hip joints, and
you will still benefit from the effort.
When you raise the thighs in the simple full locust, you are trying to
hyperextend them with the gluteus maximus muscles acting as prime
movers, and doing this with both thighs at the same time makes this posture
a great deal more difficult than the half locust: you are lifting twice as much
weight, the pelvis is reacting to the muscular tension instead of stabilizing
the posture for lifting just one side, and the lumbar lordosis is accentuated
in one of the most unnatural positions imaginable. To make this seem a
little easier you can take the option of allowing the knees to bend slightly,
which will have two effects: it will permit the hamstring muscles to be more
cffective in aiding extension of the thighs, and it will facilitate their roles as
antagonists to the quadriceps I'emoris muscles.The reason for allowing the
thighs to becomeabductedbrings us back to the hips; the gluteus medius and
gluteus minimus (figs.3.ttb,3.roab, [1.9,lt.rz, and 13.r4) are abductors,and
holding the thighs adductcd keeps these muscles in a stretched position and
generally impedeship hyperextension.The simple full locust is a challenging
posture if your measure of succcssis external movemcnt, but if'you practice
it daily you will soon bc able to lift up more convincinEgly.

THE BEGINNER'S FULL LOCUST

The next v:rriation, thc bcginner's full locust, is the easiest in the serics.
Kccping the elbows straight, place the lists under the thighs, pronating the
forearms so that the backs of the fists are against the floor, and pull thc
arms and forcarms under the chest and abdomen. Again, kecping thc heels,
toes, and knees together, try to lift thc thighs while holding the knees lairly
straight (tig. S.tZ).This variation will affect a higher position in the lumbar
region than the first posturc, and your attention will be drawn to the genitals

F i g u r e5 . . 1 6 .
Supported half
l o c u s t .B e g i n n i n g
students can learn
this posture by first
turningthe head in
the samedirection
as the thigh that
will be raised,then
swinging the thigh
u p a n d c a t c h i n gi t
with the opposite
foot; refinements
to provide for
more grace and
elegance can come
later.
3OO ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

rather than the anus, favoring activation of mula bandha over ashwini
mudra.
The beginner's full locust is easier than the simple version becausethe
fists provide a fulcrum that allows you to lift the thighs into extension from
a partially flexed position. In the simple version of the full locust in which
you are trying to lift your thighs from an extended to a hyperextended
position, most of your effort goes into the isometric effort of pressing the
pelvis more firmly against the floor. For unathletic beginners this is the end
of the posture. But they should still experienceboth-the simple full locust
to feel the essenceof the basic pose, and the beginner's full locust to feel a
senseof accomplishment.

THE INTERMEDIATEFULL LOCUST

You need to develop more strength in your shoulders, arms, and forearms
for the intermediate variation of the locust. It is exactly like the previous
posture except that you use the arms, forearms, and interlocked hands to
press against the floor, and this helps you lift up much further. It requircs
a whole-body effort involving all the muscles on the anterior sides of the
arms and shoulders, plus the deep back muscles, the gluteal muscles, and
the hamstrings. The intensity of the commitment neededto raise the knees
just a few inches off thc floor is likely to surprise even a good athlete. But
lift as high as possible and hold (fig. l.rt't).Many benefits are gained just by
increasing the isometric tension in your personal end position.
Even though this posture requires a whole-body effort, you feel it most
sigrrificantly in the lower back. You can check this in someoneelse by placing
your hands on either side of their vertebral column as they initiate the lift.
In everyone, you will f'eel the muscles in the lower half of the back bulge
strongly to the rear, and in those who are able to lift their knees six inches
or more off the floor, you will notice the bulge spreading throughout the
back as more and more of the erector spinae is recruited into the effort.

. h i sb e g i n n e r 'fsu l l l o c u s ti s e a s i e trh a nt h e s i m p l ef u l l l o c u s t( n o t
F i g u r e5 . 1 7T
illustrated)becausethe positionof the fistsunderthe upper portionsof the
thighspermitsthem to act as a fulcum for liftingthe thighs.This posturealso
favorsholdingmula bandhaover ashwinimudra (whichis more in characterfor
the simplefull locust).
 5. BACKBENDING POSTLTRES 3o1

One of several unique characteristics ofthe locust posture is the extent

to which the pelvis is braced. All of your efforts to lift are countered by
numerous muscles acting as antagonists from the anterior side of the body:
the rectus femoris pulls on the anterior inferior spine of the ilium;
the psoas pulls on the lumbar spine; and the iliacus pulls on the pelvis. A11
of these muscles and their synergists act together from underneath to
brace the body between the knees and the lumbar spine. And with this
foundation stabilized, the gluteus maximus muscles, hamstrings, and
erector spinae operate together to lift the pelvis and lower spine as a unit.
The gluteus maximus muscles will first shorten concentrically and then act
isometrically to place tension on the iliotibial tracts, which run between
the ilia and the proximal portions of the tibias and f,rbulas(figs. 3.li-9 and
It.tz). The actions of the gluteus maximus muscles are supported synergis-
tically by the hamstrings, which, like the gluteus maximi, pull between the
pelvis (in this casethe ischial tuberosities) and the legs.
By themselves the gluteus maximus muscles and their synergists would
not take you far, as in the caseof'the simple and beginner's full locust, but
when the arms and forearms are strong enough to help drive you up, the
muscles on the back side of the body are able to act more efficiently. This
is a powerful posture but one of the most unnatural postures in hatha yoga,
and since much of the tension for raising the thighs is brought to bear on
the lower back, it is for intermediate and advanced students only.
'l'he whole-body muscular
efforts needed to maintain the intermediate
f'ull locust are intense, and since the abdominal muscles and the respiratory
and pelvic diaphragms have to support the effort from beginning to end,
inhalations will not be very deep, and the externally visible effects of
breathing will be negligible.

F i g u r e5 . 1 8 .T h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e
full locust is manageable only
by intermediate and advanced
students;those who are not
both strong and flexible will
not be able to lift this far off
the floor. In any case,what
differentiates the posture from
the beginner's full locust is the
way the pose is supported
using the upper extremities.
3O2 ANATOIIY Ol; IIAT'IIA YOGA

THE ADVANCED FULL LOCUST

The advanced full locust is one of the most demanding postures in hatha
yoga. To do it, those who are able to lift themselves up moderately in the
intermediate practice now roll all the way up in one dynamic movement,
balancing their weight overhead so the posture can be maintained without
much muscular effort. This is only for athletes who are confident of their
strength, flexibility, and the soundnessof their spines. Those who can do it
always seem to be at a loss for words when they try to explain what they
do-speaking vaguely about concentration, breath, flexibility, and intention.
It's a whole-body effort. If any link is weak the posture cannot be done.
To press up into this posture, nearly everyone has to lock the elbows and
then interlock the hands underneath the body in some way. You can interlock
the little fingers and keep the rest of the fingers and palms against the
floor. Or you can clasp the fingers together as in fig. 5.tfl,starting the position
with the hands cupped around the genitals. In either case, lift up into the
intermediate position using the arms and back muscles.And then, without
hesitating, inhale, bend the knees, press the arms and forearms against
floor more forcefully, and in one fluid movement lift into the final posture
with the feet straight up. Ideally, this is a balancing position. Once you are
in it you will need to keep only moderate isometric tension in the back
muscles, you will not have to keep pressing so vigorously with the arms,
and you can flatten the backs ofthe hands against the floor. Flexibility for
backbending really pays off here, the more the better, and thc easier it will
be to balance without holding a lot of tension in the deep back muscles.You
can either keep your feet pointing straight up or lower them toward the
head (fig. 5.r9),which makes it evcn easierto balancc.
Breathing is one of the most important elements of the advanced locust,
and most students will find it necessaryto take a deep inhalation to assist
thc action of coming up into the pose. After that there are two schools of
thought. One is to exhale as you come up and keep the airway open according
to the general rule for hatha yoga postures.This is the best approach
becausethe pose is executed and supported by a combination of the upper
extremities, the deep back muscles, and intra-abdominal pressure not by
intrathoracic pressure (chapter 3). But if you can't quite do that you can
close the gtottis to lift up and then breathe freely once you are balanced.
If you do not have enough flexibility in the back and neck to remain
comfortably balanced after you are in the posture, you can place the palms
flat against the floor, bend the elbows slightly, and support the lower part
of the chest (and thus the whole body) with the arms and elbows. This will
enable you to build up time in the pose.
The advancedlocust placesthe neck in more extteme, and forced, hyper-
extension than any other posture, and to prepare for this students will find
 5. BACKB||NDTNG POST'UR|iS 3ol

it desirable not only to work with backbending postures in general, but also
with special postures.that extend the neck to its maximum. The cobra
postures (figs. 5.9*tz), the upward-facing dogs (figs. j.13-\4), and the
scorpion (fig. 8.:tb) are all excellent for this purpose.
Although the advanced locust has to be treated as a dynamic whole, try
to do it slowly. Many students have been hurt by falling out of the posture
when they have tried to toss themselves up into the full pose before they
have developedsufficient strength and control. Ifyou are almost able to do
the advanced locust, you will soon be able to master it by developingjust a
Iittle more lumbar flexibilitv in combination with more strensbh in the
arms and back.

THE PRONE BOAT POSTURES

'fhe prone boats curve up at each end like gondolas,lifting
both ends ofthe
body at the same time, and in this manncr they combine elements of both
the cobra and the locust. We discusseda simple prone boat in chaptcr r to
illustrate movcmcnts of thc body in a gravitational field. And since these
postures work against the pull of'gravity as well as against muscular and
connective tissue restraints, they can be difficult and discouraging to many
beginning1students, who often cannot even begin to lift up into them.
To add insult to injury, instructors may tell students to come up into thc
postures and relax! We'll remedy this by starting with an easy version.
Aftcr a few weeks of regular practice, all of them become easy.
In the first version of the prone boat, lie with your chin against the floor,
the hecls and tocs togcthcq the arms along the sides of the body, and the
back of the hands against the floor. Point the toes to the rear, tighten the
quadriceps femoris muscles to extend thc knee joints, and simultaneously
lift the head, neck, chest,shoulders,thighs, and hips (fig. S.zo).Ifyou have
plenty of strength, lift the hands as well (fig. t.ti). Breathe evenly, and
notice how the respiratory diaphragm lifts both the chest and the lower

F i g u r e5 . - 1 9T. h e a d v a n c e df u l l
locust is easier in certain
respectsthan the intermediate
version because here one is
balancing rather than support-
ing the posewith muscular
effort. No one should try this
posture, however, who is not

-t* *::...'..*,
confidentin their athletic
;'"i#:llfiT'"ii,1'lfiii'.' -t '-' '-:*:-o**"::*it*;L*!!:@
Lackbending '
3O4 ANATOMY Or: HATI{A t

extremities with each inhalation and lowers them down slightly with each
exhalation.
In the second version, which is a little harder than the first, again lie
with your chin against the floor, with the heels and toes still together, but
now stretch the arms out perpendicular to the body, palms down. Make
blades of the hands, stretch the fingers, point the toes, extend the knees,
and simultaneously lift all four extremities.
The third and most difficult version of the boat (fig. l.zt) is the same as
the second except that the hands are stretched overhead with the elbows
extended. Beginners usually resist this if you ask them to do it first, but if
you start by leading them through the first and secondversions they may
be surprised to frnd that they have generated enough enerry and enthusiasm
to try the third. And rather than telling students to relax in the posture,
instructors can suggest that they imagine they are lengthening the body in
addition to lifting at both ends. This somehow enables them to raise up
more efficiently and to feel more at ease.

Figure 5.20. In this easiestversion of the prone boat (with oars coasting in the
water), muscles are held firm on the back side of the body. Superimposed on
that effort, the respiratory diaphragm lifts both the upper body and the lower
extremities concentrically during each inhalation and drops them eccentrically
during each exhalation, making this is a whole-body, diaphragm-assisted
backward bend.

.S-&&

Figure5.21.Thisthird versionof the prone boat is the most difficultone,and

few studentswill be able to lift up this far,but if studentsstartwith the first two
versionsas preparatoryposes/this one becomeseasier.
 5 , I J A L K B T A D I \ G P O S II

As with the cobra postures, many older people who are chronically bent
forward can benefit from a propped-up prone boat by placing supporting
cushions under the torso. If the cushions are chosen and adjusted perfectly,
their heads, arms, and feet will be in a comfortable beginning position.
They can then lift up at both ends and be rewarded with a beneficial exercise.

THE BOW POSTURES

When an advanced student has come into the bow posture, it resembles a
drawn bow: the torso and thighs are the bow, and the taut upper extremities
and the legs are the string, which is drawn toward the ceiling at the junction
of the hands and the ankles. The beginner's posture is not so elegant. Most
of its length is flattened down against the floor, and the pose is acutely
hinged at the knee joints.

THE BEGINNER'S BOW

To begin, lie prone, flex the knees, and grasp the anklcs. Try to lift yourself
into a bow, not by backbending with the deep back muscles, which remain
relaxed in the beginning posture, but by attempting to extend the legs at
the knee joints with the quadriceps fcmoris musclcs. An attempt to
straightcn the knee joints is little more than an attempt, since you are
holding onto the ankles, but it does li{t the thighs and extend the knees
moderately (fig. l.zz).
It seemsextraordinary that the quadriceps l'emoris muscles (figs. 3.9,
fi.fi, and lJ.rt) are the foremost actors for creating this posture, but that
is the case.At first they are in a state <tfmild strctch becausethe knees
are flexed. Then, shortening these muscles concentrically against the
resistance of the arms and forearms creatcs tension that begins to pull
the body into an arc. 'l'he quadriccps muscles arc performing three roles
simultaneously: extending the knce joints from a flexed position, lifting
the thighs, and creating tension that draws the bow. The tensions on the
knee joints can be daunting fbr a beginner, and many students do well
just to grab their ankles. If that is the case, they may not lift up at all
but merely contract the quadriceps muscles isometrically. 'lhat's fine.
Just doing this every day will gradually strengthen the muscles and
toughen the connective tissue capsules of the knee joints enough to
eventually permit coming up further into the posture.

T H E I N T E R M E D I A T EA N D A D V A N C E D B O W S

Intermediate students will approach the bow with a different emphasis.

They may use the quadriceps femoris muscles to lift the knees in the begin-
ning, but they aid this movement by engaging the deep back muscles (the
erector spinae) to create an internal arch. Then, as they come higher they
306 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

will use the gluteal muscles in the hips to provide even more lift. Ancl as
the gluteus maximus muscles shorten concentrically for extending the
hips, they lift the pelvis away from the floor and indirectly aid extension of
the knee joint.
As advanced students lift into the posture, the lumbar region becomes
fully extended and the hips become hyperextended. Such students rvill be
dividing their attention among at least five tasks after they bend their
knees and gr:asptheir ankles: paying attention to stretch and tension ofthe
quadriceps; maintaining a strong connection between the ankles and
shoulders; watching the knee joints, which are receiving an unconventional
stress;overseeingthe complex muscular interactions between the quadriceps
femoris muscles on one hand and the gluteal muscles that lift the thighs
during extension of the hip joints on the other; and breathing, which is
rocking the upper half of the body up with each inhalation and dropping it
forward with eachexhalation (frg. 5.23).Once theseconditions arc established,
advanced students can take the final option ofdrawing the feet toward thc
head.
The nervous systcm orchestratesall of this complcx musculoskcletal
activity. In beginners, the quadriceps femoris muscles, deep back muscles,
and gluteals do not receive clear messagesto lift strongly into the posture.
Instead, they are inhibited by numerous pain pathways that take origin
from the.joints (especiallythe knees),and from the Iront side of'the body
generally. Such reflex input should not be overridden by the power of will.
IJven advanced students who are able to lift up more strongly may find that
discomfbrt in the sacroiliac, hip, and knee ioints limits the posture. Experts
honor these signals mindfully. Then, zrssoon as there is no longer any hint
of pain, the only limitations to the posture are musclc strength and
connective tissue constraints. Advanced students, having practiced the bow
thousands of times over a period of years, know exactly how much tension
can be placed safely on each joint and how to come down from the posture
without harm.

F i g u r e5 . 2 2 .I n t h i s
b e g i n n e r 'vse r s i o no I l h e
bow posture,the main
concentrationis on
liftingthe body using
t h e q u a d r i c e pfse m o r i s
muscles(kneeextensors
on the front of the
thighs).
 5. IJACKISIIi\"DING POSTI|RES lO7

THE KNEE JOINT

Studying the bow posture in detail leads us first and most obviously to the
knees. When the knee joint is extended (fig. ;.2+) it is almost invulnerable
to injury becauseall ofits component parts fit together perfectly and protect
the joint from torques and impacts from all directions. The flexed knee
joint is another matter. Its internal and external supporting ligaments have
to become loose to permit flexion, and any tension superimposed on the
flexed joint, whether from extension, twisting, or even additional flexion,
can make the joint vulnerable to injury.
Standing postures, even with the knees flexed, are rarely a problem. The
knee joint is the largest and strongest ioint in the body, and toting our
weight around from place to place is its forte. Under ordinary circum-
stances it can support tremendous muscular stresses hopping up and
down a flight of stairs on one foot, running down a mountain, and for those
who are prepared, jumping to the ground from heights of'five fect or more.
All of'these activities require only moderatc flcxion, and the kncc joint is
madc to order for them. The problem comes with yopJabackward bending
postures thal flex the knce under unnatural circumstances.
The bow posture is a case in point. The beginning pose must start with
a flexed knee joint which is then forccd into extension from an awkward
and unfamiliar prone posture. lndccd, it is hard to imaginc a more unnatural
or demanding role for this joint than to usc it as the primary tool for lif ting
into the bow. The intermediatc and advanced postures are not so much ol'
a problem becausethey make more efficient usc of'the erector spinac muscles,
the hamstrings, and the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms for coming up
into the posture. They use knee extension merely to aid the lift, and they
do so from a less completcly flexed position than in the beginner's bow.
The two advanced cobra poses stress the knees in an entirely different
way. We comc into these postures with the knees straight, which does not
stress them at all, but once the rest of the body is settled we can take the
additional option of bending the knees and pulling the feet toward the

F i g u r e5 . 2 3 .I n t h i s a d v a n c e d
b o w ( l h e s t r i n go f t h e b o w i s
drawn to the rear at the junction
o f t h e h a n d s a n d t h e a n k l e s ) ,t h e
lumbar region is extended 90'
and the hips are hyperextended.
The quadriceps femoris muscles
are not nearly so important as in
the beginner's bow; they can
h e l p i n i t i a t ec o m i n g u p a s a n
option, but they are nol
important as prime movers for
the final pose.
 3O8 ANATOTIY OF HATHA YOGA

head. This increasestension on the quadriceps femoris muscles at the same

time the joint ligaments start to become lax. Unfamiliar and disquieting
sensations warn us promptly to be wary, and only after much experience
will students not have misgivings about completing this last refinement of
the cobra. To understand how the strongest joint in the body can be so
vulnerable to injury, we must examine the anatomical components of the
knee that often create problems. We'll begin with the menisci.

THE MENISCI

The two bones that stand in end-to-end apposition to one another in the
knee joints, the tibia and the femur, can withstand the repetitive shocks of
walking and running because they arc well cushioncd. The lower ends of
the femurs (fentoral condyles) and the upper ends of the tibias (tibial
condyles) are covered with thick layers of'articular hyaline cartilage Lhat

medial head of
gastrocnemius

VASIUS
lateralis
semr-
quaoflceps membranosus
femoris adductor Ienoon
tendon magnus
lateralhead
tendon
patella of gastroc-
nemius
patellar
medial lateral
lenoon (fibular)
(tibial)
collateral collateral
lateral ligament ligament
(fibular)
collateral
ligament brceps
femoris
tendon

neao
of
gracilis
fibula
tendon

tibia popliteus

Figure 5.24. On the left is an anterior view of a superficial dissection of the right
extended knee joint, and on the right is a posterior view (from Sappey).
 1. IJA(' K Ul:.\ l)J.\ G P( )tTI

have a slippery surface for permitting flexion and extension. In addition,

donut-shaped wafers of fibrocartilage called the medial and lateral menisci
6r medial and lateral semilunar cartilages), cushion the mating surfaces
of the condyles (fig. 5.25).Torn menisci are difficult to treat because they
have Iost their blood supply by the time we reach our mid-zos, and if they
are damaged after that time, usually in dance or athletics, they are essentially
irreparable. This is why "torn cartilages" are greeted so apprehensively by
adult athletes.
The menisci move freely during the course of flexion. This is not ordinarily
a problem becausewe assumethat they will come back into their home position
when the kneejoint is subsequentlyextended.But that doesnot always happen,
and if it doesn't the menisci can get crushed by the opposing condyles.This
might happen when you kick a ball or start to get up from a squatting position,
and if you ever encounter unusual resistance to extensicln under such
circumstances, carefully sit down and massage the knee before you try to
straighten it. If you crush the mcnisci the clnly remedy mzry bc trimming
them surgically, if not removing them outright.

medial posterior anterior lateral bursa

suprapatellar
femoral cruciate cruciate femoral
condyle ligament ligament condyle
quaonceps
medial femoris
lateral
(tibial) tenoon
meniscus
collateral
(semilunar
ligament
cartilage)
patella

fat
pao

medial posterior
mentscus patellar
cructale Ienoon
(semilunar ligament
cartilage)

cut end of
anterior
cruciate
ligament

tibia fibula trbra

Figure 5.25. On the left is an anterior view of a deep dissection of the flexed left
knee joint, and on the right is a sagittal cut through the extended knee joint
(from Sappey).
3TO AAATO]VY OF HATHA YOGA

THE CRUCIATE LIGAMENTS

The femur and tibia meet together in a hinge, and two internal ligaments, the
anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (fi1. 5.2), keep the bones in align-
ment. Viewed from the side, the cmciate ligaments forrn an X. The anterior
cruciate ligament runs from the back of the femur to the front of the tibia
and constrains anterior displacement of the tibia in relation to the femur,
while the posterior cruciate ligament runs from the front of the femur to the
back of the tibia and constrains posterior displacementof the tibia.
The cruciate ligaments, especially the anterior cruciate ligament, are
commonly stretched or torn in knee injuries, and even though they do not
lose their blood supply entirely, as do the menisci, they are still so poorly
vascularized that they do not easily heal. Many prof'essional football
careers have been brought to an abrupt end by an anterior cruciate injury.
Envision a linebacker in a crouched position, clipped from bchind by an
opponent who throws his full wcight against the top of the unsuspecting
tibia. This will certainly tear the anterior cruciate ligament. It would be
surprising, to say thc lcast, to hear of'anyonc injuring a cruciatc ligament
doing advanced hatha yoga posturcs, but someonewith an old iniur'.ymight
find that ccrtain postures bear watching.

THE MEDIAL AND LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS

The othcr two commonly injured ligaments in the knec are the trtediol ancl
lateral collaleral ligarnents (fig. i.z+-uS), which are important acccssory
ligamcnts on the medial and lateral aspectsof the joint capsules.I'hesearc
frequently injured by weckcnd athletes pl:rying sports in which thc body is
wrenched and twistcd in a direction al cross-pllrposesto foot position. It
might bc touch football, racquetball,or any sprlrt in which y<lurconsciriusness
is directed away from your foundation. The collateral ligaments are often
sprained under such conditions,meaning that some of their conncctivetissue
fibers have been torn away from thcir bony attachments. Such injuries are
slow to heal. If someone says they have a "trick knee," it is often a{ter a
long history of' collateral ligament sprains. As with cruciate ligament
injuries, yoga postures are less likely to create new injuries than to irritate
old ones.

THE PATELLA AND BURSAE

The main role of thepatella, or kneecap (figs. 5.2-1-25),

is to make extension
of the knee joint more efficient. It is a sesamoid bone, that is, a bone that
is inserted in a tendon, in this casebetween the quadriceps femoris tendon
and the patellar tendon (fig. ;.2+1.During flexion it slides down the inter-
condylar notch, a deep vertical gutter between the femoral condyles (the
articular end of the femur); during extension it acts like a pulley on the
front of the knee. The patella is important in any activity in which the knee
is supporting the weight of the body in a partially flexed position. You can
imagine how useful it is in a standing lunge (fig. 1.2),or when you are rising
up from a half squat with a barbell on your shoulders. In these activities
your entire body is supported by the quadriceps femoris muscles, quadriceps
tendons, patellas, and patellar tendons.
The up and down movement of the patella is made possible by the
suprapateLLarbursa, a lubricant-filled sack that is situated between the
patella and the underlying tissues (frg. l.z;). Bursae are common accessories
to many joints whose attaching tendons move in relation to their underlying
tissues. If adhesionsresulting from disease,injury or inactivity develop within
a bursa, the tendon can no longer slip back and fbrth easily.And this' in the
case of the suprapatellar bursa, is one of'the commonest causes of a "stiff
knee" following traumatic injury. A circular problem may develop-you
can't flex the knee becauseofthe injury, the bursa developsadhesions,and
the adhcsions further inhibit mobility. Again' the practical concern in
hatha yoga is with old injuries. If they flare up, students so affected should
bc cautioned not to do any postures that stress the knees until the problem
is resolved.

MINOB KNEE PROBLEMS

What can be done to prevent and resolve minor knee problems? The
answer is simple-regular and prolonged muscular tension zrppliedto thc
cxtended knee.joint. Llnder those circumstances all parts of the joint fit
together perf'ectlx allowing it to withstand intense isometric contraction of
the surrounding muscles. If you have knee pzrinwhich is not due to serious
internal injurics, the followingJseries of standing postures can be highly
therapeutic.
Keep the f'eetparallel and as widely separated as possible while holding
the thigh muscles firmly, especially the adductors. Extending the knees
fully is fine provided you do not hyperextend them beyond ttlo", and provided
you hold tension in the hamstrings as well as the quadriceps femoris muscles.
Holding a firm base with isometric tension is the whole point of'this series.
Twist right, then left, then {ace the front; in each direction bend forward
and backward, holding each position for z-7 breaths (about 5-3o seconds).
That's six combinations. Hold the arms in various positions-elbows
g.raspedbehind the back ffrg. 7.r7a-f); arms and forearms stretched laterally;
hands in a prayer position behind the back; arms overhead with fbrearms
behind the head and catching the elbows; hands interlocked behind the
back and pulled to the rear; arms in a cow-faceposition first one way and
then the other; and hands on the hips (fig. 7.tita-g)' That makes six times
eight which equals forty-eight poses.
 Start modestly, doing the postures only five minutes a day, and then
gradually increase your commitment. If you spend fifteen minutes a day on
this series, you cannot help but strengthen the muscles that insert around
the knee and place a healthy stress on the capsule ofthe kneejoint, as well
as on its associatedtendons and ligaments. And this works wonders. After
a few months of regular practice, the connective tissues of the joint will
have gained enough strength and integrity, at least in the absenceof serious
medical problems, to withstand not only reasonable stresseson the knees
in flexed positions, but also the stressesof sitting in cross-leggedmeditative
postures.

SUPINE BACKBENDING POSTURES

I'he standing and prone backbends play an obvious role in hatha yoga. But
what is a supine backbend? How can one do such a thing? Oddly enough,
this is indeed possible, and several of the most important traditional back-
bending postures in hathzr yoga, including the fish, the wheel, and the
bridge, either start or end in a supine or semi-supincpclsition.In addition
to that, in more recent times postures that support the back with a bolster
or a ball have becomc rcgular fixtures in many practice plans, cspecially
those with a therapeutic orientation.
Like the prone backbcnding postures, wc can dividc supine backbending
postures into two categories,active and passive,depending on whether you
lift yourself internally into a backbend or lie supine on a prop that allows
you to relax. The simplest active supine backbending posture is to lie on
your btrck zrndlift the abdomen toward thc ceiling. We can call this a lumbar
lift, and that's where we'll start.

THE LUMBAB LIFT AND LUMBAR PRESS

To do the lumbar lift, Iie in the corpse posture, rclax your abdomen, and
arch the lower back furward by tightening the deep back muscles. 'the
effect of this is to drag the rear ol'the pelvis and coccyx along the floor
toward the shoulders, and thus increase the lumbar klrdosis. This posture,
however, is not entirely stable: you can't maintain it except by continuing
to pull on the hips from above. To create a posture that you can observe at
your leisure, heave your hips up away from the floor while holding your
weight momentarily between your heels and shoulders, and at the same
time tug the hips forcibly toward the head using the deep back muscles.
Then maintaining that tension with the back muscles, drop the hips back
to the floor. If you do this two or three times in succession,readjusting each
time to a deeper backbend, you will create a stable lumbar arch.
Once you are acclimated to it, you will notice that this posture is a good
illustration of how inhalations either take you further into a posture or
 1, B/1(.KBF\DT.\,rc; POSTI

increase internal tension, and how exhalations either relax you toward a
neutral position or decrease internal tension. If you keep the abdominal
wall relaxed after you have lifted up, a deep abdominal inhalation pushes
the abdomen further out and merely increases intra-abdominal pressure;
if you hold moderate tension in the abdominal wall after you have lifted up,
a full diaphragmatic inhalation increasesinternal tension, accentuatesthe
lumbar lordosis, and takes you further into the posture (fig. l.z6). Each
exhalation, by contrast, either decreasesintra-abdominal pressure in the
caseof abdominal breathing, or relaxes you down slightly toward a neutral
position in the case of diaphragmatic breathing.
When you are breathing diaphragmatically the lumbar lift becomes
another diaphragm-assisted backbend, and except that it is supine, the
posture is comparable to a prone diaphragrnatic rear lift. In both casesit is
impossible to create the lifting eff'ect with inhalation unless the gluteal
muscles are relaxed, and that is why it helps to pull your hips forcefully
into a higher settled position. After f'eeling the effccts of brcathing in the
new posture, you can come out of it by thrusting your hips back inferiorly
'fhen relax in the corpse posture and
to flatten your back toward the floor.
notice that the diaphragm is no longer affecting the spinc.
The opposite and complementary posture to the lumbar lift might be
c:rlleda lumbar press, and this is another challenging exercisein concen-
tration and awareness. Again sterrt in the corpse posture, but this time
exhalc while you flatten your back against the floor ffig. 5.27) using the
abdominal muscles(figs. -3.rr-r3,ll.ll, ll.tt, and 13.13),
as discussedin chapter
'fhen kcep the back immobilc as you inhzrle,and notice the adjustments
-t.
you must make internally to accomplish that. Each inhzrlation tends to pull
the lumbar lordosis fbrward, zrndthat has to be prevented with extra intra-
abdominal pressure and tension from the rectus abdominis muscles, even
though this pressure and tcnsion restrains inhalation. It's a balancing act.
Exhalation is also a balancing act becauseit tends to create a slight release,
and if you are not watchful the lower back will start to return to its slightly
arched neutral position. So in the end both inhalation and exhalation have

. ,i:&: t:. ti -3:)......

. - - ..@d*,*

Figure5.26.Lumbarlift.A full diaphragmatic inhalationsuperimposedon having

first draggedthe pelvistoward the shouldersand havingrelaxedthe gluteal
musclesis illustratedhere.The poseis a diaphragm-assistedbackbend(arrow).
 YOGA

to be monitored constantly to keep the back pressed against the floor.

Another complicating factor is that most students concentrate on the press
so intently that they forget their extremities, and this will usually mean
tensing them. Try not to let that happen. This is a breathing and con-
centration exercise for the lower back and abdomen.
The lumbar press is more delicate than, but otherwise similar to, the
preparatory position for the basic supine double leglift (fig. 3.r7). There we
were preparing for a tremendous amount of tension on the lumbar lordosis
from the hip flexors, and we had to make a no-holds-barred effort to keep
the lumbar region flat against the floor. Here we are looking at somethinpg
morc refined. We are lying supine with the lower back pressed to the floor
and exploring an exercise without movement, holding the lower back flat
against the floor during both inhalation and exhalation.
'lhe
lumbar lilt is obviously contraindicated fbr anyonc with lower back
problems, but the lumbar press is a different matter. Anyclne who can master
that posture will havc a potent weapon for dealing with low back problems.
'l'he
exercise will strengthen the abdominal muscles along with the pelvic
and respiratory diaphragms, and one can gradually lcarn to usc breathing
to bring conscious awarcness to the abdominopelvic reE;ion.Coupled with
mild prone backbending postures that strengthen the back musclcs, the
Iumbar press is a powerful means to lumbar health.

THE FISH

Most fish regulate their buoyancy with swim bladders into which oxygen is
sccreted from the blood (which helps them rise toward the surface), and
from which oxygcn is absorbcdinto thc blood (which helps them descend).
Human beings do something similar: if they barely have enough body fat
to cnable them to float, they can regulate their buoyancy in the water by
the amount of air in their lungs. And so it is that one o1'thc most efl'ective
ways to stay afloat is to settle into the classic yogic fish posture (fig. 5.213)
with the feet lblded into the lotus position, the lumbar region deeply

Figure5.27.The lumbarpressis a demandingbreathingand concentration

exercisefor the backand lower abdomenin which the tendencyof the
diaphragmto pull the lumbarregionforwardis fully countermandedby
intra-abdominal pressurethat stronglypressesthe lower backagainstthe floor
(arrow)and that restrainsinhalation.
 5. RACKBENDING PoSTLIRIiS ]Ii

arched, the head and neck extended, and the anterior surface of the chest
just above the surface of the water. Under these circumstances the body
will rise and fall in the water with each inhalation and exhalation.
Although the fish is a backbending posture, we also placed it in chapter
(fig.
-3 because an advanced abdominal exercise-the superfish leglift
j.rgb)-can be derived from the pose. We'll analyze the simplest beginning
fish here, and cover other variations ofthe posture with the shoulderstand,
with which it is traditionally paired as a counterstretch (fig. g.tq). To start,
lie supine with the hands under the hips (palms up or down as you choose),
knees extended, and feet together. Lift up on the forearms, arching your
back, head, and neck, and then place a little ofyour weight on the back of
the head,just enough to touch the floor. Extend the spine as much as possible
as you support the posture with the forearms (fig. ;.t9a).
Respiratory responsesin the fish posture depend on the extent of'your
lumbar arch and on how active you chooseto bc in the posture. In students
who are not very flexible, the costal insertion of the diaphrzr,grncannot
move the base of the rib cage becauseits botttlm rim is alrcady open, and
the crural insertion cannot lift the lumbar lordosis becausethat reg;ion is
already arched to its maximum. The only thing that can obvit-ruslymove is
the abdominal wall, which moves anteriorly with each inhalation and
posteriorly with each exhalation. Advanccd students who are more flexible
and able to arch up more convincingly will have an altogether different
experience. They will be doing diaphrag;rn-assistedbackbcnding, and their
relaxed posture in combination with a favorable arm position also permits
them to enlarge thcir uppcr chests fbr empowered thoracic breathing m6rc
convincingly here than in any other posture'

THE WHEEL

The wheel is one of the most dynamic whole-body postures in hatha yoga.
Its Sanskrit narne,chakrasdna, implies that it activates the body from head
to toe. In its fullest circular expression,with the hands touching the heels,
it is the backbendofbackbends.
The conventional way to come into the wheel is to lie supine with the
feet flat on the floor and as close to the hips as possible. Place the palms

Figure5.28.Thisclassicfish
posturewith the feet in the
lotuspositionis rewarding
only for advancedstudents. .
.:-
Otherswill enjoythe more ;t-
elementaryposturewith the
feet outstretcned(fig.3.19a).
 316 ANATOMY Or' HATTTA YOGA

near the shoulders with the fingers pointing down. Then lift the pelvis and
push the hands against the floor, straightening the elbows to complete the
posture. Let the head hang passively.If you have limited strength but plenty
of flexibility (fig. i.zq) you can easily come up, and if you have lots of
strength but limited flexibility you can push yourself up into some
semblanceof the posture with brute force. If you are limited in both realms
the posture will be challenging, and all you may be able to do is push
against the floor isometrically.
Given average spinal flexibility, the key to the posture is efficient use of
the triceps brachii muscles.But the problem is that when the shoulders are
against the floor, the extreme position of the upper extremities (with the
wrists extended 9o" and the elbows fully flexed) challengesthe ability of the
triceps brachii muscles to extend the forearms. If students find themselves
strugglingjust to lift their hips, they will probably find that extending their
elbows to complete the posture is impossible. And even if they can push
themselvespartway up, the iliopsoasand the rectus femoris musclcs, acting
as extensile ligaments, will start to limit them and prevent the requisite
hyperextensionof the hips. These problems are not insurmountable, and
the usual remcdy is to keep trying evcry day, grerduallyincreasing strengl,h
and improving the backward bending capacity of the spine and hips. you
can also lift up on your fingertips and the balls of the feet to makc it easier.
s o o n e r o r l a t c r e v e r y t h i n g c o m e s t o g e t h e r a n d i t b e c o m e sp o s s i b r et o
partially extend the elbows, and when that happens the triceps brachii
muscles will be more efficient in lifting you up. How the posture appears at
that point will depend on the amount of backward bending in the spine and
hips. With moderatc flexibility the posture resembles an arch bridge, and
with exccllent llexibilitv it becomeschakrasana.

Figure5.29.The wheel posture

requiresa combinationof sacroiliac
nutation(seechaptersix),moderate
hip hyperextension, 90oof lumbar
extension,and enoughstrengthin
the arms(especially the triceps
brachii)to pushup into the posture.
Alternatively, thosewho are
e s p e c i a l lfyl e x i b l ec a n d r o p i n t o
il:aa:s
the posefrom a standingposition.
 '. BA(:KBENDING POSTLIR}iS 3I7

We know that the diaphragm generally limits backbending in those who

are not flexible, and this is especially true of the wheel, where the need for
muscular effort overwhelms the ability to deepen the backbend with
inhalations. Advanced students who are lifted up in the posture don't have
that problem. They can easily adjust their breathing so that inhalations
arch them up more powerfully.
Ifyou are an advanced student or gymnast who can drop backward into
the wheel from a standing posture, you will find this an excellent study in
re-ordering priorities. Instead of establishing a solid base and moving your
attention and efforts from distal to proximal (chapter 4), you lean backward
from a standing position, exhale, and drop into a provisional backbend with
your focus on the lower back. Then you alter the positions ofthe upper and
lower extremities, moving them closer together to bring the core of the
body under tension.
As you lower yourself into the posture, the quadriceps femori comc into
their own, resisting all the way. The pectoral muscles also come under
increased tension and impart that tension to the chest. All of this happens
fast, but you are able to do it becauscyou have prepared for a long time and
are confident that the abdominal muscles, the respiratory and pelvic
diaphragms, and the pstlas, iliacus and rectus femoris musclcs will havc
cnough stren6gh to protect the lumbar rep;ion.
Advanced students will always cxhale as they drop into the wheel from
a standing position. Intermediate students often do not have that much
confidence, and if they are uncertain of themselves they tend to hold their
breath as they drop back, knowing consciously or unconsciously that this
will protect the back. As thcy stiffly lower their hands to the floor, often
with a plop, it is obvious that they are going beyond their reasonable capacity.
Such students should concentrate on coming into the wheel from the
supine posture until they are more flexible and confident.
Both intermediate and advanced students will lind that they need to be
watchful of their knees, especially if they wish to lift from the wheel back
'l'he quadriceps femoris muscles are already exerting
into a standing posture.
a lot of tension on the knee joints in a flexed position, and that tension will
increase during the forward-thrusting maneuver to stand up.

PASSIVE SUPINE BACKBENDING

The deep muscles that ordinarily hold the spine erect also keep it
compressed,and it is only when you are lying down that they can relax and
allow the vertebral bodies to spread apart (chapter 4). Any reclining
position can accomplish this aim to some extent, but it is especially useful
to relax in a passive supine backbend in which you lie on a bolster that
permits your spine to extend without muscular involvement.
318 ANATOTIY OF IIA',r'HA |'OGA

In hatha yoga classeswe can accomplish this by lying passively on a ball

placed underneath the spine anywhere between the pelvis and the head.
This will open and release the facet joints of the superior and inferior
articulating processes,and you can relax and let gravity do the work of
stretching the spine, with the ball acting as a fulcrum all the way up and
down the vertebral column. The idea is to relax muscles from the knees to
the head on both the front and back sides of the body. It is a good idea to
be wary of doing these exercises too much in the beginning. They are
deceptively simple. They increase back and neck mobility, and they stretch
you out more than you realize. It is easy to do too much and not know it
until the next day.
You can experiment with different types and sizes of balls, but
standard ll r/z inch playground balls (sometimes called foursquare balls
or action balls) that contain r-z pounds of air pressure per square inch
work well. This size and type of ball is excellent if you are in good to average
condition. It is relatively soft, it does not press too sharply against thc
spinous processesand back muscles in any one place, and it's big cnough
tcl give most people a good stretch. Basketballs, volleyballs, and soccer
balls are too hard for the avcrageperson. Softer plastic balls can be fbund
for those who find the standard playground ball too hard. But don't try
these exerciscsat all if'you have acute back pain or a recent history of
chronic back problems.
First place the ball under the pelvis with the knees extended, and roll
from side to side to mobilize and stimulate the sacroiliacjoints, applying
pressure to different regions of the pelvic bowl and noticing whcther or
not you can relax (fig. 5.jo;. If you can't, it mcans that you are having to
protect yourself for some reason, and you may want to use a smaller and
softer ball or place some pillows under the hips and shoulders to lessen
the stretch. Then, after working with the pelvis and sacroiliacjoints, roll
the body down an inch at a time so the ball makes contact with Ls. then
L4, and on toward the mid-lumbar region, continuing to roll from side to
side in each new position. Take your time and explore the sensations.
You may feel some discomfort posteriorly as well as muscular resistance
in the thighs, muscular resistance that pulls downward on the front of
the pelvis. 'Ihis tension (on both right and left sides) comes from the
rectus femoris muscle, which pulls inferiorly on the anterior inferior
iliac spine (of the pelvis), and from the sartorius muscle, which, as the
longest muscle in the body, pulls inferiorly on the anterior superior iliac
spine aIl the way from the medial border of the tibia. Notice that
breathing has little impact on the posture: your lumbar region is already
arched so deeply that the crura of the diaphragm cannot further
increase the Iordosis.
 5, BACKIS}'NDING POSTIiRES .]I9

you will have different sensations when the ball is under the mid-lumbar
region (in comparison with the pelvis) because this segment of the spine
permits a Iot ofbackbending. Ifyou have any lower back tenderness, your
weight on the ball at this site will exposeit quickly, but if you are entirely
comfortable you will soon feel relaxation spreading down the body. First
the shoulders relax and the upper chest sinks toward the floor; then the
abdominal muscles start to relax, which allows your breathing to become
slow and smooth; then the hip flexors (the psoasand iliacus muscles) begin
to relax, along with the quadriceps femori, the adductors, and the
hamstring muscles. As that happens the relaxation deepens and the back
conforms more and more to the curvature of the ball (fig. l.:t ).
When you roll the ball to the lumbar-thoracic junction, the lumbar
lordosis becomesless pronounced but is capable of more mobility, and deep
inhalations will accentuate its arch. Now it becomesmore diflicult to roll
{rom side to side, but stretching the arms overhead adds to the strctch in
the chcst and opens the rib cagc. This creates a perf'ect moment to take
decp thoracic inhalations and expand your inspiratory capacity' The work
in this region will now start to afl'ect thc neck becausethe head drops back
passively,and the ncck will have to be strong; and flexible to support its
dead weight. If you are uncomftrrtable you can place one or more pillows
under your head to temper the stretch and tension.
As you roll the ball under the middle and uppcr thtlracic rcgitln you can
gradually lower the hips to the floor and slowly fccl resistzrncemelt away
(fig. S.:z). As soon as that happens thc lumbar region will becomc passive
and will not be affected by your breathing, and you will notice that the
exercise mostly afT'ectsthe neck and rib cage. As you rclax with the ball
undcr the chest, you may fcel small ad.lustmentstaking place at ttny t'acet
joints located between the ribs and the vertebral bodies, and bctween the
ribs and the transverseprocesses(figs. 4.6a, 41a b, and 5.33).'lhis can be
helpful if a rib has become dislocated at the site of these joints by a sudden
unusual movement when the spine is in a bent position. Someone who
understands the anatomy of the joints between the ribs and the spine can
work the head of the rib back into its correct position and bring relief, but
passive supine backbending on a ball can also alleviate minor dislocations.

F i g u r e5 . 3 0 .P a s s i vseu p i n eb a c k b e n dw i t h a n B 1 / 2 i n c h p l a y g r o u n b d a l lu n d e r
t h e p e l v i sa n d r o l l e ds l i g h t l yt o o n e s i d e .H e r ew e a r es t i m u l a t i n ag n d m o b i l i z -
ing the sacroiliac joints.
 -l2o ANATOMY Or" HATHA YOGA

With the ball under the neck you should try to relax from the lower
chest down. At first you may experience some pulling sensations in the
upper chest that are difficult to release,but after you have worked with the
various postures in the shoulderstand series (chapter 9) and your neck has
become strong and flexible, this posture becomes so comfortable that you
can easily fall asleepin it. Do be watchful of this. It is easy to develop a stiff
neck ifyou stop paying attention to what you are doing.
After you have gotten used to placing your weight straight back
symmetrically, yo'.1can roll the head and neck from side to side against
the ball, mashing down against it actively, working your way down the
t r a n s v e r s e p r o c e s s e so f t h e v e r t e b r a e b e t w e e n C r a n d C 7 . T h i s i s b o t h
stimulating and relaxing, and it is an intense but effective remedy for
stiffness. It can be done softly against a spongy ball by someone who is
delicate, more vigorously against a playground ball by the average
person, and even more aggressively against a soccer ball, volley ball, or
basketball by bodybuilders.

A KNEELING BACKBENTTHE CAMEL

A camel's back is about sevenfeet off the ground. Fortunately for its rider, a
camel can kneel, so one doesnot have to embark and disembark to and from
that height, and that is where this kneeling hatha yoga posture gets its
name. only intermediate and advancedstudents should try the full version,
and even they should do the following test exercisesifthey have not done the
pclsturcbefore.

F i g u r e . 5 . 3A1 .b a l lp l a c e dd i r e c t l yu n d e rt h e l u m b a rr e g i o ni s s u p r e m e l rye r a x i n g
if the lower back is healthy,but if the subjectis unableto relaxihe abdomen
and thighs,this is evidencefor currentor incipientlower back problems.

F.igure5.32.A ball placed under the mid-chest region permits the pelvis to
drop to the floor, and mobilizes the facet joints between the ribs and thoracic
vertebral bodies, and between the ribs and the thoracic transverseprocesses
(see figs. 4.6-7 and 5.33).
 IRES 321

Kneel with your thighs at right angles to the floor with your weight
placed on your knees and the bottom surfaces of your flexed toes. Next,
place the hands on the hips, fingers down. Stretch the pelvis forward.
Keeping enough tension in the quadriceps femoris and iliopsoas muscles
to keep you from falling backward, Iower your head to the rear and extend
the spine backward until you are at the limit of the quadriceps and iliop-
soas muscles' ability to hold the position comfortably. Watch your breath:
ifyou have to restrain it at the glottis to protect your spine, you have gone
too far.
At this point look and reach back with only one hand, swinging the
other arm forward for balance. Do this first on one side and then on the
other (fig. 5.3,+),making a mental note of how difficult it would be to place
both hands against the heels or ankles at the same time. Now try the same
exercise with your toes pointed to the rear. It is quite a bit harder. Because
the heels are closer to the floor you have to reach back further than you
do with the toes flexed, and reaching back further will require more
stretch and strength of the quadriceps femoris muscles, which are already
being worked and perhaps overworkedjust to support the posture. Finally.

sprnous

transverseprocess

facetjoint cavity
betweenrib and
Iransverse
process

headof the rib

facetjoint cavitybetween
rib and vertebralbody

intervertebral
disk

Figure 5.33.A cross-sectionthrough a mid-thoracic vertebra and two ribs. The

viewpoint is from above, and it portrays an intervertebral disk along with the
vertebral arch, pedicles, laminae, and vertebral canal. Four synoviallacet joint
cavities are also apparent two between the heads of the ribs and the vertebral
body, and two more between the ribs and the transverseprocesses(from
Morris). See also figs. 4.6a and 4.7a-b.
322 ANATOMY OF HAI'IIA YOGA

ifyou are comfortable in the test exercisesand confident that you can do
the full posture and come out of it gracefully, flex your toes again, reach
back, and either touch your heels momentarily with your middle fingers
or rest your hands on your ankles. You can easily come out of either
position by pushing up asymmetrically from one side. Come up, then come
back down into the posture and push up from the other side first. It will
be harder on the thighs to come up symmetrically, Iifting up and away
from both ankles at the same time. When you can finally come in and out
of this posture gracefully, either one side at a time, or from both side
symmetrically, start all over and work with the pose with the toes extended
(fig.5.3t;.
'lhe camel posture might be considered a modification of a standing
backbend, except that it is more advanced becauseyou can't come into it
halfway. You're cither in it or you're not. In a standing backbend you can
arch back to within your reasonable capacity, stzrythere for a while, and
then come up, but the only way you can do the camel is to reach back fbr
your heels or ankles, and keep on reaching until you make ctlntact. There
is another less demanding alternative if you are a beginner, and that is
to support the lower back with your hands and arch back as far as your
capacity permits. Over time, you will develop enough confidence to reach
for one heel.
The camel generally places the body in an unusual combination of joint
positions hyperextension ol'the hips, stress on the knees from tension in
the quadricepsfemori, extensionofthc ankles, and extensionofthe spinc.
You have to focus your attention from head to toc, and at the same time you

, F5-*"-

F i g u r e5 . 3 4 .B e g i n n e r ' st r a i n i n g
pose for the camel. Reaching
back toward the heel (toes
flexed) with one hand while
the other is reaching forward
for balance is easy for healthy
beginners.
 5. BACKBENDTNG PO.'TIiRES 323

have to intuit how far to reach back in order to touch your ankles. Just
as important, you should come out of the posture the same way you came
in, but now you are pulling up and forward with the already-stretched
quadriceps femoris muscles, which are now at a mechanical disadvantage.
Even though it may be difficult to pull yourself up and forward with those
muscles, it's not a good idea to simply collapse down because that places
even more stress on the knees.

CONTRAINDICATIONS
By most standards of hatha yoga, the cobra exercises given through and
including the section on raising up and down with breathing are mild,
meaning that anyone in average condition can do them. The rest of the
cobras, however, as well as many of the other backbending postures that
follow, including most of'the locusts, boats, bows, the lumbar lift, the fish,
the wheel, passive supine backbending, and the camel, may be overly
stressful for anyone with a history of'chronic back pain, or even worse, for
anyone with acute back pain. Therefore be conservative, and consider
those postures contraindicated for such conditions.
Any posture that increasesintra-abdominal but not intrathoracic pressure
may exacerbate hiatal hernia, and many of the more challenging back-
bending postures crezrte these exact pressure dif{'erentizrls. II' you
sometimes have pain in the upper abdomen on the left side, especizrllyafter
eating, re-read the discussion on hiatal hernia in chapter.l so you can form
your own judEgnent about doing the backward bending postures. And ifyou
are still uncertain, seek medical advice.

Figure 5.35. Camel posture.

B u i l d u p t o i t c a u t i o u s l ya n d
systematicallyfrom the half-
camel, first with the feet and
toes flexed and finally with
them extended, always making
sure you can come out of the
posture gracefully.
321 ANATOMY OI: HATIIA YOGA

BENEFITS
Backbending, forward bending, twisting, inverted, and standing postures
each have individual and group personalities. Among these, backbending
postures are the most exhilarating and invigorating. As yoga postures they
stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and prepare you for activity. In
ordinary life activities, mild backbending relieves the tedium of sitting
hunched over a desk, the stress from manipulating objects in the environment,
and the habit of too much resting and reclining. In backbending you extend
yourself, literally and figuratively, by lifting your posture, raising your spirits,
and preparing yourself for action.

",ey'ftrtr'/)run.r
/) /'/:i a,.t //12,rt7ru*,nrr, e/)r/.1.,z.tatr: .lt/r,cz:Jrett

/)//inlt l/k, r,,z/tt:t'rttrrr, a//tttt)t. Z/|lnlrllq /" /ry' ,i l*,

1rtt/tttz:tt/ rr,//tr/ ra*1r,l lJ aunTnkzrq /a //lrr, 1Vrlrr/// ,r,r,r,
lit lL uttlr., ,',/7lrz, a7tz,,r'z/tVn.1atr' /a /i Va/ -:r/ e/'li
,//// /////////t,//

- Bengali Baba, in The Yogasutra of Patanjali, pp. j4-j5.

 CHAPTE,R
SIX
FORWARDBENDING
POSTURE,S

",{t n rc,.lrr/ a/)u'arhriu7

./.J./.t(1.,1/el /iqr.n k, uzzy'zt..1/azry'.t7azt.
.////1. /;./.t /i.r.rtqrrr,.qr,. ,',/7, /re.L/ r/z,r,r/)7.t t'/L .)//,,2
lrttJrht'//l alty',/tttaul tr,/ir/./i,r' //a, /ilry',qeu ra./ r.t izq./il "nt.
nr,/. "/r.,at. it/rzzn/'r/)r,/r.
1,qt/it/r':J ,lau. .lr,h,rl.a/i /trr.:/:l./1/,
a.nr/,Vazr. /iry'q l:t.t ,Vr,u /r.rtarr, ,/'lr7nr, /r. r,,rrzrr.1itq /ee tutr/t,
t/,Vrrun, l/lr/Dq /r,r, ,ttur/t, ,n,ry'.te/zrl/1. "
- Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, in Inner Qrzest,p. 6lt.

Uun yn.r touch your toes?" Flcxibility is equated first and fbremost with
"flex-ability," and flexing forward-reaching for your toes-is its universal
standard. It is what a hatha yoga teacher Iirst sees, what a high school
track coach on the alert for hamstring injuries is aware of, and it is the first
thing pcrsonal trainers check when they measure your flexibility in health
clubs. For testing purposesit means forward bending with the knees
straight; if the knees are bent most people can lbld fbrward almost
completely.
Whether we arc bending our knecs or keeping them straight, we make
vastly more use of forward bending than backbending. It is common
enough to face an object, reach forward, and pick it up, but f'ew can reach
backward from an upright posture into the wheel, and even those who are
able to do so would never reach over backward to retrieve something from
the floor. we also spend hours every day in sitting forward bends-in front
of computer screens,in car seats, in movie theaters, or on couches-generally
with our backs rounded to the rear and our hips flexed. Everything
considered, forward bending is more deeply ingrained in our bodies and
nervous systems than any other posture.
In chapter 5 we saw that backward bending takes place mostly in the
vertebral column, and that forward bending includes hip and ankle flexion
as well as spinal bending. And becausewe can bend forward generously at
the hips, we seemany more forward bending than backbending postures in
hatha yoga. They are included in one form or another in practically every
chapter of this book.
326 ANATO\-|Y OF HATHA YOGA

We'll start by looking at the anatomy of all the sites where forward
bending can take place, from head to toe. Then we'll focus on several
forward bending postures in detail: the posterior stretch and its varia-
tions, the down-facing dog, and the child's pose. And finally, because
forward bending relies so heavily on sacroiliac and hip flexibility, we'll
turn to the various postures and exercisesthat encourage movement in
the sacroiliac joints and that open the hip joints and make them more
accommodating.

FORWARD BENDING: HEAD, NECK, AND qHEST

We saw in chapter 5 that the seven cervical vertebrae permit about 9o"
of'forward flexion. In an upright posture, you can initiate a lbrward
bend of the head with the tiniest nudge from the sternocLeidornastoid
muscles (fig. lt.tt), which have a dual origin on the sternum and the
clavicle and run from there up and back to the heavy bony protuber-
a n c e ( t h e m a s t o i d p r o c e s s )i u s t u n d e r n e a t h t h e c a r . A l t c r i n i t i a t i n g
the bend with these muscles, gravity c:rrries the head further forward,
controlled (as should by now be familiar) by eccentriclengthening of
e x t e n s o r m u s c l e so n t h e b a c k s i d e o f t h e n e c k , a s w e l l a s b y t e n s i o n i n
thc clastic tissue in the ligamenta flaver and the ligamentum nuchae
(chapter 4).
As soon as the head comes forward, you can rest in that position and
expklre how the tissues rcspond. That is enough. It would bc unnatural to
make an extra cffort to flcx thc ncck whilc you arc focuscd primarily on
bending in the lower back and hip joints. Our main concern with the ncck
is that it be comfortable. Pain in one part of the body often has e{I'ectselse-
where, and neck pain doesn't have to be very serious before it stops your
desire to do anything else.
The articulations of the ribs with the twelve thoracic vertebrae
p o s t e r i o r l y ( c h a p t e r ' + )a n d w i t h t h e c o s t a l c a r t i l a g e s a n d s t e r n u m
anteriorly (figs. 2.5 and +.1-+) creates a hollow basket, a fixed unit that
cannot easily accommodate either forward, side, or backward bending.
Forcing the thoracic vertebrae and the rib cage into such curves would
only break ribs, disarticulate costal cartilages, and collapse the chest.
Only about to' total of forward to backward bending can take place with-
in the normal thorax of an average twenty-year-old, which means that
the front-to-back mobility of the upper part of the torso depends almost
entirely on spinal flexibility in the lumbar region, sacroiliac mobility,
and hip flexibility.
 6. FORWARD BENDTNG POSTITRES 327

LUMBAR AND LUMBOSACRAL FORWARD BENDING

In chapter 5 we saw that most forward bending in the spine from Tr and
below takes place in the six intervertebral disks in the lumbar area
between the twelfth thoracic vertebra and the sacrum. Up to 9o" of forward
bending is occasionally seen here, but jo-tlo' is more common. A moder-
ately flexible young athlete might reveal 4o' of flexibility in the lumbar
region plus 7!' of flexibility in the hips, and just be able to grasp his toes
w i t h h i s o u t s t r e t c h e df i n g e r st [ i g . r ' . rt .
Students who have good spinal flexibility might be able to bend
forward more than 5o" in the lumbar area, but they will not ordinarily
c h o o s et o d o s o i n h a t h a y o g a p o s t u r e s . I t i s m o r e c o n v e n i e n t f o r t h e m
to bend forward at the hip .joints,where cartilage slips against carti-
lage in synovial fluid, than to perturb the six intervertebral disks
between'I'rz and St. For the average person hip flexibility docs not
p c r m i t t h i s , a n d s u c h p e o p l e u s u a l l y t r y t o c o m p e n s a t eb y t r y i n g t o
bend fbrward more in the lower back. Yogatcachers know that this is
a formula for troublc, and that is why they alwavs sav "bend from the
h i p s ."

THE DEEP BACK MUSCLES

It takes only one glance at a class of noviccs attempting sitting for-

ward bends to see why it is not a good idea to lbrce such postures:
t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e d e e p b a c k m u s c l e s c o m p r e s s e st h e v e r t e b r a l
column, strcsses the intervcrtebral disks, and strains ligaments
from the sacrum to thc head. So iI'this is the casc,what do we want
f r o m t h e s p i n e a n d d e e p b a c k m u s c l e s ?T h e a n s w e r i s s t r e n g t h a n d
adaptability: deep back muscles that can relax completely in the
c o r p s e p < - r s t u r ep, l a y t h e i r r i g h t f u l r o l e a s e x t c n s i l e l i g a m e n t s I b r
m a i n t a i n i n g a n u p r i g h t p o s t u r e , a n d s t i l l a c t s t r t - r n g l ya s a g e n t s f o r
bending and twisting.

F i g u r e6 . 1 .T h i s
forward bend
illustrates75'
of hip flexion
and 40' of
Iumbarflexion
in a moderately
f l e x i b l ey o u n g
ath lete
(simulation).
 SACROILIAC NUTATION AND COUNTERNUTATION
Even though the sacroiliac joints are synovial joints, their opposing surfaces
usually fit together tightly enough for every movement of the pelvis to affect the
sacrum (and therefore the spine as a whole), and for every movement of the
sacrum to affect the pelvis. This view-that the sacroiliacjoints are essentially
immobile--has practical value, and it was in fact the only view until the t93os,
but it is an oversimplification: the synovial structure of the healthy sacroiliac
joint is now known to provide its groove-and-railarchitecture (frgs.-1.:and 6.zb)
with the capacity for a small amount of slippage-movements that have been
callednutation andcounternutation by the French orthopedist I.A. Kapandji.
Even though nutation and counternutation are often minimal, these
movements are important for doing backward bending, forward bending,
and seated meditation postures with the niceties and relinements that
expert hatha yogis take fcrr granted. The difficulty is that few hatha yogis
(or for that matter exercise specialists of'any variety) have encountered
discussion of'how the movemcnts function in posture, athletics, and day-
to-day life. To understand how and why nutation and counternutation are
important to us, we must look erttheir scopc and nature in detail.

NUTATION AND COUNTERNUTATION

Nutation and counternutation are not complicated conceptsas long as one

understands three points: The first is that the sacrum r<ltatesroughly in a
sagittal (front-to-back) plane within the pelvic bowl. Nutation rotatcs the
promontory (the top front bordcr) of the sacrum anteriorly (toward the
front oI'the body) and it rotates the coccyx posteriorly (toward the back of
the body); counternutation rotates the promontory ofthe sacrum posteriorly
and the coccyx anteriorly. It is important not to confuse these specialized
sacroiliacrotations with anterior and posterior pelvic tilts, which are movements
of the pelvis as a whole. Nutation and counternutation are sacroiliac rail-
and-groove slippagesof the sacrum betweenthe pelvic bones (fig. 6.2a), not
tilts of the entire pelvic bowl.
The secondpoint to understand is that the planes in which the sacroiliac
joints lie are not parallel to one another. If they were-if the joints were
situated in exact parasagittal planes (parallel to the midsagittal plane of
the body)-the sacrum could rotate without disturbing the configuration of
the pelvis as whole. That doesn't and indeed can't happen because the
sacrum has a broad wedge-like shape with the leading face of the wedge
pointing to the rear. And since the mating surfaces of the sacroiliac joints
always remain in close apposition, nutation pulls the ilia closer together
(that is, toward the midline) as the promontory of the sacrum rotates
forward, and counternutation forces the ilia laterally (that is, away from
the midline) as the promontory of the sacrum rotates to the rear (fig 6.zat.
 6. FORV1IRD BENDING POS'I'TJI?LS ]2q

rightiliaccresl sacralpromontory

left ischial
tuberosity

***

Figure 6.2a.The gross movements of the pelvis and sacrum that are involved in
sacroiliacnutation are indicated by arrows. The promontory of the sacrum is
thrust forward (*), the iliac crests are shifted medially (**), and the ischial
tuberosities are spread apart (***). For counternutation, the shifts are in the
opposite direction: the iliac crests move laterally,the sacral promontory moves
posteriorly,and the ischia move medially (from Kapandli, with permission).

sacralarticularsurface
joinl
of the sacroiliac joint
of the sacroiliac

Figure6.2b. Enlargementof fig. 3.3 showing the matching rail (on the left) and
groove (on the right) architectureof an idealizedsacroiliacjoint. Such a joint
might permit up to 10' of slippage(essentiallya rotation) between full nutation
and full counternutation.The pelvic bone (left) has been disarticulatedfrom the
sacrum (right) and flipped horizontally to revealthe articular surfacesand to sug-
gest how a healthy sacroiliacjoint could permit this much movement (Sappey).
l-lo A\ATOIVY OF HA',IIIA YOGA

Finally, remember from chapter 3 that each pelvic bone (one on each
side) is composedof the fused ilium, ischium, and pubis, with the ilia on top
at the waistline, the pubic components in front above the genitals, and the
ischia with their tuberosities below and behind (figs. :.2-+). When the ilia
are pulled toward the midline during nutation, the ischia and ischial
tuberosities have to swing laterally, and when the ilia are spread apart by
counternutation, the ischial tuberosities rock back toward one another. We
should note that even though nutation and counternutation were named in
recognition of the movements of the sacrum alone (nutation means
nodding forward, in this case nodding forward of the promontory of the
sacrum), the accompanying movements of the pelvic bones are equally
important (fig. 6.2.a).
l'he way these movements are orchestrated during childbirth further
clarifies their function. Again, according to Kapandji, during the early
stagesof labor counternutatit-rndraws the promontory of the sacrum ttl the
rear and spreads the ilia, making more space for the baby's head as it
approachesthe birth canal. Then, as thc head enters the vagina, nutation
draws the coccyxto the rear and spreadsthe ischia, opening the base ofthe
body and easing delivery.

N U T A T I O N A N D C O U N T E R N U T A T I O NI N H A T H A Y O G A

Four fundamental movements illustrate htlw thc concepts of nutation

a n d c o u n t e r n u t a t i o n e r p p l yt o h a t h a y o g a . F i r s t , t o c r e a t e m a x i m u m
nutation, stand with the thighs abducted (feet perhaps -l feet apart) and
comc into a forward bend purely from the hips. To avoid forward bending
in the spine, most people should reach out to a desktop or wall (fig. 5.7,
except with the thighs abducted).Get settled into a comfortable position
in which you can monitor your pelvis and vertebral column, and then try
to thrust your coccyx even more posteritlrly and the promontory of the
sacrum even more anteriorly. If your sacroiliacjoints permit, you will feel
some peculiar shifts within the pelvis, shifts which flexible students
report as "spreading the sitting bones" or "feeling the thighs come
apart." Such descriptions are not metaphors; these movements actually
happen during the course of nutation. You may be able to feel them in
yourself, and you can certainly appraise them in a highly flexible partner,
either by placing your thumbs against the insides of their ischial
tuberosities from behind, or by lying down on the floor and placing your
hands against the inside of their upper thighs. You may not be able to feel
the movements of your partner's sacrum, but the movements of the
ischial tuberosities and of the femurs are unforgettable. Easing up on the
posture will produce counternutation and pull the ischia and upper
thighs back together.
 Next, consider relaxed standing lumbar backbends (figs. '1.2oand 5.2),
which provide yet another example of nutation. As you bend lackadaisically
to the rear you can easily imagine that the ilia are pulled backward and
medially in relation to the upper part of the sacrum. The top of the sacrum
moves backward as well, but its promontory is squeezedforward relative
to the ilia. The coccyx, by contrast, moves to the rear in relation to the
pelvic bowl, and the ischial tuberosities spread apart. These conditions all
define nutation-the nodding forward of the promontory of the sacrum. It
may seem counter-intuitive that nutation accompaniesa relaxed standing
backbend, but that is what happens.
Third, in contrast to forward bending from the hips and relaxed lumbar
backbends, easy standing Ibrward bends {rom the waist result in counter-
nutation. Here the ilia are first pulled frrrward and laterally in relation to
the upper part of thc sacrum, which means that the sacral promontory
moves backward (again rclativc to thc pclvic bowl). And as the ilia are
sprcad apart, the coccyx moves fbrward and the ischial tubcrosities come
closer together.
Rlurth, recall from chapter 5 that most hatha yoga teachers erskstudcnts
to squeeze their hips togethcr and creatc wholc-body backward bends
rather than relaxed lumbar bends. Squeezingthe hips together, :rlong with
kccping plenty of eccentrictension in the iliacus and rcctus femoris muscles,
mzrintains thc attitudc of countcrnutation bv holding the ischia close
togcther and by keeping the promontory of'the sacrum pulled to the rear
rathcr than allowing it to be squeczed forward. Yoga teachers intuitively
recognize that it's a sharper, safer posture, especially for beginners.
Rciterating: to avoid getting conlused, the readcr must constantly
remember that nutation and counternutation describe movements of thc
sacrum and pelvic bones purely in relation to one another, and that these
movcmcnts may or may not be the oppositeo{'pelvicbowl movemcnts during
the course ofbackbending and forward bending. For backbends in general
as well as fbrward bends in general, movements of'the pelvic bowl as an
entity are exactly what onc would figure out logically: the upper rim of the
pelvis tilts backward during backbending (a posterior pelvic tilt) and
forward during forward bending (an anterior pelvic tilt). Just don't forget
that such pelvic tilts are entirely separate from the shifts between nutation
and counternutation.
It is difficult to feel and measure the movements of the ilia during nutation
and counternutation, but the medial and lateral excursions of the ischial
tuberosities and thighs provide us with windows that allow us to evaluate
the other components of these specializedmovements. Assuming that you
have some sacroiliac mobility, place your middle fingers tightly against the
medial borders of your ischial tuberosities, and ask someone to measure
332 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

the distance between your fingernails during a relaxed standing backbend.

What they'll find is that this span measures about z inches in the male and
3 t/z inches in the female, which represents maximum nutation (ilia in,
ischia out; fig. 6.za). It is important to stay relaxed for the measurement,
however,becauseif you tighten your hips, the gluteal muscles will pull your
fingers closer together and skew the measurement to the Iow side.
Next come all the way forward (bending from the waist), keeping your
fingers tightly in position. Now a flexible young man might show t t/z inches
across the same span between the fingernails (a decreaseof t/z inch), and
a flexible young woman might show z r/z inches across the same span (a
decrease of r inch). This represents maximum counternutation (ilia out,
ischia in; fig. 6.za).
Now you know, or can at least imagine, why yoga teachers ask you to
bend forward from the hips (fig. 6.ro-rr). In contrast to what happcns in a
frlrward bend i'rom the waist, the first thing you will accomplish,or at least
try to accomplish, is nutation. If you have sufficient sacroiliac mobility, this
takes place automatic:rlly even before you bcnd at the hips. And the oppo-
site is true of whole-body backbcnds. For such bends, the safest attitude,
especiallyfor beginners, is full counternutation (fig. ,1.t9).The nutation
that is established as a priority in relaxed lumbar backbends (fig. '1.2o)is
best reserved for cxperts who are fully confident in their lower backs and
who need full nutation for coming into extreme backbending positions such
as the advancedcobra (fig. 5.12)or the wheel (fig.i.zg).

FORWARD BENDING AT THE HIP JOINTS

If your ability to bend forward were to be tested casually or even ob.jectively
with devices that measure how far forward you can reach in a sitting forward
bend, little or no distinction would be made betweenhow much of that
flexibility is in the hips and how much is in the lower back.

I'I'echnicalnote: Llnder thesc circumstances,no consideration would be givcn to the

possiblerole of sacroiliac movements. That's just as well, becausewhether nutation
or counternutation is more siglificarnt will depend on the person: nutation wili be
more prominent in those who have good hip flexibility, and counternutation will be
more characteristic of those who herveto bend mostly from the waist. Sacroiliac
movements take care of themselves naturally and will therefore be ignored in the
following discussion.I

Ifyou are unusually flexible and can lay your chest down against your
thighs while keeping the knees straight, we can estimate that the first
stage ofthe bend will be about tzo" offlexion at the hipjoints and that the
second stage will be about 6o' of flexion in the back. The fact that someone
who is this flexible can bend twice as much in the hips as in the lumbar
spine gives some idea of how important hip flexibility is to forward bending
in general, and it also accounts for why yoga teachers place so much
 6. IOI?WARD BE,\'DI,\G POSI'LiRES 3]3

emphasis on it: they know how useful hip flexibility is to them personally.
Here we'll focus on its main impediments-hamstrings and adductors-for
those who are not so flexible.

THE HAMSTRING MUSCLES

The hamstring muscles include the bicepsfemoris, the semimembranosus,

and the semitendinosusmuscles,and except for the short head of the biceps
femoris, which takes origin from the femur, they all take origin from the
ischial tuberosities and run from there along the rear of the thighs all
the way to the bones of the leg-the tibia and fibula (figs. j.rob, ll.9-to,
and tl.tz).
Becausethe hamstring muscles bypass the distal end of the femur, flexing
the knee joint brings their insertions closer to their origins and releases
tension throughout the backs of the thighs during any forward bend.
Extending the knees in a forward bend, on thc other hand, stretches the
hamstrings and generatestension that pulls on the underside ofthe pelvis.
This in turn makes it difficult to rotate the top of the pelvis forward (in an
anterior pelvic tilt) and remove tension from thc flexed-forward lumbar
rcgion.
A simulation of these cffects in a flexible young man will clarify the rolc
of'the hamstrings in forward bending. First he should lie supine with one
kncc straight and the other knee flexed, and thcn hc should draw thc bent
knee toward the chest without pulling it so firr that the pelvis is lifted away
from the {1oor.Keeping the knee flexed relieves hamstring tension so
effectively that the hip can now bc flexed through a range of about t5o"
from its supine starting position, creating a jo' angle with the f'loor
(fig. 6.-t).Then as he extends the knee, thc hamstrin6Jmuscleswill first be
pulled taut and then force a partial extension of the thigh to a less acute
angle, perhaps to a nearly straight up tlo" (fig. 6.+). This means that when
his knees are extended the hamstrings limit hip flexion by 5o".

THE ADDUCTOR MUSCLES

Someof the adductor musclesof the thigh (figs. z.tt,3.tl-9,and 8.r3-r4)have

a hamstring character. That is, in addition to drawing the thighs together
they pull them posteriorly. And since some segments of the adductors
(chapter 4) take origin on the inferior pubic rami near the ischial tuberosities
(chapter 3), it is obvious that they will limit forward bending exactly as the
hamstrings do-by exerting tension on the underside of the pelvis and
creating a posterior pelvic tilt. It is also plain that the adductors will be
stretched the least when the thighs are together and the most when the
feet are wide apart. Therefore, with the thighs adducted, the limitations to
hip flexibility are mostly from the hamstrings (figs. 3.rob, 8.9-to, and tl.rz).
_134 ANATOMY Ort IIA'.t'IIA YOGA

Abducted, any additional restriction to forward bending can only be from

the adductors. How this operates depends on the person. As shown here,
the adductors limit hip flexion the most in those who start with less hip
flexibility (figs. 6.1-6).

FORVI/ARD BENDING AT THE ANKLES AND IN THE FEET

If you have average flexibility in the ankles, you will be able to flex dorsiflex)
the foot no more than zo-3o" and extend (plantarflex) the foot no more than
jo-5o". But you need to flex the ankle ,+5'to drop the heels to the floor in
hatha yoga postures such as the down-facing dog (figs. 6.t7 and ll.z6), as
well as to sit in a squat (especiallywith the feet parallel) without lifting the
heels (fig. 6.7). Mobility for extending the ankle is also needed for postures
such as the upward-facing dog (fig. i.rj) and for sitting comfortably on the
heels with the toes pointed to the rear. The pained facial expressionsin a

$#
F i g u r e6 . 3 . H i p f l e x i o n o f u p t o a b o u t 1 5 0 " i s p e r m i l t e d w h e n t e n s i o n o n t h e
hamstring muscles is released by flexing the knee.

,.r:34: &
:}1

Figure 6.4. When the knee is held fully extended, the hamstringslimit most
people to lessthan 90' of hip flexion, in this case a simulated B0'.
 6. FORVURD R|':NDING POSTt-jRES 335

room filled with beginning hatha students trying to sit in such a posture
reflects how rarely it is used in Western societies.
Flexion and extension at the ankle takes place at the talocrural joint,
which is located between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula on one hand
and one ofthe tarsal bones ofthe foot, the talus, on the other (fig. 6.u). The
distal ends of the tibia and fibula form a hemi-cylinder (a cavity shaped
roughly like half a cylinder) which articulates with the pulley-shapedupper
surface of the talus. The rest of the bones of the foot permit little
movement except for the metatarsals and phalanges, which become
important when the feet and toes are flexed (that is, when the feet are
dorsiflexed and the toes are curled toward the head) and when they are
extended (that is, when the feet are plantarflexed and the toes are
pointed away from the body).
As in all joints, movements of'the ankle are limited by muscular tension,
ligaments,and bonc, and it is tcnsion in the soleusand gastrocnemiusmuscles
(figs.3.to, /.6,8.t1 lo, and lJ.tz)on the back of the leg that Iirst preventsyou
from pressing the heels to the floor in an attitude of flexion (that is,

F i g u r e6 . 5 .W i t h
the thighs
adducted, the
hamstring muscles
permit about 80"
of hip flexion.

Figure 6.6. With the

thighs abducted, the
increasedtension on
the adductors (some
of which have a
hamstring character)
can further limit hip
flexion, in this case to
about 60".
336 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

dorsiflexion) in the down-facing dog. Extension (that is, plantarflexion)

is more likely to be checkedby ligaments and bone, although tension in the
flexors, which are situated on the anterior sides of the bones in the legs,
will curb extension in everyone whose ankle flexibility is severely limited.
Over time, extension of the ankle joint takes care of itself with the practice
of postures such as the upward-facing dog with the toes extended (fig. l.t-1.,).
Developing the capacity for flexion is more diffrcult becausethe gastrocnemius
and soleus muscles, as well as the ankle joints, have developed lifelong
habits for functioning within limited lengths and ranges of motion. Besides
the down-facing dog, possibly the best practice for correcting an incapacity
fbr flexion is simply to sit in a squat for z-3 minutes several times a day.At
first you can squat with your feet well apart and your toes angled out widely
enough to permit your hecls to reach the floor (fig. 6.9), and after you have
acclimated to that you can gradually bring your feet closer together and
parallel.

Figure 6.7. Excellent

ankle flexibility for
flexion is required for
squatting flat on the
fkror with the feet
together and parallel.

lateral talocrural
malleolus )otnt 5 metatarsals
*./

calcaneus pnara
/14
n

\r'
tarsalbones

Figure 6.8. The 2B bones and 25 joints associatedwith each foot and ankle
support the weight of the body and accomodate to uneven surfacesfor walking
and running. The talocrural joint is the one which we are constantly aware of in
hatha yoga because that is where we experience the flexion and extension of
the ankle needed (and frequently lacking) for so many postures (Sappey).
 6. I:ORVARD BENDING POS'I(rR]iS .]37

CLINICAL MATTERS AND CAUTIONS

Contraindications to forward bending are obvious. Don't do any forward
bending postures if you have acute back pain; instead, get yourself under
the care of a professional, who by tradition will probably tell you to go to
bed and rest. But there are many grey areas that indicate caution rather
than contraindication. Muscular tension sometimes edges over into mild
discomfort or pain, and even if you have come into a posture carefully you
may still experience sensations that you do not know how to interpret.
Explore these carefully and try to analyze their nature and source. Try to
discover if they include pain, stretch, or a combination of the two, and then
try to localize the specific sites ofthe sensations.The idea is to learn where
the forward bend is being limited so you can attend more specifically to
that site. You may decide to limit yourself to being watchful, or you may
decide to plan a pro[tram Ibr working with thc region more activcly.

LOW BACK PAIN IN GENERAL

'I'he
causesof low back pain are legion, and zrttempting to consider thcm in
detail is beyond the scope of this book. Neverthelcss, a few comments on
locating thc pcrtinent anatomical hot spots are appropriatc. LookinEJfrom
above down, Iumbar and lumbosacral pain appear just above the pelvis and
close to the midline posteriorly. If pain just latcral to this rcgion is found
o n l y o n o n e s i d e , i t m a y b e d u e t o s t r c s s a n d w e a k n e s si n o n e o f t h e
rltta,d,ratuslttmborum muscles, which are intcrposed betwecn thc psoas
muscles on onc hand and thc crector spinac and abdominal muscles on the
other, and which strengthen the all-important conncctions between thc ilia
and the rib cage (figs. 2.7,j.7,5.j, and tt.r4).Alternzrtively,and possibly a
little lower and morc precisely localized, tension on the iliolum.ba,r
ligam,ents,which run between the Iburth and fillh lumbar vertebrac to the
pelvis (fig. j.4), may manif'estas a slight pulling which extends from the

ii:{
'...
Figure 6.9. Squatting with
the feet well apart and
a n e l e do u t i s o n e o f t h e
beit methods to gradually
d e v e l o p a n k l e f l e x i b i l i t yf o r
fI e x i o n .
lowest two lumbar vertebrae laterally to the crests of the ilia on both sides.
These important ligaments stabilize the lumbar region in relation to the
pelvis and augment stabilization of the sacroiliacjoint. One or more of the
iliolumbar ligaments is occasionally stressed,generally on one side of the
body, and is a common source of low back pain. If you experience some
relief from digging your thumbs into the groovesjust medial to the crest of
the ilium on each side, especially while you are doing a standing backbend,
you are probably alleviating strain on these ligaments.
Foreshortened hamstrings, adductors, and hip flexors ale often
contributing elements to low back pain. Becauseour ordinary activities do
not keep these muscles stretched and flexible, they can graduallr- become
shorter, occasioningchronic tension, injury, and subsequent muscle spasm
in the deep back musclesand hips, not to mention a general resisttrnceto
forward bending. A long-term course of'stretching and strengthening. rvith
emphasis on the latter, is indicated.

SACROILIAC SPRAIN

ContinuinE; inI'criorly, malfunctional sacroiliac .joints are also frequer.rtly

'l'hcir architecture varies,not onlv from person
associatedwith low bzrckpain.
to person, but from one side o{'the body to the other. Only one chat'actet'istic
is constant-reciprocal mating surfacesthat match one anothet' ,Iigs. .1.-l
and 6.zb). An indentation ttn one surface of the .joint alwa-vsmtttches zt
tuberclc (bulge) on the other, and a ridge on one side alwal's matches it
groove on the other. If the matching surfaces are smooth, mover.ue.ntu-ill
bc {ree, but if they are irregular, with many peaks and vallel's. r.uovetrtent
will be limitcd, and over a long pcriod of'time we would ntit be surplised to
see that fibrotic connections have f<lrmed that bind the opposing surfaces
together.If that processis not interrupted with daily exercise.:tretching.
a n d h a t h a y o g a p o s t u r e s t h a t a r e d e s i g n e dt o e n c o u r a g en u t i r t i o t - ti t t r d
counternutation, ankylosls (that is, partizrl clr complcte fusior.rI ol'the joints
may develop-and if that happens, as mentioned earlier', an1' dislocation
can produce extreme pain and trauma.
Pain from dislocations of the sacroiliacjoint appears lciu'er and slightly
more lateral to sites that are exhibiting lumbar, lumbosacral. ar-rclilio-
lumbar ligament pain, usually more on one side than the other. If the
surrounding muscles do not keep the joint protected *'hen it is trnder
stress, the fibrous tissue that binds the sacrum to one or the other side
of the ilium can be torn, with repercussionsthat can last for-manl' 1'eals if
the injury is not diagnosed and properly treated. This condition. called
sacroiliac sprain, may be so painful that the surrounding musclesimmobilize
the joint. Then, as such a sprain heals,the offendedjoint often becomeslocked
while the one on the opposite side compensateswith too much mobility.
 6. r'oRwARD BENDTNGPO.SIIltns 339

If that happens you can try to restrain movement on the side that is overly
mobile and promote movement on the side that is locked, and if you get to
work on the condition before the joint becomescompletely fused, yt-rumay
be able to gradually regain mobility and balance. Asymmetric standing
postures are ideal, as is the pigeon, which we'll cover later in this chapter.
You can work with these postures three times, favoring the tight side first
and last, so long as you keep in mind that any progr:am trying to deal with
any-thingmore than minor problems should be approved by a professional.

SCIATICA

There is one more thing to consider-the sciatic nerue (fig. j.roa)-that is

loosely associated(at least by the general public) with lower back problems.
Most nerves course alongside and among the flexor muscles of joints, so
that folding the joint releasestension on the nerve. But thc sciatic nerve,
which passesposteriorly through the hip on the extensor side, is a glaring
cxception: hip flexion placesit under more rather than less tension. This is
ordinarily not a problem, but when muscles deep in the hip are injured,
scar tissue {brms during the healing processand frequently restricts move-
ment of'the sciatic nerve somewhere aklng its course through the muscles
supporting the hip joint. This usually happens in the region of' thc
piriformis muscle (Iigs. t.ltb, 3.roa, and U.tz).Thc result is s<:iati.capain
that radiates down the back of the thigh. I1, after a seemingly minor injury,
you get a. dull persistcnt pain in onc hip and thigh when you arc forward
bending, or even just walking or sitting, it is probably sciatica. It can last
for days, weeks, or even ycars, but assuming the source of the problem is
in the hips, it can usually be treatcd successfullyby manual mcdicine and
bodywork, often in combination with a program of strctching.

LOW BACKS: LIVING AND LEARNING

Working with all lower back problems that do not go away with a {'ew days
of rest and recuperation is likely to require commitment to a long-term
program. To be on the safe side, drop false expectations and think in terms
o{' 5-zo years of consistent, patient effort. Here are your specific aims:
relief from and healing of low back pain in the short run, strengghening the
back and abdominal muscles in the intermediate span of time when you are
likely to be afflicted with chronic stiffness, gradually increasing flexibility
in the long run, and above all, professional care from beginning to end.
Surgery? Maybe, but do your own research and get a secondand even third
opinion. And no matter what, get attention from someone who is truly
interested in working with these problems in a three-way partnership:
the professional, the patient's interest and enthusiasm, and the aggra-
vated back.
-l'+O ANATOiI'IY OF HATIIA )

THE POSTERIOR STRETqH

If a traditional hatha yoga instructor were to teach a student only five
postures, they would probably be the headstand, the shoulderstand, the
sitting half spinal twist, the cobra, and the posterior stretch-the definitive
forward bend. The posterior stretch can be initiated properly only after full
nutation of the sacroiliac joints; after accomplishing that, its essencecan
be known only if the pose is hinged primarily at the hip joints and
completed with a minimum amount of spinal flexion. Although we'll
discuss posterior stretches for students with a wide range of skills, the
plain truth is that the full experience of this posture is denied everyone
who lacks good sacroiliac and hip flexibility.
To do the posterior strctch, you start in a sitting position with the back
straight, the knees extended,and the heels and toes together (fig. 6.ro).
Stretch the hands overhead and thrust the sacral promontory forward
through the action of thc psoas muscles in order to emphasize nutation.
'I'hen, keeping the promontory of the sacrum forward, the ilia closer
together, and ischia apart, fold forward slowly from the hips. As soon as you
havc reachedyour limits of hip flexion (fig. 6.rr), bcnd fbrward in the lumbar
region with the aid oI'gravity. This movement should not be p:rssive;it should
be accompzrniedby activcly lcngthening and stretching the torso. Finally, as
you flattcn your chest down against your thighs (fig.6.12), the sacroiliac
.jointsslip back into a ncutral position betweennutation and counternutation.
In thc final posture, the knees are straight, and the ankles, feet, and toes are
zrllflexed, completing a literal posterior stretch from head to toe.

41,
tbl

v
d
"e,
V
,)

F i g u r e6 . 1 0 .B e g i n n i n g
position for posterior
stretch for advanced
students. Notice that
the model starts with
his hipsflexedabout
100'(10"beyond
vertical) merelv bv
reaching straight up
with his hands.
 O. I'IIRWARO IJI':N])]NG POSTURES ].11

B E G T N N I N GF O R W A R D B E N D I N G

The above instructions are fine for a select few, but preposterous for the
average person. In the first place, when they are sitting on the floor in the
starting position, inflexible beginning students begin the pose with their
sacroiliacjoints in full counternutation instead ofnutation. They probably
won't be aware of this, but they will be acutely aware and frustrated that
they are already bent forward at their hips to their limit just trying to sit
up straight. They also won't be very appreciative of the instructor who softly
intones "let p;ravity gently carry you forward" when gravity is pulling them
nowhere but backward.
Still, an alternative is needed for those who are not flexible enough to
roll forward into the classicposture, and the best is a natural sequel to one
of the sit-up excrcises in chapter r. Sit flat on the floor with the knees
extended, the head fbrward, and the back rounded. For now, at least, forget
about sacroiliac movements. Pl:rce each fist in the opposite armpit, and
slowly pull forward using the hip flexors (the iliacus and psoas muscles).

F i g u r e6 . 1 1 .A n i n t e r m e d i a t e
position for the posterior
stretch in which the hips are
f l e x e d a b o u t 1 3 0 ' .T h e
model hasnow "bent
forward from the hips" t,it,..

about 30" (from 100'to

1 3 0 ' ) . E v e ns o , t h e l u m b a r
Iordosis has already started
to flatten in comparison
with the full lumbar arch
s h o w n i n f i g . 6 . 1 0 ,w h i c h i s
evidence for having already
b e g u n t h e p r o c e s so f b e n d -
ing forward "at the waist."

Figure6.'12. The
c o m p l e t e dp o s t e r i o r
stretch,with knees
straightand the
chestflatteneddown
againstthe thighs.
tuv
312 ANA']OiITY OF HATHA YOGA

Locate the pulling sensation from these muscles deep in the pelvis. This is
easy since they are doing nearly all the work. It is also important to keep
the knees fully extended and the thighs in place by tensing the quadriceps
femori. We want those muscles to stabilize Lhe thighs and knees, thus
enabling the iliopsoas muscles to act only on the pelvis to pull the torso for-
ward. (If the quadriceps femoris and iliopsoas muscles were to act in the
other direction to lift the legs and thighs, we would end up in one of the
boat postures, as discussed in chapter 3, rather than a sitting forward
bend.) When you have flexed forward at the hips as far as you can, hold the
bend to your comfortable capacity (fig. 6.t3). This posture is excellent for
beginners, not only because everyone can do it, but also becauseit brings
attention to the placeswhere the posture is being limited: the lower back, the
pelvis, and the hip joints. It is safe as well as rewarding.
The hip llexors pull you forward concentrically in this exercise,but they
also eccentrically resist dropping to the rear if'you skrwly roll part way back
while keeping the head forward and the lumbar region flexed (fig. (r.r4). Do
not lower yoursel{'so{ar to the rear that you don't havc cnough strength
to lift up gracefully. Go back and forth between the two positions (all the
way forward and moderately to the rear) 5 to times to become familiar
with the sensations.If vou wish vou can alwavs roll all the wav down :rnd

F i g u r e6 . 1 3 .T h e h i p exhalation
inhalation
f l e x o r s( i l i a c u sa n d Dermits
liftsthe
psoas muscles)and the
rectus femoris muscles
are the prime movers
for pulling forward
fiit:f::,& posrure
up ano
oacK

c o n c e n t r i c a l l yw, h i l e ,/l
:ri
t h e q u a d r i c e p sf e m o r i s :1
m u s c l e sa s a w h o l e :\
keep the knees
extended.

F i g u r e6 . 1 4 .L e a n i n g
slowly to the rear with
the fists still in the
armpits, the hip flexors
and rectus femoris
muscles lengthen
eccentricallyto restrain
the movement. Then, as
you come back up and
again pull forward, the
s a m e m u s c l e ss h o r t e n
concentrically.
 6. LORIYARD BENDING POSTURES .]'+3

combine the exercise with yoga sit-ups. Just make sure that you can come
back up without having to hold your breath and throw yourself up from the
supine position.
The next stage might be called a posterior stretch modifred for beginners.
To do it, rest your hands on your thighs and draw the toes toward the head.
Reach forward with the hands, flexing the neck, and bend forward by
flexing the lumbar region and the hips at the same time, concentrating on
using the hip flexors exactly as in the exercisein which the fists were in the
armpits. Create moderate tension in the quadriceps femori to brace the
knees against the floor. Then, after sliding the hands down the lower
extremities, settle into a comfortable position holding on to the legs,
ankles, or whateveryou can reach without pulling or tugging. Remain in
the posture ftrr t-5 minutes. If you are not comfortable it means you have
ensconcedyourself into a pose that is beyond your reasonable capacity.In
any case, to come out of this beginning posture, slowly roll up, releasing
Iirst in thc more vulnerablc hips and lumbar spine, and then in the rest of
the body.As in the previous posture, don't bc overly concerned with sacroiliac
m0vements.

THE INTEBMEDIATEPOSTERIOR STRETCH

Oncc you have achicvcd a little hip flexibility and are familiar with the
operation of the hip flexors, you can try a real posterior stretch. Sitting on
the floor with thc knees extended, the f'eet togethcr, and the hands
stretched ovcrhcad, try to bend furward leading with thc promontory of the
sacrum so as to start, at least, with your full capzrcityfor sacroiliacmutertion.
What you are doing is trying to keep the lumbar lordosis intact as long as
possible.This may be diflicult becauscif your hamstrings and adductors are
too short, they will kcep the top of the pelvic bowl tilted to the rear in a
posterior pelvic tilt. 'l'he hamstrings and adductors arc not an impediment to
the previous exerciseslbr beginners, in which you were purposely rounding
the back to the rear, but here they prevent those who are inflexible from even
sitting up straight, much less flexing forward at the hips. There is no quick
remedy for this state of affairs, and you will probably have to work with the
hamstrings and adductors for a long time before you see much diff'erencein
your forward bending.
Stretchingyour hands overhead as high as possible in the starting position
will bring you an immediate understanding of your limits in this posture.
If you have good hip flexibility, you will feel the back arch forward in the
lumbar region and create an anterior pelvic tilt merely by stretching up. In
this case,your torso might be at a right angle from the floor, defining a 9o"
forward bend from the hips. It is more likely, however,that you do not have
that much hip flexibility, and just trying to come into the initial stretched-up
311 ANATOITY Ot'HATHA

posture will stretch your hamstrings to their limits. In any case,to complete
the posture as gracefully as you can, maintain as much lift as possible with
the upper extremities, keeping the knees extended and the feet together,
and bend forward slowly, allowing gravity to help the back becomerounded.
As soon as you reach your limit of bending with the upper extremities
stretched out and forward, drop the hands to the thighs, knees, ankles, or
feet, and remain in that position for a minute or two. Rela-x.Most students
will try to tug on their feet or legs with their hands to pull themselvesdown,
but this should be discouraged. Only when you have achieved good hip
flexibility is it advisable to pull on the feet with the hands (fig.6.ri), and
even then the object should be lengthening and stretching the back, not
forcibly flexing thc lumbar spine. Sitting on a cushion will also help because
it will take some of the tension off the hamstrings and permit the pelvis to
rotate {brward at the hip joints without dependingso much on spinal Ilexion.
'I'o
come out of the posture intermediate students should think first of
lengthening the back, firming up the lowcr half of the body, and then
stretching forward from a fccling of strenglh in the abdomen and lower
back. F'rom there they can lift the arms, raise thc head, and unfold at the
hips. Coming up this way adds to the tension in thc lumbar region and
hips; this is inadvisablc for beE;innersbut should work lbr cxpcrienced
students. I{'thcrc is any doubt, Ibrcgo the elegance and release the pose
initially in the hip joints and lower back as rccommendedlbr bcginncrs.

THE LATERAL BOTATORS OF THE THIGH

After the intermediatc levels of the posterior stretch have been exlren-
enced,it will bc helpful tr explore the musclesthat impede your progress
more systematically. Wc'll start with ccrtain of the latcral rot:rtors of the
thigh that also act as abductors in sitting positions. Coming into the
posterior stretch with your hecls and toes togcther, you may notice a scnsc
of lateral pulling deep in the hip. This comes from stretching fbur paired
m u s c l e s : t h c p i r i f o r m l . s , t h e o b t u r a t o r i n t e r n u , s ,a n d t h e s u p e r i o r a n d
inferior gemelli (figs. 3.ttb,-3.rob,and u.rz),all of which are lateral rotators
of the thishs.

F i g u r e6 . 1 5 .T h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
student working on the 'i:tlil
'i' rir:.:,,.
posterior stretch should still
concentrate on internal work ::::ll
:i:t::u
w i t h t h e h i p f l e x o r sa n d
r e c t u sa b d o m i n i s m u s c l e s
rather than trying to pull
forceably into the posture
with the upper extremities.
 6. F'OR\YAI|D BENDING POSTURES -145

To pin down for certain the extent to which these four paired muscles
are limiting your forward bending, sit on the floor with your knees extended
and your feet far enough apart for the big toes to barely touch when the
thighs are rotated medially as much as possible.Then bend forward, taking
note of exactly how far you can come into the posture and of how much
lateral pulling this produces in the hip. Then come up a little, swing the
toes out (which rotates the thighs laterally), and again bend forward. This
relieves the tension, allows you to come further forward, and demonstrates
how much the lateral rotators were limiting your bend.
'l'he piriformis, obturator internus,
and gemelli muscles are located
beneath the superficial gluteal muscles. Even though they are deep, it is
easy to envision their roles ifyou understand that their origins are located
on the anterior side of'the sacrum, and that they pass across the hip to
insert on the lateral side of the femur from behind. In an upright posture
thcy function to rotate the thigh laterally, but in a sitting position with the
thighs llexed 9o" they become abductors as well. 'fherefore, they are
stretched the most when the thighs are ackLucted,rotated mcdially, and
f'lcxed. Don't confuse the actions oI'thcsc muscles with the other lateral
rotators oI'the thighs, the adductor longus and adductor magnus (seefigs.
3.lt 9 and tt.r-3r4 for general treatmcnt of adductors).As wc saw in chaptcr .1
those muscles are stretchcd most effectively when the thighs trreabducted
(rathcr than adducted), rotated medially, and flexed. To understand how
the two sets of lateral rotators differ in limiting Ibrward bending, go back
and fbrth between thc standing test with thighs abducted (ch:rpter '+) and
the sitting test just described with thighs adducted.
Becausemost of'us arc not perfectly symmetrical, the piriformis,
obturator intcrnus, and gemellis are oftcn under more stress on one side
than the other, and sooner or later this results in shorter muscles on the
stressed side. Il'right and lcft footprints are asymmetrical, this is suggestive
of such imbalances: left footprints that angle out to the side more than
right footprints indicates tighter left lateral rotators. The posterior stretch
will also reveal muscular imbalances because the disparity will leave the
foot on the easy side upright and the foot on the problematic side dropped
to the side. For example, if the right fbot is rotated out and the left foot is
upright in the posterior stretch, it means that the lateral rotators of the
right thigh are under more tension than those on the left. The diagnosis is
clear, the remedy obvious: asymmetric postures of all kinds that attend
more insistently to the tighter side.

THE HAMSTRINGS

If the lateral rotators of the thigh are not under too much stress, the ham-
strings are the muscles most likely to limit the posterior stretch since they
-l'+6 ANAT'OMY OF IIATHA t'oGA

extend all the way from the ischial tuberosities to the tibia. If you feel
stretch in the tendons on either side of the knee joint and in the muscles
on the back sides of the thighs when you bend forward, you are feeling the
hamstrings (figs. 3.rob,8.9-ro, and 8.tz). To test this, bend the knees slightly;
what releasescan only be the hamstring muscles and the adductor muscles
that have a hamstring-like character.

THE PSOAS, ILIACUS, AND RECTUS FEMOBIS

The psoas and iliacus muscles are classically thought of as hip flexurs, as
when they flex the thighs in leglifts from a stabilized pelvic bowl (chapter
j). But when the thighs are fixed er.gainstthc floor in the posterior stretch,
the origins and insertions of these muscles are revcrsed, with origins on the
femurs and insertions on the ilia (in the caseof the iliacus) and the lumbar
spine (in the caseof the psoas).Those musclesare responsible,along with
the rectus femori (figs. 3.9 and fi.u 9), for pulling the torso forward at thc
hips in the sitting forward bend.
l'he iliacus, psoas, and rectus femoris muscles all act synerEpsticallyt<-r
create forward bending at thc hips, but they act at different sites on thc
torso. The action of the iliacus is the most straightforward. From thc
stabilized femur it pulls on the inside of the ilium, tilting the top of the
pelvic bowl to flcx the pelvis fbrward on the thighs at the hip joint. We can
think of the iliacus musclcsas pure pelvic bonc flexors in this posture.And
since they pull lbrward exclusively on the ilia, thcv also create a tendency
for countcrnutaticln (fig. (r.za, movements opposite to thc arrows).
Ultimately, however,since the spine is attached to the pelvis at the szrcroiliac
joints, the vertcbral column (and thus the rest o1'thebodv) follows the fbrwnrd
movement of the pelvic boncs.
The action of the psoas musclcs is more complicated. Because thcy
attach to thc lumbar vertebral bodics they pull forward only on the spine,
and since the spine includes the sacrum thcy pull its promontory forward.
In contrast to the actions of the iliacus muscles, the psoasmuscles pull the
sacrum forward between the two ilia (independently of'the pclvis as a
whole), and in so doing they create nutation, Ieaving the ilia behind where
they will be drawn medially, spreading the ischial tuberosities apart, and
opening the base of the pelvis (fig. 6.2a, arrows). (Recall that this situation
is opposite from what we saw in a standing forward bend from the waist,
which created counternutation instead of nutation. ) The movements of the
ilia are difficult to feel, but the psoas-induced lateral movement of the
ischial tuberosities in those who have good sacroiliac flexibility are easily
discernable. AII you have to do is place one finger under each sitting bone
and bend forward from the hips. If you place the strongest possible emphasis
on keeping the lumbar region arched forward as you initiate the bend, you
 6, T;ORVAIII) I]F:NDII|G POST'LIRF:S 347

will feel the ischial tuberosities spread apart laterally.

The action of the rectus femoris is similar to that of the iliacus. When
the knees are fully extended and the thighs are fixed against the floor, the
only thing this muscle can do is pull forward on the anterior inferior iliac
spine, making it, like the iliacus, another pelvic bone flexor. The main
difference is that the iliacus acts from the upper part of the femur and the
rectus femoris acts from the extended knee ioints.

THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLES

Even if you can bend forward too-rzo' at the hips, you will still have to
bend forward in the lumbar region between Ttz and Sr (chapter 4) to
complete the posterior stretch. Gravity can assist flexion of this region if
you are limber enough, but the main aids to completing the posterior
stretch are the abdominal muscles, especially the two rectus abdominis
muscles (figs. .3.rt-t,3
and fl.tt). l'hese run between the chcst and the pelvic
bones, not between the chcst and the thighs, so they act purely betweenthe
pelvis and the rib cagcto flex the lumbar region forward (fig. (r.r5).Therefore,
they comp-letethe {brwerrdbend without having the slightest effect on hip
flcxion.
'fo translate this discussion into expcrience, assume the preparatory
position for the posterior stretch with the spine perpendicular to the floor
and the knees cxtended, but with the upper extremities rclaxed and the
hands resting in a neutral position. Slowly comc fbrward, bending as much
as possible from the hips. Starting from below, notice three pattcrns of
muscular tension on each side of the body: first, a line of tension in the rectus
f'emoris muscle running along the front of the thigh between the patella
a n d t h e p e l v i c b o n e ; s e c o n d ,a n o t h e r l i n e o f t e n s i o n w i t h i n t h e i l i a c u s
muscle running from deep within the upper thigh to deep within thc pelvis;
and third, a line of tension within the psoas muscle running between the
upper part of the thigh and the lumbar vertebrzre.
Now try two more experiments that are designed to show you exactly
what is happening in the thighs. First try to bend further, but now keep the
thighs relaxed and notice that pulling forward will tend to bend the knees
ever so slightly. This is because the stretched hamstring muscles are
pulling between the ischial tuberosities and the far side of the knee joints,
causing the knees to buckle. To see the contrast, again re-establish tension
in the quadriceps femoris muscles on the front side of the thigh. The four
heads of the quadriceps, operating together, keep the knees fully extended
while the rectus femoris head of the quadriceps again pulls on the pelvis
from the front.
With the pelvis and knees once more stabilized from below, most of the
remaining impetus for pulling down and forward is provided by the abdominal
348 ANATOMT'OF HAT'r!A \'OGA

muscles. You can feel how these operate by lifting up slightly and poking
your fingers deep into the abdomen, first in the region of the vertical bands
of the rectus abdominis muscles. and then on the sides of the abdomen.As
you make the specific effort to pull forward the rectus abdominis muscles
push the fingers out strongly, while the other three layers of
abdominal muscles (which are located more laterally and posteriorly) push
the fingers out less vigorously.

COMPLETING THE POSTERIOR STRETCH

Let's say you are an advanced intermediate student who is flexible enough
to come most of the way into the posterior stretch using the iliopsoas, rec-
tus femoris, and abdominal muscles. You have had enough experience to
know your weaknesses and vulnerabilities, and you have analyzed the
posture enough to know approximately how much you are bending at each
site. For example, if you bend 9o" at the hips and 7o" in the lower back, you
will have zo" to go to make a ttlo" bend. That's not so much, and you should
now be able to completc the posturc by pulling yourself down thc rest of
the way with your upper cxtremities-interlocking the fingers around the
feet and {lexing the hips an additional zo" to pull yourself the rest of the
way down. Hold for as long as you arc comfortablc.
When the most {lcxible students complete the posterior stretch with the
upper extremitics, they will gain an additional 3o' of bending at the hips,
or tzo" total at that site. But this would fold them a total of tclo".which is
neither necessaryor even possible.What actually happens is that as they
come forward, their backs become less rather than more rounded to the
rcar, and they settle into a final rllo" bend by casing o{T ro" in the lumbar
region (fig. (r.tz). Pulling Ibrward with thc hands is not advised for those
who do not have good hip flexibility becausewhcn they try to complete the
posture with their upper extremities, they will increase rather than
decreasethe lumbar portion of the forward bend, and this can strain the
back.
Coming out of the posture, beginners should exit by gently unrolling
from the top down; intermediate students can begin to explore coming out
with a little more authority; and advanced students will feel confident
enough to reach forward from their most extreme bend and lift up from the
hips.

THE PLANK POSTURE

After coming out ofthe posterior stretch, students at all levels can counter-
balance that pose with the plank posture. Sit with your feet outstretched
in front of you, bring the heels and toes together, place the hands on the
floor behind you with the fingers pointed toward the feet (not illustrated),
 'REs
319

and lift the pelvis until your body comes into one plane from head
to foot. Alternatively, for increased stretch in the forearm flexors, you can
point your fingers to the rear (fig. 6.16).The plank posture is accomplished
with the same muscles that were stretched in the posterior stretch-the
deep back muscles, the gluteals, and the hamstrings-and holding them in
an isometric position, as you must in this posture, brings a welcome relief
from the posterior stretch.

THE DOWN.FAqING DOG

After the posterior stretch, the down-facing dog is possibly the most
fundamental and widely taught forward bending posture in hatha yoga,
but it is completely different from the posterior stretch in its structure and
mood. It's a pure nutation and hip flexion stretch, or at least it should be,
not a lumbar bend, and it's a more active posture because it requires use
of both upper and lower extremities.
In its ideal fbrm the down-facing dog assumes the shape of an upside-
down ! with only thc hands and feet touching the floor. Thc hips are flexed
sharply, the ankles are flexed 45", and the lumbar lordosis is kept intact.
The posture is rclated to a standing forward bcnd initiated from the hips,
but it is saf'er and more effective bccause leverage from gravity will not
strain the back, as can happen in the standing position.
I'o do the down-facing doEJassume a hands-and-kneesposition with the
arms, frlrearms, and thighs perpendicular to the floor, the fingers pointing
forward, and the toes flexcd. Lift the hips into a V (often called a pikcd
position) while kecping the lower back arched and attcnding to nutation of
'l'he upper two-thirds of'the body
the sacroiliac joints as a first priority.
from the pelvis up conterinsone plane of the ! and the thighs and legs

'::::::::il':l':'::'

- #$i

Figure 6.16.The plank posture complements forward bending poses because it

holds the deep back muscles,gluteals,and hamstrings (all just previously
stretched by forward bending) in a state of isometric contraction in a straight,
safe position.
 /OGA

contain the other, joined to one another at a 6o-9o' angle at the hips
(.fig.6.tl). This represents9o-tzo'of hip flexion. The heels should be on or
reaching for the floor. It may not be possible for beginners to assume this
position, and instead of looking like an upside-down ! the posture will
more likely resemble a croquet hoop, with the arms and forearms
constrained to an obtuse angle from the torso, the lumbar region rounded
to the rear, the hips flexed only 45-6o" instead of 9o-rzo", and the heels lifted
off the floor. Such students can make the pose more attractive by bending
their knees to take tension off the hamstring muscles. That's fine. Doing
this will permit more hip flexion, keep the lumbar repfon flatter, and
anchor the pelvis more effectively in sacroiliac nutation (fig. U.zZ).
lTcchnicalnote:Recerllthat the amountof hip flexionby definitionrefcrsnot to thc
anglebetweenthe pelvisand the thighs (whichis a measureof the angledispla.yed
by the V in the advancedstudent'sdown-facingdog),but to the total ex'ursiltrtof'
the thighs (fi'omthc anatomicerlposition)rclertiveto the pelvis.I'hat's why llo" of'
hip flexion revealsa /o" anglc betweenthe torso and the thighs in the expert's
down-facing dog(fig.8.26).I
In intermediate students the lowcr back is probably flat rather than
arched forward. and the arms come more in line with the shoulders. The
heels may still be off the floor but the piked position begins to appcar,with
perhaps a loo" angle bctween the two planes,which representstio" tif'hip
flexion.
In an ordinary standing or sitting lbrward bend, bcginners usually
round thc back at the expense of the hip joints. In the down-facing dog,
howevcr,they can lift their heels,which takes tension off'the calf muscles
(the gastrocnemius and soleus) and allows them to arch the back. They can
then focus on trying to achieve more hip flexion.

Figure 6.17.This simulation of an intermediate level down-facing dog (the heels

are still slightly off the floor) should be taken as something to work toward by
the beginner,who will probably have to be content with a hoop-shaped dog
posture until developing better hip and ankle flexibility (see fig. 8.26 for the
advanced pose).
 6. r'oRwARD BENDING POST'riRtiS -l5l

To understand why lifting the heels helps you flex the hips, we have to
Iook at the design of the lower extremities as a whole. First, because the
gastrocnemius muscles take origin from the femur just above the knee
joint and insert (alongwith the soleus muscles) on the heels (figs. 7.6 and
8.to), they have two actions: extension of the ankles and flexion of the
knees. Second,the hamstrings, which are the primary limiting elements to
hip flexion, also have two actions: extension of the thighs and flexion of the
knees. And since the gastrocnemius and hamstring muscles share one of
these functions-flexion of the knees-it follows that if you lift the heels
and bring the insertions of the gastrocnemiusmusclescloser to their
origins (thus reducing tension on them), this will allow you to stretch the
hamstrings in relative isolation. And that is exactly what happens when
you lift your heels in the down-facing dog. If you try it you can instantly
feel the lumbar lordosis become more pronounced and allow increased
flexion at the hips. 'I'hen zrsyou lower the heels to the floor you can f'eel
tcnsion increaseboth in thc gastrocncmiusmusclesand in the hamstrings,
which in turn causesthe lumbar resion to flattcn or even become rounded
to the rear.
fo put thesc principles into przrctice,students should li{t up on the bzrlls
o f ' t h e f ' e e ta s t h e y c o m e i n t o t h e p i k e d p o s i t i o n , a r c h t h e l o w c r b a c k
forward to cstablish both nutation of the sacroiliacjoints and a convincing
lumbar lordosis, and then try to press the heels toward thc floor while
kecping thc back archcd. If this is difficult they can bend one knee and
press the oppositc heel to the floor, making an asymmetrical posture in
which they stretch one side at a time and incidcntally take pressure off thc
lumbar region and thc oppositehip.
The down-facing dog is supported equally by the upper nnd lower
extremities, but a common beginners' error is tu compromise the spirit of
this principle and lcavc the arms and shoulders relaxed. The extended
knees automatically keep the lower half'o1'the body in one planc, but the
scapulae, which connect the arms to the torso, are held in place almost
entirely with muscular attachments (chapter tl), and for the down-facing
dog to be properly supported, these muscles have to remain engagedat all
times. As you extend the arms and actively flex your hip joints into the
piked position, the scapulaeshould be pulled down and laterally; otherwise,
they will be drawn in and up, causing the posture to degenerate.
Instructors coruect this error by telling students not to let their chests
hang passively between their arms.
In the down-facing dog, tension should also be maintained in the hands.
The fingers should be spread out with the middle fingers parallel, and
pressure should be exerted against the floor with the entire hand. This
activates flexors of the wrists and hands when they are in a moderately
stretched and extended position. Specialattention should be paid to
tension in the thumbs, index fingers, and the medial aspectsof the arms and
forearms. Holding the arms and shoulders correctly will also create a more
substantial stretch in the pectoral muscles on the anterior surface ofthe chest.
Students who are having difficulty with the down-facing dog becauseof
stiff hips and ankles can try some preparatory stretches. They can stand
with the feet z-3 feet apart, slide the hands down the thighs and legs, bend
the knees, plant the hands on the floor, and walk the hands forward until
the body is in the shape ofa hoop. From that point they can explore in any
one of severaldirections to create stretchesthat prepare for the full posture:
they can walk the feet further apart to create an adductor stretch; they can
walk the feet closer together to focus on the hamstrings; and they can bend
one knec at a time while pressing the opposite foot toward the floor to
stretch the gastrocnemiusand soleusmuscles.

THE CHILD'S POSE

We'll end this section with thc simple child's pose-simple that is, if you
are as flexible as a child, for the posture requires the entire body to be folded
in on itself in the f'etal position. You can come into the pose from a hands-
and-knees position, with the fect and toes extended, by first sitting back on
your hcels, thus krwering the thighs tightlv down against the calf'musclcs,
and then flexing thc torso down against the thighs, resting your forehezrd
on the floor in front oI'your knees. Ordinarily, you will lay your uppcr
cxtrcmities alongside the legs, with the palms up and the fingcrs lightly
flexed (fig. 6.rtJ),but if you havc need of a milder posture that does not fold
you so completely into flcxion, you can place your hands alongside your
head. The posture is relzrxingand rcfreshing, and so klng as you do not fall
asleep,you may hold it for as long as you like. The child's pose is often done
between other forward bending postures because it stretches the spinc
fiom end to end in a non-threatenins manner'.

F i g u r e6 . 1 8 .T h e f u l l e x p r e s s i o no f t h e c h i l d ' sp o s e i s s o m e t i m e sa c h a l l e n g e ,b u t
one that is easily remedied by placing the hands in a more neutral position
a l o n g s i d et h e h e a d a n d b y t h e u s e o f p r o p s s u c h a s a s m a l l p i l l o w u n d e r t h e
ankles, another one between the legs and the thighs, one or two thick pillows
between the thighs and the torso (especiallyhelpful for stiff backs),and yet
another small pillow under the forehead.
 6. ]:ORVAI|D BLNDIN() POSTITRES 353

Those who have good flexibility in the spine and healthy hip and knee
joints will not have trouble with the child's pose,but some people will be in
discomfort. The remedies are simple-one or more pillows between the
torso and the thighs for a stiffback, another pillow between the thighs and
the legs for tight knee joints, a small pillow just underneath the ankles for
feet that resist full extension, and a cushion for the forehead. With one or
more of these props the child's pose can be adapted to almost anyone and
still yield its benefits. If it is done with care the posture can also be a
welcome palliative for those with chronic back stiffness because it places
the lumbar region under mild traction.

BREATHING AND FORWARD BENDING

Breathing in fbrward bending postures will be experienced differently by
those who are relatively stiff than by those who are stronger and more
flexible. Advanced students have many options, but those who are inflexible
in the hip joints have to tense the abdominal musclesiust to maintain the
posture, and this creates many repcrcussions.

BREATHING IN THE POSTERIOB STRETCH

In the posterior stretch f'or beginners, the abdominal organs are

compressedby thc forward bend, and if you are holding lightly onto your
thighs, legs, or ankles with your elbows slightly flexed, each inhalation will
lift your torso as the dome of the diaphragm descends.Each exhalation
then lowers your torso back forward and down.
If you are :rn intermediate student and are committed earnestly to the
posture, you will probably be holding tightly onto the lower extremities
with your hands to maintain a deep forward stretch that is close to your
limits, and under those circumstances it is harder fbr the diaphragrn to lift
you up during inhalation. There is increased tension during inhalation as
the diaphragm pressesdown against the abdominal organs and a releaseof
that tension during exhalation, but you are still not in the full posterior
stretch, and you are still at the mercy of a pneumatic system that tends to
Iift you up and down. Under those conditions this bent-forward posture
with incomplete hip flexion can never be perfectly stable or satisfying.
Finally, if you are able to complete the posture by flattening your torso
down against your thighs and holding it firmly in place with your upper
extremities, you will have yet a third experience. The fixed and flattened
torso prevents the posture from lifting and lowering during inhalation and
exhalation, and the resulting senseof stability and silence is the reward for
your efforts.
As soon as you are coming close to this third experience, you can use
breathing to increase your capacity. Come into the forward bend with the
15,+ ANATOMYOF HATTIA t

knees extended. Relax the shoulders and arms, and rest the hands on the
ankles or feet. Breathe in and out normally, and confirm that inhalation is
Iifting you up and creating more tension in the trunk. Now, in one easy
sequence,breathe out to your full capacity (as in agni sara), and at the end
of exhalation pull your torso forward with the rectus femoris, iliacus, psoas,
and rectus abdominis muscles. Then grip a Iower site firmly and hold the
posture, inhaling and exhaling several times until your body has adjusted
to the new stretch. You are not pulling yourself into position with the upper
extremities. Instead, you are using the hands only to hold yourself in a
position established by the muscles of the torso and the proximal muscles
of the lower extremities. Repeat this sequence several times. If you start
with reasonably good hip flexibility, you will be amazed at how much you
can draw yourself forward.
No mattcr what your flexibility, if you pull yourself firmly enough into a
forward bend with your hands so that your breathing cannot lift you out of
the posture, you will notice that tension from inhalations, especially from
deep inhalations, spreads throughout thc body and is redirected into
stretching thc cal{'muscles,hamstrings, and the deepback muscles,as well
as joints and muscles throughout the upper extremities. During exhalation
t h e d i a p h r a g m p e r m i t s a r e l e a s et h a t l u l l s t h c s t r e t c h e d m u s c l e s i n t o
submission. Hathn yoga teachers are speaking literally when they tell you
to let the breath stretch the body.

BREATHING IN THE DOWN-FACING DOG

Breathing in thc down-facing dog is diffcrcnt from that observed in any of

the other fbrwzrrd bending postures. Since this pose is semi-inverted, thc
diaphragm presses the abdominal organs toward thc cciling during each
i n h a l a t i o n i n e r d d i t i o nt o d r a w i n g a i r i n t o t h e l u n g s , a n d d u r i n g e a c h
exhalation the diaphragm eccentrically resists the fall ol'the abdominal
organs toward the floor. And finally, the weight of the abdominal organs
a g a i n s t t h e u n d e r s i d e o f t h e d i a p h r a g m c a u s e sy o u t o e x h a l e m o r e
completely. This illustrates a pattern of'breathing that we'll see in a more
extreme form in the headstand and shoulderstand.
Since beginners will be forming a relaxed hoop in this posture rather
than a V with a taut abdomen, their bellies will remain relaxed and they
will be breathing abdominally. Respiration simply pooches the abdomen
out during inhalation and relaxes it during exhalation, so this mode of
breathing has little effect on the posture.
Intermediate and advanced students who do the down-facing dog more
elegantly have a different experience. They press enthusiastically into an
upside-down ! concentrating on maintaining the deepest possible lumbar
lordosis. The arch in the spine creates a backbending posture superimposed
 '. FORVARI.) BLNDING POSTL'RES .]55

on 9o-t2oo of hip flexion, and when these students are at the same time
working consciouslywith the breath, the result is diaphragm-assistedback-
bending (chapter 5). To experiencethis, come into the posture keeping the
lumbar lordosis intact, lifting high up on your toes if that is necessary,and
take long, deep inhalations while at the same time committing yourself to
coming more completely into the posture-that is, accentuating the acuteness
of the angle between the pelvis and the thighs. You will immediately sense
that the diaphragm is a powerful influence for assisting this effort.

BREATHING IN THE CHILD'S POSE

This is an easy one. Because the body is folded upon itself in the child's
pose, inhalation increases tension throughout the torso, and exhalation
decreasesit. Both inhalation and exhalation are active. In addition to drawing
air into the lungs, inhalation has to press against the abdominal organs,
which are incompressible (chapter .l), and that is why you feel a sense of
increased tension. Exhalation is also activc, or it should be, becauseyou are
breathing evenly, and even breathing requires that you not exhale with a
whoosh. The point is easily proven if you take a deep inhalation and then
suddenly rclax your respiration; the air rushes out, and you realize that
y o u n o r m u l l yr e s i s lt h i s .

SAqROI LIAC FLEXI BILITY

Sacroiliac flexibility has until now been overlooked by those who write
manuals on exercise and flexibility, and the terms nutation and counter-
nutation are rarely encountered. This is not surprising since the sacroiliac
m o v e m e n t s a r e l i m i t e d t o o n l y 5 - l o " ( e x c e p t d u r i n g t h e e n d s t a g e so f
pregnancy), and these are overshadowed by the grosser movements of the
spine and pelvis as a whole.
Even though the range of sacroiliac movements is narrow, however,
healthy and mobile sacroiliac joints make for safer, sharper postures.
Indeed, the proper execution and full expression of backward bending,
forward bending, and seatedmeditation postures presupposesthe ability to
establish nutation and counternutation at will. And because the concepts
are unfamiliar and complex, some reiteration and review is in order. First
recall where the movements take place. They're not spinal movements (as
happen at intervertebral disks and other joints in the spine), and they're
not movements at the hip joints (as happen at the acetabula between the
pelvic bones and the femurs). Rather, they are literally the only rnouements
permitted between the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton for the
lower extremities (frg. 6.2a, arrows for nutation, and imagine their
opposites for counternutation). And they are subtle: think of movements
within the pelvis itself. If you want to understand the concepts, you will
-156 ANATOMY OF ITATHA t

have to both think the movements through intellectually and appraise

them experientially, and you also have to do this while envisioning them
not only in isolation but within larger bending gestures that involve the
spine and the hip joints. These are not minor challenges.

NUTATION IN FORWARD BENDS

For both intermediate and advanced students, establishing nutation as a

first priority in forward bends can be summed up easily: while maintaining
the arched-forward lordosis in the lumbar region and while keeping the
iliacus components of the iliopsoas complex relaxed, create a selective pull
in the psoasmuscles.You will senselittle external movement, but the psoas
muscles pull sharply forward on the lumbar reg;ion,and this in turn pulls
the promontory of the sacrum forward, which favors nutation. The ilia are
left behind and pulled medially by default as a re sult of'keeping the iliacus
muscles relaxed. Although not ordinarily verbalized in this way, this is
what hathayoga teachers want you to do. It is the preferred beginning step
for forward bending, whether standing or sitting. Only aftcr this subtle
maneuver is accomplishedshould you bend forward at thc hips and then in
the spine. As you bend forward at the latter sites, the sacroiliacjoints will
readjust themselves, moving to a more neutral p<-rsitionbetwcen nutation
and counternutation.
The down-facing dog works especially well for cvaluating and scnsing
sacroiliac movemcnts in advanced studcnts (fig. 6.t7, and even more in fig.
tl.z6), becauseexperts have enough hip flexibility to settle into the posture
with an arched-forward back. From this position, they can go back and
forth between counternutation (pulling the ischia together, tightcning the
abdominal muscles,and prcssing the promontory of the sacrum to the rear
in relation to the ilia) and nutation (sharply pulling the lumbar lordosis
and sacral promontory forward with the psoas muscles, relaxing the
abdominal muscles, and allowing the ischia to be drawn apart). It is useful
for the advanced student to keep the thighs moderately abducted for the
posture, becauseas described earlier, an obselver can monitor the movements
of the upper thighs by feel: they shift medially during counternutation and
laterally during nutation. Keep in mind, however, that the down-facing dog
does not work well for those who are not flexible becausethe hoop-shapeddog
posture favors pulling the ilia laterally and forward, thus creating a priority
for counternutation. The remedy is simple: place the hands on a chair or table
so there is plenty of leeway to keep a prominent lumbar lordosis.
One of the most useful forward bending postures for stressing nutation, as
well as a posture that is accessibleto beginning and intermediate students, is
the one presented to illustrate diaphragm-assisted backbending (fig. S.Z).This
pose, whictr. was already rnentioned in the section on anatomy, combines
 tiRES 357

three elements: a forward bend at the hips, a backbend in the upper half of
the body, and full nutation of the sacroiliac joints. (As in the case of the
down-facing dog, it is helpful to come into the pose with abducted thighs.)
Be careful to keep the abdominal muscles relaxed; if you don't, they will
drive the lumbar lordosis to the rear and compromise your effort. With that
caveat, this is one of the best postures for getting into the most extreme
nutation you can manage. You can select a hand position on the wall that
permits full relaxation of the abdominal muscles, your most expressive
lumbar lordosis, and a specific effort with the psoas muscles that rotates
the promontory of the sacrum forward, the coccyx up and back, and the
ischia apart-all with minimal alteration to the appearanceof the posture.
We also seegood potential for nutation in many other postures that contain
elements of forward bending from the hips. Rrr those who are flexible
enough to keep a deep lumbar lordosis during the course of'forward bends,
such postures include the superfish leglift (fig..t.rqb) and the straight-
backed boat (fig. 3.zzb). And fur thosc who are less flexible, simplc and
useful postures include cat stretches with mzrximum lumbar lordotic
curvatures (figs. .1.-lo,l.l,+a-b with the dashcd lines, and .1.j6),sitting on
y o u r h e e l s o r o n a b e n c h i n t h e a d a m a n t i n e p o s t u r e ( f i g . r o . 9 ) ,a n d a n y
seated meditation posture in which you can demonstrate a deep lumbar
lordosis, whether you accomplish this by virtue of excellent native hip
flcxibility or a supporting cushion (chapter ro). In the cat stretches and
sitting postures, even beginners can learn to relax thc abdominal
musclcs, pitch the lumbar region and the promontory of thc sacrum
forward with a sclective contraction oI'the psoasmuscles,permit the ilia
to comc closer together, and spread the ischia. And one more added
benefit is that these simple postures pcrmit you to alternate f'ull
nutation with full counternutation: pushing the lumbar rcgion
maximally forward favors nutation, and pushing it maximally to
the rear favors counternutation.

NUTATION IN BACKBENDS

If you have a healthy back, you can do relaxed symmetrical backbending

postures to encouragenutation. 'lhese include all the gravitationally-aided
backbending poses,beginning with the relaxed standing lumbar bend (just
mentioned in the section on anatomy as well as in chapter .1), in which
nutation accentuatesthe lumbar lordosis, squeezesthe promontory of the
sacrum forward between the ilia, and spreads the ischial tuberosities (fig.
4.2o). Or try this: stand with the thighs comfortably abducted and place
your hands astride the ilia with the thumbs against and directly behind the
top of the sacrum. Relax and bend backward to produce maximum nutation.
You may not be altogether certain of feeling the top of the sacrum moving
forward in relation to the ilia as you bend backward, but as you slowly shift
for"ward from the extremity of the backbend and move into counternutation,
you'll feel a dramatic shift of the ilia as they move forward and laterally on
either side of the sacrum. It almost feels like a gear shifting in the manual
transmission of an automobile.
Another excellent posture favoring nutation is the propped, diaphragm-
restricted backbend leaning against a wall (fig. 5.6), except that here you
modify the posture by aiming for a diaphragm-assisted backbend. You do
this by bending the knees, working your hands somewhat further down the
wall, and relaring the abdomen so as to permit the diaphragrn to accentuate
the bend. This creates full nutation by squeezing the promontory of the
sacrum forward in relation to the ilia.
Next, try the v:rriation of the upward-facing dog in which thc f'eet and
toes are extended (the tops of the feet facingdown) and the knees are left
on the floor (fig. 5.r.1). ln this posture Egavitvdoesthc work of dropping the
pelvis, with the promontory of the sacrum leading the way and creating
nutation. If you move slowly,you can also get the same feeling with the toes
flexcd, resting on the balls of the feet, knees, and hands.
Next, try lying supine with an lJ r/z inch playground ball under the lumbar
region (lig. ;.-lr). If you can rclax the abdominzrlmuscles and allow Egzrvity
to lower thc upper back and pelvis toward the floor, this posture will
encourage nutation; otherwise you will protect your back with an attitude
of counternutation (resistant abdominal and iliacus muscles, straighter
body, squeezed-togetherhips, and spread-apart ilia).
l ' i n a l l y , f o r t h o s e w h o a r e I ' l e x i b l ee n o u g h , p u s h u p i n t o t h e w h e e l
posture from a supine position (fig. l.zq), and allow nutation to take place
as a first priority, with the promontory of the sacrum squeezedforward and
the ischia pulled apart. The abdomen and hip flexors, especially the iliacus
muscles, must be relaxed, for only under those circumstances will f'ull
nutation complement maximum spinal and hip extension. And as it
happens, the preference frlr counternutation, or even sacroiliacjoints that
are frozen in that attitude, is a common impediment to pushing up into the
wheel for many students.
'l'he most advancedstudents,suchas dancersand gymnastswho
lTechnica]note:
are extraordinaril.yflexible,may be ableto do this postureonebetter-keeping the
sacroiliacjoints in an attitude of partial counternutation.The most flexible
students,in fact, may feel this is desirablefor protecting themselves,given
that full nutation may take placetoo readily for their comfort.We can seea
continuumof possibilitiesfor the wheelposture:inflexiblebeginningstudents
who show little or no sacroiiiacmovementlintermediatestudents who can
comepartially into the wheelby pushingto their limits of nutation; advanced
studentswith excellentsacroiliacmobility who feel comfortabiein the posture
with full nutation; and last, those who have more sacroiliacflexibility for
nutation than they feel comfortableusing.l
 6. FORVAITD IJLNDING POSTI:RIIS 359

COUNTERNUTATION IN VARIOUS POSTURES

Nutation is natural in upward-facing dogs in which you support the

posture between the knees and the hands, but counternutation is more
natural when the upward-facing dog is supported between the feet and
the hands. For the latter, squeeze the hips together while keeping the
toes either flexed (fig. ;.t+) or extended.The main object here is to engage
the abdominal, gluteal, and deep back muscles strongly enough to
initiate coming into the posture with a relatively straight body and the
fullest possible counternutation. You can feel it: the ilia are pulled
forward in relation to the sacrum by the iliacus muscles, and that
movement is supported by squeezing the hips together along with the
ischia. Once this posturc is established,lower the pelvis carefully so as
not to release the counternutation. Thc abdominal muscles (along with
the respiratory and pelvic diaphrappns) will act syncrgistically with thc
iliacus musclcs to support counternutation: they will resist
Iowering of the pelvis eccentrically but powerfully; and because in
combination they maintain a high intra-abdominal pressure throughout
the breathing cycle, they will also assist in keeping the lumbar spine
straight and keeping thc promontory of the sacrum well to the rear in
relaticln to the ilia. Again, you can I'eelall of these tendenciesif'you have
a clear concept of'the anatomy.
Thc most common postures that support countcrnutation are standing
and sitting lbrward bends from the waist. AII you havc to do is flcx thc
spine fbrward (as opposcd to flexing the hips), and this will encouragc
counternutation. Health-club crunch excrcises(fig. -l.r), the lire exercise
(fig. 3.t6),yoga sit-ups (ligs. 3.zra b), the round-bottom boat (fig. 3.:.za),the
phase of standard cat stretches that push the lower back toward the
ceiling with the zrbdominalmuscles (figs. 3.-34ab, halilones), a rclaxcd and
externally supported standing forward bend fbr beginners (fig. 4.zr), and
the beginner's forward bend with the fists in the armpits (fig. (r.r,t) all
fbster counternutation-keeping thc ischia together, the ilia apart, and
the promontory of the sacrum to the rear. And these postures are all safe
and easy.
'lhe
other supremely important standing postures that support counter-
nutation were mentioned earlier: standing whole-body backbends (as
contrasted to lumbar backbends) in which the hips and ischia are
squeezedtogether and the main priority is keeping the promontory of
the sacrum to the rear and the ilia spread apart (fig. 4.r9). It's another
posture for those who require maximum lumbar protection, particularly
when the maximum bend is accompaniedby deep empowered thoracic
inhalations.
In general, counternutation is preferred by those who are uncertain of
.]60 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

themselves. They keep the hips squeezedtogether, the pelvis tucked under
in a posterior pelvic tilt, and maintain tense abdominal muscles, all of
which are classic postural adjustments for everyone who has a stiff
back. If this describesyou, don't fight the reality: go with it. This is the
work you need to do. After a year or so of conditioning, you may feel
inclined to pursue more postures that release counternutation and
favor nutation.

ASYMMETRIC POSTUBES AND THERAPEUTICAPPROACHES

If one sacroiliac joint is more restricted than the other, you can use
asymmetric postures to free up the joint on the tight side. Butyou need
to be careful, becauseit is easy to make a mistake and work selectively
on the wrong side. So to be certain of your diagnosis, first go back and
Ibrth {br zo-3o minutes between postures that favor extreme nutation
'l'hen
and othcrs that favor extreme counternutation. watch and wait for
2'+hours. If you have sacroiliac discomfort only on one side in the form
of a vapJueache in thc rcgion of the sacroiliacjoint, it probably means
that the sacroiliac.joint on that side is more restricted than it is on the
other. Do make sure, however, that you arc not feeling symptoms
discussedearlicr in this chapter unilateral iliolumbar ligament strain,
lower back pain cln one side, or sciatica.
As soon as you know which sacroiliac joint is mrlre restricted, keep
working mostly on symmetric postures, but think of adding some that
are asymmetric. The preliminary pigeon, as wcll as folding forward
from thzrt posturc (figs. 6.25a b), are excellent, zrndwill tend to open up
the sacroiliacjoint associatedwith the {ront knec. Do them three times,
first and last Ibr thc tight side. fhe best zrnd simplest asymmetric
standing posture that selectively afT'ectsone sacroiliac ioint is the first
stage of'the angle posture in which you are initiating a bend from one
hip (figs. .1.25and (r.z(ra).If the right side is tight, come fbrward facing
the right foot only to the extent that you can maintain a full lumbar
lordosis, and then pull selectively and insistently with the right psoas
muscle to encourage full nutation in the right sacroiliac .joint. Don't
come any further forward, as this is likely to release the nutation. As
usual, face the right foot, then the left, then the right once more. It is
best to work with simple postures that can be analyzed without doubt.
Asymmetric standing postures such as triangles, side bends, and
Iunges, as well as asymmetric sitting postures and twists, are all so
complex that it is better to work with them in each direction equally.
Unless you are certain of what you are doing, you might end up favoring
the wrong side.
 6. I;ORVARI) lllil\DlNc PO.SZI-IRES 16l

HIP FLEXIBILITY
Good hip flexibility is the most important single requirement for at least
half the postures in hatha yoga-sitting and standing forward bends,
lunges, triangles, sitting spinal twists, many variations of the inverted
postures, and meditative sitting postures. So it is not surprising that we
treat this topic over and over, and that we pick this chapter on forward
bending to do so definitively. We'll look at it here mostly in supine, sitting,
and standing postures, with the thighs both abducted and adducted and
with the knees both flexed and extended. Later, we'll discuss the topic in
twisting postures (chapter Z), inverted postures (chapters tt and 9), and
meditative sitting postures (chapter to).
The problem with talking about hip flexibility is that most peoplc do not
ordinarily trouble themselves to dcfinc it prcciscly. II'students can't bend
forward in the postcrior stretch becauseof tight hamstrings, or if they cannrlt
abduct their thighs very far because of tight adductors, or if they cannot
extcnd their hips bccauseof'tight hip flexors,or if their sacroiliac.jointsare
frozen, is it approprierte for hntha tcachcrs to call these problems of hip
Ilexibility? They usually do. tsut in onc scnsc poor hip llexibility is thc
result, not the cause of thcsc situations, just zrship inflexibility can bc the
result of excessweight in the nbdomcn in thosc who are obese.
'l'o scc hip flexibility in its purest fbrm, we would have to look at someone
who is both slcnder and devoid oI'functiontrl hamstrings, adductors, hip
flexors,and hip extensors in short, someonewhoserange of motion at the
hips is limitcd only by ligaments and bony constraints within the hip.joint
itself. But even if we could lind such a model, it would not hclp us plan a
useful hatha voga practice becauscwc are mainly interested in hip.ioint
mobility in those whose extrcmitics are intact. We'll theref<-rrediscuss hip
Ilexibility in the broadest possiblc tcrms, concerning ourselves with the
final result and considcring all possiblelimitations to mobility. Our objectivcs
are twofold-working guardedly to improve mobility of'the hip joint itself,
and doing stretches to increase the leng$hs of the muscles that form the
f i r s t l i n eo f r c s i s t a n c e
Any time we work with the hip joint, as well as with most other synovial
joints, we must be sensitive to when limitations in movement are causedby
muscle, when they are caused by ligaments, and when they are caused by
bony stops. If movements are being abnormally restricted by muscles, we
can work consistently to lengthen them. When a normal range of motion is
restricted by ligaments or bony stops, we should be wary of attacking these
restrictions aggressively,realizing that overstretching ligaments can cause
their associatedjoints to becomedestabilized,and understanding that bony
stops are built into our body plan. When we practice also affects these matters.
If you wake up after eight hours in bed, muscles will create the most
-162 ANA'.tOltlY Ott tIAl',IIA YOGA

restrictions, but after an hour ofhatha yoga, especially in the evening, the
muscles are not as assertive, and you may have more awareness of bony
constraints and of ligaments that now require more tender treatment.
In the following discussion we'll work from safe and simple to challenging
and complex. Supine hip-opening stretches are first because in that position
the Iower back is stabilized against the floor. Inverted postures are next
(although these are not covered in detail until chapters l.l and 9), because
we can explore hip flexibility more delicately when the hip ioints are bearing
only the weight of the inverted lower extremities. Then come the sitting
postures in which we have to divide our attention among several tasks-
stabilizing the lower back and pelvis, stretching the hamstrings and adductors,
and maintaining awareness oI'ligamentous and bony constraints within
and immediately surrounding the hip.joint. Postures such as the pigeon are
yet morc challenging becausegravity placesthe weight of the body directly
on the muscles and Iigaments of the hip when they are in already-stretched
positions. Standing postures are the most challenging frrr three reasons:
first, they require the hip.joints to be hcld in set positions defined by the
position of the feet; second,the weight ol'the head, neck, upper extremities,
and torso is brought to bear on the hip joints, often whcn they are in
extreme positions; and finally, tension on the hips lrom turning, twisting,
and lunging adds to the stressesimposed by gravitv.

SIMPLE SUPINE HIP OPENING

The simplest and most fundamental hip opcning posturcs are those that
work in moderation to free up the ligaments,joint capsules,and synovial
surf'acesof thc hip joint whilc muscular restrictions are minimized. And
since it is obviously not feasible to minimize those restrictions by
detaching our hip and thigh muscles from thcir insertions, we do the
next best thing and flex the knees. The fbllowing six strctches and move-
ments can be done in the ezrrlymorning even while you are still lying in
bed, and ifyou try them after an hour's sessionofhathayoga they have
an even deeper action.
First, lie on your back and draw the knees toward the chest with the
hands, keeping the thighs adducted(fig. 6.r9a).This is the first and easiest
position: 'fhe hamstrings are not stretched becausethe flexed knees bring
their insertions on the tibia and fibula closer to their origins on the pelvis
(figs.-3.toband 6.3);the adductor muscleson the insidesof the thighs (figs.
z..ll,3.8-9, and fl.rj-r,1) are not stretched because the thighs are together;
and finally, if you are slender the abdomen will not get in your way. As soon
as you are satisfied that muscle, fat, and other tissues of the thigh and
groin are not limiting the stretch, you can be certain that you are working
with limitations in and around the hip joint itself.
 6. |')RVARI) IIENDING POS'.l',l|RES 163

The first thing you notice about this stretch is that pulling your knees
tightly against the chest can go only so far without prying the pelvis up and
away from the floor. This is a lever action, accomplishedby the two femurs
in combination, whose necks, at least in students who are not restricted by
soft tissues, pry against the thin cartilaginous rims of the acetabula (the
sockets of the hip joints). You can see this even more clearly if you lift one
knee at a time and pull it diagonally across the body-the upper rim of the
acetabulum is not horizontal but lies at an angle, and pulling the femur
diagonally accessesthis cartilaginous rim directly and pries the same side
of the pelvis away from the floor.
You can make the first cxercise more effective by resisting the lifting
effect on the pelvis isometrically. You do this by trying to roll the pelvis
back down against the floor, pressing the sacrum toward the floor using the
dcep back muscles at thc same time you are pulling on thc long end of'the
lever (the knces) with thc hands.
Rrr the second position, pull thc knees slightly apart, with the hands
still grasping them from thc outside. The thighs are slightly abductcd,
although not enough in most people to stretch the adductors. Now the neck
of the I'emur will be in contact with thc rim of'the acetabulum in a slightly
different region, lateral to the Iirst point of contact, and the shaft of thc
femur may also be butting up apJainstthe anterior supcrior iliercspine' on
the front of the ilium (figs..l.t-(r and (r.t9b).Again, you can intensify the
stretch bv pulling thc pelvis toward the {loor with thc dcep back muscles.

I i g u r e 6 . 1 9 a I. i r s t o f s i x s u p i n e
h i p - o p e n i n g p o s e s :W i t h t h e
knees together, pull them
toward the chest with inter-
locked hands and fingers, at
the same time prying the pelvis
awav from the floor.

r9
'l
:i:i:
F i g u r e6 . 1 9 b .S e c o n d :W i t h ..,t
the knees apart, pull on them
:
from the sides with the
h a n d s ,p r o v i d i n ga s l i g h t
stretch for the adductors.
@',
36,1 ANATOMY OF HAI-(IA YOGA

Third, grasp the knees from the inside, abducting the thighs even
further to the side. Depending on your body type and flexibility, the shafts
of the femurs may now be lateral to the anterior superior iliac spines,
enabling you to pull the knees closer to the floor (fig. 6.r9c).
Fourth, grab the ankles and pull them toward you, and at the same time
dig the elbows into the thigh muscles, pressing them out and increasing
abduction. The soles of the feet will probably be together in this position
(fig. 6.t9d). Ifyou are feeling stretch in the inner thighs, you are feeling the
adductors, and if you are not, the primary limitation to the movement is
still the hip joint.
Fifth, catch the lateral sides ofthe feet and pull them closer to the chest,
and at the same time dig the elbows into the calf muscles, pressing the
knees even further to the sidcs (fig. 6.1!e). This stretches the adductors
maximally and aligns the femur in such a way that its shaft has the potential
for dropping down laterally to the lateral border of the ilium. If you ar.e
flexible enough, someone may even be able to push your knees all the way
to the floor.
Sixth, hold onto the soles of the I'eetfrom the inside so that the legs are
perpendicular to the floor, and cautiously pull the knees straight down ({ig.
6.t9f). Thc thighs will not be abductedzrsmuch as in the previous position,
but the necks of the f'emurs can still clear the ilia. Here again, this is eersier
if you have a partncr to help you. In any of the last two rlr three positions
in which the neck of the femur is not prying directly against the rim of the

F i g u r e6 . 1 9 c .T h i r d : G r a s p f:
t h e k n e e sf r o m t h e i n s i d e
and pull them down and
laterally for more stretch
of the adductors.
$
Se"*'
F i g u r e6 . 1 9 d .F o u r t h :G r a s p
t h e a n k l e sa n d p u l l t h e f e e t
toward the head, pressingthe
elbows sharply against the
thigh muscles.This tends to
lift the shoulders, and you
may want to have a pillow to
supportyour head.
 6. FORIIARD I}T:NDI}iG POSTLIRLS 365

hip socket or the front of the ilium, you may still get stopped by tenderness
in the groin. Don't force the issue if that is the case, because numerous
delicate tissues run through this region.

CIRCUMDUCTION

The hip joint is a ball-and-socketjoint that accommodates "rotation"

during the course of any combination of six movements-flexion and
extension, abduction and adduction, and lateral and medial rotation.
Even though in a literal senseall of these motions rotate the head of the
femur in the acetabulum, by convention only the last two are termed
anatomical rotation. These of course can be superimposedon any of the
others. For example, if you sit down and spread your thighs apart
keeping the knees straight, and then turn your toes out, you will be
superimposing lateral rotation on flexed and adducted thighs; turning
the toes in from the same position is medial rotation. "Hip-opening" in
hatha yoga means dcveloping a full range of motion for all of thesc
movements plus one more-circumductio rt-that sequentially combines
fl exion, abtluct i on, ext en si on, and adduction.
You can circumduct the thigh in any p<-rsitionin which the floor or some
other object is not in the way. We'll look at it in a standing position to
explore the principle and then in supine postures to seehow various
muscles restrict the movement. If you balance on vour left foot. extend the

Figure 6.19e. Fifth: Grasp the

lateral aspects of the feet and
pull them toward the head,
pressingthe elbows sharply
a g a i n s tt h e c a l f m u s c l e s T
. his
provides the fullest stretch
for the adductors in this
series.

Figure 6.19f.Sixth: Grasp the

soles of the feet from their
m e d i a l b o r d e r sa n d p u l l t h e
knees toward the floor on
either side of the chest. Be
careful, because the arms can
pull more powerfullylhan is
temperate for the hip joints.
366 ANATOMT'OF HATTTA YOGA

right knee, and swing the right foot around in a circular motion, you will
be circumducting the thigh. You can start with adduction, continue forward
for flexion, swing the foot out for abduction, to the rear for extension, and
back into home position with adduction. If you project an imaginary tracing
on the floor with your foot, you'll notice that the movement is kidney-
shaped rather than circular. There are two reasons for this: the leg you are
using to support your weight gets in the way of the one that you are swinging
around, and you can flex the thigh forward further than you can extend it
to the rear. Try this exercise with both lower extremities and notice if the
excursion is different on the two sides.
As you swing your right thigh in front of the left thigh and leg, you can
first feel the right hip joint and the left thigh limiting how far you can pull
the right thigh to the left and forward. 'lhen as you flex the thigh straight
forward the right hamstrings limit the movement. Swinging on around to
the side,the right adductors (or the right hip joint in those who are especially
flexible) start resisting. Continuing to the rear, the right hip flexors limit
extension, and finally, just before you bump into the left thigh, the right hip
joint again stops you.
We have already taken note of the straightforward eff'ectsof knee extension
and flexion on hip flcxion (figs. (r.3-4),and we have scen how important this
is to forward bending with thc thighs adducted, as in the posterior stretch
(fig. 6.rz). Now we'll look at how flexing the knee assists circumduction of'
the thigh in gcncral:r.ndabduction of the thigh in particular. You can do this
only when you are lying supine with the hips near the edgc of a table or firm
bed, becauseyou want to be able to hyperextend the thighs beyond thc
lower edgc. Thc first thing to do is repeat in the supine position what you
just did standing, extending the knee and projecting the tracing {br circum-
duction on the opposite wall rather than on the floor. Then, with this as a
basis for comparison, bend one knee and projcct the same kind of tracing on
the wall from an imaginary line running down your thigh.
You will notice immediately that you get a much bigger projection when
your knee is bent. Swinging the thigh around in the same direction as
before, it does not make much difference at first whether the knee is bent
or extended. But as soon as you have the thigh flexed straight to the front,
knee flexion enlarges that segment of the projection considerably over
what is apparent with the knee extended. Moving on around, as you abduct
the thigh straight to the side, you get only marginally more thigh abduction
with the knee flexed than extended. Finally, everything is reversed as you
try to bring the thigh to the rear. Knee flexion at that point stops thigh
hyperextension cold because the rectus femoris muscle comes under
extreme tension and keeps the thigh lifted. Be careful at that stage not to
hurt your knee.
 6. FORVARD BENDING POSTL]RES 367

Next, to examine how this works in a dynamic movement, improvise freely,

circumducting the thigh with varying combinations of knee flexion and exten-
sion, always sweeping the thigh in as wide a "circle" as possible. These are all
valuable exercisesfor hip opening in their own right even though they are not
practical for a class. They work best at the end ofa firm bed.
As you play with the different options and combinations for knee flexion
and thigh abduction, you can begin to understand how the hamstrings,
adductors, and hip flexors in combination affect circumduction of the thigh,
and you will be encouragedto see that lengthening these muscles even a
little can improve hip flexibility. Circumduction of the thigh also clarifies for
us how hip flexibility is limited by the inherent structure of the joint itself,
and once you becomeaware of the limits imposed by the individual muscles,
you can begin deeper work. As an experiment, do a series of hip-opening
postures, both the simple ones outlined at the beginning of this section and
some of the more demanding ones describedlater, then try a balanced hatha
yoga practice for an hour, and come back to the same hip-opening excrcises
at the end. After you are warmed up, you will not only be more flexible, you
will be consciousof more bony and ligamentous constraints.

A SUPINE HALF LOTUS HIP-OPENER

The next exercise a supine half lotus hip-opener-does two things: it

improves hip flexibility, and it stretches the adductors and deep back muscles.
And because the back is stabilized against the floor, it is safe as well as
e{I'ective.It is less rewarding early in the mt-rrning than alter you are thor-
oughly warmed up, but once you get acclimated to it the pose will becomea
Iavorite. Lie supine and draw the heels toward the hips, keeping the feet on
the floor. Then bring the left ankle to the near side of'the right knee, resting
the ankle against the thigh and pressinpJthe left knee away from the body.
Pass the left hand into the trianp;le formed by the two thighs and the left leg,
lift the right fbot off'the floor, and grasp the right shin with the left hand just
bekrw the knee. Pull the left foot down closer to the pelvis with the right hand,
place the right forearm above the left ankle, and interlock the fingers around
the right shin just below the knee (fig. 6.zo).

F i g u r e6 . 2 0 .T o d o t h i s s u p i n e h a l f -
lotus hip-opener, proceed as
directed in text, or modify it as
needed, for example by permitting
the right ankle to rest above the
right wrist instead of below, or by
grasping the back side of the right
t h i g h i n s t e a do f t h e r i g h t s h i n .
3613 Al\"AI'OiVl OFHATHA YOGA

Ifyou are not flexible enough to get into this position, you can keep the
right wrist below the left ankle, or you can grasp the thigh instead ofinter-
locking the fingers around the knee. Do it any way you can. Rock from side
to side as far as possible without falling. Then draw imaginary circles on
the ceiling with the right knee. Go as far to the left as possiblewithout toppling
over, and pull on your right knee, deeply stretching the adductor muscles
on the left side that attach posteriorly along the inferior pubic rami. Then
go as far to the right as possible, again without toppling over, and pull, feeling
the stretch higher in the back. In this position, the right thigh is flexed
straight toward the chest, so the right adductors are not being placed
under much tension, but the left adductors are stretched by the modified
half lotus combination of flexion, abduction, and lateral rotation. Repeat
on the other side.

GOLGI TENDON ORGAN STIMULATION

'fhe following
exercisc lengghensthe hamstrings and reaffirms thc princi-
ples of working with I'eedbackcircuits bctween tendons and their muscles
(chaptcr r). It is safe for beginncrs becausethe back and pclvis are stabilized
against the lloor. Locate a lengLh of cloth or a bclt that can be thrown over
onc foot and grabbed with the hands. Then do a standing forward bend to
test the initial length of the hamstrings. Next, lic down with thc buttocks
against a wall, the feet facing thc ceiling, and the thighs flcxed 9o" from the
trunk. Keep the knees extended and the feet togethcr, and toss thc cloth or
belt across the solc of one fbot.
Kccping one leg against the wall, draw the other fbot away from the wall
by tugging on the bclt with the opposite h:rnd. Kccp both knees cxtcndcd.
With thc other hand, first locate the ischial tuberosity on the side you are
working with, and fccl the hamstring tendons that lead distally, up and
away (toward the cciling) from that point of'origin. Second,locate the cord-
like hamstring tendons that connect the bellies of the hamstring muscles
to their insertions on the tibia and fibula. These tendons can be felt just
proximal to the medial and lateral sidesof'the knee joints. Once the tendons
are all located, hold the cloth or belt firmly and press the thigh toward the
wall isometrically, bringing the hamstring muscles into a strong state of
contraction. Then, keeping that tension on the hamstring muscles, deeply
palpate their musculotendinous junctions with your free hand, first near
their origins and then near their insertions. Repeat the exercise on the
other side. To complete the experiment, stand up, again try the forward
bend, and notice how much further you can come down.
Vigorously palpating Golgi tendon organs of the hamstring muscles
when the hamstrings are in a state of isometric contraction relaxes the
muscles, and we can seethe evidencemoments later when thev accommodate
 6. FORIIARD I3I:NDING POSftiRI':S 369

to a greater length under conditions of passive stretch. For example, if we

guess that the hamstring muscle fibers had been receiving -lo ner-veimpulses
per secondbefore the isometric endeavor and massage,they might receive
only zo nerve impulses per secondin the same stretch after the treatment,
releasing some of their tension and enabling us to bend forward more
gracefully. Even more to the point, the diminution in motor neuronal input
seemsto last for as long as a day or two, supporting the usual advice to do
hatha yoga postures every day.

HIP OPENING IN INVERTED POSTURES

when the body is inverted, hip-opening is both saf'eand effective because

the hip.ioints are not bearing the weight of the body as a whore. In either
the headstand(chapter ll) or the shouldcrstand(chapter 9), you can stretch
the hamstrings on one side at a time by pulling one foot overhead,and you
can strctch the adductors by allowing glavity to abduct thc thighs. l.rom
the shouldcrstand vou can comc into the plow or half plow to stretch the
htrmstrings on both sides, and you can do that whilc abducting thc thighs
maximally to stretch the adductors. Yru can nlso fold onc foot into a hall'
lotus position and lower the other lbot overhead tow:rrclthe floor to stretch
the hamstrings on one sidc. Irinally, you can work within the hip ioint by
fblding up the knecs and hips in any number of ways that reducc muscular
Lcnsion.

FORWABD BENDING WtTH ONE FOOT TUCKED IN

sitting forward bends with one lbot tucked in are amons the most uselul
hip flexibility stretchesIbr beginnersand intermcdiate studcnts. Thc.y clo
not place as much strcss on the lower back and sacroilitrcjoints as thc
postcrior stretch, and thcy are itsymmctrical postures thut arc helplul for
working with right-left imbalances.
'lo
bcgin, sit on the floor, stretch one lcg'ut in front .i'you, and pull the
tither foot in toward the perineum. Thc thighs will be at about a 9o'angle
irom onc another, and you will be facing about hallway between the two.
Next, to work with this posture conventionally, twist the spine 45" to face
the outstretched leg and come forward without lifting your hands overhead
or making an attempt to bend initially {rom the hips. Let the hands rest,
depending on your flexibility, on the outstretched thigh, leg, or fbot (fig.
(r.zta). Remain in the posture for about half a minute and then slowly
unroll, first at the hips and then in the lumbar region. Finally, Iift the head
and neck. Repeat on the other side.
This forward bend toward one foot is useful for severar reasons. First,
with one knee flexed, it is stretching the hamstrings on only one side.
Second,even though it is stretching the adductors to some extent on both
37o ANATO\IY OF HATIIA YO(;A

sides,it creates more stretch on the side to which you are reaching because
the knee on that side is extended.This is one ofthe best possiblepostures for
working with the adductors on one side at a time. Finally, the forward bend
with the pelvis angled 45' creates different and generally fewer stresses on
the hip joint and lower back than the posterior stretch, making this posture
safer and less discouraging for beginners.
After getting accustomed to this pose, try a variation. Again come into
the preliminary position with the right knee extended, but instead of
reaching out directly toward the right foot, press your left forearm against
your left knee. In most students, this will pry the right hip off the floor, and
that's fine. Now reach out and slide the right hand against the floor
halfway between the two thighs, approximating a -lo-+5" angle from the
outstretched leg. Keep reaching toward your limit even though it lifts your
right hip even more. The idea is to stretch the adductors on the right more
than the previous posture. Then try reaching out closer to the right foot,
perhaps lo-2o" offaxis from the right leg, in order to increase tension even
'I'hese variations are mainly for
more in the right adductors (fig. (r.zrb).
beginncrs and intermediate students. Those who are already flexible rvill
not find them very interesting because thcir adductors can easil-vaccom-
modate to all of the stretches.
Finally. after exploring the poses in which you are reaching out at :rn
angle, come back to thc original posture and reach straight ton'al'd the
right foot. Vru will find that you are able to come further fonr-ard {fig.
6.zrc).The hamstrings are still resisting almost as much as before.but the
stretches off axis lrom the extended knee have relaxed and lcngther-redthe
adductors on that side, and thc increase in how far you can no\\' r'etrchis a
rough measureof'htlw much they were contributing to 1'our linlitatiot'ts-
over and aboverestrictions from the hamstrings in the initial posture'
'fhese are all elementary stretches, and in keeping rvith the spirit of
meeting the needs of novices, they should all be explored b1' simpll' I'olling
forward naturally, working from distal to proximal, coming into the stretch
first with the upper extremities, head, chest,lumbar region. and hips, and
then releasing in the opposite direction one step at a tirne fron.rthe hips to
the upper extremities. Since these are asymmetric postures. 1-ou should
repeat the series on the other side. After a warm-up, -vou can take the
option of moving briskly back and forth from one side to the other to
d e t e r m i n e i f o n e s i d e i s t i g h t e r , a n d t h e n c o n c e n t r a t e - ! ' o u ra t t e n t i o n
accordingly.
When students are comfortable with these postures, thel' can start
thinking about re-ordering their priorities by reaching up first with the
hands and bending from the hips, then the spine, and then the head and
neck. Only advanced students with good flexibility should try the final step
 6. foRwARr) BE,\-D|\G ?OSTTIRBS 371

of catching the outstretched foot to pull themselves fully into the pose,
however, becausewe seethe same problem here as in the posterior stretch:
advanced students come into the posture by releasing rather than
increasing tension on their spines, and beginners who pull forward with
their hands may strain their lumbar region. Coming out of the pose,
beginners should roll up and out as always (even if they came into the
posture bending from the hips), intermediate students should release
slightly in the hips and lower back before reaching forward, out, and up,
and advanced students can do whatever they want, including reaching
out and then up as a first prioritv.

Figure 6.2.1a.With the

left foot placed againsl
the right thigh, come
forward in an initial trial
to feel and evaluate
hamstring tightness.

Figure 6.21b. Pressing

the left forearm
againstthe left knee,
reach out at various
angles (in this case
20') to stretch the
adductors on the
right side.

Figure 6.2.1c.Notice the

improvement. This is due
to having lengthened the
adductors, some of
which have a hamstring
character and which limit
the forward bend for the
same reasonsas the true
hamstrings.
372 ,lNA'toMY OI; I IA',tltl fOGA

Another variation of this series of postures that may be of more interest

to intermediate and advanced students is to place the pulled-in foot high up
on the opposite thigh before undertaking the forward bends. This variation is
not recommended for those who have poor hip flexibility or for anyone with
chronic low back pain, since it places peculiar and unanticipated stresses
on the lower back.

FORWARD BENDING WITH THIGHS ABDUCTED

Forward bending with the thighs abducted stretches both hamstrings and
adductors. In its usual fbrm it is a symmetrical posture fbr intermediate
and advancedstudents who have already achievcd good hip flexibility. Start
with the knees straight and the thighs abducted. Then initiate a forward
bend lcading first with the promontory of the sacrum to achieve your
personal maximum for nutation. fhcn bend from the hips, or try to do so,
'Ihose who have good
befbre bending addilionally in the lumbar spine.
sacroiliacflexibility will fccl their ischial tuberositiesspreadapart zrndwill
bc able to flex thc pclvis forwtrrd while keeping a promincnt lumbar arch
(fig. 6.zz),but as in the caseof the postcrior stretch,those who are in{lcxible
:rre likely to be at their limits of sacroiliacnutation and hip flexibility merely
trying to sit up straight.
ln this posture tight adductors add to the problem of tight hamstrings
filr two reasons. First, spreading thc thighs apart places the adductors
undcr tcnsion even beforc you start to bend forward. Second,bccausesome
of the adductors take origin postcriorly along the inf'erior pubic rami, they
will pull forward on the underside of the pclvis.just as surely :rs the ham-
strings. Comp:rred with thc posterior stretch, the additionnl di{Iiculty you
have coming forward is due to the adductors, trnd i{'you are not very flcxible
you arc likely t<-rbe struggling. If you can't separate the thighs more than
9o", it means that both thc hamstrings and the adductors are limiting the
stretch. The simplicity of the problem makes this perhaps one of thc most
maddening postures in hatha yoga fbr stiff novices.
Those who have good sacroiliac and hip flexibility have a complctely dif-
ferent experience. They may even be able to bend all the way to the floor,
keeping the back straight and even keeping the lumbar region arched forward.

Figure 6.22. In this advanced

forward bend with hip joints ,i'
a b d u c t e d ,l h e t h i g h s l i t e r a l l y
L
gel oul of the way of lhe -.,"iqt%:,,
p e l v i s ,w h i c h c a n d r o p a l l
the way forward to the floor '- ,,,',,,:&,
in the most flexible students.
 6. r()RVARD BEl't)tNG I'()S',ItiltE.t 373

This tuo" bend from the hips can happen only because full sacroiliac
nutation in combination with extreme abduction gets the thighs out of
the way quite literally, and permits the front of the pelvis to drop down
between them. This, in fact, has to happen in the most extreme casesof
abduction, in which the thighs are spread straight out to the sides.What
happens at the level ofbones andjoints under those circumstancesis that
the pelvis rotates forward and allows the anterior borders of the ilia to
drop down between the necks of the femurs just as we saw with some of
the hip-opening stretches (figs.6.l9e fl. The only difference is that here,
those who are especiallyflexible are able to both zrbductand to flex their
hips fully when their knees are extended.
'fhe
extreme abduction in this posture,in combination with thc pitched-
forward pelvis, revcals one more f'eaturc. In comparison with the posterior
stretch, it actually takes tension off the hamstrings becauscthe sacroiliac
. l o i n t ss l i p t o t h e e x t r e m c o I n u t a t i o n , s p r c a d i n g t h e i s c h i a l t u b c r o s i t i e s
laterally and positioning them closcr to the insertions of the hamstrings,
which are krcated out to the side in this posture. 'I'his means that those who
have a krt of sacroiliacmobility will not be limited by eithcr the hamstrings
or thc trdductorsin this stretch and will be working on limitations within
the hip joint itself.
It is evcn morc important to be attentive to lbot position in this posturc
than in the posterior stretch, becausewith thc feet spread so far apart, you
may not noticc that one fo<ltis angling out more than the other. The cause
ol'this is risht-left imbalances in the medial and lzrteralrotators of thc
thighs, and these cannot be corrected cxccpt by paying nttention to detzril
over a long pcriod of time. If'you are relatively inflexible, you should find
the foot position that intcrferes the least with your attcmpts to bend, so
long as you kccp both f'eet at the same an€fle,but if you are more flexible
you should analyze carefully which foot position gives you the most uselul
stretch. Mer.nyinstructors who are watchful of such matters will suggest
that you try to keep both feet perf'ectly upright.

CHURNING

An alternative for those who cannot come very far forward in the previous
posture is to work with it asymmetrically and dynamically, combining the
pose with a mild spinal twist. From the starting position reach with your
right hand toward your left foot (or thigh, knee, or leg) while at the same
time swinging your left hand to the floor in back of you and giving yourself
a little push from behind to aid the forward bend. Then come up partially
and reverse the position, reaching with your left hand toward your right
foot and pushing yourself forward from behind with your right hand.
Exhale each time you come forward, and inhale each time you come up.
371 ANATOMY OF HATHA '

This dynamic churning exercise is more rewarding for beginners than

the previous pose becausethe emphasis on movement allows them to feel
a s i f t h e y a r e a c c o m p l i s h i n g s o m e t h i n g . I t ' s a l s o h e l p f u l b e c a u s et h e
asymmetry of the movement allows them to work with extra concentration
on the side that is showins more restrictions.

THREE MORE VARIATIONS WITH ABDUCTED THIGHS

Three more variations of sitting forward bends with the thighs abducted
are commonly taught. For the first one simply face the left foot and bend
forward. If the thighs are spread to a 9oo angle in the first place, this will
require a 45" twist in the spine in comparison with bending straight forward
toward the floor. Repeat on the other side.
For the second and more demanding variation (fig. 6.23a),tuck the left
foot in toward the perineum, and while remaining upright, twist left.
Follow this with a side bend to the right, at the same time reaching over-
head with the left hand toward the right foot. This superimposes lateral
flexion to thc right onto a spinal twist to the left. Again, repeat on the othcr
side.
The last variation is similar to the secondone except that both knccs are
extended. With the thighs abducted, sit straight, twist enough to the
right-45' if the thighs arc at a 90" angle from onc another-to {ace the
right foot, and do a side bend toward the left foot. Repeat on the other sidc.
Like the previous posc, this posturc is morc fitting for advanced students
who can reach overhead with the free hand, grasp the toes, and pull
further into the side bend (fig. (r.z3b).This should done carefully, especially
il'you do the posture after you are warmed up, because so much ol'your
attention is placed on whole-body twisting and bending lbllowed by pulling
with the lree hand that you may not notice you have iust dislocatcd your
hip. One time a friend of mine got caruied away doing a demonstration and
did exactly that. So be watchful. If you f'eel something give, come back
delicately to a neutral position and stop doing all postures for a day or so
to evaluate what has happened.

Figure 6.23a.To come

into this twisted side
bend, tuck the left foot
in, twist left, bend to the
right and reach over-
head with the left hand
toward the right foot.
Thissuperimposes
lateral flexion to the
right onto a spinal twist
to the left.
 6. I'-ORTYARD BLNDTNG POST'LiRLS 375

These Iast two postures are among the few side bends that are possible
from a sitting position. Even so, they are not pure side bends becausethey
are superimposed on sitting spinal twists. This makes them less natural
and more complex than standing side bends (chapter 4), in which the
thighs are extended and in line with the torso, and in which a relatively
simple lateral flexion of the spine is possible.

SITTING TWISTS

Sitting spinal twists, which we'll discuss in the next chapter, create stretches
and stressesin the hip joint not found in any other type of posture. Every
sitting spinal twist in which you lift one knee and pull it toward the opposite
side of the body opens the hip joint, and does so without many encum-
brances from muscular attachments, and, as we have seen repeatedly,
when the muscles are not limiting hip flexibilitv we are down to bare bones,
joints, and ligzrments.

THE KNEELING ADDUCTOR STRETCH

To crcatc the purest passive stretch of the adductors, especially for students
who are not very flexible, warm up for at least halfan hour, and then kneel
down on a wcll-padded carpet with ezrchknee on a small sheet of ctrrdboard.
Drop the head and chest, and settle onto thc forearms with the f<lrehead
resting against the crossedhands. Slowly slide the knees apart, letting the
feet move to whatever position is most comfortable as the body weight
abducts the flexed thighs, possibly to an angle of about rzo" Irom one
another. Stay for a while in a position that permits the most abduction.
'l'his
Next, slowly move the torso forward. may permit you to slide the
knees further apart (fig. 6.24). Then slide the knees somewhat closcr
together and lower the hips to the rear for more flexion. Try to relax. As
you flex the hips and take your weight to the rear, you will be stretching
different parts of the adductors than when you bring your weight forward,
and anyone who is not very flexible will find that moving to the rear is an

Figure6.23b.Forthis twistedside bend,abductthe thighs,twist right,bend left

and againreachoverheadwith the free handtowardthe oppositefoot.
376 AN,ITOMY OI; IIA',IIIA I

intense stretch that should be approached with caution. Last, you can try
coming all the way forward, but be careful of this if you have lower back
problems because the pose creates an acute backbend that places a lot of
stress on this region.
These exercises are among the most effective stretches available for
the adductors, and working with them five minutes a day as a part of a
balanced practice will soon show results in all postures that depend on
adductor flexibility, including all forward bends, all standing postures
with the feet wide apart, and all cross-leggedsitting postures.

THE PIGEON POSTURE

The pigeon has a large, puffed-out chest, which wc mimic in the pigeon
posture. It is a superb advancedbackbendingpose in its completedIbrm,
but :r preliminary version can be done by nearl.ycvcryonc. Wc place it here
becauseboth vcrsions work with hip {lexibilitv on the right and left sides
simultancously,producing extensionol'thc hip.joint lbr the thigh dircctcd
to the rear and flcxion ol'thc thigh facing the front.
To come into thc prcliminary pige<ln,start in a hands-and-knccsposition,
pull thc right knee forward to flex the right hip.joint, and thrust the lcft
Ibot back to extcnd thc lcfl hip.joint. Alkrw the right fixrt to end up whcrcver
it naturally lnlls, which will usually bc ncar tht-'gcnitals.Keep the elbows
extendedand the shoulderspressing therh:rnds against thc floor'.Pull the
head up and back,thrust the chcst forward, and I'celthe essenceof thc pose'
( f i g . ( r . z 5 t r )I .1 ' y o u f ' e e [a n y d i s c o m f o r ti n t h c ' r i g h t h i p . j o i n t o r g r o i n , s t o p
righl there. 'l'his is as firr as you should go. Later on, after you havc gotten
accustomedto the basic position, you can lowcr vour wcight all the way
down so that you trre lying on the right thigh, which flexes thc light hip
,joint completelyand lessenshypcrcxtcnsionof thc lc{t hip.joint {fig. 6.:.5b1.
Neithcr the hamstrings nor the adductorsarc bcing strctched,but yor-rmay
feel the effectsin the hip.joint itself. Or, becauseall of your body weight is
prcssing against the fcrrward thigh, you may {'eeltightness in the groin on
that side.
When you are comfortablewith the preliminary pigeon,you can trv the
advanced posture. Gradually swing the front fbot out so the leg is pcrpen-
dicular to the long axis of the thigh and torso. Don't rush. As you bring
your leg around to about a '+5"angle, you may start to notice tension in

F i g u r e6 . 2 4T. his

M..,,;
k n e e l i n ga d d u c t o r
stretchshouldbe
done with caution,
especiallyby those
who are not very
flexible.
 6. I'-O RIIA RI ) R I.)NI ) I|\G I'OS7'I ]I?F:,'

F i g u r e6 . 2 5 a .T h i s p r e l i m i n a r yp i g e o n ,a l k r w i n g t h e f r o n t f o o t t o c o m e t o a
neutral position, is comfortable for everyone who has healthy knees.The right
thigh is flexed, the Ieft thigh is hyperextended, and the back and neck are fully
extended.

I
Gt':
Figure 6.25b. Folding into a forward bend from the previous posture is a
comfortable and richly rewarding posture for many students.The pose
increasesflexion of the right thigh and lessenshyperextension of the left thigh.

Figure 6.25c.The advanced

pigeon, with the front leg
a p p r o a c h i n ga 9 0 " a n g l e f r o m
the front thigh, and featuring a
9 0 ' l u m b a r b a c k b e n d .s h o u l d
be approached with respect
and caution.
37tt ANATOTTYOr:rrATrrA YOGA

your knee joint and a deep pulling sensation in your hip joint on that same
side. Inexperienced students should never lower their weight down against
the front thigh in this position because it places too much stress on the
knee. Intermediate students can moderate the tension on the front knee by
working with the classic pigeon posture-lifting up on the fingertips,
pulling the head and shoulders up and back, thrusting out the chest as
much as possible, and taking empowered thoracic inhalations to increase
their inspiratory capacity. Advanced students complete this posture by
grasping the sole of the rear foot and placing it against the top of the head
(fig.6.25c).

HIP FLEXIBILITYSTANDING

Improving hip flexibility in standing lbrward bcnds requires a diffcrent

mind-set from working with hip flexibility in supine, inverted, or sitting
positions. Standing postures present special problems becausewe place the
fcct in positions that olten depart radically from the norms of ankle, kncc,
and hip movements needed for walking and running. Any timc we plant
the feet zrnd then come into a standing posture with a twist, bend, lunge,
or some combination of thcsc three, we place stress on the hip joints zrnd
their supporting muscles. The problem is that wc do not ordinarily
rcadjust thc f'eet to make thc posturc casicr, which indeed would miss
the point; instcad, wc work with the posture by increasing the tension
in musclcs around the hips and knccs. To this end, many instructors
recommend standing on non-slip rubber mats to keep the feet firmly in
place and immobile. Beginners are well-advised to bcgin with moderate
Ibot positions to minimize strcss, which allows them to explore standing
postures in their mildest form befilre working with more demanding
'lo illustrate we'll do
versions. two cxpcrimcnts, one fcrr the hamstrings
and one for the adductors.
We'll begin with an adaptation of the angle posture (figs. 4.25-z(r and
(r.z(ra-b) to stretch the hamstrings. Stand with the feet about three feet
apart. 'l'hen rotate the right foot 9o" to the right and the left foot -lo" to the
right. Given this foot position, the torso will most naturally face about 45"
to the right, and the hip joints and the muscles that restrain them will be
relatively comfbrtable. To continue, swivel to face the right foot as squarely
as possible,and notice that this movement alone creates intense tension in
the left quadriceps femoris. Counter that by tightening the left gluteals.
The left thigh is now hyperextended, causing the head of the femur to be
driven into tight apposition with the acetabulum. If you keep standing up
straight, hyperextension of the left thigh forces the lumbar region into a
deeper lordosis. There is little or no tension on the right hamstrings
becausethe right lower extremity is still in a neutral position.
 6. FORWARD BENDING POST||I?F:S 37()

Then, facing the right foot, establish full nutation ofthe right sacroiliac
joint by tightening the right psoas muscle, and then slowly fold forward,
first from the hips (fig. 6.26a) and then in the lumbar region. As you come
down, the right hamstrings come under more tension (fig' 6'z6b). Keep the
muscles of both thighs active to make the posture feel more secure, and
notice that this also makes you feel more confident in coming forward.
Come up and repeat on the other side.
This posture involves a swivel and a forward bend at one hip joint
which is intensified by the weight of the upper body. The resulting stretch
is more demanding than hamstring and hip stretches in supine, inverted
and sitting postures because now you have to be attentive to the body as
a whole-and this is one of the easiestand least complex of'the standing
postures. Most others, especially the trianglcs and lun6les,place even more
stress and tension on the hip joints.

Figure 6.26a.Coming into this intermediate stage of the anSle posture provides
one with a golden opportunity for the study of muscle and joint mechanics.
First,swiveling to face the right foot before starting to bend forward at the right
hip creates inlense tension in the left quadriceps femoris muscle, which should
be countered by tightening the left gluteals. Second, hyperextension of the left
thigh (still standing straight) forces the lumbar region into a deep lordosis,
whlch should be maintained even as you start to bend forward. lt is at this
point (third) that a sharp asymmetric effort is made with the right psoas muscle
(the above posture) to maintain the lumbar lordosis, maximize nutation of the
right sacroiliacjoint, and bend at the right hip. This is a magnificent.asymmetric
pose in its own right and is worth extended study. Repeat on the other side.
3tJo ANA'.IOMt' OF-HATTIA \'OGA

To stretch the adductors, try standing on a non-slip surface with the

thighs abducted almost as far apart as possible, still, however, being some-
what conservative. Keep the feet parallel, and make sure the back and
pelvis are in a comfortable upright position. 'Ihen bend forward slightly,
keeping the lower back arched, and notice that you may be able to abduct
the thighs even further. The idea is to refine this posture to find a revised
maximum but fairly comfortable limit for abduction. Then bend in tiny
increments, first coming forward from the hips to stretch the hamstring
muscles and adductors that originate from the rear, and then straightcning
up and bending backward lo stretch those segments of the adductors that
originate more anteriorly on thc inferior pubic rami. Notice that the
stretches becomeintense in both directions. It is important to be care{ul
even with these small shifts in position for two reasons:bccauscthc exercise
wzrsstarted with near-mzrximumabduction, and bccausethe feet are plantcd
and the weight oi'the entire upper body is brought to bear on the hipjoints
and adductors.Thc directions trre telling: bend ltlrward slightlv; movc in
t i n y i n c r e m e n t s ; s t r e t c h e sb c c o m c i n t e n s e i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s . S u c h
comments would not be necessaryii'you wcre working with hip flexibilitv
and adductors in supine, inverted, rlr sitting posturcs.

t,:
a:!
u\.
\t'.
"&.
*',tA
's,

{ o;:.1
.
.:,at.a..,

Figure 6.26b. Folding forward in the angle pose places intense stretch on the
hamstring muscles of the front thigh, stretch which should be countered by
holding those muscles in an isometric state of contraction along with moderate
tension in the rest of the muscles of both lower extremities.This pose provides
a n e x c e l l e n te x a m p l e o f t h e i n a d v i s a b i l i t yo f h o l d i n g a n i n t e n s ep o s t u r e i n
w h i c h t h e k n e e j o i n t i s f u l l y e x t e n d e d ( c h a p t e r4 ) w i t h o u t k e e p i n g t e n s i o n i n
the muscles that support the joint antagonistically.
 6. I.ORII'ARD IIIiNDING P()STItRl:S -ltil

NONATTACHMENT

Those who are flexible in the hips and those who are not are like ships
passing in the night. Anyone with good hip flexibility can press the chest
against the thighs in a standing forward bend (with the knees straight)
and allow the lumbar region to be stretched passively by gravity. They
are relaxed and comfortable, and they feel a senseofinversion. In sitting
postures it is easy for them to press the chest to the thighs (again with
the knees straight) in the posterior stretch or to lower the abdomen,
chest, and head all the way to the floor with thc thighs abducted. By con-
trast, those whose hips arc not Ilexible are practically a differcnt species.
As they try to lower into a standing forward bend at the hips, thcir backs
are crunched over rathcr than stretched passivelv bv gravity, and they
get little or no senseof inversion. And as Iar as doing a crediblc sitting
forward bend with thc thighs abducted is concerncd, thcy might as well
try flying.
Even if it is not possible frrr you to flatten your chest agzrinstyour
'l'his is ol'little
thighs while keeping your knecs straight, be comforted.
conscqucnce,at least by itsclf. Hatha yoga is a scienceof mind as well as
body, and benelicent changes in the mind-body conLinuum are available
evcn to those who arc stiff and past their youth. Frlr achicvcment tlf
hezrlth and peace of mind, consistcnt pr:rclice is more irnportant than
a c c o m p l i s h i n g s o m e a r b i t r a r y s t a n d a r d o f f ' l c x i b i l i t . y t, r n d i l ' y o u w o r k
consistently with a balanced sct of postures, progress will be realizcd on
mzrnyfronts, some o{'them unexpcctcd.All you need is commitment plus
a playlul senseof obscrvation and experimentation. Such an attitude also
cultivates uairagva nonattachmcnt-and if' that accomp:rnics your
quest, you will, by dcfinition, be successful.

BENEFITS
Forward bending postures are generally morc subducd than b:rck-
bcnding, twisting, and inverted postures. They tend to quiet rather
than stimulate the somatic nervous system and the sympathetic limb
of the autonomic nervous system (chapters z and to). On the other
hand, as soon as students are able tclflex forward enough in the spine
and the hips to compress the abdomen, forward bending postures
seem to have mildly invigorating effects on the abdominal organs,
possibly stimulating the enteric nervous system (chapter to), and
thereby enhancing digestion and assimilation of foodstuffs from the
bowel, as well as relieving constipation. Finally, because forward
bending postures are so important for hip flexibility, they are among
the most important training postures for meditation.
-182 1.\AtO.r4t OI-'HAtHA tO<11

'lffyou
uta.z./ le leat'rz a|/aul zur/tlrz/tcn, ,qcu /trll ,rce/ /a
ln ztt .Jattzef/l;ta ,2,/)u/ r.,ctue.rtlz'rtltett. -{crtar/in.q le yeg.a.,
r.:r.utr.:r..rt/rrzttaz ztz.:rznJ /zruJirl h) tt)tr/ atr ane c1/ecL ,iltt
o.nrl,tlcVt/)ury',zhr1, //n ./ititr/ nt.ll a/ ul /nle |zrt/t la
.t,//t/ cczl.Lt'nrr//)//.rrrrr. rrts, e/72,r/ /r, anro/Lz'. ,/Lo.r'./r;y //r
,tth,r/ Q /1,ruJrzq /l tz tzr,: r,(7,7'7 /iry't yeu L? guzr/ta/'/l/
o /t.t/,...)t/t.t /.//71 1:7,7:7'-
77ra.zr1ztztt.q /n/r"z t/. ttutr/,''y'//r,t.
"/
7re/huqr-Qtrar/rr', 1* nhtry'rL n/.,1 fn/rrrJ ez a//. ty'7?r/
'//,L,n
/b, /)rtqrt a.nry' /irtqrt' utlz'n,a/i. //lz' tttnrry' trzrrur..l
raz.r,r'n/t'rt/r'r/ en r'rtr ny'fr'.r/, ,r .rrnnry' a/'/pr//'r, /lral/.l,
//itl /t .rr//1,r/rrrt'rl./a/r'an. "',/7'rrl, ,r.rrl/tt/r.ctt. rrrz 1i ,/t/i;rrr/
"
a.,J //t.. n tt ut lrzrzVt /r' r/ //) rl r,/ r'ru rrztL'a h att.
- Pandit Rajmzrni Tigunait, in Inner Quest, p.7r.
 CHAPTERSE,VEN
TWISTINGPOSTURES

"J7ii ny'./lino. ri nal Ja.uu://iitq r:.1a12:tzrer rtl7.1lruzeu.t. ,,fr r.l

.t-r/r.Q ./. ///aq e/bu,r/rznrzq ,/,.2r,ru/ir/ql ny'aul azt'.Jr,/i'rl. ,',/rr.r1
,rr//r,rr.,rrr' ,/rrr,r' /lrrrrrz'r/,/iet, k, /tttrrt, r.,utJr/rtr'.j, ,rr, ,rrr'/,/:'a/ja
,//naa, //ir, u,rt,/i./areurtry'al atr///ir JrVurtu: rra/1.tr7 rti u,r.//' .
'71,ry'rz.,,ttrt.
. . ,',/7ir'r,rrq.,/rl ,1/e// .:././/. qrtth hz' Trrrnr,/1r/q' a./)rtl
,qazt'.1r,///anry',Veru' ,r/ahVzL/Vt. tri//tl /lz ntr7,t.Jr.,' //)nrr.V/
/../i)r 7u'rtr,/r7r,.J,/r, t / //// t/./ 1// t .Tt t t r r t/r ttl /rrrerr,/1 r.y'q, r.tl) u/
//)..t, .iutr' //t,nqJ. "
- Tapasvi Baba, from a lecture givcn at the Himalayan
Institutc in Honesdale,PA on July r7, 2ooo (translatcd bv D.
C. llao).

I
Imaginc what it would be like if we couldn't twist. We couldn't swing a bat
or a golf club. We couldn't greet someonestanding next to us without turn-
ing our entire body. Wc couldn't even twist thc lid from a jar. We would
walk likc marionettes and dance like robots. Twisting is nceded for every
activity that involves moving to the side and Iront simultaneously. Lean
diagonally acrossa table-you twist. Throw a ball-you twist. Scratch your
left foot with your right hand-you twist. Not only that, every inquiry
about anything not directly in your line of'sight requires twisting. It might
be something as simple as looking around a room to determine where to go
and what to do next, or it could be something as complex as twisting the
head, neck, and trunk around lf5'in an automobile seat to confirm that no
one is alongside and slightly behind you before you change lanes.
Anatomically, all asymmetric whole-body activities, even those that
principally involve flexion and extension, contain elements of twisting.
Take walking. As you stride forward with one foot the opposite hand comes
forward-right foot left hand, left foot right hand, right foot left hand, left
foot right hand. This creates a moderate whole-body twist, and a slight
twist in the gait not only balancesthe body, it calms the nervous system. If
you are skeptical, try it the other way-right foot and right hand forward
at the same time, clunk; then Ieft foot and left hand forward at the same
time, clunk. It's jarring.
j83
-164 ANATOMYOt' trA'.r'rrAYOGA

In hatha yoga we have many twisting postures to pick from, including

all asymmetrical postures that are not pure sidebends.In this chapter we'll
examine a few of them in detail, including basic spinal twists, various
combinations of flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and twisting of the head
and neck, and certain standing postures that combine twisting with
backbending and forward bending. We'll start with an analysis of the
fundamentals of twisting, then look at the anatomy of twisting from head
to toe, and complete the chapter by looking at supine, standing, inverted,
and sitting twists

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF TWISTING

Forward and backward bending postures, as well as flexion and extension
in general, always take place in relation to earth's gravitational field, but
twisting is fundamentally different becauseyou can twist the body or some
part of the body without altering its relationship to gravity. For example,
you can twist your head as far as possible right and left, but unless you
combine this with flexion, extcnsion, or latcral flexion, the relationship of'
the head to earth's gravity is unchanged.
Bends and twists not only differ in nature, they difi'er in how they come
about. Any movement that involves bending-whether whole-bodvbending,
or flexion and cxtcnsion of a limb gets its impetus either from interactions
with gravity or from :r force like that created when childrcn in swing sets
kick their fect fbrward and then backward to get themselves going, or like
that created whcn you push off from the end of a swimming pool. All the
twisting motions with which we are concerned here, however, are initiated
by toru1ue.Itis torque that starts someonespinning around on a rotating
chzrir,zrndit is torque that the rotators of'the hip use fbr rotating the long
axis of thc thigh with respect to the pelvis.
lTechnicalnote:'Io be accurate, it hasto be admitledthat nearlyzrllmovcmenlsat
joints use torque, whether bendingyour elbow,kicking a football,or graspinga
pencil.'Ihat is why I wersczrrefulnot to serythat lirrcar movementsare used for
pushing off from lhe cnd of a swimming pool. I'hat would have been incorrect;
torque is usedthere as well to extendthe hips, knees,erndankles.The difference
is that for those movementsthe axial center of rotation is in each specificjoint,
whereasin this chapterour main concernis with forcesthat operateto createtwist
on the long axis of the bodyor limb from the perimeterof an imaginarycirclethat
surroundsthe axis of the aflectedbodypart.I
Bending and twisting differ in at least three more ways. First, forward
and backward bending are often symmetrical, but twisting can never be:
it always pulls structures on the right and left sides of the body in opposite
directions. Second,forward and backward bending need not increase axial
tension in the body, but twisting, unless it is utterly unresisted, always
compressesstructures that lie in the axis of the twist. Last, while forward
 7. TVTST',ING POSTITRES 3u5

and backward bending are comparatively simple expressionsof flexion and

extension, there are several different kinds of twists: rotations of synovial
joints, more constrained spinal rotations, and whole-body swivels that
combine both of the above.

TORQUE

Simplistically, and for purely practical purposes, we can state that torque
is any mechanical force that can produce a rotation. It is initiated by
muscular effort, but like any other force, that effort does not have to
produce a visible result. It is like a push. You can push against a sapling
and bend it, or you can push against a tree trunk to no avail. And so it is
that a torque can either actuate a twist or it can be an isometric effort that
attempts a twist but fails-trying to twist a locked doorknob, trying unsuc-
cessfully to escapeh:rving both shoulders pinned to the floor in a wrestling
match, or tugging on the rope of'a frozen lawnmower engine. In hatha yoga
the muscular effort to come into a spinal twist creates torque throughout
the body, actuated in some regions, in others not.

SYNOVIAL ROTATIONS IN THE EXTREMITIES

The simplest kind of twisting involves free and easy rotation at synovial
.joints, in which the slippery cartilaginous mzrting surfaccs of bones ofT'er
little or no resistance to movement. We see this when we "twist" a screw
into a board, alternately pronating and supinating the forcarm. As shown
earlier (figs. z.l3and 4.3), these rotations take place bccause two pivot
joints, the proximal radio-ulnar joint at thc elbow and the distal radio-
ulnar joint at the wrist, permit the ulna and radius to come into an X
configuration for pronation and into a parallel configuration for
supination. Other familiar examples of synovial rotations are the rotary
movements of'the f'emur in the ball-and-socket hip joint and the rotary
movements of the humerus in the glenoid cavity of the shoulder joint
(fig.r.r3).

SPINAL ROTATION

The secondkind of rotation, and the one that the hatha yogi first thinks of
as a twist, is rotation of the spine. Whether standing, sitting, supine, or
inverted, spinal twists involve the entire torso, but they all start with axial
rotations between adjacent vertebrae. Taken together, such rotations-24
of them in all between Ct and the sacrum-add up to a lot of movement,
even though this takes place against the resistance ofintervertebral disks,
facet joints between the vertebral arches, the rib cage,and muscles and ligaments
from the head to the pelvis. We rarely do complete spinal twists in everyday
life, but they are one of the five fundamental gestures in hatha yoga.
386 ANATOMY OF HAT'rrA YOGA

STANDING SWIVELS

Another kind of twist might better be called a swivel. It involves rotating

the pelvis and thighs around so that the torso faces to one side, and it
invariably begins in a standing position with the thighs at least partially
abducted. The swivel can be limited to the lower extremities, but more
commonly it is a whole-body twist in which the hips, shoulders, and torso
are all rotated in the same direction, usually at the same time. Swiveling is
a combination of spinal and synovial twisting-a spinal twist superimposed
on synovial rotation of the hip joints. In sports we often see these move-
ments taken to their extremes, as when skiers negotiate a steep drop with
short, side-to-sideexcursionswhile keeping their shouldersperpendicular
to the fall line of the downhill slope. And in everyday life, any time you
face the torso in a direction other than straight ahead but do not shift the
f ' e e t ,y o u s w i v e l a t t h e h i p s . I n h a t h a y o g a p r a c t i c a l l y a n y s t a n d i n g
posture that involves planting the feet and then turning the rcst of the
body is a swivel a spinal twist combined with medial rotation of one
thigh and lateral rotation of the other.
For practical purposcs, how a posture feels to us is our major concern,
so from this point on, if it feels like a twist we'll call it a twist, whether it
is a free and easy synovial rotation, a constrained spinal rotation, a swivel,
a torque that goes nowhere, or a torque that produces a movement every-
one recognizesas some kind-any kind of a twist.

STABILITY IN TWISTING

Try to imagine how di{iicult it would be architecturally to design a joint

that is stable enough to twist as well as permit flexion and extension. You
would probably limit flexion by allowing the joint to fold in on itself
completely, but you would need to include both ligaments and bony stops
to limit extension. That's easy enough. But to permit that same joint to
twist as well, you would have to include a complex of muscles to activate
the twisting, and you would have to superimposeany number of specialized
Iigaments and muscles on the joint to keep the twisting within reasonable
bounds.
This is not a small order, and as a general rule, wherever extensive flexion
and extension take place, we see that twisting is limited. In the lumbar
region of the spine, which is the site of most spinal forward and backward
bending, little twisting is permitted, but in the chest, where backbending
and forward bending are limited, we see excellent potential for twisting.
And in the extremities, the fingers and toes permit flexion and extension
but little twisting. Only in the cervical region of the spine, in the hips and
shoulders, and in the flexed knees will we see extensive flexion and extension
as well as the additional potential for rotation, and those regions are as stable
 7. TWSTING PqSTIIRES 387

as they are only because of robust muscular support and numerous

restraining ligaments. Even so they are all hot spots for dislocations and
other injuries.

ASYMMETRYAND TWISTING

Whole-body twisting is always accomplishedby pairs of obliquely oriented

muscles, one on the right side of the body and one on the left. The muscle
on one side shortens concentrically, creating the twist, while the muscle on
the other side lengthens, resisting the twist. The external and internal
abdominal oblique muscles in the abdominal wall are a case in point. As
you twist to the right, the right external and the left internal abdominal
obliques shorten concentrically, and the right internal and left external
abdominal obliques lengthen against resistance.On the other hand, vertical
muscles such as the right and left rectus abdominis, as well as horizontal
muscles such as portions of the right and left transversus abdominis,
remain the same length during a twist and simply come under isometric
tension equally on both sides.
All ligaments that run obliquely on the two sides of the body are also
brought under asymmetrical tensions by twisting. If you bend your knees
and twist the torso to the right, as you do when you ski to the le{t while
your shoulders are facing downhill, excessivelateral rotation ofthe left leg
will be checked by the collateral ligaments of'the left knee, and excessive
mcdial rotation of the right leg will be checked by the cruciate ligaments of
the right knee. Skiing to the right, of course, mirrors these tensions. By
contrast, i{'you stand in a symmetrical knock-kneed position with the toes
facing in and heels out, the ligaments are stressed symmetrically rather
than asymmetrically. Excessive medial rotation of both legs is checked
equally by the cruciate ligaments on both sides. Or if'you stand with the
feet wide apart, heels in and toes out, excessivelateral rotation ofboth legs
is checked equally by the collateral ligaments of both sides.
Ordinary activities such as walking keeps the two sides balanced, but
when you twist you usually favor one side-always holding a book to one
side and twisting the neck in the same direction, or always coming up on
the same side for air when you are swimming freestyle. Or if you consis-
tently hold the top of the handle of a snow shovel with the right hand and
throw the snow to the left, you will develop more strength, stamina, and
flexibility for twisting to the left.
Twisting habitually to the same side during the course of daily activities
distorts the body's bilateral symmetry, and such biases sooner or later
produce asymmetries in its structure. For this reason twisting postures
should always be done in both directions, and to correct imbalances they
should be done three times-twice on the less flexible side.
_188 ANATOMYOF HATHA \'OGA

COMPRESSION

To get the most water out of a washcloth you don't roll it up and bend it-
you roll it up and twist it, and this squeezesand compressesthe water out
of the cloth from top to bottom. By the same token, in twisting postures all
structures that lie in the axis of the twist (an imaginary line around which
the rotation takes place) are squeezedand compressed.We have seen that
throughout the body, oblique muscles create twists, while vertical and
horizontal muscles resist them isometrically. Every time you do a spinal
twist or even establish the torque to create one, the obliquely and vertically
oriented muscles of the back and abdomen compress the spine and torso
axially, and whcn that happens the compression is transferred to the spine
and torso as a whole. We also see this phenomenon in the extremitics.
Every rotation of thc arm, forearm, thigh, or ankle createsaxial compression
in thc long axis of the extremity, the amount clf which is in direct proportion
to thc intensity of the effort.
You can feel this comprcssion from hcad to toc in a whole-body twist and
swivel. Stand with your f'eetz-t f'eetapart and combine a twist o{'the head,
neck and torso with a swivel in the hips:rnd resistancein the knees, ankles,
and feet. The muscular cffort tightcns .joints and ligamcnts cvcrywhere
from hcad to toe. The body f'eelslike zrtightly wound spring. Twist in thc
other direction fbr balance, and each time you releasc thc posture, notice
t h e r e l e u s eo I a x i a l t ' o m D r e s s i t - r n .

THE SKULL. THE ATLAS. AND THE AXIS

'Ihe
cervical region between the head and the chest is one of the f'cw in
which flexion, extension, and twisting can all occur at the same time.
Flexion, extension, and lateral flexion take place between the head and the
first cervical vertebra (Ct) at bilateral synovial joints (no intervertcbral
disk is prescnt here); rotation takes place at a synovialjoint between Ct
and Cz (again, there is no intcrvertcbral disk at this site); and all {bur
movements, singly or in combination, take place in the rest of the cervical
region from Cz to Tt, the segment of the cervical spine which contains
joints with typical intervertebral disks and synovial articular processes
(figs. 4.t1,'1.to,and +.rja). We'll start our discussionat the top and work
down.
Of the seven cervical vertebrae, the top two have been given special
names that reflect their anatomical and functional relationships. The top
one (Cr) is the rzllos (figs. 7.t-2,), named for Atlas, the Greek god whose
shoulders supported the world. In this casethe atlas is a ring of bone which
supports the skull, and its relationship with the cranium permits side-to-
side and back-and-forth movements but little rotation. The secondcervical
vertebra (Cz), the a:ris, has a tooth-like protuberance called the odontoid
 7. TrrlSTrNG I'OSTT.IRLS -llJg

process, or the dens, which extends up from the vertebral body and
provides the axis around which the atlas t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c r a n i u m c a n
rotate (figs. '1.tt,4.to, and 7.2).

transverse cavityfor accomodationof dens

foramen

supenor
articular
facetsfor
occipital
conoyres posteriorarch ol atlas transverseligamenl of atlas

Figure 7.1. Superior views of the atlas (left) and of the atlas with its transverse
l i g a m e n t ( r i g h t ) .T h e t r a n s v e r s el i g a m e n t h e l p s d e l i m i t t h e r e g i o n w i t h i n w h i r : h
the dens of thc axis rtttates.The foramina in the transverseprocesses
a c c o m o d a t el h e v e r t e b r a la r t e r i e s T . he combinationof the lwo superior
a r t i c u l a rf a c e t sf o r t h e o c c i p i t a lc o n d y l e sc a n b e l i k e n e d t o t h e c o n c a v i t yo f a
s p o o n s u b s e r v i n gf l e x i o n ,e x t e n s i o n ,a n d l a t e r a lf l e x i o n r l f t h e c r a n i u m o n t h e
a t l a s ,b u t n o t r o t a t i o n ( S a p p e y ) .

superiorarticular dens,or odontoidprocess

faceton which
the atlasslides atlas (C.1)

transverse
processes

body of axis (C2)

bifidspinousprocess

Figure7.2. On the left is a posterosuperior view (from behind and above) of the
axis (C2), and on the right is an anterior view (from the front) of the atlas (C1)
a n d a x i s i n c o m b i n a t i o n .T h e a t l a si n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e c r a n i u m r o t a t e s
around the dens (odontoid process)of the axis. Notice how much wider the
atlas is than the axis and compare this image with the drawings made from the
roentgenograms in fig. 4.8 (Sappey).
-lgo ANATOi|TY OF HATHA \OGA

Even though the cranium and the atlas together can rotate around the
axis, the cranium cannot rotate on the atlas because of the shape of the
matching articulating surfaces. If you can find a spoon whose converse
mirror image matches that of an egg, you can slip the egg back and forth
and from side to side,but you cannot turn it around and around. The
cranium sits on the atlas in much the same way; it slips on the atlas in only
two directions, from front to back and from side to side. The articulating
surfaces at the base of the skull the occipital condyles-lie on either side
of the foramen magnum, which is the hole that accommodatesthe spinal
cord where it emerges from the base of the brain. The cranial surfaces of
the occipital condyles (the egg) slip back and forth (flexion and extension)
and from side to side (lateral flexion) on matching articulating surfaces on
the upper surfaceofthe atlas (the spoon).

FLEXION AND EXTENSION

The zrrticulating surfaces between the head and the atlas allow slippage in
the form of ro" of'Ilexion, zo" o{'extension,and t5' of right and lcft lateral
flexion. To get a sense of the articulation between the skull and the atlas,
nod your head back and forth without bringing the rest o{'the cervical
vertebrae into the motion. Just bc awarc of a sliding feeling, with a little
more motion permitted backward thzrn forward. Envision the axis of
rotation extending from ear to ear. As you move your forehead fbrward
the chin is tucked, and as you move your furehead bzrckwardthe chin is
jutted fbrward. 'fhis is the feeling of flexion and extension between the
cranium and the atlas. Then a{ter cxploring that motion, bend the neck
'lhe contrast is
backward and forward to your limits. clear. You can feel
the cranium sliding on top of'the neck in the first motion, and you can
f'eelthe entire ccrvical region bending in the second.

LATERAL FLEXION

Next explore lateral flexion at the same articulations. Keeping your head
balanced upright, slowly tilt your fbrehead to the right and your chin to the
Ieft, and then repeat in the oppositedirection, envisioning the axis of
rotation extending between the mouth and the back of the head. Again,
don't bend the rest ofthe neck. To the extent that you can feel the chin and
the forehead move in opposite directions, you will be feeling the side-to-side
slipping ofthe cranium on the upper surface ofthe atlas. Ifyou concentrate
on carrying this particular movement to its maximum, it feels extensive-
at least t5' in each direction. Again, for contrast, as soon as you have
reached the limit of movement between the atlas and the head, flex the
head and neck as far as possible laterally. This gives you a different sensation,
like the movement of the head in a Jack-in-the-Box.
 7. 7VrSI',rNG POSIt-tRES 391

THE MOVEMENT OF THE ATLAS AROUND THE AXIS

Now we can return to our more immediate interest in twisting as we

explore the rotation of the atlas (plus the skull) around the odontoid
p r o c e s so f t h e a x i s ( f i g s . 4 . 8 a n d 7 . 2 ) . D o t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p e r i m e n t . S i t
quietly with the spine and head upright. Without dipping the head either
forward, backward, or to the side, slowly turn it to one side and then the
other through a total excursion of(ro-9o". In other words turn 3o-,+5'to the
right and 3o-,+5"to the left. Try to relax. 'Iurn slowly, then a little more
quickly, then again slowly. This is the movement of the atlas around the
odontoid process.You can envision it if you make a circle with the thumb
and index finger of one hand, insert the thumb of the other hand (repre-
sentingthe odontoid process)against the back ofthe circle, and rotate the
circle through an excursi<lnof (ro", in other words -1o"cach way.
Next, for contrast, turn thc hcad as far as possible in each directicln. If
you have fairly good flexibility you can turn zrbout 9o" each way. The first
portion of'the twist is -1o-,15" of'rotation between thc atlas and thc axis, and
the remainder of the '15 6o" represents twist in the rcst o{'thc neck.
'I'o return to the delicate twisting that
takes place only bctwcen the atlas
and thc axis, notice what happcns as you move past the symmetric central
balancing position with the hezrdfacing straight ahead. Something takes
place-a change of'speed, {irst a slowing down, then a speeding up as you
pass center, a movcmcnt so subtle that you will n<lt f'eel it unless you are
rclaxed. What is happening is that a cam action is lifting your head slightly
as you pass center. It's as if a motorizcd toy car were approaching a little
hill. You can feel your head rise zrsyou approach the hill, and a gathering
rcsistance that peaks at the top and thcn diminishes as you cross over. Find
the little hill, park exactly on top, and then move slightly to one side and
ihen the other. If'you watch carefully you will noticc that the high point is
not perfectly on line in the midsagittal plane of the body but is usually
somewhat to the left or right of center, and that you habitually adjust your
body posture so that your head rests on the side that keeps you facing
relatively straight to the front.

THE RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN THE AXIS AND THE ATLAS

To understand why this happens we need to look more carefully at the

relationship between the axis and the atlas. As we discussedin chapter ,1,
each individual vertebra is composed of a vertebral body and a vertebral
arch. The exception to this is the atlas, which is simply a ring of bone (figs.
7.t-z).In the embryo what had originally been the body of the atlas became
incorporated into the axis, bestowing on the axis the equivalent of two
fused-together vertebral bodies, the top portion of which is the odontoid
processthat stands up from the rest ofthe vertebra (fig. 7.2).It is around
392 II^"ATOMY O['I]ATHA IOGA

this processthat the atlas rotates, and it is from this function that the axis
was named (figs..1.ltand7.z).
The reason you feel the rising-on-center sensation as you twist is that
the lateral joint surfaces between Cr and Cz are not in perfect apposition
unless the head is turned slightly to one side or the other. Accordingly,
rotation off that center is accompanied by a slight vertical descent of the
head; keeping the head directly on the high point once you have located it
is an interesting exercise in balancing and concentration. Enthusiasts for
working with right-left balance might suggest that shifting the head to the
side on which it does not usually rest will gradually bring the rising-on-center
sensation into the midsagittal plane of'the body and make the joint more
symmetrical. It's an interesting idea, although speculative.

MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD AND NEqK

Below the axis, from Cu to'ft, t.ypical intervertebral disks separate thc
vertebral bodies of' the spine. This limits movcments between any two
ad.joiningvertebrae (figs. .1.toand.1.t3a),but this segmentof'the spine still
provides us with mobility far above and beyond what we saw between the
skull and Cz a total of about 9o" of additional rotation, tlo" of additional
flcxion, 5o" of':rdditi<lnalextension, zrnd.1o"of'additional lateral flexion on
each side.
If'you concentrate,it is possibleto isolate the movements between Cz
and'fr from those between the skull and Cr. lhrust the chin forward and
'l'hen
at the same time flex the cntire ncck forward and down. after coming
back to a neutral position, pull the chin backward and at the same time
extend the ncck to thc rcar and down. Last, initiate lateral flexion to the
right and left from the base of the neck rather than head first. In all of
these cases you can avoid, at least to some extent, the smaller motions
betweenthe skull and Cr. By contrast, twisting selectivelybetween Cz and
Tr without first rotating between Ct and Cz is more dif1icult. Only if you
tighten the strap muscles of'the neck generally (fig. 5.5),and do so with
some determination, can you initiate a twist from the base of the neck and
avoid the rotation between Cr and Cz.

HATHA YOGA NECK EXERCISES

We ordinarily move the head and neck in highly stereotyped patterns, and
becausethese movements are common and natural in day-to-day life they
are also the saf'est.Hatha yoga neck exercisesare another matter. They are
done in isolation and are usually taken further than the moderate flexion,
extension, and twisting found in our usual activities. In hatha yoga exercises
we flex the chin all the way to the sternum, extend the head back as far as
possible,flex the ear toward the shoulder laterally, and rotate as far as possible
 IRES
393

right and left (fig. 2.3). We must explore the cervical region in detail to
understand these and other possible neck movements, and then we must
augment our knowledge with practice, experimentation, and observation.
Take your time and be conservative. No movement that causes neck pain
should be repeated injudiciously, and in the event ofinjury, practice should
be stopped until the problem is resolved.

FLEXION

Flexion is the most natural movement of'the neck-it happens any time
you look down. To do it as an exercise.justlt-rwerthe head forward as lar as
possible and let it rest in that position. After a few weeks of practice you
may be able to pull the chin all thc way to the stcrnum, hold it there
isometrically,and be confident that the extcnsor muscles in combination
with the restraining ligaments ol'thc spine will mainttrin the vertebrae in
a state of hcalthy alignment. llo not aim ftrr a chin lock (chapter -l), in
which you try to placc the chin into thc suprasternal notch. Just lay it
down against the front o1'thc stcrnurn. If'you flcx frlrward a totill of' 9c1",
the I'irst to'ol'movement is bctwcen the cranium and the atlas.and thc
balancetakes placc bctween (lt and 'I'r.

EXTENSION

Extension of'Lhcncck is :rlsoa natu ral movement-iL happenstrnv lirnc you

look up. l'o do it as an cxcrcise extend your head to thc rear and hold in
that position lilr a I'cw scconds.Thc first thing you'll notice is that exten-
sion is stoppcd by restrtrining ligaments ancl bony stops long bcfbrc the
back of'the head can rcach the upper buck. Ilven so, .youc:rn reach the end
ol'a rclaxcd cxcursion to the rcar and then pull firrther back vigorously
against the bonv and ligamcntous stops so long its -vouino't,riseyoul' capacity
gpaduzrlly.Ii'.you can bcnd the head backward a total o{'(ro",the first z.o" will
be from thc slipping motion bctween the cranium and thc atlas, and the
last +o" will be lrom thc incremental vcrtcbra-to-vertebra shifts between
Cr and Tr. A1ter you have explorcd extension in isolation, go slowly back
and forth between full Ilcxion and f'ull extcnsion.

ti
flexion exlensron lateral rotation
flexion

Figure 7.3. Neck movements: flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and rotation.
391 ANATOMY OI" HAI',IIA YOGA

LATERAL FLEXION

Most people both have and use a considerable range of motion for flexion and
extension, but it is rare for anyone to cock their head to the side more than
3o-,+o'.About t5' of lateral flexion occurs at the synovial joint between the
cranium and the atlas, and the rest takes place between Cr and Tt. Lateral
flexion is rarely done in isolation but is commonly found in combination with
rotation. Try it. Bend the head toward the left shoulder,and notice that it is
natural to combine that movement with a slight twist either to the right or
left that rotates the nose up or down. Notice how far you can safely take this
movement, and compare it with plain lateral flexion. You will quickly become
aware that combining the two is what you are accustomedto, as when you
flex your head laterally to the right and look slightly down to scan titles on
bookshelves.A purc lateral flexion is a curious movement, and when you do
it with somc insistenceyou will senscdecp bone-to-bonerestrictions on the
side to which you are bending. Explore lateral flexion to the right and left
separately, and then go back and forth between the two.

TWISTING

Twisting in the neck could hardly be more natural, and can be safcly taken
to its limit, at lcast by anyone who is practicing hatha yoga reg;ularly.
Possibilities ltlr minor variations abound. If'you twist as though you were
looking for a pencil in a drawer at waist level and to your right, you will
notice that this twisting movemcnt includes later:rl flexion to the right. And
if you twist as though you were looking for an object on a shelf to vour right
at shoulder level, thc movement includes lateral flexion to the left. Finally, if
you twist as though you were looking Ibr an object above you and to your
right, the movement includes lateral flexion to the left, extension, and twisting.
Now, minimizing flexion, extension, and lateral flexion, try a pure twist
ofthe head to the right erndthen to the left. In other words keep your head
level and envision an axis of'rotation that runs from the top of'the head
straight down through the spine. A moderate twist is a fine exercise,but if
you continue until you come to your limit and then keep pulling, you will
come in touch with a clear sense of axial compression. And if you move
slowly you can also feel tension gather in the various structures ofthe neck
that finally stop the twist-first muscles, then restraining ligaments, and
finally skeletal stops. If you can twist a total of 9o" in each direction, the
first 45' of the movement is the rotation at the synovial joint between Cr
and Cz, and the rest is between Cz and Tt. Pay attention to all the sensations
that accompany the full twist, and explore new limits as you become confident
that you will not hurt yourself. You will be startled to find how robust the
neck is and how vigorously you can pull into a fuller twist if you increase
your capacity gradually. And if you keep pulling isometrically when you
 7. TV'ISTING POST'LIRNS .]95

reach the limit of the twist, you will increase both muscular strength and
the hardiness of the ligamentous and skeletal structures. After working
with each side separately,go sequentially from side to side.

OTHER MOVEMENTS IN THE NECK

Many other neck movements can be explored. One of the best is to twist
the head 3o", '+5",or 60oto one side, and from that position, to swing it back
and forth linearly-right front to left rear, and left front to right rear. A less
natural movement, and one that should be approached more respectfully,
is to take the head and neck through the same linear movements without
first twisting. Going forward at an angle feels safe enough, but going back-
ward you will encounter the same sort of unusual restrictions that you
experienced going to the extremes of'lateral flexion.
Neck rolls, in which vou swing the head around slowly in a motion that
is similar to circumduction of the thigh or arm, are questionable exercises,
and this is easy to demonstrate. Let's say you are looking down in your lap
and suddenly your attention is called to a bat in the upper right corner t-rf
the room. Yru don't have to think. Your head will move quickly and safely
in a straight line to facc the ob.ject of your concern, and muscles and
restraining ligaments will protect you lrom going too far. tsy contrast, if
you connect the two points with a {ast ncck roll instead of a linear motion,
you will immediately see why such movements deserve to be treated with
caution. lnstead ol'moving linearly Irom a neutral position,you are circling
yclur head around in a highly artificial movement. Even though most
people are unconsciously wary of going anywhere close to thcir limit, these
movementscan still causeinjuries in thosc who trre doing them fur the first
time, and it is for this reas<lnthat many hatha yoga teachers say they
should not be taught at all. ln any cvcnt, if you are determined to do them,
at least movc slowly and wcll short of your limits.

THORACIC T\,VISTING
If you watch your back in a mirror while you stand and twist, you will see
a surprising amount of'twisting taking place in the thoracic region: 3o-,+o'
ofrotation in each direction between Tt and Lt in an average young adult.
The design of the anterior and posterior functional units of the vertebral
column (chapter,+) permits these movements. To summarize: the anterior
functional unit of the spine is a flexible rod composedof the stack of vertebral
bodies and intervertebral disks, and the posterior functional unit is a tube
(enclosing the vertebral canal) that is composedof the stack of verterbral
arches, superior and inferior articulating processes,and various restraining
ligaments. In general, the anterior functional unit permits twisting and
bending, and the posterior functional unit restricts twisting and bending.
1q6 ,1NA?(),VY OF HATHtl l()(|.1

The thoracic region of the spine permits a Iot of twisting for three reasons.
First, it contains twelve vertebrae and intervertebral disks-half the
vertebral column-and this means that there are twelve sites for rotation
(fig. +.1). Second,the axis of rotation for twisting in the chest runs approxi-
mately down the center of the anterior functional unit (fig. 4.6a, large dot),
permitting the hydraulic system of each intervertebral disk (fig. .1.rr)to work
perfectly, compressing its nucleus pulposus axially, stretching the elastic
fibers of its annulus fibrosus evenly all around its perimeter, and causing the
disk to bulge moderatelyon all sides.The elasticfibers in the annulus fibrosus
that are oriented obliquely will bc either stretched or releaseddepending on
their oricntation and the direction of the twist, :rnd those that are oriented
vertically and horizontally will be stretched evenly all around.
A third rcason twisting ttrkes place easily in the thoracic region is that
the synovial joints frir the superior and infcrior articulating processesof
each thoracic vertebra are oriented in a frontal plane, one roughly parallel
to the back sur{accof the chest,and this orientation allows the.jointsto slip
elTicientlywith respectto their neighborsabove and below (ligs. q.6-l).
'fhe large number
of vertebrtrc and intcrvertebral disks, the ideal axis of
rotation, and the ideal rlrientation oI' thc articular processes-all tif these
facilitate thorercictwisting. And the numbers zrddup. With twelve possible
sites for rotation, we needonly:rn averageof'3'bctwcen adiacentvertebrac
to make a total of'-3(r",and this mcans that twisting here requires only
slight adjustmcnts between adjzrcentvertebrae and theirioints. In fact, thc
articular processesin this region can be displnccd from one zrnother so
readily that it is not thc spine but the rib cage that is thc main limit to
twisting. Werc it not frlr restrictions there, this part of the spine could
probably rotate tzo" in each dircction.
Like the articular processes,the ribs are also roughly oriented in a
transverse plane, and only a slight shearing effect between adjacent ribs is
neededto allow a small amount of spinal rotation befween adjaccnt vertebral
bodics. And this is what accounts for the -lo-,+o"of rotation that we actually
experiencein the chest. Beyond '1o",the rib cagebecomesthe main impediment
to twisting becausethe ribs connect to the sternum in front by way of the
costal cartilages,creating a stabilized cagethat can rotate only so far.

LUMBAR TWISTING
Just as the design of the chest permits extensive twisting, so does the
design of the lumbar region prevent it. There are two main obstacles.First,
in this region the axis ofrotation runs down the spine through the basesof
the spinous processesin the posterior functional unit (fig. 4.5a, large dot)
rather than through the center of the anterior functional unit. This by
itself would make twisting almost impossible-it would require lateral
 7. T\TTSTING POSTtiRES 397

displacement of one vertebral body in relation to its neighbors above and

below. The same forces of torque that act to rotate one vertebral body in
relation to its adjacent vertebral body in the thoracic region can act in the
lumbar region only to sheer the lumbar disks from side to side. Second,the
superior and inferior articulating processeson the vertebral arches start
shifting from a frontal to a sagittal orientation in the lower thoracic region,
and in the lumbar region, this shift has become an accomplished fact; it
stops rotation between adjacent vertebrae almost completely (figs. 4.5 and
'1.r;b). According to the textbooks, these two mechanisms taken together
limit twisting to an average of about t" between adjacent vertebrae or a
total of 5" between Lt and the sacrum.

TWISTING IN THE TORSO-THE BIG PICTURE

Flexible young students who are twisting in a standing posture with their
thighs adducted, thcir fcet parallel, and their knees extended might end up
with their shoulders 7o" off axis f rom their feet. The twist would consist o1'
about 35' ofrotation bctween the feet and pelvis, 5' between the pelvis and
the chest, and 3o" between Lt and the shoulders, and 45" of rotation
betwcen the shoulders and the hcad, for a ttltal of r r5' bctween the fcct and
the head (I\g.7.q!. Comc into such a posture and notice the scnsationsas
you pull into as much of a twist erspossible. If you are attentivc, you can

Figure 7.4.Thisstanding twisl

exhibits approximately:
35" of rotation between the
f e e t a n d t h e p e l v i s ,5 " o f
rotation between the pelvis
and the chest, 30' of
rotation between the chest
a n d s h o u l d e r s ,a n d 4 5 ' o f
rotation between the
s h o u l d e r sa n d t h e h e a d .T h i s
makes 115ototal rotation
between the feet and the
h e a d .T h e m o d e l m i g h t
.10o
reflexly gain more
between the feet and the
head by looking 1oher far
right instead of back toward
the camera.
3gU ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

feel the oblique muscles in the back and abdomen creating the torque that
rotates the thoracic region and tries but fails to rotate the lumbar region.
In a whole-body standing twist it is the internal and external abdominal
obliques and the deepest of the obliquely running back muscles {figs.
3.lt-13,5.5,8.8, 8.tt, and it.t3-t,1)that initiate the torque. Some of the latter
promote twisting over as little as one or two segments of the spine and others
create a twisting effect between three or more. By contrast, the rectus
abdominis muscles and the long segments of the erector spinae resist the
twist and increase the sense of axial compression that is the hallmark of
spinal twisting.

THE LOWER EXTREMITIES

By definition, the torque frir twisting in the lower extremities begins at the
sacroiliac joints, but externally visible rotations are not observable except
in the hip joints, the flexed knees, and the ankles. We'll begin our discussion
at the source and work down.

TOROUE IN THE SACROILIAC JOINTS

Whole-body twists impart severe torquc to thc sacroiliac joints, and if we

had to depend only on ligaments to keep them stable, we might be in trouble.
Fortunately, the surrounding muscles provide additional protection,
especially if thcy are kcpt in a state of moderate tension. The gluteus
m a x i m u s m u s c l e ( f i g s . 3 . t t ,j . t o , a n d l t . 9 - t o ) s e r v e s i n s u c h a r o l c . T h i s
m u s c l c t a k e s o r i g i n f r o m t h e s a c r u m , t h c c o c c y x ,a n d t h e i l i u m , a n d i t
inserts into the iliotibial tract (figs. J.u 9, lJ.tl,and tl.tz), as well as directly
o n t h e I ' e m u r ( f i g . 3 . t o b ) . Y o u c a n I ' e e lh o w t h e s e m u s c l e s s u p p o r t t h e
sacroiliacreEJionduring twisting postures if y<-rustand with the feet parallel,
z-3 feet apart, and twist gently to the right keeping the gluteal muscles
relaxed. Observe the sensations and dynamics carefully. lhen tighten the
gluteus maximus on the left side, and observe how its contraction resists
the twist by tugging on the left rear side oI'the sacrum and ilium, keeping
them both pulled slightly to the rear and protecting the pelvic bowl from
e x c e s ss t r e s s . E v e n s o , i f y o u w e r e t o s t a n d f o r 3 - 5 m i n u t e s i n s u c h a
posture, you might come in touch with a vague ache in the left sacroiliac
joint. Repeat the exercise on the other side for balance.
Now stand with the feet together rather than z-3 feet apart and again
twist to the right. When you resist the twist in this case,you will feel the
left hip tighten up even more solidly than before becauseyou are stretching
and activating the left gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles as well
as the gluteus maximus. These are medial rotators and abductors of the
thigh (figs. 3.11, 3.roa-b, tl.9-ro, ll.rz, and 8.r4, with details in chapter 4), and
when you twist to the right with the thighs adducted, the left thigh is
 REs 3gg

swiveled into a lateral rotation that automatically places these muscles

under increased tension. Along with the gluteus maximus muscles they
create a field of muscular activity that supports the entire pelvis, including
the sacroiliacjoints.
The sacroiliacjoints can be overly stressed if goodjudgment is not used
in some of the standing and sitting spinal twists. This is particularly true
if you are thoroughly warmed up and the ligaments and muscles that normally
inhibit sacroiliac twisting have become lax. If you are hurting yourself, the
tip-offis pain at the lateral edgeofthe sacrum on one side, and ifyou
continue twisting in the face of discomfort, the joint becomesvulnerable to
more serious injury.

TWISTING AT THE HIP JOINTS

To examine twisting at the hip joints, stand with the knees extended and
the medial edgesof'the f'eetparallel and about two feet apart. 'Ihen tighten
all the muscles ol'the lower extremities and twist the body to the right from
the waist down, keeping the abdomen, chest, and shoulders in the same
plane with the pelvis. Below the hip joints you will I'eel a combination of
torque zrndtwist in the ankles, Iegs,knees, and thighs, especiallyon the left
side. Keep the feet flat on the floor, and this will diminish their tendency to
slip. Repeat on thc othcr side.
When the muscles of the thighs and legs are tenscd while keeping the
l e p J se x t e n d c d , t h c a n k l e s a n d k n e e s p e r m i t o n l y a s m a l l a m o u n t o f
rotzrtion, but most people will be able to twist at least 45" at the hips, using
a combination of medial rotation of one thigh and lateral rotation of the
other. And a fcw rarc students can rotate their hips almost 9o" from their
feet, with only a small proportion of this twist in their ankles and knees
(fig. Z.l. t In either casc,you will observe only moderate effects of the twist
in the right hip joint, but on the left side, the hyperextension that results
from swiveling to the right produces a pronounced pull on the tightly
wound spiral of'the pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, and iliofemoral ligaments
(fig.:.6).
Feel the gluteal muscles on the left side with your fingers as you twist
to the right. As discussed in chapter .1, the more vigorously a healthy
person twists, the more these muscles resist, and to give maximum support
to twisting postures we need tension not only in the gluteal muscles on the
side opposite the direction of the twist, but also in the quadriceps femoris
on the same side and in the adductors and hamstrings on both sides.
Beginners will find that their enthusiasm for working with challenging
twisting postures will be in direct proportion to their ability to support
t h e m w i t h m u s c u l a rt e n s i o n .
1OO ANAI',OMt' Ot' ilA1 tIA YOGA

TWISTING AT THE KNEES

Until noq our discussion ofthe kneejoints has focused on their actions as
hinge joints that permit flexion and extension. In chapter i, we saw that
extension places the ligaments of the knee under tension and holds all
components of the joint together, and we saw that flexion permits the
ligaments to becomelax. In this chapter we'll explore the one movement
not yet mentioned-rotation of the flexed knees.
If you are sitting in a chair with the thighs fixed and parallel to the floor,
and with the legs perpendicular to the floor, you will be flexing the knees
9o". If you have 6;oodflexibility, you can rotate your f'eet out laterally from
this position about '1o",and you can rotate them medially about,3o".You see
the movements ol'the foot, but almost all of the rotation is happening at
the knees. If vou try the same expcriment sitting on a high bench with the
knees flexed at a 3o" rather than a 9o" angle, you'll noticc that the amount
oI'knee rotation is diminished to about .lo' of lateral rotation zrndzrboutz,o"
of medial rotation. And of'coursc, if you return to a standing position and
cxtcnd the knees, rotation is stoppcd completely. To make these compar-
isons fairly, of'coursc,you have to keep the thighs stabilizedor you will add
hip rotertion to knee rotation and confuse thc two.

ol
Figure 7.5. This twist,
which started with the
t h i g h sa d d u c l e d a n d t h e
feet parallel, reveals
almost 90' of rotation of
r
]&{ll" ,,r,!{l
t h e p e l v i sr e l a t i v e1 o l h e
feet. This is unusual;
most people cannot
swivel their hips much
beyond 45" with their r,uli
thighs abducted and feet
parallel.
 The muscles that rotate the flexed knees are the hamstrings (figs. 3.rob,
7.6, ll.g-to, and 8.tz) and a small muscle on the back of the knee joint, the
popliteus. Two of the hamstrings, the semitendinosus and semimembranosus
muscles,insert on the medial side of the tibia, and are thus mediat rotators
of the flexed knee; the biceps femorls inserts laterally on the head of the
fibula, and is thus a lateral rotator of the flexed knee. To experience this
sit upright with your knees flexed 9o". Then grasp the tendons of the semi-
membranosus and semitendinosus muscles on the medial side of the knee
joint, rotate the knee medially as strongly as possible,and feel the tendons
get tighter. You can do the same thing with the biceps femoris if you rotate
the leg laterally as strongly as possible.
The popliteus muscle is visiblc posteriorly (figs. S.z.+,7.(r, and 13.r4);it
takes origin from the lateral surface of'the femur, runs inferiorly and medially,
and inserts on the latcral surf'acc of the tibia. Its anatomical disposition
thercfore allows it to do double duty as a mcdial rotator of'the tibia and a
later:rl rotator of the femur. 'l'he fbrmcr is what you notice when you rotatc
your feet in while you are sitting on a chair, and the lattcr is what you
noticc when the muscle torques the thigh latcrally from a fixed Ibot position.
This is thc more common situation in sports bccauseyou frequently rotate
thc thigh (and with the thigh the rest of'the body) with one foot planted on
the Epound,as when you rccover Irom serving a tennis ball.
Because the knee .joints are among thc few that permit flcxion and
cxtension as wcll as twisting, and bccausethcy are vulnerable to injury
when thcy arc flexed, evcryone should use caution in approaching hathn
yoga postures that involve a combination o{'flexion at the knccs and whole-
body twisting. And except for the simplcst lunging posturcs, sun salutations,
and squatting on the floor in a symmetrical pose, almost evcr.yposture in
hatha voga in which the knces zrreIlexcd involvcs cither rotation or torquc
in the knee.joint.

THE ANKLES ANO FEET

An astounding number of bones (zll) and.joints (2.5)are associatcdwith

each foot and ankle (fig. 6.u), and in combination their architecture enables
us to support the weight of the body, propel us forward, and accommodate
to surf'ace irregularities on the ground. And because most of the basic
movements in the foot-ankle complex involve stresses from both torque
and rotation, they are included in this chapter.
In chapter 4 we saw how foot position in standing postures affects the
hip joints. With the knees extended, what we referred to as rotating the
foot out stretches the medial rotators of the hip, and what we called rotating
the foot in stretchesthe Iateral rotators ofthe hip. Late4 in chapter 6 we turned
to the ankles and saw that 3o-5o" of extension (plantar flexion) takes place
1O2 ANATOIIv OF HA',IIIA IOGA

when we lift up on the balls of the feet, and that 45" of flexion (dorsiflexion) is
neededfor pressing the heels to the floor in the down-facing dog.
Twisting (that is, true axial rotation) at the ankle joint is so minimal
that it is usually not even listed in elementary texts, but careful studies
have shown that those with average flexibility at this site can rotate the

vastus vastus lateralrs

medialis

-i::-m-Wrffi"
;ru:,,ffiW
sartorius

;ffi"''$

;:trwh

Figure 7.6. Posterior views of the right foot, ankle, leg, knee joint, a-ndlower
pdrtion of the thigh. A superficial dissection is illustrated on the left, and a
deeper dissection (following the removal of the bulk of the two heads of the
gastrocnemiusmuscle and the hamstrings)is illustrated on the right. when the
knee is bent and the thigh is stabilized,the popliteus muscle rotates the leg
medially, but when the foot is stabilized,the popliteus muscle rotates the thigh
laterally.In the instance of the right thigh shown above, the popliteus muscle
has the effect of rotating the body as a whole around to the right (Sappey)'
foot medially about 7" and laterally about ro'. To experience these rotations,
stand with the knees extended and the heels and toes together. Place the
hands just above the knees to brace them and hold them together, and
tighten all the muscles around the thighs. Then twist to the right keeping
the feet flat on the floor. This is critical: the slightest lifting of the heels or
the edgesof the feet brings other movements into the picture. Under these
carefully controlled circumstancesyou have rotated the right foot medially
and the left foot laterally, both at the anklejoints. These axial rotations at
the ankles may be minimal, but they are seen in many standing postures,
and are therefore an important practical concern.
lTechnicalnote: This is a different use of the word rotation for the f'ecland
ankles than we have used previously.'l'he circumstances.just abovc rcfer t<r
axial rotation within the anklc joint, not swingingl,hefeet in or out. To kccp
terminologywithin rcacho1la.ytrudiences, "rotation of the I'cctin and out," or
"rotation of'the {eel medially and latertrll.y,"which is the sermething, will
alwaysre{er to the movemcntsof lhc fcet as a wholeunlessaxialrol,ationwithin
t h o a n k l ei o i n t i s s p e c i l i c a l liyn d i c a l e dI .
To cxplore rotation of the f'ect as a whole, stand with the knees extended,
the heels together,and the medial borders ofthe feet at a 9o" angle from one
another. under these circumstancescach {bot will be rotated out (latcrally)
-15".Most people can go a little further, pcrhaps to 7ct"for each foot ftig. l.ll.
Now bring the mcdial borders of the fcet parallcl and ncxt to onc another.
'l'he
feet arc now rotated to a neutrtrl position. Next, bending thc knees :rs
neccssary,bring thc big toes together and spraddlc the hecls out 9o'ii'om one
another to rotatc the f'eet in (medially) 45" (Iig. 7.lt).And finally, abduct the
thighs widely, bend thc knees decply,and try to bring the f'eetinto a straight
linc. 'l'his is a moderately difficult balancing posture in which you havc rotated
enchlbot out (laterally)qo'(fig. 2.9).
notc:Alwa.ys
l'l'echnical kcopin mind thert"rotationo1'thefeet,"as definedin this
book,is to a lnrgcextent rcflectiveof'rotationof the thighswhen thc kneesare
extcnded,or rotationof the legswhen the knecsare flexcd.Don't gct confused:
the tcrminologyis logical.II .youare lookingat and thinking of the thighs,sav
rotatingthe thighs.Ifyou are lookingat and thinking ofthe legs,sayrotatingthe
legs.And ifyou are lookingat and thinking ofthe leet,sayrotatingthe 1eet,evcn
thoughyou are awarethat mostof that we call rotating of the f'cetactuallyreflccts
rotation ofthe legsor thighs.Just saywhat you see,and everyonewill know what
you are talking about: it couldhardly be more simple.l

SUPINE TWISTS
Supine twists, especially the easy ones, are welcome both at the beginning
and end ofa hatha yoga classbecausethey are relaxing, energizing, and do
not require much effort. Along with simple hip-opening postures (chapter
6), they are a good barometer both of stiffness at the start of a hatha yoga
sessionand of improvements in flexibility at the end.
+o+ A\/1n ).\11()l: HATH/| Y()aA

F i g u r e7 . 7 .T h e
feet here are
rotated "out"
(that is laterally)
about 70".

F i g u r e7 . 8 .T h e
feet here are
rotated "in"
(that is medially)
about 45'.
 7. TllIST In"GPOSTIiRE.S .1Os

SIMPLE SUPINE TWISTING

For the first of three simple supine twists, lie on your back, draw the heels
toward the hips, and stretch your hands out to the sides. Then lower the
knees about 45" to one side, keeping the feet, legs, and thighs together, and
holdingthe solesof the feet relatively flat against the floor (fig.7.ro). The
ilium on the side opposite the twist will be lifted slightly off the floor. This
is a subtle concentration exercise that generates a twist in the hip joints
and creates a moderate torque in the sacroiliacjoints and lumbar region-
all without creating a twist in the chest. Mild muscular tension in the lower
extremities is required to keep the soles of the feet against the Iloor and to
prevent the knees from dropping too far to the side. Repeat on the other
side.
Next create a more obvious twist by lowering both knees all the way to
the floor, this time facing the soles of the feet toward the opposite wall (fig.
'Iry
Z.tt ). to rcmain rela-red,but kcep both knees together nnd both shoulders
against the floor. This is a completely different posture from the first one
becausenow the thighs erreonl.yslightly swivelcd with respect to the pelvis.
You will I'ecl this twist in the sacroiliac joints, the lumbar region, trnd the
chcst a trlrque in the sacroilizrcjoints and the lumbar region thzrt may gct
your :rttention if you remain in the posture fbr more than a minutc or two,
and a twist in the chest that mny vield little clicks and readjustmentsin thc
fircct joints of' the thoracic spinc and ribs. If you leel thc lower back with
the palm of the hand, you will be able to confirm thnt it remains in nearlv

|e
' ff
*,

I
I ,*
.:
'::t:ii:

F i g u r e7 . 9 .
Here the
feet are
rotated out,
or laterally,
'..,]
about 90'.
,+06 Ai\\IATOMY OF HATHA I

the same plane with the pelvis and that most of the twist takes place in the
chest (fig. 7.rr).If you can't settle into this posture without lifting the opposite
shoulder off the floor, place one or more pillows under the knees.
Finally, twist to one side after drawing the knees closer to the chest. To
keep the shoulders down in this posture, it is helpful to spread the arms
and forearms straight out to the sides.You will also have to use muscular
effort to keep the knees near the chest, which incidentally makes this pose
a forward bend as well as a twist. Notice that the posture brings the pelvis
to a full right angle with respect to the floor ffig. l.rz) and leaves the thighs
i n a n e u t r a l u n s w i v e l e d p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c tt o t h e p e l v i s . f ' e n s i o n i s
c o m p l e t e l y r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s a c r o i l i a cj o i n t s a n d l a r g e l y g o n e f r o m
the lumbar region, and you will fecl most of the twist high in thc chest. If
as a result it is di{Ticult to kecp the opposite shoulder against the floor, prop
pillows under the kneesto diminish the twist. It is best to keep thc head in
a neutral position for all three of'thesepostures:twisting it in the opposite
direction distracts your attention from analysis of'more interesting effects
in the rest of the body. Rcpeat on the othcr side.

F i g u r e7 . 1 0 .T h i s
twist, keeping the
feet flal on the floor,
is a subtleconcen-
tration exercisethat
a{fects only the hip
j o i n t s ,s a c r o i l i a c
j o i n t s ,a n d I u m b a r
spine.

F i g u r e7 . 1 1 .D r o p p i n g t h e
knees all the way to the
f l o o r a n d k e e p i n gt h e
feet together creates
effects in the sacroiliac
j o i n t s , l u m b a r r e g i o n ,a n d
chest.

Figure 7.12. Twisting with

the knees kept close to the
chest removes all tension
from the hipsand sacroiliac
joints, and most of the
t e n s i o nf r o m t h e l u m b a r
r e g i o n .T h i s p o s e p r i m a r i l y
twists the chest.
 -. j"trTtI/\G l,os.LRE,\
+o;

A RELAXED SUPINE TWIST

The three previous postures require at least some muscular activity. To

contrast them with a relaxed supine twist, place the hands flat on the
floor and straight out to the sides, draw the heels toward the hips, cr.oss
the right knee over the left, and twist the lower part of the body to the
right so that the knees are lowered toward the floor (fig. Z.r:). There is
little or no tendency for the opposite shoulder to lift off the floor in
this mild posture, but it still may be tricky to relax in it from head
to toe, especially at the beginning of a hatha yoga session.Adjust the
amount of flexion in the knees and hip joints (determined by how far
away from the hips you place your feet) so you can relax as much as
possible;the more flexion the greater the twist, but the greater the twist
the more challenging it will bc to relax.
'I'he main
characteristicof this pose is that you can analyze the sensations
of passive stretch at your leisure. 'I'he posture pries the lefl thigh in the
direction of the twist, pulls the head o{'the le{t I'cmur slightly away from
its sockct, and lifts the left side of the pelvis off'thc floor. As a result, the
pose placcs torque on the lumbar region and on the left sacroiliacjoint.
Repeat the posturc, crossing the IeIt knee over the right and twisting down
to the left. If you try this relaxed twist at thc beginning erndthen at the end
oI'a scssionof'hatha yogurpostures,the cxperiencewill be markedly difl'crcnt.
In the beginning you ma.y feel slight pzrin in some o{'the ligamcnts of the
hip and sacroiliacjoints, making it difficult to rclax from the waist down,
but when you are warmed up the situation will htrve impnlved. And as your
musculoskeletal health improvcs you will gradually find yourself :rble to
relax mrlre complctely

THE SUPINE TWIST, FULL RESISTANCE

This posture takcs the above relaxed supine twist to the other extreme. Lie
on your back and again cross the right knec over thc left, but now interlock
the ankles as well, the right under the left. And instead of twisting to the
right as you did before, twist to the left. With the hands outstretched. and

F i g u r e7 . 1 3 .T h i s
relaxed supine twist
is very complex, and
it may challenge the
ability of begiiners *,"1
to relax, especiallyat '.:,,,,.-
the start of a session
of hatha yoga.
.106 ANATOM'' OI- HATHA YoGA

with the upper extremities stabilizing the torso, strongly press the right
shoulder to the floor and twist the knees as much to the left as possible (fig.
7.r4). For this to feel comfortable you will have to create internal muscular
resistance to the twist, just as we tightened the muscles of the lower
extremities to create a healthy musculoskeletal framework for standing
postures (chapter ,{). The need for creating muscular resistance in this
posture is even more obvious. It's like wringing out a washcloth. The
muscles that are creating the twist have to be matched from the shoulders
to the feet by their antagonists, all of them in a state of isometric activity,
some creating the twist, others resisting. It's unthinkable to relax the
antagonists in this posture. Slowly release the pose and repeat on the
other sidc.

THE DOUBLE LEGLIFT SUPINE TWIST

The double legli{t supinc twist is an intense abdominal and bzrckcxerclse

in addition to a twist. To do it start lrom a supine position with the
upper extrcmities extended straight out to the sides, palms down. l'rom
there exhale, press the lowcr back to the floor, and tnking care to kccp the
knees cxtended fullv, li{l the thighs perpcndicular to the floor in a double
lcglift (fig. 3.r7). Then slowly allow gravity to carry thc flcxed thighs and
extcnded legs to one side while you turn your head in the oppositedirec-
tion.'l'ry to keep the solcso{'the f'eetwithin an inch or so clf'thesamc plane,
bracing the posture with the upper cxtrcmities and keepingboth shoulders
against lhe floor. As always, repeat on thc othcr side.
This is an advancedposturc, and you have to havc cxccllent flexibility
as wcll as abdominal erndback strcngth to do it comftlrtably.Just coming
into the initial position with the thighs perpendicularto the floor rt'quires
9o' ol'hip flexibilit.yand that's bcforc you even think of adding the twist.
'l'hose who can complete the posturc will end up with their pelvis about
r 5 ' s h o r t o l ' b e i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o t h e f l o o r , s o i f t h c s h o u l d e r sa r c k e p t
flat, the posture will require 75' of twist between the shoulders and the
pelvis. lf we zrllot5'of twist to lhe lumbar region, this means 7o" of'twist
in the thoracic segment of the vcrtebral column, or 25" more than the
averageof.+i".

Figure 7.14.
A double-
locked-leg
twist is best
'g:i:::l;r,
done
a g a i n s tf u l l
muscular
resistance.
 7. TlWSl',ING I'O.t'.t Ut?t':S 109

If the arm and shoulder opposite the direction of the twist are lifted off
the floor, or if you can't lower the legs to the floor while keeping them
flexed 9o", there are several ways to moderate the posture. You can keep
the knees extended and lower over only to the point at which you can
comfortably come back up, exhaling as you go to the side and inhaling as
you come back up (fig. Z.rS).This requires strong muscular activity in
the abdominal wall and creates intense sensations in the hip joints,
sacroiliacjoints, and lower back. Or you can keep the lower back straight
and the knees extended, but flex the thighs less than 9o'rather than
trying to keep them perpendicular to the torso. As before, if you can't
lower the feet all the way to the floor, lower them only part way down.
Simplestof all, flex the hips l20" and the knees9o'(fig.7.r6), and then
twist to one side with the knees together until they touch the floor.
Either relax in the pose, or keep breathing and immediately raise back
up in a continuous movement before slowly twisting to the other side.

F i g u r e7 . 1 5 .T h e d o u b l e l e g l i f t
supine twist, done according to
the specificationsin the text, is a
v a l u a b l es t u d y i n t h e d y n a m i c so f
the musculoskeletalarchitecture
of the body,and will challenge
even the strongest and most
flexible athlete. Swinging the
lower extremities over 45" as
shown here is more reasonable
for most students.

F i g u r e7 . 1 6 .F o r t h o s e w h o d o
not have enough flexibility to
do the full double leglift
s u p i n et w i s t d r o p p i n g t h e
lower extremities to the floor
from this easy preparatory
p o s i t i o n i s s t i l l u s e f u l .F o r t h e
best exercise,go from side to
sidecoming to within an inch
or two of the floor in a
c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t ,a n d
relax and rest in this upright
position instead of resting
with the legs all the way to
the floor on one side.
 If you can easily do the full posture with the knees straight and the hips
flexed 9o', you can sharpen it further by keeping the feet together, which
requires pushing the upper foot out so it remains in line with the foot that
is closest to the floor. To the extent that the feet remain in line with one
another, the pelvis will approach being perpendicular to the floor, and if
you keep the shoulders against the floor, the final posture will require 9o'
of twist between the shoulders and the pelvis instead of the 75" mentioned
earlier.
All of the double leglift supine twists can be approached in two ways-
as movements or as postures. As far as building streng$h is concerned,you
can get the most benefits by going back and forth from one side to the other
continuously, without quite touching the floor and without pausing to
relax. On the other hand, you can come all the way down to the floor in a
relaxed or semi-relaxed hatha yoga posture. In any case, all of thcse
cxercises and postures are useful for exploring twisting in the thoracic
spine becausethe hips are not swiveled when the thig'hs are against the
floor and bccause thc pclvis and shoulders are stabilized. As you come
into thc twist, you can llex thc thighs and knees to suit yourself in order
to place the lumbar and thoracic spine under as much tension as they
can accommodatein thc rclaxcd oosture.

STANDING TWISTS
In chapter :+ we saw that standing in unfamiliar and unconvcntional
postures can be challenging when the ltlrce o{'gravity comes to bear on
thc.joints o{'the lower extrcmitics. Such chnllenpiesare magnified when
twisting is added to the equation. Yru may do line with standing back-
bends and forward bends, but add a twist to the posture and suddenly
problems emcrgc front and center.
'lhe extent to which a standing twist is
challenging depcnds on a
number of issues: on how the feet are positioned (rcltating the feet in or
out places torque on the ankles); on whether or not the knees are ilexed
(bending the knees places extra tension on its collateral and cruciate
ligaments); on the extcnt to which the thighs are abducted (abducted
thighs places extra tension on the adductors); on whether or not the
thighs are rotated (rotating the thighs laterally or medially places extra
tension on the medial or lateral rotators respectively); on whether or
not the shouiders are in line with the pelvis (rotating the shoulders in
either direction with respect to the pelvis will twist the thoracic spine
and place torque on the lumbar region and sacroiliac joints); and
on whether or not the head is in the same frontal plane as the torso
(twisting the neck tends to take your attention away from the rest of
the body).
 iI?LS .lll

Because standing twists present so many challenges, there are four

basic rules that should always be honored: establish a solid foundation
from the waist down; be aware of and make adjustments for aspectsof the
posture that are unnatural; appraise how easily you can get into the posture;
and Iook at whether or not there are potential difficulties connected with
your exit. Then act on your knowledge by practicing within your capacity.
Soon you will be able to do difficult postures comfortably, and this in turn
will improve your fJeneralstrenEgh and flexibility.

STANDING TWISTS AND BENDS

The simplest standing twists combined with bending are the ones
d i s c u s s e di n c h a p t e r 5 i n r e l a t i o n t o s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e k n e e . j o i n t s :y o u
twist in one direction and bend forward and backward from that position;
you twist in the other direction and again bend fbrward and backward; and
f:rcing the front you again bend frlrward and backward. I'hese six bends,
done repetitively with the upper extremities in different positions, :rre
excellentwhole-bodytwisting and toning cxcrcises.Using them as a warm-
up is also a good preparation for more fbrmal standing postures such as the
t r i : r n g l e si r n d t h t ' w u r r i o r p r r s e s .
H e r e w e ' l l l o o k n t t h e e x e r c i s e si n d c t a i l , u s i n g t h e s i m p l e s t p o s i t i o n
for thc upper extrcmities, which is grasping the elbows or frlrezrrms
behind the back. Stand with the feet parallel and as far apart as is com-
fortable. Keep the kncecaps liftcd, the hamstrings strong posteriorlv
t h e a d d u c t o r m u s c l c s f i r m o n t h e m e d i a l z r s p e c t so f ' t h e t h i g h s , a n d t h e
hips firm. 'Ihis crezrtesa solid foundation Ibr the postures from which
you can be aware of'your limits. How fnr apart you adjust your feet is
the single most important feature of'the stance. Thcy should be placed
as far apart as you can manage and at the same time maintain strength
and control in your fbundation when you twist and bend. If the feet are
too close together you will not feel as if'you are getting much exercise
from the waist down, and if'they are too far apart you can't gather
enough strength in the hips and thighs to stabilize the posture. The
other general policy is to bend to please yourself. Intermediate and
advanced students usually prefer to bend from the hips, but beginners
and those who have poor hip and sacroiliac flexibility will find it more
natural to bend from the waist. If you have any low back problems,
work with extreme caution. Few movements are as hazardous for bad
backs as bending the spine after having twisted it.
Twist right and slowly bend forward. Notice that gravity helps you in
part, but that you have to make an effort to keep from dropping straight to
the front. Try to find an easy point of equilibrium among muscles, liga-
ments, and joints that are under stress as gravity pulls you forward.
4r2 ANATOIIIY OIt HATHA'

Observe that keeping yourself twisted requires that you hold the posture
isometrically (fi1. I.rla). Take 3-7 breaths. Slowly come back up, stay twisted,
and bend backward, keeping the head in line with the torso rather than
thrown excessivelyto the rear. Be aware of the muscles that are holding
you isometrically in this asymmetric twisted backbend (fig. 7.t7b). Create a
feeling of lift in the backbend, try to squeezethe hips together, and again
take,j-7 breaths. Keep the knees straight. Slowly come to an upright position,
twist in the other direction, and repeat the forward bend (fig. 7.r7c) and
backbend (Jig.l.tlil on the other side. Come up again, face straight to the
front and again bend forward ffig. 7.t7e) and backward (fig. 7.t70. Squeeze
the hips together to create as much counternutation as possible in all the
backbends. In the fbrward bends, those who have good hip and sacroiliac
flexibility will bend from the hips and at lcast start their bends with nutation;
everyone else-namely those who can't bend easily Irom the hips-will
keep their sacroiliacjoints in counternutation throughout the series.
'I'urning to the side in these posturcs
will create a whole-body swivel
thnt includcs a pronouncedtorque in the {'eet,ankles, legs,knee joints, and
thighs, as well as a torquc plus a twist in the hip ioints, torso, and neck.
Yru have to keep the f'eet parallel to get these results; if'you allow them to
rotatc in thc dircction of the twist, the entire body swivels around at the
hips nnd vou will get little twisting oI'thc vertebral column. The purposeof
these exercisesis to efl'ect the twist mostly in the hips and chest. Avcrage
students in good health may rotate a total of tlo" between the f'eet and the
shoulders,including about 5' of'axial rotation in the ankles, .lo" ol'swiveling
in the hips, 5' o1'twist in thc lumbar spine, and anothcr -lo" in the chest.
BeginninEJ,intermediate, and advanced students will all have difT'erent
reactions to the gravitational ficld. lleginners and those who are especially
stiff will quickly butt up against their limits. 'lhey may come fbrward only
a little, and their "backbends" may involvc little more than standing up
straight. Intermediate students, after a week or so of practice, may come
into an uneasy equilibrium with 6pavity and still not be entirely comfortable
in the full forward and backward bends. Advanced students can actively
pull themselves down and back, or in the case of the twists, down and
around, and back and around, beyond the point at which gravity alone
would take them. As they do this they will protect themselves either by
firming up their antagonistic muscles or by releasing tension in a manner
that the body recognizes as safe.
As your musculoskeletal health improves, you will feel like pulling more
deeply into each position. And as you intensify each movement, you will be
strengthening all of the muscles involved in creating the postures, not only
the agonists but all their synergists and antagonists. You will be aiding
gravity with your musculoskeletal efforts, but at the same time you will be
 7 . ' , t \ 1 5 7 : r NPGO S TT U t I t S , + l - l

stimulating reflexes that relax the muscles that are antagonists to the prime
movers, and this in turn allows you to come further into each position.
In addition to catching the forearms or elbows behind your back, you
can do these exercises with six more arm positions, all of them subtly
different from one another in the way they affect the twists and bends.
These are: with the arms and forearms stretched laterally (fig. Z.r8a);with
the arms overhead, forearms behind the head, and hands catching the
elbows (fig. 7.rttb); with the hands, palms together, in a prayer position
behind the back (fig. Z.tttc);with the hands interlocked behind the back and
pulled to the rear (fig. 7.tltd); with the upper extremities in the cow-face
position with one hand behind the back reaching from below and the other
catching it from overhead (this one should be done twice, once on each side;
fig. 7.tlte); and with the hands astride the ilia, bcnding from the hips
instcad of thc waist fcrr a change oI'pace (figs. 7.rttf g). Repeat the series of'
six bends for cach hand position.

TWISTING IN THE TRIANGLE POSTURES

In chapter 4 wc discussedthe triangle postures in detail, but did not stress

the fact that all of thcm include elements oI'twisting. Focusing on this
aspect in the classic triangle, comc into the preliminary stancc with thc
thighs abducted and the I'ect parallel, and envision a frontzrl plane running
through the body from car to ear, shoulder to shoulder, hip to hip, head to
toe. Then rotate the right foot 9o" to the right and the left foot -lo" t<-rthe
right, come into a side bend to the right while keeping the spine relatively
straight (fig. 4.3j), and notice where thc plane becomcs distorted. It
remains true through the shoulders, chest, and abdomen, but becausethe
right gluteal region is pulled slightly to the rcar, the former {rontal plane
reveals a moderate kinking through thc pelvis. It also reveals a slight deviation
in the left lower extremity, depending on ht-rwmuch the left foot is rotated
to the right. The plane shifts almost 9o" in the right lower extremity
because the right foot is pointed straight to the right, and it shifts 9o" in
the head and neck becauseyou are looking straight up at your left hand.
All in all, this adds up to a lot of twisting.
We saw in chapter 4 that most of our efforts in the triangle involve
resisting the tendency to twist the pelvis. But even though students are
routinely cautioned to keep their hips facing the front, this is an unrealistic
expectation in the triangle except perhaps for ballet dancers and gymnasts.
Average intermediate students can accomplish the 9o" rotation of the foot
on the side toward which they are bending, but only by allowing the opposite
side of the pelvis to rotate slightly forward. It's a mistake to make this too
much of an issue, and the usual injunction-try to keep the hips facing the
front as much as possible-is a reasonable middle ground.
,+14 ANATOiVIY Ot- HATHA 'OGA

Figure 7.17a.First of six standing twists

a n d b e n d s w i t h h a n d s g r a s p e db e h i n d
the back. Starting with the feet parallel
and comfortably apart (see discussion),
twist right and bend forward to within
your reasonablecapacity,just a simple
gesture toward a twisted bend if you
are frail, bending with the aid of gravity
for the average person, and supple-
menting gravity with the abdominal
activity for those who are confident.
Keep the thighs strongly engaged.

Figure 7.17b. For the second

position, c()me up, stay twisted
to the right, and bend backward,
which may not mean much
more than standing straight for
some,pullingmildly to the rear
for the average person, and
pulling strongly to the rear for ri
those who are confident. Keep '&
ir:ir.
t h e t h i g h s w i l l f u l l y e n g a g e da n d
k e e p b r e a t h i n g .l n a l l o f t h e .;
backbending positions, try to
k e e p t h e h i p s s q u e e z e dt o g e t h e r
i n a n a t t i t u d e o f a s h w i n im u d r a
(chapter .3).
k 11&
&,
,!
_1,

'tl9 I {''
}r:;

Figure7.17c.Forthe
third position/come
up, twist to the left,
a n d b e n df o r w a r da s i n
tig.7.'l7aexceptin the
o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o n .
( T h eo r d e ri n w h i c h
directionto go first
can be switchedon
alternatedays,as in
goingto the rightfirst
on evendaysof the
m o n t ha n d g o i n gt o
the left first on odd
daysof the month.)
 7. 7'I\15'I'ING POST.iRES .+15

Figure 7.17d. Come up,

stav twisted to the left,
and bend backward,
with muscles engaged
from head to toe. lt's
fine to keep the knees
straight so long as they
are not hyperextended
-lB0'
beyond and so long
as the thighs (especially
the hamstring muscles)
are kept in a state of
s t r o n g i s o m e t r i cc o n -
t r a c t i o n .E x p e r i e n c e d
students can of course
use their own judge-
ment about how and .r{9.
where to relax in stand- d.
ing poses (see chapter
4).

&"
'tt t

Figure7.17e.Come up, face the front, and

b e n d f o r w a r d , a g a i n k e e p i n g t h e m u s c l e si n
the thighs engaged. Notice that gravity pulls
you straight forward and that it is not neces-
s a r y t o k e e p p u l l i n g y o u r s e l fa r o u n d 1 o t h e
side as in the twisted poses. Strong studenls
can still aid gravity with muscular activity.

;'$.

lq
,t:i
.v'
;i:
t
t
*lf
"lit$
Figure7.17fC . ome up and bend
backward to your capacity,
merely standing straight for
some,pullingmildly to the rear
for average students,and pulling
strongly to the rear for those
with more experience, but
always keeping muscles in a state
of at least mild isometric tension
from head to toe. Be aware of
the alternativesof breathing in
backbends (chapters4 and 5;
figs.4.19, 5.6, and 5.7.)
.+16 AMTTOMY ()F rrATllA YOGA

Figure 7.18a.Second of seven arm

and forearm positions (the first was
iflustrated in fig.7.17a-f) each
demonstrating a different stage of
the twist-and-bend sequence of six
postures. For this one, keep the
upper extremities straight out to the
side in one linewith the shoulders
(don't lift the handsup as in making
wings as though to fly). Keep the
fingers together and palms down.

F i g u r e7 . 1 8 b .C r a s p t h e f o r e a r m s
o r s h o u l d e r sb e h i n d t h e h e a d
for the third series of six bends.
Watch the extra weight over-
head that has to be managed in
the three forward bending
positions.With this series in
particular,beginners and those
who have less musculoskeletal
confidence will want to start
with six smallbendinggestures
rather than immediately explor-
ing their limits. With more
experience, one can always
ratchet up commitment to the
full postures.

..,i'

d
-.tr
'? UD
ifl

Figure 7.18c. For the fourth

series of six bends, place
l h e h a n d s i n a p r a y e rp o s i -
l i o n b e h i n d t h e b a c k ,o r
work toward that position
by touching the third and
fourth fingers of one hand
to the third and fourth fin-
gers of the opposite hand,
and then gradually lifting
the paired hands higher to
approximate the palms as
much as possible.Never
hurry this process,as doing
so can cause repetitive
stressinjuries.
 7. TWrST'INGPOSTURES 4r7

Figure7.18d.Forthe fifth seriesof six

bends,interlockthe fingersbehind
the back,pressthe palmstogether,
and pull the handsstronglyto the
rear.Foran easieroption,keePthe
forearmsflattenedagainstthe back
insteadof pullingthem to the rear.

Figure 7.-lBe.For the sixth and seventh

series,use a cow-face hand position.
Repeat using the alternate arm position,
doing 12 postures instead of the usual 6.
Keep the top elbow well behind the
head instead of letting it drop into an
easy position facing forward.

Figure 7.18f-g.
For the eighth
series,place the
h a n d so n t h e
hips and dig the
b, thumbs into the
tb gr()ove between
the pelvis and
t h e s p i n e .I n t h e
three forward
bending posi-
t i o n s ,b e n d o n l y
from the hips,
not at the waist.
Two views are
shown here
(sixth position,
eighth series).
'116 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

The revolving triangle (fig. +.:6) contains even more extensive rotations
than the classic triangle. In the first stage, turn the right foot 9o'to the
right and the left foot 6o'to the right, and then swivel the trunk around to
face the right foot. Ideally, you are not twisting the spine very much in this
position. Instead, the whole-body swivel causes the left thigh to end up
hyperextended and the right thigh to end up flexed, both depending on how
far the thighs were abducted initially. Beginners are properly advised to
gradually accustom themselves to spreading their feet further apart in
order not to end up in awkward positions that are beyond their capacity.
If you do not have enough flexibility to swivel the pelvis until it is
perpendicular to the right lower extremity, you will have to accomplish the
rest of the twist in the spine. Even so, whichever way you do it, you will
still twist a frontal plane running through the shoulders 9oo to the right
thigh and leg. To complete the posture you add a 9o" forward bend and an
additional 9o" twist o{'the spine so the shoulders end up facing the rear. To
top it off you twist your neck an additional 9o" to look up at your right
h.rnd. What had originally been a frontal plane through the body would
twist 9o" and then bend 9o" to bccomehorizontal in the pclvis. 'lhen the
plane would twist another 9oo to be vertical through the shoulders, and
f i n a l l y i t w < - r u l tdw i s t t h e l a s t 9 o ' i n t h e n e c k - m a k i n g a z 7 o " t w i s t
altogether.

TWISTING IN THE LUNGING POSTURES

When fencers lunge they thrust the body down and forward in one swift
movement, and the lunging postures imitate this thrust. They all involvc
9o" of flexion oI'thc thigh and knee on one sidc and full extension r_rfthe
thigh and knec on the other. 'lhe torso can either bc twistcd or bent, and
the upper extremitics can be lifted overhezrdor stretched in other directiclns.
As a group, athletcs are attracted to these postures becausethey are helpful
for developing muscular strength, moderate aerobic capacity, and a full
range of motion lbr flexion and extension, which happen to be the basic
movements needed for most limit-pushing athletic endeavors. Since these
postures require some athletic prowess, it is wise to be conservative about
plunging directly into them. They are relatively natural poses,however, in
comparison with the standing twists and triangles, and once you are accli-
mated to them they are among the best all-around postures for energizing
and strengthening the body as a whole. As asymmetric standing postures
they are also ideal for working with right-left imbalances.

TWISTING IN THE STANDING WARHIORS

The standing waruior postures are named for their wide-bodied, powerful-
looking stances. They speak for themselves. Although the two postures
 7. lll7STfNG POSTIIRLS ,119

shown here are not ordinarily classified with twists, careful analysis
reveals some twisting in both of them. In relation to a frontal plane in the
anatomical position, the first posture (warrior II in Iyengar's classification)
exhibits a 2o--Jo"twist in the pelvis, a 2o-Jo" countertwist in the upper
body, and a 9o" twist in the neck; the secondposture (warrior I in Iyengar's
classification) exhibits a 9o'twist in the pelvis.
To come into the warrior II posture, stand with the feet 3-4 feet apart,
and swivel the pelvis 2o-jo" to the right. This is accomplished automatically
by turning the right foot 9o'to the right and the left foot ro" to the right.
The right side of the pelvis will move slightly posterior in relation to the
left as you adjust the feet, so this will give you a different feeling from the
triangle, in which you try to keep the hips in line and facing the front.
Stretch the arms and forearms out so they are in line with the shoulders
and the lower extremities. Since the pelvis is swiveled 2o-Jo" to the right,
'I'hen
the arms and shoulders will end up twisted 2o-3o" back to the leIt.
lower your weight, flexing the right knee and hip while hypercxtending thc

r&i::"f'r',:*Ps

F i g u r e7 . 1 g .T h e s t a n d i n gw a r r i o r l l i s a f a i r l y n a t u r a l p o s e i n w h i c h s e v e r a lk i n d s
of twists make themselves apparent: about 25" in the pelvis, a 25o countertwist
in the upper body, and a 90' twist in the neck. Aim in the final posture to keep
the fronl'leg perpendicular to the floor as a first priority, so as not to thrust the
knee beyond the ankle. Then widen your stance and drop your weight (as
strength and flexibility permit) until the front thigh is parallel to the floor. Keep
the upper body upright, leaned neither forward nor backward. Beginne_rs
s h o u l d ' c o m p r o m i s eb y n o t d r o p p i n g t h e i r w e i g h t s o f a r a n d a d j u s t i n gt h e i r f o o t
position so the leg is still perpendicular to the floor and the thigh angles up
toward the pelvis.
42O ANATOMY OF HA'MA YOGA

left hip and at the same time stretching the hands out in front and back,
palms down, and making blades of the hands and fingers. Keep the arms,
forearms, and shoulders in a single line, and look toward the right hand
(fig.l.tq.
There are three musts in this posture: keep all the muscles of the
extremities firm; keep the torso straight and perpendicular to the floor
rather than leaned forward; and don't flex the front knee more than goo.
To complete the posture in its ideal form, the right leg should be perpendicular
and the right thigh parallel to the floor. As your capacity for lowering your
weight improves, you will have to widen your stance so that the right knee
does not push out too far. Hold the feet as flat as possible,being careful not
to raise the lateral edge ofthe left foot. Repeat in the opposite direction.
This is a good posture {br beginners and those in poor physical condition
becauseit can be modified to meet everyone's personal needs.All you have
to do to make it easier is start with a narrower stance, swivel as in the full
posture, and lower your weight until the leg is perpendicular to the floor.
Go back and forth from one side to the other, and over a period ofweeks or
months gradually widen your stance. As soon as you reach the point at
which your front thigh is parallel to the floor (and the front lcg pcrpendicular,
as usual), and as soon as you can do this in both directions while keeping
the torso erect, you have arrived at thc full posture.
As you come into the posture, hyperextensionof'the left hip ioint tightens
its spiral of iliofemoral, pubofemoral, and ischiofemoral ligaments (fig. 3.6)
at the same time that flexion of the right hip unwinds its same three
ligaments and allows the head of the femur the lreedom needed to rotatc
in the acetabulum. Doing the posture in the opposite direction will reverse
these situations, tightcning the spiral in the right hip joint and loosening
it on the left.
This is an elementary but at the same timc complex pose. The twist is
accomplishedby swivelling at the hip joints in one direction and twisting
the chest back in the other direction. With the shoulders facing the side,
and with the head facing the outreaching hand, the neck will also have to
be twisted 9o". Finally, because the pelvis is at a 2o-3o" angle from the
shoulders, the hyperextended rear thigh forces it into a forward tilt that
creates a moderate sidebending posture. To ease the tension with respect
to the rear thigh, beginning students often minimize side bending by leaning
forward instead of keeping their torso upright. This looks unseemly, however:
it is better to compromise the posture with a narrower stance and less flexion
of the front leg and thigh. When students do not try to lower their weight
into the full posture prematurely, the demands on the pelvis for side bending
will not be so urgent, they can remain upright without difficulty, and the
posture becomesrelatively easy.
 The standing warrior II pose strengthens and stretches muscles
throughout the lower extremities, especially the hip flexors and knee
extensors. Facing the right, the right quadriceps femoris muscles and the
left psoas and iliacus muscles are stretched to whatever limits you are
exploring as they lengthen eccentrically, support the posture, and lower
your weight. Everything is reversed when you face the left.
The next variation of the standing warrior (warrior I) is more demanding.
Begin as in the previous posture, but in this one turn the rear foot in about
zo' instead of to", lift the hands overhead with the palms together, and pull
them to the rear. Swivel the hips around so the head, chest, and abdomen
face the front thigh squarely.When this is accomplished,the pelvis will be
rotated all the way around and will approach a 9o'angle with respect to the
thighs (figs. t.z and 7.uo).Repeat on the other side.
Because thc pelvis now faces the front, and because the rear leg and
thigh are perpendicular to the torso, the rear thigh is more acutely hyper-
extended than in the previous posture. And since you are still keeping the

Figure7.20.The standing warrior I is more demanding than the warrior ll pose,

because you swivel the pelvis (insofar as possible)90" to face the front knee,
and because hyperextension of the rear thigh produces the need for a sharp
backbend. For an even more demanding posture, extend the head and neck to
the rear and face the ceiling (fig. 1.2).As in the case of the the warrior ll pose,
beginners should compromise by keeping the leg perpendicular to the floor
and by not dropping their weight so far.
torso upright, the only way you can adapt to the extra hip hyperextension
is with a lumbar backbend. Therefore, as you come into the pose you
should create a whole-body feeling by strongly lifting the hands overhead
and pulling them to the rear, thus lifting the rib cage and chest, drawing
the shoulders back and down, and taking excesstension off the lower back.
To make the spirit of spinal extension complete, you can also extend the
neck enough to look toward the ceiling (fig. t.z). As with the previous
posture, beginning students can also make this one easier by narrowing
their stance and not lowering so far toward the ideal position. Everyone
should breathe deeply,expanding the chest as much as possibleand inhaling
their full inspiratory capacity.

THE EXTENDED LATERAL ANGLE POSTURES

The extended lateral angle postures are morc di{ficult than the warrtor
postures becauscthey are lunges combined with both twisting and bending,
and because it is hard to find comfortable intermediate positions that are
less demanding thtrn thc f ull posture. Beginners can make triangles easier
bv simply coming part way down, and in the warrior postures they can
stand with the {ront thigh and knee only partially flexed,but in the extended
latcral angle postures thcy will either have to counteract gravity with
internal muscular zrctivity or comc dccply enough into the posturcs to
brace themselvcs with the upper extremities.
For the simplest posture, stand with the f'eet a comlbrtable distance
apart, turn the lelt fbot 9o' t<-rthe left, and keep the right fbot pointing
'fhen kceping the pelvis and chest facing as much to the
straight ahezrd.
fiont as possible,llex the left knee and bend to the left, either bracing the
lell fbrearm against the left knee (fig. l.zt), or for the full posture, placing
the left hand against the floor (fig.7.22). Try to adjust the width of your
stance to make the left leg perpendicular to the f'loor and the left thigh
parallel to the floor. This is a lot easier if you are bracing the posture with
your forearm. As in the triangle, the right side of the pelvis will probably
come slightly forward. Bring the right upper extremity overhead to come
into a straight line with the right thigh and leg. Repeat on the other side.
Except for the bent knee and the fact that the opposite upper extremity
is pointing to the side instead of straight up, this posture is similar to the
triangle. With the elbow braced against the knee the posture is easy; with
the hand all the way to the floor it is demanding.
The revolving lateral angle posture is as unlike the lateral angle posture
as the revolving triangle is unlike the triangle. It is another twisting
posture, in which, like the revolving triangle, you will twist all the way
around and face the rear for the final position. To come into the posture
stand with the f'eet 3-,1 feet apart, rotate the left foot 9o' to the left, and
 7. TIIISTING POSTITRES '+23

Figure 7.21.Supporting this easy extended lateral angle poslure with the left
arm makes it possible even for novices to spread their stance enough to bring
the left leg perpendicular and the left thigh parallel to the floor.

Figure 7.22.The extended lateral angle posture requires good athletic strength
and flexibility, and should be approached conservatively,gradually widening the
stance and dropping the weight to bring the front thigh parallel to the floor.
JZl ANA'TOMY OF HATHA I

point the right foot straight ahead. Next, instead of keeping the pelvis facing
the front, rotate it around as much as possible, creating a 9o' swivel, and
bend forward while at the same time continuing the twist in the torso for
another 9o". You will end up, as in the revolving triangle, with a z7o' twist
in the frontal plane of the body. As with the lateral angle posture, you can
either brace the opposite elbow on the knee or place the hand on the floor
to create a more demanding pose (fig. Z.2l). Repeat on the other side.

INVERTED TWISTS
Twisting in variations of the headstand (chapter fi) and shoulderstand
(chapter 9) complements twisting in standing postures because the lower
extremities are free to move around in space rather than remaining fixed
in positions defined by the placement of the feet on the floor. In the classic
shoulderstand that is supported by the upper extremities, you can cxpedite
the twist by pushing on the back more firmly with one hand than the other
(fig. 9.-.1. A sharper posture, provided you are capable of remaining
straight, is to twist the body in an internally supported shoulderstand (figs.
9.t and 9.(rb)while keeping the upper cxtremities alongside the torso, thus
twisting the trunk between thc hands. And to create intermediate level
poses, you can accompany twisting in thc shoulderstand with zrdditional
stretches of thc lower extremities such as twisting in one direction in the
shoulderstand and taking the opposite fbot overhead toward the floor in

*--"-.,

dab"
utK,
Irwtr'ge

Figure7.23.The revolving extended lateral angle pose is a complex posture that

in the end produces a 270" twist in the frontal plane of the body. As in the case
of the extended lateral angle pose, one can legitimately compromise this
posture by supporting it with the elbow resting on the thigh rather than on the
floor.
 7. T\MSTING POST'T!R]':S 125

the same direction (leaving the other thigh and Ieg fully extended), coming
into a twisted half or full plow after twisting in the shoulderstand, coming
into a twisted half lotus one-leggedplow (fig. g.[J),or coming into twisted
knee-to-the-oppositeear poses(figs. 9.9-ro). Other related postures such as
variations of the threading-the-needle pose (figs. 9.r7a-b') are especially
helpful for working with the full spinal twist, which we'll discuss in the
next section.
In the headstand, twisting the body with the lower extremities straight
overhead is both comfortable and rewarding. The easiest way to do this is
to abduct the thighs (fig. lii.33)and then swing them around into a position
in which one is flexed and the othcr is extended. Then you continue in that
same direction, pulling the feet as far as possible through an arc as you
twist the body between the hip joints and the ncck. Then come back to a
ncutral position with thc thighs abducted and swing the feet around in the
other direction.

SITTING SPINAL TWISTS

All sitting spinal twists, by dclinition, have two features: they arc always
upright, :rnd thc hips arc always flexed. And becausemany of thesc postures
take tcnsion off the hamstrings and adductors,and yet llex the hips, thcv
generallvproducemore intense stretchesin the hip.joints,pclvis, and spine
thtrn supine, standing, and inverted twists. This often makes it difficult to
crlrnplete sitting spinal twists comfortably and attractively, but it zrlso
enablesus to work deeply with native hip flexibility that is limitcd by that
.joint and its restraining ligamcnts rathcr than by muscles.

FOUR SIMPLE TWISTS

Rlr the simplest and purest sitting twist, sit cross-leggedon the floor,
thrust the lumbar region fbrward, and establish full nutation oi'the sacro-
iliac loints. lb aid those cf{brts pull on the knees frankly with the hands,
which of course tenses the arms and shoulders.Ncxt pull the shoulders
down but at the samc time create an axial extension of the torso. Alter
getting settled, relax the upper exfremities but without allowing the
posture to deteriorate. 'fhen, keeping your head level and your gaze parallel
to the floor, twist the spine, including the neck, as far as possible.
Twisting left in this simple posture, you can place the left hand behind
you on the floor and the right hand on the left knee to help pull the shoulders
around fflg.7.zq), or you can place the hands in any comfortable position.
What is important is that the simplicity of the twist allows you to hold the
spine straight, retain a full lumbar lordosis, and keep the sacroiliac joints in
full nutation. Repeatin the other direction, then reverse the positions of the
feet, and twist in both directions again, making four possibilities.
126 ANA',TOMY Or: TTATHA t'.Ocll

Even though it is simple, this posture should not be overlooked, espe-

cially in a beginning class. It may be the only sitting twist in which many
students can remain both fully upright and comfortable. Folding in the
lower extremities in a simple cross-leggedposition, especially when lifted
up by a supporting cushion that raises the pelvis slightly away from the
floor, places the least tension on the adductors and hamstrings of any
sitting twist, permitting the pelvis to remain oriented perpendicular to the
floor and allowing students to twist while still remaining upright. If they
feel their back with their hands they can confirm that little or no twisting
is taking place in the lumbar region, and if they watch themselves in a
mirror they'll see that nearly all the twisting is in the chest and neck. They
will also notice that the twist is maintained internally: some of the muscles
in the torso are creating the twist while others are resisting it.
Another simple twist, the sccond one in this series, is to sit as nearly
upright as possible with the fcet stretched strzright out in front of'you,
hcels and toes togethcr. F'nrm that position, twist right and place the right
hand on the floor behind you and the lclt hand to thc right side ol'thc right
thigh. Kecp thc torso pushed upright with thc right hand while twisting, and
then pull yourscl{'further into the twist with the left hand (fig. Z.u5).Keep
both knces extended and thc hamstrings relaxed. Rcpeat on thc other side.
'lhis posture is morc
ch:rllenging than the cross-leggedtwist becauseit
mixes a sitting spinnl twist (with the hips flexed, by dcfinition) with {ullv
cxtcnded knees. Accordingly, it {avors sacroiliac counternutation, places
tension on the hamstring musclcs, and tends to tuck thc pelvis (creating a
posterior pelvic tilt), which of course rounds the lower bzrck.If .you prefer
a pure spinal twist without spinal flexion you can simply move your right
hzrnd furthcr to the rear, arch the lumbar region fbrward, and reestablish
thc twist with the torso leaned to the rear. Il'you are keeping a convincing
lumbar lordosis, the hamstrings are still under tension, cspeci:rlly on the
left side (if you are twisting right) and that tension tends to bucklc the left

Figure 7.24.This simple cross-

Iegged sitting twist, the first of
four, should never be overlooked,
because it is one of the few twists
that does not depend on relatively
flexible hips, and is one of the few
twists that nearly all beginners can
do easily.Pull with the hand on
the knee, and push the posture
straighter using the hand that is
bracing the posture from behind.
knee, so it is important to be particular about keeping it extended with the
aid of tension in the quadriceps femoris. Keep the head on axis with the body
rather than pulling it forward or dropping it backward so the cervical region
receives a pure twist.
The third twist in this seriesis even more difficult. at least for those who
have poor hip flexibility, and that is to remain upright for a sitting spinal
twist while abducting the thighs with the knees extended. To try this posture,
spread your feet apart, aiming for a 90'angle between the abducted thighs,
and twist the head, neck, and shoulders to the right, again bracing your
back with the right hand on the floor behind you and aiding the twist as
best you can with the left fig. 7.26). Repeat on the other side.

Figure 7.25.The twist starting from

knees extended and thighs adducted
(number two) next accustoms the
student to limitations dictated by the
h a m s l r i n g sA . g a i n ,p u l l w i t h t h e f r o n t
hand and pushfrom behind to keep
t h e p o s e a s u p r i g h t a s p o s s i b l e .F o r
m o s t b e g i n n i n gs t u d e n t s ,t h i s p o s e
mixes a sitting spinal twist (thighs
alwavs flexed, bv definition) with at
l e a s ts o m e l u m b a r f l e x i o n a n d
s a c r o i l i a cc o u n t e r n u t a t i o n .

Figure 7.26.The twist with knees extended and thighs abducted (third in this
series)next illustrateslimitations dictated by the adductors as well as the
hamstrings.Beginnersshould adjust the amount of abduction to make the
p o s e e a s i e ro r l e a n b a c k t o m a i n t a i n a l u m b a r l o r d o s i s .T h e b a c k s h o u l d n o t
be rounded excessivelyto the rear.
-126 A|;A',r()MY ()F IIA',TIIA :LOGA

If the thighs are abducted to their Iimits in this third posture, twisting
in one direction creates intense stretch not only in the hamstrings, but also
in the adductors on the opposite side. Both sets of muscles will be tugging
on the base of the pelvis, making this the most demanding of the sitting
twists described so far. To find the ideal amount of abduction for improv-
ing hip flexibility, mildly stretching both the adductors and hamstrings,
and yet still working productively on the spinal twist, go back and forth
between partial and full abduction several times, twisting to one side and
then the other. The idea is to strike a reasonablecompromise that does not
degrade the lumbar curvature too much and give in totally to sacr<-riliac
counternutation. Sitting on a support will also allow a more ppacefultwist.
The fourth and Iast set of twists in this series folds both legs in the samc
direction and is especially useful for relieving thc stress of other sitting
twists. Pull the lell foot in toward thc groin zrnd swing the right foot
around to the right. The left fbot ends up against the right thigh. 'fwist tcr
the left, placinEJyour lef t hand behind you on thc floor erndyour right hand
on your left knce. 'fwist further, aiding the gesture with both hands. Notice
that you naturally lean b:rck as you come further into the twist, thus
straightening the spinc and permitting morc sacroiliacnutation (fig. ;.:;a).
Then comc up and twist to thc right with the aid oI'the right hand on the
floor and the left hand on the left knee. Twisting in the samc dircction in
which the legs are pointing will requirc most novices to lean markedly fur-
wtrrd, thus flexing the lumbar spine, although that requirement is not
apparent in this illustration ftig.7.z7b).

a. b.
Figure7.27.Twists with the feet both folded in the same direction (fourth in this
series)provide a welcome relief to students frustrated with other sitting twists.
Twisting in the opposite direction of the legs (a) is easy and results in leaning
slightly to the rear;which straightensthe spine. Twisting in the same direction
(b) requires leaning forward and some spinal flexion in everyone who is not
gifted with excellent hip flexibility (obviously that does not apply to this model).
 Twist your neck in this fourth posture to please yourself, either rotating
it in the same direction as the rest of the twist or keeping it in a neutral
position perpendicular to the shoulders. If your hip flexibility is poor, you
can moderate the posture by sitting up on a cushion, helping you to create
a more pure spinal twist without flexing the spine and placing so much
tension on the hipjoints. The posture should be repeated, as always, on the
other side, making a total of four possibilities,two with the feet facing to the
right and two more with the feet facing the left.

HALF SPINAL TWISTS

The next six postures (figs. 7.zU-.lzfor five of the six; the first one is not
illustrated) are loosely called spinal twists, but technically they are half
'lhe simplest and easiest(not illustrated here) is a leaned-back
spinal twists.
twist fbr those who have serious problems with hip llexibility. To come into
the posture sit flzrt on the fl<-rorwith thighs adducted and knees extended.
Raise the left knce and place the left fbot on thc floor on the left (medial)
side of the right knee, or perhaps a little closer to the groin. Twist left
moderately, hook thc right forearm around the lefl knee, and brace the
posture with the left hand far enough bchind you on the floor to enable you
to lean backward with your elbow extended and kecp the lumbar spine
arched forward. As soon as you are in a comfortable position, twist a little
morc to thc left and readjust the placement of thc left hand against the
floor to increase the twist and yet sharpen the lumbzrr curvc. Look as fur to
the lef.t as you can and repcat the pose on the other side.
'fhis posture has much to ofl'er. Becausc the adductors are not being
stretched at all, and bccause you are leaning well to the rcar, the
hamstring muscles arc not creating much tension on the base o{'the pelvis'
and you can concentrate all of'your awareness on sacroiliac nutation and
twisting the spinc. It's also an excellent introduction to using the upper
extremities for prying yourself around in the classic half'spinal twist.
The classichalf spinal twist (fig. /.3o) is a complexposture,but it is also one
that can be approachedin stages(figs. Z.zlt-lo)that are useful for beginners.
For the least demanding version, start from a cross-leggedeasy posture
(fig. ro.toa) with the right foot drawn into position first (ending up with the
left leg in front of the right), and raise the left knee, Ieaving the left foot
flat on the floor in front of the right leg. Twist the body provisionally to the
left, looking as far to the rear as you can while keeping the head and neck
on axis with the thoracic spine. Place the left hand behind the hips and
support the body with the forearm extended. To complete the easy version
ofthis posture, hook your right forearm around the left knee and pull it in
against the chest and abdomen (fig. 7.ztt), push more insistently with the
left hand, and sit up as straight as possible.Both ischial tuberosities should
43O ANATOXIY OI: HATHA ''OGA

be on the floor. Those who are inflexible can work with this posture for a
month or so before going to the next stage. Repeat on the other side.
For the next stage, continuing from before, Iift the left foot and place it
flat on the floor on the right side ofthe right knee. This is now starting to
be a more complex posture, especially for beginners, becausethey usually
have to lean forward, losing their starting position of maximum nutation
along with their lumbar lordosis. Even so, they should continue within
their limitations, pulling the left knee more vigorously to the chest (still
with the right forearm) and twisting to the left as much as possible (fig.
2.29).As in the caseof the first stage (fig. 7.28),if this is as far asyou can
go without creating stress and strain, work with this pose for an additional
month or two before proceeding.Repeat on the other side.
Assumingyou wish to go on to the classicversion of the half spinal twist,
pry yoursclf around further into the twist by bringing the back side of the
right arm to thc left side of'the left knee and then reach down to grasp the
right foot (which is easiest),the right knee (fig./.3o), or if you are flexible
enough, the left foot. This twist is even more complcx than the prcvious vcrsion
(lig.7.z9). Only if you are unusuall.y flexible will this be a respectable hal{'
spinal twist. For most people cranking the body around with the shoulder
changes the posture f.rom a spinal twist to something that combincs hip
prying and triceps brachii massagewith three movements of the spine
fbrward flcxion, lateral flexion, and twisting. This is not without virtue,
but the posture is no longer a pure spinal twist. Therc is nothing wrong
with it so long as evcryone realizes what is happening, but it is important
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e p o s ew i l l n e v e r l o o k a n d f e e l c o m p l e t e u n t i l h i p
flexibility is sullicient to obviate the necd to bend fbrward in the lumbar
region. As with the other sitting twists, elevating the buttocks with n
p i l l o w e a s e st h e p o s t u r e f o r t h o s e w h o a r e n o t f l e x i b l e e n o u g h t o f e e l
comfbrtable flat on the floor. Repeat on the other side.
All sitting half spinal twists that begin from a cross-leggedposition can
also be done with one leg extended.Most of these are more demanding than
the cross-leggedversions becausethe hamstring muscles that insert on the
extended leg will now be pulled taut, tugging on the ischial tuberosity on
that same side and making it even more difficult to sit straight than in the
classic half spinal twist shown in fig. 7.3o.The most common variation of
this twist differs only slightly in knee, shoulder, arm, and hand position
from the half spinal twist which introduced this series. For this one (num-
ber five in the series) sit straight with the right leg stretched forward and
the left knee upright, but instead ofplacing the left foot on the floor on the
medial side of the right thigh, Iift the left foot and bring it all the way
acrossto the right (lateral) side of the right thigh. Now instead of hooking
the left knee with the right forearm, as in the caseof the introductory pose,
 7. I'\\7ST'iliG POST'URES ,+31

Figure 7.28.To study the important

half spinal twists, it is helpful for
novices to proceed in stages.After
pulling in the right heel in toward
the upper left thigh, place the left
foot in front of the right leg and
pull the left knee toward the chest
with the right hand and forearm.
Except for the prying effect on the
left hip joint, this is a pure sitting
twist and is an excellent pose for
beginners.They need not go to the
next stage until they are ready.
Repeat on the other side.

Figure 7.29. Next, lift the left foot

and placeit on the right side of
the rightthigh.Pullboth feet in
as close as possible,the right
heel toward the groin and the left
foot toward the lateral aspect of
the right hip. Once the feet are in
position, again pull the left knee

L-'k
closer to the chest with the fore-
a r m , a n d n o l i c e l h a l t h i s P o s ei s
m o r e d e m a n d i n go f f l e x i b i l i t y
than the first one shown in fig.
7.28. Again,one need not go
further. Repeat on the other side.

Figure 7.30. Last,for the

standard half spinal twist,
place the back of the right arm
in front of the left knee to
increasethe prying effect on
the left hip joint. Grasp the
right foot, the right knee (as
shown here). or the left foot
with the right hand. For many
l
students,this is a complex and
difficult posture that combines
a hip pry and forward bending
with a spinal twist. Repeat on
the other side.
132 ANATOMY OF HATHA YOGA

twist more fully to the left and bring the back of the right arm against the
left thigh and catch either the right knee or the left foot with the right
hand to accentuate the twist. The left hand again braces the posture from
behind (fig. Z.:t). This posture is identical to the leaned-backtwist (the one
that introduced the half spinal twists) except that here you are sitting
straighter and starting with the pulled-in foot on the lateral rather than
the medial side of the opposite knee, which insures that the back of your
arm will be more effective in pressing the upright thigh against your torso
As before, sit on a pillow to moderate the posture if you are not flexible
enough to feel graceful in it, and as always, repeat on the other side.
If you have sufficient flexibility in your hips, spine, and shoulders, you
can pull yourself into more complete twists by catching your hands together
behind the back. You can start cross-leggedor with one leg outstretched,
but in cither caseyou will have to pull the upright thigh and leg in closely
enough to place the foot flat on the floor on the laleral sidc of thc opposite
knee. Try it first cross-legged(number six in this series).Draw the left heel
in and place the right ankle to the left (lateral) side of the left knee. 'l'wist
to thc right and pull thc right knee closeto the chest. Thcn, twisting even
more to the right, anchor the back ofthe left arm and shoulder against the
right knee, reach with the left hand between the right thigh and leg (from
the front) to catch the right hand, which is reaching around from behind.
Clasp thc wrists or Iingcrs togcther (fig. 7.jz). Unless you arc quitc flexible
you will probablv have to lean fbrward to some extent. In any case, inter-
krcking the hands requires excellent flexibility in the right hip joint.
Othcrwisc you will have to lift the right hip ofl'the Iloor and try to balancc
on the left hip. That is not an unthinkablc compromise in spinal twists in
which you are able to bracc the right hand against thc flooq but it won't
work here becausethe right hand is interlocked with the lefl and ncr
Ionger available to keep your balancc.

F i g u r e7 . 3 1 .A n o t h e r
variety of the half spinal
twist keeps one knee
extended, which again
b r i n g st h e h a m s t r i n g
muscles of that side to
your attention. This
p o s e r e q u i r e ss o m e
spinal flexion of all but
the most flexible
students.You can push
strongly with the rear
hand to improve
hamstring flexibility.
 7. I VISTING POST(.RES .+-lj

This posture is excellent for working with hip flexibility, but it should be
approached with respect. If you have to bend forward excessively,lift the
hip off the floor, and struggle to get your hands interlocked, you may let
your attention lapse from the posture as a whole and overlook vulnerabilities
that leave you exposedto injury.

BREATHING ISSUES

In chapter z we discussed the four modes of breathing: abdominal,

diaphragmatic, thoracic, and paradoxical. Twisting the torso constricts
abdominal breathing becauseit makes the lower abdominal wall taut and
prevents its expansion. Under ordinary circumstances this facilitates
diaphragmatic breathing, in which the descent of the dome of' the
diaphragm lifts the rib cage,but that also is limited becausethoracic twisting
keeps thc upper abdomen taut as well, which in turn limits flaring of the
base oI'the rib cage. Thc twist in thc thorax even limits thc ability to lift
the chest for thoracic breathing. So whcre docs this leave us? Ii'you corne
into a simple cross-leggcdspinal twist, you can I'celrestrictions in brcathing
evcrywhcre, but at the same time you will noticc small respiratory move-
ments throughout the torso: some in the lower abdomen (abdominal. or
abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing), some flaring of the rib cagc
(diaphragmatic, or thor.co-diaphragmatic brcathing), and somc rifting of
thc rib cage (thoracic brcathing). Thc one mode of breathing you'li not see
is paradoxical bre:rthing, and this mer.kcsspinal twists a special blessing Ibr
anyone trying to brcak that habit.
In thc m.re complex twisting postures,the rclationship of thc thigh to
the tors. adds another complicati.n. If your posture presscs the thigh
against the lower abdomen, abdominal brcathing is restricted. And if the
thigh is presscdstrongly against both the abdomenand the chcst,.yuucan

Figure 7.32.The fullest expression

o f l h e h a l f s p i n a lt w i s t r e q u i r e s
interlocking your hands together
b e h i n d y o u r b a c k .T h i s p o s t u r e c a n
be attempted by intermediate level
students, but it will not be very
rewarding until you have enough
hip flexibility to sit upright without
having to push the posture straight
with the rear hand. Like all versions
of the half spinal twists, this one
improves hip flexibility but appears
awkward until good progress
toward that end has been made.
4-l'+ ANA'LOMY OI HATHA t

only breathe by lifting the chest for thoracic breathing. Finally, this pressure
on the abdominal wall frequently causesa slowing of inhalation and short
bursts of exhalation. These adjustments in breathing cannot be helped;
the postures demand them. They can only be watched and minimized.

THE FULL SPINAL TWIST

When you are able to do the half spinal twist, catching the hands gracefully
and comfortably behind your back, and at the same time sitting straight
and keeping the ischial tuberosities flat on the floor, you will be able to
approach the quintessential sitting spinal twist-matsyendr-asana, the
famous spinal twist done from the full lotus position. Few people who ppow
up sitting in chairs will have enough flexibility to get into it, and even for
them years of preparation may be needed.The more demanding variations
of'the half spinal twist are obvious requirements, as are the half lotus, the
f u l l l o t u s , a n d a n y o r a l l o f t h e d o z e n s t l f e x e r c i s e st h a t i n c r e a s e h i p
flexibility (chapter 6).
II'you can do thc lotus posture (fig. ro.r5)comfortably,and if you can sit
straight in the half spinal twist without resorting to {brward and lateral
flexion, you can begin to work with another preparatory posturc-the
spinal twist in the half'lotus. Start with the le{t ftrot pullcd up to the top of'
'fhen raise the
the right thigh so the heel is pressed into the abdomen.
right kncc and draw the right fbot in toward the perineum (holding the

I
"t;
,r,rd
a.
5 b.
Figure 7.33.The full spinal twist (b) and its most immediate preparatory posture
(a) are among the most difficult poses in hatha yoga. To do the preparatory
pose, come into the half lotus (left foot pulled to the top of the right thigh) and
then lift the right knee and pull the right foot in toward the perineum (a).To
come into the full spinal twis! go from the preliminary pose and place the right
foot on the floor on the left side of the left knee. Twist to the right, looking
back, and catch the hands, interlocking the fingers behind the back (b).
 7. TWSTING POST\TRES 135

foot flat on the floor in front of the pelvis), all the while keeping the back
straight. Raising the right knee is probably what you will not be able to do.
Here is where working with a half lotus modification of the trapezius
stretch in chapter q (fig. q.rZb)will help.
When you are able to come into this position convincingly, twist right
from the hips to the head, keeping the right thigh near the torso, bringing
the left elbow against the Iateral side of the right knee, and catching the
hands together near the left foot (fig. 7.33a).Work equally on both sides, or
favor the side which is more problematic. You should work with this
posture until you are able to remain comfortable in it while you are keeping
the spine straight.
Only when you are comfortable in the full lotus and can do the spinal
twist in the half lotus is it time to try the full posture. Again place the left
foot on top of the right thigh, but now swing the right foot over the lcft
knee and plant it on thc floor lateral to the left thigh and pulled in as much
as possible. Twist to the right, looking back. You can use one of two hand
positions depending on your flexibility: simply dropping them where they
fall naturally, or reaching with the left hand between the right leg and
thigh to catch the right hand behind the back (fie. Z.::b). As with all twisting
postures, repeat on the other side.

BENEFITS
Twisting postures in hatha yoga complement forward and backward bending
by exercising muscles in more complex ways than is er.ccomplished by the
symmetrical movemcnts of'Ilcxion and extension a_[onc,and in some cases
they cxercise muscles that are highly specializedfbr twisting. Beyond that,
the axial compression of thc spine and othcr structures of' the torso
improves nutrition to the intervertebral disks and squeezesblood out of
the internal organs of thc abdomen and pelvis, thus improving circulation
in the great supportive systems of the body. For these reasons, twisting
postures are essential for a complete practice and must always be included
in any balanced program ofhatha yoga.

"'7/a/"r,n./a. rt 1.1./,i,rz /1)wnz|tl/.

,t /cz.tr:. "ff t /tnaar/llqz,
a,/zn/ //L /l.eulr:, frz/ycu ca.ttrtal /ii,r, tn /./tz /'/)rVoit/. /n,
/tztlz I.c 1;Lt/./ r/L /leue utitg lrrr./it antry'rttar/an.. ,il2/ r/tzzr t
'71La.rzfagz/rc:.1
La.n/ra. 9i yzzn /)rcurllrQe a.1iu/ t/tz JuTtrerr,
oo/tfy, /rzrtlra gtttu /e e,Vterrezce l/lal JuVt'eztr,
"rrrt/l/ll
oeo//lV ulgzau,rte( "
- Tapasvi Baba, July 17, zooo (translated by D. C. Rao).
136 ANA'IOMY OT IIATHA YOGA
 CHAPTERE,IGHT
THE,HE,ADSTAND

",'/l)il.on '7/er'r1t
u, h rrrt/// ,, //lllilq, asuy'a nzrftit.. u,r/././ir//
1r, nrlrVunlzl/ .Ltrn1.,'r' itt /iiztz/i7,ht1.'n.ttr,/h a.n.ry'r,/17'71 .f,
/Li ,'y'Lnrrrt ohnr,, l./L //rth rrut rf.att, rtr/.rty ,f.'tlr.atta. artry'
1il4r,ry' ,'/7, ar/,t z7nr)tl/ 7*, /arrz, r/'Vrnri/q asrry'r1t'au.i att
n./brr/.rrr.r' a/' 1r/zar/ /iztt. /,/tz ,/),nrl ,.Vr,rrr.rrrl r.nrzr:n.1r:.J
,rr/rrr)rr/'/4. .11tttVr.tl, r,r,lt/.1il/.j, ,rrrry' /,h)r*tl ,,/././/itV/i/f
rVVur rzn ft ' /./)i .ilt r.ura, /7u:t /.:o ry't / a za /ru'rzl' "'tl.ot trrVrrr r.r,
,rrlry' .'/lrrr rrrr//i., 1) ;l. tr //,.,h r,//i t' r/y' t,1 rr tz. r r,.1.1
7t;V.
- Swami Sivananda,inYctgaAsanas, pp. l5-16.
'T-
lo be "stood on your hcad" is to bc surprised and shocked,and this is the
essenceof'the headstand-turning the world topsy-turvey and adjusting to
being upended. 1'o launch this jolt to our spirit, we balance on the top of a
sphcroidal surface-the cranium-which can be likened to balancing the
pointed end ol'an egg on a button. The headstand not only inverts our
vision of the world, it inverts the pattern of blood pressure in the body-
increasing it in the head and dropping it to practically nothing in the f'eet.
And because the increase in blood pressurc in the head may be the first
deciding inppedient in whether or not it is prudent tt_rtry the headstand,
we'll begin with a discussion of the cardiovascular system. Most of'the rest
of'the chapter focuses on the musculoskelctal anatomy oI'the headstand
and related postures: two techniques for doing the headstand and how each
of them affects the neck and body; the anatomy of the upper extremities
and methods for developing the strength neededfor coming into the headstand
safely; coruection of front-to-back imbalances; breathing adaptations for
inverted postures in general and the headstand in particular; and combining
the headstand with backbending, forward bending, and twisting. Finally we'll
examine the question of how long one can remain in the posture.

THE qARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

When you stand on your head the first thing you feel is pressure-pressure
on top of the head, pressure in the arteries and veins, and pressure in the
soft tissues of the head and neck. And along with these comes more subtle

*J/
.1-llt ANATOMY OI. IIAWA YOGA

aspects of pressure-the demand for maintaining your balance and the

psychologicalurge to come out of the posture. These physical and psycho-
Iogical pressures affect every system in the body in one way or another:
musculoskeletal, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, respiratory, digestive,
urinary, immune, and reproductive. We'll concentrate here on the most
obvious one, which is circulation.
The heart pumps blood through two sequential circuits-pulmonary
and systemic-from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left
atrium inthe pulmonary circuLation, and then from the left ventricle to the
body and back to the right atrium in the systemic circulation. In the
pulmonary circulation blood picks up oxygen in the lungs and releases
carbon dioxide; in the systemic circulation blood picks up carbon dioxide
from the tissues of the body and releases oxygen. The flow of blood is
unidirectional-from right atrium to right ventricle, to pulmonary artery,
lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, body as a whole,
veins, and back to the right atrium-around and around continuously from
birth to death (fig. z.t).
Each circuit contains arteries, capillaries, and veins. The pulmonary
circulation to the lungs is aktw-pressttre(zzl8 mm Hg), low-resistan,ce
circuit;
the systcmic circulation to thc body is a high-pressure (rzolSo mm Hg),
high-resistance circuit. They are both affected by inverted postures, but
we'll concentrate on the systemic circulation first because m<lst of'our
interest is in how the headstand affects the bodv as a whole.

BLOOD PRESSUREAND FLOW IN THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

Any time someonesays they have a blood pressurc problem, what they are
talking about is blood pressure in the arteries of'their svstcmic circulation.
L i k e a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , a l v e o l a r g a s p r e s s u r e s ,a n d b l o o d g a s c s
(chapter z), blood pressure is mcasured in millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg). When we say, "Normal bltlod pressure is tzo over lJo mm Hg," tir
more simply tzo/Uo,we are referring to the pressure of the blood against
the inner walls of'medium-sized arteries of the systemic circulation, usually
measured in the arm when we are either sitting quietly in a chair or lying
down (fig. tt.t). As pressures go these are low-the equivalent to about
z pounds per square inch of air pressure in the tires of your car.
The two figures are significant. The blood pressure in an artery of the
arm rises to tzo mm Hg as the heart pumps blood from its contracting left
ventricle; this is the systolicpressure, which is named after the Greek word
meaning "contraction." Between contractions the pressure drops to 8o mm
Hg as the left ventricle fills; this is the diastolic pressure, or the pressure
between contractions. Blood pressure in an artery of the arm is only a
small part of a bigger picture, however. From the left ventricle, blood is
 a. THE HEAD.STAND 139

propelled successivelythrough the aorta to large arteries, medium-sized

arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins, and blood pressure
decreasesfrom segment to segment. Within the heart itself-in the left
ventricle-systolic blood pressure is rzo mm Hg and diastolic pressure is a
mere lo mm Hg, because the latter drops almost to nothing while the
ventricle is filling with blood. The textbook standard of blood pressure is
l2ol8o mm Hg between the aorta and small arteries, and beyond the
arterioles in the capillary bed it drops to about l5 mm Hg. On the venous
side of the systemic circulation, blood pressure continues to drop in the
venules and veins, and it is essentially o in the vena cava where that
vesselopensinto the right atrium of the heart (fig. [t.r).
Blood pressure in medium-sizedarteries dependsboth on the heart acting
as a pump and on peripheral resistance. The importance of the pump is
obvious: a harder-working heart creates more pressure in the system. But
the resistance to llow in the arterioles is just as important: as peripheral
resistance increases, bktod pressure in the arteries also increases. 'I'here
are many neurological, hormonal, and other physiologic:rl factors that
influcnce the heartbeat and peripheral resistance, but they are beyond the
scopeo1'this book; here we'll note only that any time you becomeespecially
active or anxious, thc sympathctic nervous system and hormones lrom thc
adrenal gland increase blood pressure by increasing both peripheral resist-
ance and the strength and rzrte ol'the heartbeat.

F i g u r e8 . 1 .T h i s g r a p h s h o w s
blood pressure in different
parts of the systemic circulation
a t h e a r t l e v e l .T h e c o n t i n u o u s
curves in the portions of the
graph for large arteries,small
arteries,and arterioles
represent variations in systolic
(top) and diastolic (bottom) o)
blood pressure,and the dashed T
curve in the same regions E
E
representsaverages(for ,c
e x a m p l e ,a b o u t - 1 0 0m m H g i n 0) a
l c
'o)
large arteries).Systolicand a
a
diastolic pressuresare no c)
o (tr
longer detected separately in a a
E
c a p i l l a r i e sa n d v e i n s ,a n d b l o o d
'=
c) .0) a
c) o a
pressure drops essentiallyto 0 E E c)
(o 6
mm Hg where the vena cava c) (E
'-
0)
empties into the right atrium E E E
a o
(Dodd).
,+.+o ANATOMv OF HATHA I

Blood pressure also varies in different parts of the body. It increases

below the heart and decreasesabove the heart because the weight of the
column of blood in an artery adds to (or subtracts from) the pressure
generated by the heart and by peripheral resistance. In a standing position
with blood pressure in medium-sized arteries at tzollJo mm Hg at heart
level, blood pressure will be about ztolt7o mm Hg in the arteries of the feet
and about too/6o mm Hg in the brain (fig. t't.za).The only circumstances
under which we'll see blood pressure equalized throughout the body at
l2oltlo mm Hg is if we neutralize the effect of gravity by lying prone or
supine, by submerging ourselves in water, or by taking up residence in a
spacecapsule that is orbiting earth.
Turning upside down in the headstandreversesthc Iigures seen standing
in a straightforward fashion. Blood pressure will remain zrt tzo/llo at hcart
level, at least ifyou arc not under too much stress,but the pressurein the
arm will risc to about r4o/roomm Hg becausethe arm is alongsidethe hezrd
and below the hcart instead of lcvel with it. Wc can czrlculatethat blood

100/60mm Hg

.120/80 mm Hg \
(averageof
1 0 0m m H g )
i.a

.
Si .{:
i$

$\71
:.$
':,'

.:':,

$,,...I 120/80mm Hg -----+1

0 m Hg
2 1 0 1 1 7m --_*3 150/.1
00 mm Hg+
140/1

10 mm Hg --
(averageof 130 mm Hg) li

Figure8.2a.Arterialblood pressure F i g u r e8 . 2 b .C a l c u l a t e da r t e r i a lb l o o d
i n a s t a n d i n gp o s t u r ei n m u s c u l a r pressure in the headstand in muscular
arteriesin differentpartsof the body. arteries in different parts of the body.
 8.'I'IIL HL:ADS'IA|\D 111

pressure will only be about 4olo mm Hg in the feet, with diastolic blood
pressure dropping to zero, and with the systolic blood pressure of 4o mm
Hg barely sufficing to perfuse the capillaries. Even then it's marginal,
which is why your feet may "go to sleep" and get pins-and-needlessensations
if you remain in the headstand for a long time.
We can calculate that blood pressure at the top of the head increases
from too/6o mm Hgin a standingposition to r5o/rromm Hgin the head-
stand (fig. u.zb),or even higher ifyou are not confident ofthe posture. The
headstand is therefore contraindicated for anyone who has abnormally
high blood pressure for the simplest of reasons: the posture can increase
blood pressure in the brain to dangerous levels-perhaps well above r5o/rro
mm Hg. Conservative medical opinion also recommends that you avoid the
headstand even if high blood pressure is brought to a normal level with
medication.
As important as blood pressure is, we can't understand the cardio-
vascular responsesto inverted postures without also considering the flow
of blood through the system-both bulk flow through the major segments
of the system and the rate of flow though specific vessels.Since it's a one-
way circuit, the same volume of blclod per unit of time (about 5 litcrs per
minute at rest) has to flow thr<-rugheach sclynent of the cardiovascular system.
And there is also the question of rate of flow through individual arteries,
capillaries, erndveins. Just as a river carrics water sluggishly where the
river is widc, and briskly where it is constr:rined by tubes and by turbines
that gcnerate electricity, so doesthe rate of flow vary in the vascular system.
l'he flow is speediestthrough arterioles, where it is chokcd off the most as
well. It is slowcst in the capillaries, and it flows at an intermediate rate
through the veins, which carry blood back to the heart.

THE VENOUS RETURN

If the capillary beds and veins were static tubes with fixed diameters, blood
would stream f'rom the arterioles into the capillaries, pour from the
capillaries into the veins, and be pushed all the way back to the heart by
arterial pressure. But this is not the way the system operates. The capil-
Iaries and veins are expandable: they could easily accommodate all the
blood in the body. And this can create a serious problem because within
certain limits the amount of blood brought to the heart per minute (the
uenous return) regulates the volume of blood pumped by the heart per
minute fthe cardiac output). Here is what happens: As venous return
increases, the additional blood stretches the walls of the ventricles, and
when that happens, the stretched muscle fibers in the ventricles auto-
matically pump more strongly, thus increasing cardiac output; as venous
return decreases, the ventricles pump less vigorously, thus decreasing
412 ANAT'OMY OF HAI'IIA I

cardiac output. Therefore, the mechanisms for moving blood from capillaries,
venules, and veins back to the heart are critical. If too much blood stag-
nates in those parts of the system, which can happen for many reasons,
cardiac output decreasesand the heart may not receive enough blood to
pump to the brain and other vital organs.
When we are in a normal upright posture, the venous return from veins
located above the heart is unimpeded, and blood drops like a waterfall to
the right atrium. And at heart level (in the middle segment of the arm, for
example) venous pressure is about t5 mm Hg. Since this is more than the
o mm Hg where the blood enters the right atrium, it is still pushed easily
back into the heart. The lower extremities are another story, however, and
to get blood back to the heart from the feet, at least in an upright posture,
the venous return has to overcome a pressure of about t.+omm Hg, which
reflects the height of a static column of vcnous blood below the heart.
The mechanism for getting blood back to the heart from the lower
extremities is beautiful in its simplicity and elegance.The veins below the
heart contain one-way valves, and contraction of the skeletal muscles
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s e v a l v e s a c t s a s a " m u s c l e p u m p " t o s q u e e z eb l o o d
through them and back toward the heart. When thc muscles relax, the
valves close to prevent backflow, insuring that the flow is unidirectional

blood is pushedthroughthe uppervalve

skeletal
musclein a
state of
contraction skeletal
m u s c l eI n
a state of
relaxation
the tendency
for gravityto
I n o u c ev e n o u s
backflowis
preventedby
VaIVeS

Figure 8.3. Skeletal muscle pump for venous return. On the left the muscle
contracts,and blood can escape this segment of the vein only by being pushed
through the upper valve. On the right the muscle relaxes,and the upper valve
is closed by venous back-pressure.As skeletal muscles become active through-
out the body, alternately contracting and then relaxing, blood is pushed back to
t h e h e a r t m e c h a n i c a l l y( D o d d ) .
 8.7'IIL HLADS'IAND 143

(frg. 8.:). Drill instmctors in the military may not be aware of this mechanism,
but they know that skeletal muscular activity is needed to get blood back
to the heart, and that is why they instr-uct new recruits who are standing at
attention on a hot day to isometrically contract and then relax the postural
muscles of their lower extremities, which keeps them from fainting.
There are no valves in the head and neck: our upright posture has ren-
dered them irrelevant. But when you are standing upright, a pool ofblood
courses slowly through the veins in the lower half of the body, waiting to
be pumped back toward the heart by muscular activity. And if you are
chronically inactive, fluids move so sluggishly out of this region that the
processesof cellular nourishment and elimination are compromised. This
gravity-induced congestion can affect any organ or tissue below the heart.
Lying down for a night's sleep helps correct the situation, but we still often
see the effects of gravity in chronically swollen ankles, varicose veins, and
hemorrhoids. One remedy is vigorous movement in which muscles alter-
nately contract and relax in order to propel blood through the venous
valves. And this is one reason nurses try to get people up and about as soon
as possible after surgery and why health practitioners constantly preach
the benefits of exercise.Yoga teachers do not disa6pee,but suggestanother
alternative-inverted postures.
What happens specifically when you turn upside down? In the first
moments of the headstand blood pools in the capillary beds and veins in the
region of'the body superior to the heart-in the head, neck, and shoul-
ders-where it is kept until arterial pressure forces it back around to the
heart. And becausethere are no valves in the veins of this region, skeletal
muscle contraction cannot assist its return. This is not very important if
you stay in the headstand only z-5 minutes, but if you want to extend your
time in the posture it can become a problem. We'll come back to this issue
toward the end of the chapter.
ITechnicalnote:Thereare many waysto affectvenousreturn. Without namingthe
phenomenon, we lookedin chapter2 at the efl'ectsof a Valsaluamaneuuer-holding
the breathand strainingafter an inhalation-in conjunctionwith hyperventilation.
It alsosometimeshappensthat X-ray techniciansask patientsto hold their breath
after an inhalation in order to get a more elongatedand accurate profile of the
heart,and if the patientgetsoverenthusiastic aboutthis after lockingthe glottis,or
if the techniciandawdles,the unintentionedValsalvamaneuverimpedesthe venous
return. Ifyou hold the breathin this mannerafter a deepinhalation,the profile of
the heart in a roentgenogram shrinksdramatically,and after to-15seconds, depend-
ing on how purposelyyou strain,the venousreturn is inhibitedenoughto causeyou
to passout. Onewould not ordinarilythink of trying the Valsalvamaneuverin the
headstand,and it's plainly inadvisable.It won't result in fainting becausethe
inverted posturesendsblood preferentiallyto the head,but it certainly causesa
sharpand immediaterise in bloodpressure.This is felt mostlyprominentlyin the
face,where it is disagreeablealthough probablynot harmful-but for the brain and
for the retina ofthe eye,look out: it is assuredlydangerous.l
111 ANATO\TY OF-HA',r'UAYOGA

THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION

The oxygenated blood that is pumped to the body from the left ventricle
will be cycled straight back to the right side of the heart, and from there
the passageof blood into the pulmonary circulation is like a slow-moving
flood-5 liters per minute to the lungs. This pulmonary flow is the constant
companion to the systemic circulation-5 liters per minute to the body.
Inverted postures affect the pulmonary circulation very differently from
the systemic circulation, and to understand how and why, we'll need a few
more details.
If blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit were tzo/t3omm Hg, as it is in
the systemic circulation, blood would perfuse through all parts of the lungs
fairly equally, but pressure in thc pulmonary circuit is much lower-only
zzltl mm Hg and because of this the pull of'gravitv will markedly affect
the pulmonary flow and distribution of blood. As we discussedin chapter z,
if you arc sitting or standing quietly in an upright posture, the lower parts
of the lung are perfused with blood efficiently and the upper parts of thc
lung are perfusedsluggishly.Although studies of pulmonarv arterial pressure
rclationships and blood flow in inverted yoga postures have not been
published, it seems certain that the patterns of pressure and flow of blood
in thc lungs will bc rcvcrsed, and that inversion will causc thc uppcr rather
than the lower parts of the lungs to be per{usedwith blood most efficiently.
Deep breathing in the headstand (to be examined in detail later in this
chapter) can remedy this becauseit ventilates thc lungs generouslyfrom top
to bottom and insures that minor variations in circulaticln are insierificant.

BARORECEPTORS

In chapter z we looked at oxygcn-scnsitiveperipheral chemoreceptorsin the

large arteries that lead from the heart to the head. We also havebaroreceptors
at those same sites for detecting blood pressure. Increased blood pressure
in any posture stimulates the barorcceptors, which in turn affects both limbs
of the autonomic nervous system: it increases parasympathetic nervous
system input to the heart, and it reduces sympathetic nervous system
input to both the heart and the arterioles-all of'which tend to lower blood
pressure. This is called reflex hypotension, and some people are especially
sensitive to its effects, possibly even experiencing enough ofa drop in blood
pressure to produce fainting from the pressure of a tight collar or from
mild pressure of someone'shands against the neck.
These reactions are pertinent to this chapter for several reasons. First
of all, in the headstand, the baroreceptors are below instead of above the
heart and will be subject to, and stimulated by, increased blood pressure. If
you are entirely comfortable in the headstand, the input ofthe baroreceptors
to the central nervous system will generally produce a lower heart rate and
 4ND 415

blood pressure than what is assumed simply on the basis of fluid dynamics.
Second, if you have a general sensitivity to reflex hypotension, you might
have an exaggerated response in the headstand and should approach it
with caution and only after a lot of experimentation and preparation.
Third, someonewho has slightly elevated blood pressure in an upright posture
might see that drop when they come into a comfortable headstand. Under
such conditions, we would expect blood pressure to become elevated again
upon standing. Last, if you are anxious and uncomfortable in the head-
stand, the accompanying increase in activity of the sympathetic nervous
system could stimulate the heart, increase peripheral resistance, and elevate
blood pressure excessively.These possibilities can only be checked out with
a blood pressure cuff. In any case, unlcss you have a medical practitioner
who is willing to take responsibility for advising you, the headstand is still
contraindicated ifyou have elevated blood pressure in upright postures.

THE RECOVERY

If you stand up quickly after coming out of thc headstand, you will feel a
surgc of blood falling from the veins in the upper half of the body. This will
not hurt someone in good health, but conservative medical advice is to
rcverse these pressurc and flow dynamics morc slowly. Somc instructors
even recommend relaxing fbr a short time in the corpsc posture (figs. r.r,1
and ro.z) before standing. Whether you sttrnd up immcdizrtely or cautiously,
however, many authorities recommend that you remain upright, whether
st:rnding still, doing standing postures, or walking, fbr as long as you held
the hcadstand.

CARDIOVASCULABBENEFITS OF THE HEADSTAND

'I'he literature on hatha yoga
waxcs eloquent on the wondcrs of the head-
stand. Kuvalayanandamaintains that the posture benefits the specialsenses,
the endocrine glands, and the digestive system, to name only a few, and
Sivananda, in his usual style, calls the headstand "a panacea,a cure-all fcr all
diseases."Anyone who has had a lot of'experience with the headstand will
agree that it's a marvelous posture, but it is not clear why this is. l'or a pos-
sible answer, the most obvious place to look is the inverted circulatory system.
First, it is plain that when we are inverted, the venous return from the lower
extremities is determined by the amount of blood pumped through the capil-
lary beds, becauseonce it gets into the venules it is quickly recirculated by the
force of gravity. If you can remain in an inverted posture for just 3-5 minutes,
blood will not only drain quickly to the heart from the lower extremities and
the abdominal and pelvic organs, but tissue fluids will flow more efficiently
into the veins and lymph channels, and this will make for a healthier
exchange of nutrients and wastes between cells and capillaries.
'1/!6 ANAToMY OF HATIIA,

It is also obvious that inversion increasesblood pressure in the head and

neck, the regions of the body that are filled with the body's regulatory
mechanisms: the brain's hypothalamus, which regulates the autonomic
nervous system and pituitary gland; the pituitary gland, which regulates
many other endocrine glands; and the brain itself, which carries out all
aspectsof mental functioning. This region also contains the special senses
that are so important in our interactions with the world: sight, hearing,
taste, smell, and the senseof equilibrium.
Considered in isolation, the significance ofthis increasedblood pressure
in the head is uncertain. If peripheral arteriolar resistance were to remain
constant when you come into a headstand, increased pressure would push
more blood per minute into the capillary beds, increasing local blood flow,
but without data to prove the point we cannot assume that will happen,
because the increase in blood pressure might well be accompanied by
enough increased peripheral resistance to keep blood flow the same. We do
know that mental exercisesand aerobic activities such as running lncrease
blood flow to the brain, and if future research shows that the headstand
produces the same result, it might help explain the intense but subjective
feelings of well-being that accompany this posture.

THE TWO HEADSTANDS

Ifyou were to watch a hundred hatha yoga teachers all doing the headstand
at the same time, you would notice that they were not all doing it the same
way. Some would be perfectly vertical, their eyesdirected along a path parallel
to the floor, their backs straight, and taking care to be balanced on the top of
'Ihe other group, probably a minority, would be more relaxed,
their heads.
their eyes directed to the floor, their lumbar regions arched, and their heads
balanced on a point a little more to the front than those in the frrst group.
These differences are lost on beginning students. When they first try to
come into the headstand they are likely to be struggling, and one of the
symptoms of their exertion is that they tend to balance much of their weight
on their forearms with excessmuscular tension in their arms and shoulders.
Under those circumstances, where they position their heads against the floor
is not critical. But after gaining more experience and building up their time
in the posture beyond t-z minutes, they tire of supporting themselves so
much with their upper extremities, and the question of where to position the
head against the floor becomes more important. Many teachers are picky
about this matter, some saying that the weight must be placed directly on the
top of the head, and others saying that the weight should be placed more
forward. Neither school of thought is incorrect. There are two ways to do the
headstand, and these yield such different results that the two postures
warrant separate names: the crown headstand and the bregma headstand.
 8. THE HEADSTAND 117

For the crown headstand we place the weight of the body directly on the
crown of the head, which is the topmost point of the cranium. For the bregma
headstand we adjust the hand position slightly forward so the weight of the
body is on a spot called the bregma, which is an inch or so in front of the
crown, at the meeting point of the sagittal and coronal sutures (fig. 8.+).
The sutures are fibrous joints: the sagittal suture links the two parietal
bonesin the midsagittal plane of the body, and the coronal suture links the
two parietal bones to the frontal bone.Interestingly, the site in the head of
a newborn baby where these two sutures have yet to meet and grow together
is the soft spot-the anterior fontanelle and the future bregrna.

EXPLORINGTHE TWO POSSIBILITIES

Come into a kneeling position on a well-padded carpet or folded blanket,

place the top of the head down, and brace it in the rcar with the interlaced
fingcrs. The forearms should be at about an lJo" angle from one another.
Now gently roll your head around and explore the possible spots on which
you could place your weight. Notice that as you roll the forehead down,
bringing the nose toward the floor and extending the head and neck, you
tend to follow the rolling of the head with your interlaced fingers, and that
if you place weight on the crown you move your hands more to the rear. To
further explore, lift up the hips and walk the feet forward, keeping the

mid-sagittalpanetalsuture Dregma

Figure 8.4. Human skull, viewed from the front (on the left) and from the side
(on the right). For the crown headstand the weight of the inverted body is
placed on the crown, the highest point of the cranium, and for the bregma
headstand the weight is placed on the bregma, which is located about an inch
in front of the crown at the intersection of the coronal and parietal sutures
(Sappey).
llli ANA'IOMt'oF IIA'I'I1A YOGA

knees bent as much as hamstring limitations require, and try different

hand and head positions, supportingyour weight only on the head and the
feet. Now sit up and feel the top of the head. Sit perfectly straight and
locate the highest point. This is the crown. Move the fingers forward about
an inch. This is on or neal the bregma. Behind the crown the cranium
immediately rounds.
fTechnicalnote:Noticethat you probablyhavea clearpreferencefor how to inter-
lace the fingers,both in the headstandand in daily life. You will automatically
placeeachof the fingersof the right hand on top of their counterpartson the left
hand,or viceversa.In the heerdstand you shouldmakesurethat you alternatethe
interlacing,becausealwaysholding the fingers the sameway will create subtle
imbalances.l
The next thing to do, especially if you are a be€fnner, is to find a sandy
beach or a spongy grass surface and practice turning somersaults. Do a few
chitd's somersaults with the hands at the sides of the head, and thcn do
them with the fingers laced behind the head and well to the rear. Notice
that you do not need to make many adiustments in the head position as you
roll over. Then try placing your weight on the crown. As you go into the
somersault from this position you will find that you flex the head slightly
before you flip <lver.Finally, place your weight on the bregma. Now you
have to make a big adjustment in order to roll over.Vlu have to either move
your hands and flex the head forward, thus shifting the point ofcontact to
the back of the he:rd.just be{bre you roll into the somersault, or you will
plop over backward instead of rolling. In the lattcr caseyou will have the
option of falling flat on your back, which may not be comfbrtable even on
a sandy beach, or of quickly extending the hips and flexing the knees as
you start to fall, thus breaking the fall with your feet. The point of'these
experiments is to reduce your fear of the headstand by teaching you to
roll down out of the posture gracefully if and when the need arises.
When you start to experiment with the headstand itseli it will become
obvious that your main concern is that you might tip over backward. Even
if practice somersaults have removed your fear of'tipping over to the rear
when you have to, you will still not do it by choice. So until you become
confident, don't hesitate to come part way up over and over again, and
each time drop back forward on your toes the same way you started up.

THE CROWN HEADSTAND

Although either posture can be learned first, the crown headstand rs more
elementary and simpler to explain than the bregma headstand. So even
though there is a greater tendency to somersault in the crown headstand,
try this one first. To do it, come into the preparatory kneeling position and
adjust the forearms at an uooangle from the clasped hands. This is important
because if the forearms are placed at an obtuse angle (greater than 9o"),
 n. THE HLIDS'IAND 119

your weight will be distributed over a base that is too short from front to back,
and the posture will be unstable. And since the tendency to fall to the side in
the headstand is not as great as the tendency to fall forward or backward, a
long front-to-back base is more desirable than a wide side-to-side base. You
can approximate the correct angle by placing the elbows alongside the knees,
planting your head directly on the crown, and bracing the interlocked fingers
just underneath the back of the head to maintain the position.
The headstand is best learned in four stages.To come into stage one, lift
the buttocks and start walking the feet forward. Advanced students who
are able to fold their chests down against their thighs with their knees
straight in the posterior stretch may want to keep their knees extended for
approaching this stage of the headstand (fig. u.5),but most people will not
have long enough hamstrings to allow this. So flexing the knees as necessary,
walk toward your head, then tiptoe. Keep coming until less than 5a/r,ofyour
weigghtis still supported by the feet. Your back is probably rounded, you are
closeto the point of tipping over, almost no weight is on the elbows, and the
tiniest nudge from the big toes could lift you off (fig. [t.6a).This is stage one,
an inverted posture that is worth practicing in its own right-a forward
bend with an invcrted torso.
Going from stage one to stage two is difficult becausenow the hips have
to be raised, the back has to becomeflattened, and thc feet have to be lifted
off the floor-all while the lower extremities are positioned well to the front
of'your future axis for balancing. It is a problem comparable to standing up
and reaching forward at shoulder height to lift a weight straight up. In that
case even a light weight would be difficult to lift because of your poor
mechanical advantage. Here, when you are going from stage <lneto stage
two, all of the burden is on your back and forearms. During the course of
this transit the lumbar region will be rounded, much of the weight of'the
lower extremities will be to the front of the abdomen, and you will have to
support the posture with the forearms as you are coming up. Fortunately,

Figure 8.5. Stage one of

the headstand with the
knees straight.This is a
useful starting position for
those who have excellent
hip flexibility and lengthy
enough hamstrings,but
impossible for those who
do not.
,+5O ANATOMY OF HA'ITIA '

the situation is only temporary. When you frnally settle into a relatively stable
position in stage two, the lumbar region will be flatter, and depending on
your hip flexibility, the thighs will end up at a 45-90" angle from the pelvis
(that is, flexed 9o-t35"; fig. 8.6b).
Poor hip flexibility is the main obstacle when you are going from stage
one to stage two. With the toes barely on the floor and the knees partially
extended in stage one, short hamstring muscles keep tension on the pelvis
and keep the back rounded posteriorly, and this prevents you from easily
distributing the main bulk of your body weight above the head. The less
flexible the hips, the more weight you will have to support on the forearms
as you lift the feet. If you are quite strong this may not be a problem, but
the average student will find it the most serious challenge to learning to do
the headstand in stages.
In stage three you extend the hips, lifting the knees toward the ceiling
while keeping them flexed. This is easy. As you extend the thighs the
weight of the feet and legs shifts to the rear, and the Iumbar region arches
forward enough to maintain your balance (fig. tt.6c).

Figure 8.6a.Stage one of the

headstand with the knees bent, a
more realistic starting position for
the average student. Keep walking
your toes forward until you are
almost ready to tip over. At this
p o i n t o n l y a s l i g h tn u d g e w o u l d
cause you to somersault onto
your back.

Figure8.6b.Stagetwo of the
headstand. Thisis a difficult
stageto remainin for any length
of time, becausethe weightof
your lower extremitieshasto be
supportedby your deep back
muscles.
 The fourth and last step is to extend the knees. As you do this, the lumbar
region will flatten as necessary to compensate for the fact that the feet and
legs are now in line with the torso and thighs. You will gradually shift your
weight off the forearms and balance on your head as you develop confi-
dence in the final posture (fig. 8.6d).
Summarizing the four stages,first come into the preparatory position and
walk forward until you are prepared to lift off without losing your balance;
second, lift the feet and extend the back enough to bring the thighs to a
45-()o"angle from the pelvis; third, extend the thighs while keeping the
knees flexed and notice how this produces a pronounced lumbar arch;
fourth, extend the legs while noticing that the lumbar arch decreases,and
balance as much of your weight on the head as feels secure.

Figure 8.6c. Stage three of the head-

stand with the hips extended is very
stable, and you can stay in it as easily Figure 8.6d. Stage four of the crown
as in the headstand itself. Notice, headstand with the knees extended is a
however, that the flexed knee balancing posture with only a little
position drops the feet to the rear, extra weight on the elbows. Shifting
and that keeping your balance will more weight to the forearms can
requirea more prominent lumbar be accomplished conveniently only by
lordosis than stage four. Wearing thrusting the pelvis forward and the
ankle weights or heavy shoes will feet to the rear,thus increasingthe
make this plain. lumbar curve.
 {OGA

Most hatha yoga teachers recommend coming up into the headstand in

stagesbecausethey know that by doing this students will master each step
in sequenceand maintain control throughout the process.But ifyou have
tried this for some time and are frustrated because you are not making
progress, there is an alternative. Walk the feet forward as much as you can,
and then simply Iift one foot into the air at a time, coming into stage three
with the hips extended and the knees flexed. From there it is easy to come
into the final posture.
Even if you come up into the headstand one foot at a time you can still
work on coming down in stages. Notice how your weight shifts when you
flex the knees for stage three. Next, as you flex the hips for stage two,
notice that your weight shifts forward as the knces come to the front and
that you have to place extra weight on the forearms or lose your balance.
At this point you may drop quickly to the floor. It takes a strong back to
stop coming down and kccp your balance when the thighs are flexed, but
as soon as you are able to go back and forth between stapges three and two,
and even more obviously between stagestwo and one, you will havc all thc
strength you need to come into the headstand using this four-part
sequence.These efforts are particularly important for the many beginners
who, without some preliminary coaching, will tend to come up tippy all thc
way, maintaining a shaky balance from beginning to cnd.
Finally, after you have had a year or two ol'cxperience with the head-
stand, try thc {bur stagesofthe posturc wearing heavy shoesor light ankle
wcights. This will show you clearly how shifting the pelvis and lower
extremities in stages two, three, and four afl'ectsyour balance.

THE BREGMA HEADSTAND

You come into the bregma headstand in the same four stagesyou used for
the crown headstand, but this version is easier for many students because
the head is more firmly supported. Plant your head on the bregma and cup
your interlocked fingers underneath the head rather than posterior to it.
From this position it is easy to thrust the upper back posteriorly as you
walk the feet forward into stage one. There will be little tendency to
somersault. And after you have learned the bregma headstand (fig. l.l.7t,
you may find it to be more stable than the crown headstand.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

We have already discussed why the headstand is contraindicated for those

who have elevated blood pressure. They usually become aware of discomfort
as soon as they place the top oftheir head against the floor in preparation for
stage one. And if the instructor has properly cautioned everyone against
doing any posture which causesunusual discomfort, there will not be any
 l,\,/) 153

question in the student's mind that they ought not complete even stage
one, much less continue beyond that.
Most teachers also suggestthat the headstand not be done during
menstruation. Chronic or acute neck pain, excessweight, and osteoporosis
are other obvious contraindications, as are glaucoma and other eye problems.
We'll discuss the headstand in relation to right-to-left musculoskeletal
imbalances later in this chapter.

THE STRUCTUREOF THE NECK

Many teachers favor the crown headstand, feeling that placing the weight
further forward creates hyperextension and strain in the neck. Others
claim that this is erroneous, that placing the weight Ibrward need not have
adverse effects on the neck at all. To explore the subtle differences between
the two postures,and to decidewhich is most suitablc for your own personal
practice, we must look more closelyat the structurc of the neck.
'lhc ncck is differcnt from the rest of the vertebral
column in several
ways: it permits extensive twisting as well as forward, backward, and side
bending; it contains only synovial joints betwccn the skull and Cz (figs. 4.1t,
:+.lo,4.l3a,and 7.t z);it ordinarily supports only thc head; and its vcrtcbral
bodies and intervertebral disks arc rclativelv small. These f'eatures misht

F i g u r e8 . 7 .T h e b r e g m a
headstand is characterized
b y h a v i n gt h e h a n d s a l i t t l e
more underneath the head
than for the crown head-
stand, and this rotates the
atlas (and with the atlas
the rest of the body) on
t h e c r a n i u mj u s t e n o u g h
to place the weight of the
body about an inch in
front of the crown at the
bregma, the intersection
point o{ the parietal and
coronal sutures.This
posture also pitches the
pelvis forward, and one
will have to arch the
lumbar region more than
in the case of the crown
headstand to remain
balanced.
454 ANATOMY OF HA',T'IlA YOGA

Iead an unbiased observer to caution against doing the headstand at all.

And yet, we know that the posture is perfectly safe for those who are
adequately prepared for it.
What is it, then, that allows the cervical spine of the well-prepared and
average healthy person to bear the weight of the inverted body? Our first
guess might be that the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks support
our weight by acting as a stack of building blocks. That point of view, from
classical anatomy as it was understood until the mid-twentieth century, is
now recognizedas incomplete. The modern view is that in a healthy person
without disk degeneration, it is the entire complex of vertebral bodies,
i n t e r v e r t e b r a l d i s k s , v e r t e b r a l a r c h e s ,i o i n t s , m u s c l e s ,a n d c o n n e c t i v e
tissue restraints that is responsible for bearing the weight of the body. In
that light, the relatively small size of the cervical vertebral bodies and
intervertebral disks does not seem so critical, especially since the vertebral
column as a whole in this region has considerable breadth (fig. 4.tt).
'fo become aware of the total width of the cervical vertebrae, locate the
lower rear corners of the mandible (the lower jaw) with your index fingers,
find the mastoid processesjust underneath the ears, and press deeply
enough to find a bony point on each side between the mastoid processand
the corner of the mandible. This is probably painful. The bony protuberance
is the tip of the transverse processof Ct (chapters 4 and Z), and that's how
wide the vertebral column is at that site. Watch yourself in a mirror as you
locate both of these points, and you'll see that Ct is almost as wide as the
neck (also refer to the drawing from the roentgenograms in fig. 4.U).
Moving inferiorly, the transverse processesof Cz and below do not extend
as far laterally as those for Ct, but it's still impressive to feel how wide the
'I'he architecture of the cervical spine is
vertebral column is in this region.
more than capable of safely supporting the headstand.
As far as hyperextending the neck is concerned,remember from chapter
7 that we can extend the head almost zo" by rotating the skull on the atlas
alone, and that we can do this without extending the spine between Ct and
Tt. In the bregma headstand, that zo" is more than enough to allow us to
balance without additional bending in the cervical region (fig. 8.7). Unless
someone is ignoring signals such as chronic pain and discomfort, worries
about the neck's ability to withstand the stress of the headstand are usually
misplaced.

THE CROWN VS. THE BREGMA HEADSTAND

The crown headstand is associatedwith a certain poise; the bregma head-

stand is associatedwith a certain zip. And the whole body seemsto respond
differently to the two postures. The natural response to the crown head-
stand is to hold the body straight, to keep the lower back flat, and to look
 8. THE HEADSIAND 155

straight ahead (fig. 8.6d). The sacroiliacjoints will be in a neutral position

between nutation and counternutation, or will be favoring counternutation.
In the bregma headstand it is more natural to permit the lower back to
relax and arch forward, allowing gravity to increase the lumbar lordosis
(fig. U.7)and to slip the sacroiliacjoints into maximum nutation. The head
and neck are slightly extended, and ifyou look straight ahead your eyes are
directed toward the floor at a point several inches away from the head. You
can also feel the extension of the head on the atlas that is so easily misin-
terpreted as extension ofthe neck between Cz and Tt.
The bregma headstand has a more dynamic effect on your consciousness
than the crown headstand. Its expression of energy seemsto be related to
the relaxed and arched lumbar region, which gives the bregma headstand
the character ofan inverted backbending posture. Ifyou compare it to the
crown headstand, which you can explore by moving your weight to the top
of the head and flattening the back, the difference is obvious-the crown
headstand is calm and poised; the bregma headstand is more dynamic.
Once you have learned both postures the bregma headstand is lcss tippy
than the crown headstand. This is mainly because the fingers are braced
under the back of the hcad and also becauseyou do not have to maintain
as much balance and tone in the postural muscles in the trunk to stay in
the posture. You simply relax and allow moderate backbending to take
place rather than keeping thc lower back {lattened with tension in the
abdominal muscles.But be watchful. If you already have excellent flexibility
for backbending, remaining passively in this posture for more than a
minute or two can create lower back discomfort. The test: If'you come out
ofthe bregma headstand and have an urgent appetite for forward bends, it
will probably be better for you to work mostly with the crown headstand.

THE UPPER EXTREMITIES

We know that the lower extremities form the foundation for standing postures:
numerous muscles and ligaments attach the pelvic bones reliably to the
sacrum and lumbar spine (figs. 3.4 and j.Z); the muscles of the hips, thighs,
and legs flex and extend the hip joints, knees, and ankles; and the feet
contact the earth. By contrast, the upper extremities are designed for
touching, embracing, and handling tools. They are not foundations for
any part of the body. Instead, it's the other way around: the torso is the
foundation for the upper extremities, starting with the shoulder girdle.

THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

T}eeshoulder girdle is formed from front to back by the sternum, the clavicles,
and the scapulae (figs. 4.3-4;. But unlike the peluic girdle, whose pubic
bones unite with one another at the pubic symphysis anteriorly and whose
J56 A\ATOMY OF IIATHA YOGA

ilia unite with the sacrum posteriorly, the shoulder girdle is incomplete.
The scapulae do not mate with or even come very close to one another
posteriorly, and they have only tenuous and indirect connections to the
sternum in the form of the small acromio-clauicular joints between each
scapula and clavicle, along with the small sterno-clauicularjoints between
each clavicle and the sternum (chapter ,+).Unlike the solid pelvic bowl and
its appendicular-axial articulations that hold a tight rein on, and yet permit
nutation and counternutation, the shoulder girdle is merely a framework.
Even so, it still acts as a foundation for the arms, forearms, and hands; and
for coming into the headstand that foundation must support the weight of
the body. How can it do this? The scapula is the key.

THE SCAPULAE

The connection between the scapula and the torso is almost cntirely muscular.
This means that when we turn upside down for the hcadstand and expect
the upper extremities to support that posture, we have to depend on muscular
strength and flexibility rather than on robust bones andjoints designed for
bearing the weight of the body. It is thus not surprising to find that inf'lex-
ibility, discomfort, and weakness in the shoulders, arms, and forearms
prevent many people from getting very far in the headstand.
Envision two flat, triangular scapulae (shoulderblades)Iloating on the
upper back. Each one providesa stable socket(figs. r.r3,.1.34, and lt.r4)for the
head of the humerus, a socket that is stabilized almost entirely through the
agency of five muscles on e:rch side of the body: the trapezius, the rhomboid
muscles, the leuator scapulae, the pectoro,lisminor, and the serrahts antarior.
'lhen envision flexor, extensor, abductor, adductor,
and rotator muscles taking
origin from the scapula and inserting on the humerus, much as comparable
musclestake origin from the pelvis and insert on the f'emur.There's one big
difference, however: while the pelvis is bound to the spine at the sacroiliac
.lointsand forms a relatively immovable sourcefrom which musclescan move
the thighs, the scapulaethemselvesparticipate in movements of'the arms.
Accordingly, its movements are critical fbr understanding all inverted and
semi-inverted postures that are partially supported by the upper extremities.
'lo see how the scapula is held in place on
the back of the chest wall,
we'll work from the inside out, starting with the deepest muscles, two on
the front side of the chest and three on the back. The serratus anterior
muscle takes origin from a broad area on the front of the chest (fig. lt.tt),
runs laterally around the rib cage (fig. ll.9), passesunderneath the scapula
to insert on its medial border (fig. 8.tz), and acts to abduct it, that is, to pull
it laterally. This action of the serratus anterior is crucial for many postures,
as in holding the scapula in place for completing the peacock (fig :.2:d),
where its serrated edge often becomessharply outlined, especially in body-
 B.'I-HE HEADSTAXID 1'7

builders. One more scapular supporting muscle, the pectoralis minor, also
takes origin from the front side of the chest, but this one inserts on the
acromion of the scapula (fig. 8 ' r r ), and from that position pulls it forward.
The rhomboids and the levator scapulae stabilize the scapulae posteriorly.
The rhomboid muscles adduct the scapula,pulling its medial border
toward the midline from its origin on the thoracic spine (fig. lt.lz), and the
levator scapulae elevates the scapula, as its name implies, pulling on its
upper border (fig. tt.rz) from an origin on the transverse processesof Cl-,1.
The most superficial muscle that supports the scapula is the trapezius,
so-namedbecausethe two trapezius muscles viewed together from the rear
form a trapezoid (fig. tt.ro). Each muscle is flat and triangular-shapcd,
takes origin medially lrom a line that runs from the skull ttl'I'tz, and
inserts on the clavicle and the spine of'the scapula, the hard bonv ridge you
can I'eelon your upper back (fig. tt.ro). Depending on which {ibers of the
muscle are active, the trapezius exerts traction to pull thc scapula up,
down, medially, or all three at thc same time.
'lhcse five muscles not only stabilize the scapula, making a dcpendablc
foundatir:ln for movements ol'the arms, thcy move the sczrpulaaround on
'Ihe scapula can bc moved laterallv (the serratus
the surfirce o{'the back.
anterior) and mcdially (the rhomboids); it can be elevated (thc levzrtor
scapulae)or depresscd(the klwer {ibcrs oI'the trapczius); and its pointed
Iowcr angle can be rotatcd out and upwtrrd (lhe trapezius and serratus
anterior) or in and downward (thc rhomboids,pectoralisminor, and lcvattlr
scapulae).All of'thesr: movements are crucial to inverted postures and to
the cxcrcises that prepare us fbr them.
To check lbr yoursclf'how the scapulaworks, ask someoncwho is slender,
Iightly rnusclcd,and flexiblc to stand with thcir arms hanging nlongsidc
their thighs. Then tracc the borders of bolh scapulaevisually and by fcel.
The medial borders for cach of these triangular bones are parallei to one
anclthcr,an inch or so to eithcr side of'the midlinc, and the lateral borders
angle up and laterally. The prominent bony landmark on top is Lhescapu.lar
,splze.Next, while feeling thc inf'erior angle of each scapula (its lowermost
tip), ask your subject to s)ow'ly)rtl bolh hancls overhead.Notice that as the
arms are lifted each scapula rotates on an axis that runs roughly through
the middle of'the scapular spine, and from that axis you can f'eel that the
inferior angle is carried in an arc out and up. This is called upward rotation.
If this movement is constrained it will be harder to do the headstand, not
to mention any other posture requiring an overhead stretch. Now ask your
subject to lower both arms, spread the tops of the shoulders, and at the
same time pull the inferior angles of the scapulaetoward the midline of the
body. This is the opposite movement-rotation of the inferior angle of the
scapula down and medially, or downward rotation.
 rOGA

Other movements are self-explanatory. Still feeling the scapulae, ask

your subject to do shoulder rotations. Watching carefully, notice that lifting
the shoulders elevates the scapulae, pulling the shoulders downward
depresses them, pulling the shoulders to the rear adducts them, and
pulling the shoulders forward abducts them.

THE PECTORALIS MAJOR AND LATISSIMUS DORSI

Although most of the muscles that act on the arm take origin from the
scapula and insert on the humerus, there are two major exceptions-the
pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsl-both of which bypass the
scapula on their way to insert on the humerus. The pectoralis major is
the largest muscle that takes origin from the front of the chest (figs.
8.t'tq). If you press your left hand against the side of your head with the
arm angled out to the side, brace your left elbow with your right hand,
and try to pull your left elbow forward and to the right, the pcctoralis
major tendon will tighten .just above the axilla as it passes laterally to
insert on the humerus. Its most powerful action is to pull the arm
Ibrward f'rom behind, as when you try to do a push-up with the hands
spread out laterally from the chest.
The latissimus dorsi takes a broad origin from the lower thoracic and
lumbar spine, the sacrum, and the crest o1'thc ilium (fig. t3.ro),and Irom
there it courses around the chest wall just lateral to the scapula (fig.
l'1.9),runs through the axilltr, and inserts on the front of the humcrus.
It's unique-the only muscle in the body that connects the lower and
upper extremities; its most powerful action is cxtension-pulling the
arm down from abovc as in swimming, or lifting the bodv in a chin-up
(chapter t).

SEVEN MUSCLES THAT ACT ON THE ARM

Seven muscles take origin lrom the scapula and insert on the humerus.
The middle segment of the deLtoid (figs. lt.tt-ro) and thc supraspinatus
(figs. r.r and l'l.tz)abduct the arm, lifting it to the side. The teres ntojor,
acting synergistically with the latissimus dorsi, extends the arm, pulling it
down and back (figs. t.t, tl.12and 8.r,+).The coracobrachialis,acting syner-
gistically with the pectoralis major, is a flexor and acts to pull the arm
forward (figs. tt.tt and tt.r3)."Iheinfrctspinatusandteres minor (figs. t.r and
ti.tz) pass to the rear of the head of the humerus and serve lateral rotation,
and the subscapularls(figs. r.r,3,2.8,8.tt, and u.t-l)passesfrom the under-
neath side ofthe scapula to the front ofthe head ofthe humerus. There the
subscapularis serves as an agonist for accomplishing medial rotation of the
arm (which also happens to be another powerful action of the latissimus
dorsi that can be sensed-along with extension-in a swimming stroke).
 A. THE HL:ADSTAND +59

pectoralismajor

bicepsbrachii

pronator
IETCS

iliotibial
tract
threeof the four
headsof the
sartorius quadricepsfemoris:
vastus lateralis,
rectusfemoris,and
quadricepsfemoristendon
vastusmedialis

patella

p a t e l l a rt e n d o n

FigureB.B.
Superficial
musclesof
the body
(anterior
view; Heck)
160 A\ATOtrv Ot' HA'.tHA YOG,4

orceps
deltoid brachii

latissimus
dorsi

rectusfemoris

F i g u r e8 . 9 .
Superficial
m u s c l e so f
the body
( s i d ev i e w :
Heck) gaslrocnemrus
 8. THE HLID,STAND -161

rightand left
trapezrus spineof scaPula

tnceps
brachii

gluteusmedius

gluteusmaxtmus

hamstrings:
bicepsfemoris,
semitendinosus,
semimembranosus

gastrocnemtus

F i g u r e8 . 1 0 .
Superficial Achillestendon
m u s c l e so f
the body
(posterior
view; Heck)
462 ANATOMY OF HAnrA yOGA

sternocleido mastoid

coracobrachialis
pectoralisminor subscapularis
bicepsbrachii

serratusanterior

rectus
abdominis

internal
abdominal
oblique

quadricepsfemoris:
vastusmedialis,
vastusintermedius,
vastuslateralis, and
distalsegmentof
rectusfemoris
(most of the latteris
cut away to reveal
vastusintermedius)

F i g u r e8 . 1 1 .
Intermediate
layerof muscles
(anteriorview;
Heck)
 A. THE HLADSTAND 463

spleniuscapitis
levatorscapulae

suprasprnarus
rhomboids

teresminor infraspinatus

tricepsbrachii
teres major

serratusantenor

gluteus
maximus
(femoral
piriformis insertion)
supenor
gemmelus iliotibial
tract
obturator
internus

inferior bicepsfemoris:
gemmerus shorthead,and
long head (cut)

hamstrings: semitendinosus is
semtmemoranosus. cut away on right
bicepsfemoris, sideto revealfull
semitendinosus widthand lengthof
semimembranosus

gastrocnemlus
(cut away; distal
stumpsshown)

Achillestendon
F i g u r e8 . 1 2 .
Intermediatelayero{
muscles(posterior
view; Heck)
 {61 A.\,,tAl().r4t or ilA tHA t o(,A

subscapularis,
stabilizeshead
o f h u m e r u si n
glenoidcavity bicepsbrachii:
shorthead (cut),
and long head
bones of forearm coracobrach
ialis
pronated:
radius,and ulna bellyof
bicepsbrachii

transversus
abdominis

rectus
sheath
(empty)

promontory
greater of sacrum
trochanter

adductors

F i g u r e8 . . 1 3 .
Deep muscles
of the body
(anteriorview;
Heck)
 6. THE HEADSTA.\-D +65

spineof scapula

headol humerus

inferiorangle
of scapula

reresmalor
semispinalis

erector
spinae
quadratus
tumoorum
transversus
abdominis
grearer
trochanter

F i g u r e8 . 1 4 .
D e e pm u s c l e s
of the body
(posteriorview;
Heck)
.+66 ANA',IOMY OI: IIAI',IlA t

Four of these seven muscles-the teres minor, the supraspinatus, the

infraspinatus (figs. t.t, 1.1i,and 8.tz), and the subscapularis(figs. 1.t3,z.tl,
and 8.rj)-form the well-known and importantrotator cuff,which stabilizes
the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity (figs. t.r3 and 8.1:). Without
these, the action of other powerful muscles such as the pectoralis major and
latissimus dorsi would quickly dislocate the shoulder. The rotator cuff
muscles,in addition to acting from the scapula to the humerus, can also act
in the opposite direction-from the arm to the scapula-assisting the
trapezius, rhomboids, Ievator scapulae, pectoralis minor, and serratus
anterior in stabilizing the scapula from one of the many fixed arm positions
in the headstand and other inverted postures.

THE FOREARM WRIST AND HAND

The muscles that act throughout the rest of the upper extremitl' are easy
to envision. The biccps brachii originates from the front of the arm and
inscrts on the forearm (figs. t.t, li.tl-9, tl.tt, and tt.t3);its action is to flex the
elbow concentrically, or resist its extension eccentrically. It is this muscle
that powerfully resists extension of the forearm as you come foru'alcl into
'lhe triceps brachii ori6Jinatesfron'r the
the peacock posturc (lig. j.z3d).
back of the arm and inserts on the olecranon (figs. t.r. li.g-to. ar-rd3.1:);
it acts to extend thc elbow and resist its flexion. In the head,standit lirnits
fbrezrrmflcxion, and in the scorpionit contracts isometricalh-.keeping thc
elbows {rom collapsing (fig. lJ.-lr).Othcr muscles in thc'forearnt supinate
(fig. tt.r.])and pronatc (fig. u.l3)the forcarm. Movement'sof the urists,
hands, and fingers are accomplishedby flexors on the antet'iot'side of'the
forearm and hand (fig. tt.rr),and by cxtensorson the poste.riolsicleof the
forearm and hand (fig. tt.to). The {lexors are activated anl tinte.r'ottrnake
a fist or plant your hands on the floor for posturessuch as the dorvn-fhcing
d o g ( f i g s . 6 . t 7a n d l l . z ( r ) t, h e u p w a r d - f a c i n g d o g( f i g s .t . l . l l + r . o l t h e p l a n k
p o s t u r e( f i g . 6 . t 6 ) .

THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ARM

The movements of the arms at the shoulder joint are more contplicated
than the movements of the thigh at the hip joint because the lange of
possible movements is greater, and also because the sepalatior.rof the
shoulders by the width of the rib cage allows the arn.rs to be pulled
across the chest in a manner that has no counterpart in the lower
extremities.
In their simplest form flexion and extension of the arms are movements
in a sagittal (front-to-back) plane ofthe body, abduction and adduction are
movements of the arms in a frontal (side-to-side) plane of the body, and
medial and lateral rotation of the arms are movements of a-xial rotation.
 I]. THE HEADSTA'\iD 167

These can all be superimposed onto one another: you can flex, adduct, and
rotate the arm all at the same time. And because the scapulae are also
involved, the movements can best be understood by checking out the
accompanying shifts of the scapulaeon a partner.

FLEXION AND EXTENSION

First consideringflexion, if you start from the anatomical position (fig 4.2)
with the hands alongside the thighs and then lift your arms up and for-
ward until they are straight out in front of you, you will be flexing them
9o" (fig. ll.t(r),and you can continue this movement (flexion) up through an
arc of tflo" overhead, stopping anywhere along the way. Next considering
extension, if you pull the arms straight to the rear from the anatomical
position, you will be extending them. This movemcnt does not occur in
isolation, however; it also requires adduction of the scapulae(pulling them
toward one another medially). Most people can extend their arms in a
sagittal plane about 45" to the rear from a ncutral position alongside thc
chest (fig. tt.t5;figurc also shows:rdductionsuperimposcdon extension).

ABDUCTION AND ADDUCTION

l-or abduction, first envision a frontal plane running through thc cars,
shoulders, chest, and lower extremitics. Moving the arms from the
anatomical position within such a plane, they will have bccn abducted 9o"
if you lift them straight out to thc sidcs (fig. li.r7). Then if'you continue
to lift them until they are straight ovcrhead, they will have been abducted
tllo", in the strme final position, incidentally, as whcn they are in rlio" o{'
flexion. The tfio" o1'abduction and/or flexion, strictly speaking, always
i n c l u d e s ( r o ' o f u p w a r d r o t : r t i o n o f t h e s c a p u l a ,w h i c h w e c o n s i d c r c d
earlier.
Depending on your starting position, adduction is morc complicated
than flexion or extension. In the simplest situation, if you start with the
arms straight out to the sides and then drop them down to a neutral
position alongside the chest, you will be adducting them 9o". And if you
start from tlJoooverhead, as in the final position for the tree (chapter 4),
adduction will first swing the arms away from overhead to the spread-
eagled 9o" position (straight out to the sides) before coming back to the
fully adducted position alongside the chest.
Adduction can also be superimposed on other movements. You can start
with the arms flexed forward 9o" (straight out in front) and then adduct
them across the chest past one another, bringing the elbows together (fig.
u.tu). You can also start with the arms abducted 9o'and then adduct them,
not only straight back down into the anatomical position, just described,
but toward one another behind your back, at least minimally (fig. 8.r9).
.+68 Ai\ATOitrY Ot IIA THA Y()GA

F i g u r e8 . 1 6 .
Armsflexed
90".

F i g u r e8 . 1 5 .
Arms
extended
4 5 oa n d
then
adducted.

-& .-!p;rf

F i g u r e8 . 1 7 .
Arms abducted
90".
 a. THE HEADST|ND ,+69

Adduction of the arms to the front from a flexed position aiso rounds the
shoulders, which includes abduction of the scapulae (fig. tl.r8); adduction
of the arms to the rear from an abducted (fig. lt.r9) or extended (fig. ti.r;t
position includes pulling the shoulders to the rear, which in turn includes
adduction of the scapulae.

CIRCUMDUCTION

You can combine flexion and extension of the arm with abduction and
adduction to yield the sequential movement called circumduction (see
chapter (r for circumduction of the thigh). For circumduction of the
arm, flex it forward 9o" while adducting it toward the midline, lift it
overhead rito", pull it around to the rear in an extended and adducted
position, and then return it to a neutral position alongside the chest.
Feel how circumduction of the arm affects the scapula: in the above
sequence,circumduction ofthe arm first abducts the scapula as a result
o f f l e x i n g t h e a r m { ' o r w a r d z r n dp u l l i n p Ji t a c r o s s t h e c h e s t , t h e n i t
elevates the scapula by lilling the arm overhead, :rdducts the scapula by
pulling the arm to the rear, and depressesthe scapula by bringing the
arm back alongside the chest.

--w
,."-.,-xK,*.

F i g u r e8 . 1 9 .
Arms first
F i g u r e8 . 1 8 . abducted
Armsflexed90', 90" (as in
then adducted. fig.8.17),
then
adducted
by pulling
to the rear.
17O ANATOIIY O]"HAI-HA )

MEDIAL AND LATERAL ROTATION

Medial and lateral rotation of the arms in the shoulder joint is comparable
to medial and lateral rotation of the thighs; they are movements of axial
rotation around an imaginary line through the center of the humerus. If
you stand in the anatomical position with the elbows extended and rotate
the arms so that the palms face to the sides as much as possible, you will
be rotating the arms laterally about 3o'. Medial rotation of 6o' is also
possible but harder to isolate because it is easily confused with pronation
of the forearms.
Medial and lateral rotation of the arms can be carried out in any
position in combination with flexion, extension, abduction, or adduction.
Rlr example, let's say you abduct the arms 9o' straight out to the side.
Next, to avoid confusing arm rotation with supination and pronation of the
forearms, flex the elbows 9o", pointing your hands straight to the front.
Now swing the hands down through an arc of 3o": this motion hzrsjust
medially rotated the arms that amount. Or, swing the hands up, with the
{ingers pointed toward thc ceiling (the "get your hands up" gesture in a
grade B Western). This motion has just laterally rotated the arms 9o'.
Notice that the scerpulaeparticipate cxtcnsively in all oI'these movements.

COMING INTO THE HEADSTAND

Now we can describe the movements of the upper extremities as we come

'l'he forearms remain flexed throughout, but the position
into thc hcadstand.
of the arms varies: they erreflexed about 9o" in thc starting position, about
r(r5"in stageone (fig. ll.(ra),and about t-15-t5o" two, three, and {bur
in stzrges
(figs. lt.6b-d). These figures reflect the nccd to balancc thc weight of thc
lowcr extremities by ad.justing thc angle of the torso to the floor. At one
extrcme (stage one) the torso is pitched backward maximally, and at the
other extreme (stage three) the position of the fect hanging to the rear
requires the torso to bc pitched slightly lbrward. When you are balanced in
a straight line from head to toe in stagc four and the arms are no longer
supporting much weight, they are flexed about t5o'.
As expected, flexion of the arms in the headstand is accompanied by
shifts in the positions of the scapulae. If someone both watches and feels
your back as you walk your feet forward toward stage one ofthe headstand
(that is, as your arms go from 9o' of flexion to t(r5" of flexion), they will
notice that the scapulaebecome abducted, depressed,and rotated upward.
Then, as you initiate the effort to move from stage one toward stage two,
they will notice a gathering of strength in all the muscles that attach to the
scapulaein the form of a rippling effect that accompaniesthe act of lifting
the lower extremities off the floor toward stage two. Most of the weight of
the body is now being supported by the scapulae and their surrounding
 A, THL Ift)ADSTAND 47I

muscles. The effort subsides slightly in stage two but does not diminish
markedly until stage three. Finally, in stage four you are balancing with the
least effort. Ifyou are an experiencedstudent, only slight adjustments and
moderate isometric tension in the muscles are neededto maintain the final
posture. Ifyou start to tip backward, the tension eases,and ifyou start to
tip forward, placing more weight on the forearms, more isometric tension
develops.
Beginning students should be watched carefully as they are learning the
headstand becausethey tend to allow the scapulaeto become elevated and
adducted rather than depressedand abducted. And they often have trouble
achieving enough upward rotation of the scapulae, which is essential for
the abducted arm position in the headstand. Any of these errors or
deficiencies produce an unattractive, inelegant posture. Instructors make
corrections by saying "support the posture with conscious tension in thc
shoulders," or "lift the body :rway from the floor with the shouldcrs." But
o n c e t h e s c a p u l a ea r e s t a b i l i z e d i n t h e i r f i n a l p o s i t i o n , t h e i s o m e t r i c
tension can bc eased.

STRUCTURAL IMBALANCES

When yoga instructors talk about structural misalig'nments of the body,

they usually mean side-to-side imbalances distortions of our bilateral
symmetry. And fbr this reason they often suggestthat studcnts either practice
in fiont of a rnirror to search out rightJef't discrepancies,or feel expcrientially
if they can bend or twist to one side more easily than the other. Only when
teachers makc such comments as, "Squarc your shoulders, stand up
straight, pull your head more to the rear, tuck the pelvis, or don't tuck the
pelvis," are they rel'erring to front-to-back imbalances.You can't see those
yourself except with a set of'mirrors arranged to allow you to watch your
posture from the side. Until now almost all of rlur focus has been on side-
to-side imbalances, but we must be concerned with both possibilities when
we cclnsiderthe headstand.

SIDE-TO-SIDEIMBALANCES

The headstand is a balancing pose,and as such, it is not designedto correct

side-to-side imbalances. That is best accomplished by postures in which
you use a whole-body muscular effort. Watch yourself in a mirror while you
are doing the headstand. Ifyour head is at an angle, ifone hand is covering
your ear on one side, or if you see plainly that your body is tilting to one
side, you have side-to-side imbalances and should forget about the head-
stand until these have been corrected by other postures. The headstand
will only make them worse, and a close look at the muscles of the neck will
make the reason for this plain.
THE SUBOCCIPITAL MUSCLES

Working from the inside out, the deepestmuscles of the neck and shoulders
are four pairs of suboccipital muscles (fig. lt.zo): the rectus capitis posterior
major runs from the spinous processof the axis (Cz) somewhat laterally up
to the skull; the obliquus capitis superior runs from the skull to the
transverse process of the atlas (Cr); the obliquus capitis inferior, which
completes the suboccipito,ltriangle, runs from the transverse processof Cr
to the spinus process of Cz; and the recttts capitis posterior min,or runs
straight up from the spinous processof the axis to the skull.
These muscles are responsiblefor the small movements at the top of
the neck which we explored in chapter 7. For example,tipping the head to
the right 5', rotating to the right another 5', and then extcnding the head
back 5" are all accomplishcdbetween the cranium and Cz by concentric
shortening of thc suboccipitalmuscles on the right side and by eccentric

rightrectuscapitrsposteriorminor
rightrectuscapitisposteriormajor
flgnr
crantum obliquus
capitis
superior

transverse
processof
a t l a s( C 1 )
posteriortip of atlas(C1)
ilgnr
spinousprocessof axis (C2) obliquus
third cervicalvertebra(C3) inferior

Figure 8.20.A deep dissection of the back of the upper cervical region showing,
t h e s u b o c c i p i t a lm u s c l e s T . h e t r a p e z i u sa n d l a r g e s t r a p m u s c l e so f t h e n e c k
have all been removed. Starting with an awarenessof the movements possible
at the joints between the cranium and the atlas, and between the atlas and the
axis (chapter 7), the actions of the suboccipital muscles can be inferred by their
anatomical arrangements.For example, the two rectus capitis pclsterior major
m u s c l e sa c t i n g i n u n i t y w i t h t h e t w o o b l i q u u s c a p i t i ss u p e r i o r m u s c l e sc a n o n l y
rotate the cranium backward on the atlas.Another example is that the right
o b l i q u u s c a p i t i si n f e r i o r a c t i n g a l o n e ( b u t p r o b a b l y r e s i s t e db y t h e l e f t o b l i q u u s
capitis inferior) can only rotate the atlas (and with the atlas the entire head) on
the axis to the right, making use of the dens as a pivot joint. A last and more
complex example is that the right rectus capitis posterior major acting across
two joints between the cranium and the spinous process of the axis will
combine two actions: it will rotate the head to the right (which is a result of the
atlas and therefore the head as a whole rotating around the axis),and at the
same time it will lift the chin and drop the back-of the head to the rear (which
is a result of the cranium as a whole rotating on the atlas).(from Sappey).
 I].'I'I]I': NP:ADSTANI) 173

lengthening of those on the left. In the headstand these muscles all

become isometrically active as extensile ligaments, and if you come into
the headstand with the head always tipped off axis in the same direction,
even a little, the suboccipital muscles will dutifully hold you in that position
and accentuate the imbalance.

THE STRAP MUSCLES OF THE NECK

Superficial to the suboccipital muscles are the larger strap muscles of the
neck (figs. .1.t4and 5.5).Three of the big ones are the semispinaliscopitis
tfig. 5.5),which runs from the transvetse processesof C7-T6 straight up to
the skull, the splenitts capitis (lig. 5.t;, which runs from the spinous
processesof C7 '16 to the merstoid process (the bony protuberance .just
below the earlobe), and the sterno<:leidonmstoi,d ntttscle (fig. lt.rt), which
runs liom the sternum and clavicle up to the masttlid process.The first two
of these are visible posteriorly, and the last is visible anteriorly.
fhe strap muscles of'the neck also act as extensilc ligaments in the
headstand and react like the suboccipital muscles to harden right-leI1
imbalances and merke thcm even more dccply ingrained. One way to
know if this is hzrppeningis if'you fecl sorenesstlr tension more on one
sidc than the other after you come tlut of thc posture. Balanced, thc
paired muscles act equally filr rnuintaining the pose, and i{'they get sore
'I'hc paired sternocleidomastoid
they get equally sore on both sides.
muscles,fbr example, act together in nn upright posture to pull the hezrd
'fhese muscles resist extension in lhe bregma headstandand get
forward.
stronger if you practice that posture regularly. But if'they get imbalanced,
unilateral stressbecomeserpparent,and the he:rdstandwill only make the
situation worse.

FBONT-TO.BACKIMBALANCES

Front-to-back imbalances arc another matter, and making a conscious

choice to correct them with one or other oi'the two headstands makes a
lot of sense. If the back is relatively flat, with a lumbar lordosis that
barely arches forward in the upright posture, you can gradually correct
this by relaxing in the bregma headstand every day as a part of a
balanced practice. Over time the lumbar region will gradually increase
its arch. The opposite problem is swayback, in which the lower back is
overly arched to begin with, and under those circumstances the bregma
headstand is contraindicated and the crown headstand will be more
useful.
471 ANATOIT\'OF HAT'UA YOGA

BREATHING ISSUES
For those who can do it easily, the headstand is the best possible training
posture for abdominal (abdomino-diaphragmatic) and diaphragmatic
(thoraco-diaphragmatic) breathing (chapter z). It invokes the most
complete use of the diaphragm of any posture, and it does so automatically
becausethe headstand both encouraqesabdominal breathine and restricts
chest breathing.

THORACIC AND PARADOXICALBREATHING

We saw in chapter z that the first requirement for learning abdominal

and diaphragmatic breathing is to discard the habits of chronic chest and
paradoxical breathing, and the headstand makes this possible.Ifyou are
familiar with the four methods of breathing in upright postures, and if
you practice the headstzrndregularly, comc up in thc posture and try to
breathe thoracically and then paradoxically.It's not so easy,bccausethe
rib cagc is held in placc by isometric contraction of muscles throughout
the torso. Evcn the intercostal muscles participate in stabilizing the
headstand isomctrically, and it is difiicult for them to do that and at the
samc time mobilizc the rib cagc for chest breathing. What is morc, four
of the five muscles that hold the scapulzrin place (excepting only the
levator scapulzre)havc their origins on the chest and tcnd to hold it in a
fixed position. And finally, the pectoralis ma.jor stabilizcs the chest
f r o m t h c f r o n t , a n d t h c l a t i s s i m u s d o r s i e n v c l o p si t { r o m b e h i n d . T a k e n
t o g c t h e r , t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s b i n d t h e r i b c z r g es o f i r m l y t h a t l i f t i n g
it toward thc floor I'or chest and paradoxical breathins would be
unthinkable.

ABDOMINAL AND DIAPHRAGMATICBREATHING

If'the headstand prevents thoracic and paradoxical breathing, it necessi-

tates abdominal and diaphragmatic breathing by delault. Abdominal
breathing should be the initial choice for novices. At the end of exhalation
the abdominal organs are pushed superiorly (toward the floor) by the
force of gravity, and this lengthens the muscle fibers of' the
diaphragm nearly to their working maximum. This means that the
inhalations that follow will be deep and satisfying. 'the diaphragm
will not only be drawing air into the lungs, it will be pressing the
abdominal organs to a more inferior position in the trunk (toward the
ceiling) from fixed origins on the base of the rib cage and the lumbar
lordosis. And even though it is working against the force of gravity,
this is the easiest way you can inhale. It's also extra exercise, it
strengthens the diaphragm, and it creates the purest form of abdomino-
diaphragmatic breathing.
 8, I'HE HLADSTAND 17'

What about diaphragmatic (thoraco-diaphragmatic) breathing in the

headstand?This happens ifyou take deep inhalations: ifyou take as few as
three breaths per minute, which is easy in the headstand as well as rewarding
for anyone who has good respiratory health, you will feel the diaphragm
flare the base of the chest during the last half or third of inhalation, which
is the defining characteristic of diaphragmatic breathing (chapter z). This
is feasible becausethe muscles that suppressexpansion ofthe rib cagefrom
above in thoracic and paradoxical breathing do not provide nearly as many
restrictions to its expansion from below.
When you exhale in inverted postures, the muscle fibers of the
diaphraggndon't just relax and allow its dome to move passively as usually
happens when you exhale in upright postures (chapter z). Upside down, the
diaphragm stays in a state of eccentric contraction throughout exhalation
to restrain the abdominal organs from a free fall toward the head.
Yru can seethis for yourself if you come into the headstand (or sh<-rulder-
stand) and observeyour cyclc oI'breathing. Just fbcus on breathing evenly
and naturally. Then nt thc end of a normal inhalation, relax suddcnly.What
you noticc on your own will also be apparent if you ask a room full of'
students to try the same experiment. You, and most of them, will exhale
with a suddcn whooshing sound as the diaphragm relaxes, the organs drop
toward the floor, and the lungs dcflale. This does not happen in normal
upside-down exhalations becausethe morc fundamental impulse in the
headstand, at lcast in a yoga practice, is to restrain exhalation.

THE FUNCTIONAL BESIDUAL CAPACITY

Becausethe muscle fibers of the diaphragm are lenE$henedto their working

maximum during zrn inverted exhalation, the functional residual cap:rcity
of the lungs (chapter z) will be substantially reduced. You can test this if'
you first sit upright and breathe in and out the tidal volume associated
with normal relaxed breathing. Then, at thc end of'exhalation breathe
out as much as you can (your expiratory reservevolumc). In chapter z we
estimated this to be around about t,ooo ml, or about two pints.
To continue the experiment, come into the headstand (or shoulderstand)
and breathe normally for a minute or so to establish equilibrium. Then, at
the end of a normal exhalation try breathing out as much as you can. You
will see instantly that you cannot breathe out nearly as much as you could
in the upright position. Your tidal inhalations and exhalations have shifted
much closer to your residual volume, closer even than we saw in the corpse
posture (chapter z). Let's say for illustration that your tidal volume when
you are upside down is a standard 5oo ml, and that your expiratory reserve
volume decreasesto zoo ml (instead of t,ooo ml in an upright posture and
5oo ml in the corpse posture). Your resulting functional residual capacity
 '176 ANAT'OIIY OI; HATHA YOGA

will be r,4oo ml instead of the 2,ooo ml in an upright posture and the

t,7oo ml in the corpse posture (fig. 8.zr). What all this means is that a
constant alveolar ventilation of q,zoo ml/minute will be more efficient in
transferring oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood in the
headstand than in an upright posture or in the corpseposture. Inverted,
you will either transfer gases more efficiently, thus increasing blood
oxygen and decreasing blood carbon dioxide, or you will slow down the
rate and or the depth of your breathing to keep your blood gaseswithin
a normal range (fig. [t.zt).
The richness associatedwith how one tends to breathe in the headstand
probably accounts at least partially for why the posture is praised so
fulsomely by experienced teachers in the literature of hzrtha yoga. In the
headstand the diaphragm is in :r state ofcontraction during both inhalation
and cxhalation; it acts from a mildly stretched position at the end of'dcep
exhalations; it operatcs as a piston smoothly and indcpendcntly wilhin the
chest wall; and it is exercised more than usual bccause it has to push thc
abdominal organs toward thc ceiling in addition to drawing air into the
Iungs. Ilven students with thc worst brezrthing habits in upright postures
will have to use their diaphragm frrr respiration in thc headstand.

6000
ml tidalvolume500 m tidalvolume500 m tidalvolume650 ml t i d a vl o l u m e1 1 5 0m l
functionalresidual functionalresidual functionalresidual functionalresidual
capacity22OOml capacity1400ml capacity.1400ml capacity1400ml
s000
ml
alveolarventrlationa l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n alveolarventilation a l v e o l a r v e n t i l a t i o n
- 4200 ml/min 4200 ml/min 3000 ml/min 3000 ml/min
-E 4 0 0 0
9ml blood oxygen and blood oxygenup;
c) blood oxygenand blood oxygenand
= carbon dioxide carbondioxide carbondioxide carbondioxide
tr normal down normal normal
: 3ooo
'- ml
a

E
f
o

\A/W
VVW VV
-ml
o
p

10 0 0
ml
sitting posture at headstand at headstand at headstandat
12 breaths/min: 12 breathsimin 6 breaths/min 3 breaths/min
0ml
normal breathing

40 50 70 80
time in seconds(sec)

Figure 8.21. Sim.ulatedventilation, sitting upright (far left in above figure, and
repeated from first panel in Iig.2JQ, and three possible modes of bleathing
in the headstand.
 8. THE HI':ADSTAND 17i-

DEVELOPING STRENGTH AND FLEXIBILITY

Many people practice and even teach hatha yoga for years without being
able to do the headstand themselves.women generally face two challenges:
less upper body strength than men and a greater proportion of their
weight in their hips and thighs. To manage and balance this weight they
will have to develop more strength in their upper extremities, back, and
abdomen. For men the commonest challenge is poor hip flexibility, which
makes it difficutt to lift up into the posture in stages. So men can try to
develop more hip flexibility, and both men and women can offset their
respective limitations with more strength in the shoulders and torso.

HIP FLEXIBILITY

We can analyze the problem o{'hip flexibility by looking at two extremes'

first at how difficult it would be to come up in the hcadstand if'you had no
hip flexibility at all. If'the thighs and pelvis were in a cast that held them
in the same plane so that ytlu could flex only the spine, knces, and ankles,
the only way you could get up in a headstzrndwould bc to placc your head
on the floor:,bend as much as possiblc in the vcrtebral column, and' with a
stupendous effort f'rom your ankle and knee extensors, throw yourself up
into the air. With enough practice-probably after thumping over ontcr
your back sevcral hundrcd timcs-you might be able ttl do it.
To envision the other extreme, think how easy it would be to come into
the headstand if'you had ruo" of hip flexibility with the knecs extended, and
if the lenglh of your combined torso, head, and neck were exactly equal to
the lengths of your thighs, legs, and {'eet.You could plant your hezrdon the
floor and walk yourself into a folded head-f'ootstand with your toes 0n the
'l'hen you would Only have to tiptoe enough further
floor near the forehead.
l o r w a l d t o b a l a n c eo n y o u r h c a d i r n d c o m e u p i n t o s t a g c s1 w o .t h r e e . a n d
four of the headstand-all with minimal abdominal and back strength, and
with minimal help from the upper extremities.
Between the two extremes your work is cut out for you. Any posture
that develops strength in the abdomen, back, and upper extremities,
and any posture that improves hip flexibility will bring you closer to a
successful headstand. Dozens of postures are helpful, some for
strength, some for flexibility. Backbending and prone boats, forward
bending and sitting boats, standing twists and bends, standing triangles
and lunges, leglifting, hip-opening exercises, and sitting spinal twists
are all helpful. The peacock and wheel will do wonders. Certain shoulder-
stand variations (chapter 9) wiil also be helpful, such as corning
slowly into and out of the bridge from the shoulderstand, and coming
slowly into and out of the plow.
 '17U ANATO],IYOF HA'I'IIA ''OGA

SELECTED STANDING POSTURES

If you have come to an impasse as far as progress toward the headstand is

concerned, a good place to begin is with two of the arm positions in the
series of standing twists and bends outlined in chapter 7 (figs. 7.t7-tg).
Both the position with the forearms interlocked behind the head (fig. 7.rltb)
and the cow-facehand position (fig. 7.rlle) are excellent exercisesfor devel-
oping mobility of the shoulders and arms and for preparing you to place
them confidently when you negotiate the four stages of the headstand.
These postures, as well as the rest of that series,also develop much needed
hip flexibility, as well as back and abdominal strength.
For right-left balance,repeat both arm positions alternating the way the
right and left upper extremities are placed. This is obviously crucial for the
cow-faceposition. If you can't reach far enough to interlock the fingers in
that posture, hang a washcloth or hand towel from the hand reaching down
from above,and grab it from below with the other hand. Last, ifthe exercise
is easier on one sidc than the other, do it repeatedly as a three-part series-
difficult side, easy side, and difficult sidc again. Don't be obsessedor impa-
tient, however, becauseif you traumatizc the elbow.ioint on the tight side
with repctitive stress,it could set you bzrckfor a ycar or more.

THE CROW

Now we turn to a seriesof postures that build strcngth in thc upper cxremi-
ties, starting with the crow a moderately inverted balancing posture. start
with the hands on the flo<lr about eight inches apart, the wrists extended
9o', and the elbows locked. Most of the weight of the body is on the balls of

a. b.
Figure 8.22. Crow posture (b) and starting position for the crow (a).The crow is
a moderately inverted balancing posture that will develop strength in the upper
extremities, get you accustomed to inversion of the torso, and give you
confidence to begin work with the headstand.
 L TIIE HEADS',|AND 179

the feet; the ankles, knees, and hips are all flexed; and the thighs are mod-
erately abducted with the lateral sides of the elbows against the medial sides
of the knees (fig. S.zza).To come into the posture, lift the hips, bend the
elbows, and take your weight forward. As you do that the knees will remain
flexed, the feet will be lifted off the floor, and you will end up balancing in a
plane that passesthrough the hands, the mid-section of the arms, and the
upper parts of the legs just below the knees (frg. tt.zz.b).
Like the headstand, the crow requires courage, flexibility, and
strength-courage to risk falling on your nose, enough hip flexibility to
bring the thighs alongside the chest, and enough upper body strength to
support yourself entirely with the upper extremities. To do it you have to
have good strength in the triceps brachii, the five muscles that stabilize the
scapula, the seven muscles that stabilize the posture between the arms and
the scapula, and the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi. As with thc
headstand, the chest is immt-rbilized so much that you can only breathe
abdominally.

THE STICK POSTURESAND THE TWO-HANDED COBRA

It is plain that good hip flexibility and uppcr body strength are necded for
the hcadstand, but this posture also requires all-around strcngth in the
torso. More speci{ically, going f'rom stagc one to stage two, as well as
remaining in stage two for morc than a moment, requires superb back
strenp$h. But back strength in isolation is not enough. To kecp excess
tcnsion off the intcrvertebral disks we have to merintain intra-abdominal
pressure, and this means that back strength must always be matched by
strength in the abdominal muscles and in the rcspiratory and pelvic
diaphragms-if it ever happens that you have a sore abdominal wall, you
will find that you have littlc zest for thc headstand. Numerous posturcs
and exercisesfor developing abdominopelvic strength were outlined in thc
first half of chapter 3, but here are three more: the stick pose, the two-
handed cobra, and the celibate's pose.

Figure 8.23.The stick pose is an

isomelric whole-body exercise
without movement, with special
emphasison the upper and lower
extremities,sacroiliacnutation, 90"
of hip flexibility,and scapulaethat
are adducted and depressed.lf
your arms are not long enough for
the heels of your hands to reach
the floor even with the scapulae
depressed,you can use a thin block
under your hands for a prop.
.+60 ANATO\IIY OF HATHA t7)GA

To do the stick pose (fig. 8.23),sit on the floor with the thighs flexed 9o",
the knees, ankles, and toes extended, and the feet together. Place the hands
alongside the hips with the wrists extended 9o" and the elbows locked. Pull
the shoulders to the rear by adducting and depressing the scapulae, thus
pressing the heels of the hands against the floor. Arch the lumbar region
forward, establish your limits of nutation for the sacroiliacjoints, and lift
and thrust the chest forward as much as possible, immobilizing it in that
position with all the muscles of the upper extremity. This is another pose
in which you can only breathe abdominally, but even that is a challenge
becausenow the abdominal wall is taut. The stick pose seems simple, but
settling into it properly requires isometric contraction of most of the muscles
of the upper extremity, a full 9o" of hip flexibility, and intense concentration-
all skills that are helpful for the headstand.
The two-handedcobra is a natural extensionof the stick posture in that
it rcquires even more strength in the abdomen as well as excellent hip
flexibility and long hamstrings. The simplcst starting position is to squat
with the feet about eightccn inches apart, placing the palms on the Iloor
bctween the thighs and as far to the rear as possible(fig. tt.z4a).Keeping
the elbows extcnded, lenn the upper bodv forward by bending at the hips
enough to support your wcight on your arms while you lift the f'eet (fig.
8.2-1b).This will require abducting the thighs beyond their starting position
of moderate abduction, and it will require extending; the knees. This is a
difficult combination because as you start to extend thc knees you will

d;@fui1,

Figure 8.24.The two-handed cobra (b) and its starting position (a) are excellent
preparations for the headstand because they require a combination of balance,
courage, hip flexibility, and upper body strength.The key requirement for com-
pleting the posture is leaning forward as you extend the knees, and the key to
leaning forward under these circumstancesis good hip flexibility.Although this
posture looks simple, it's a big surprise to many people who think of them-
selvesas accomplished all-around athletes. In general, the moment they try to
lift their feet they fall onto their backsides.
 8. rHE HE|D.\'tAID 481

have to lean further forward to keep from falling to the rear, which in turn
brings the hamstrings under even more tension and makes hip flexion
even more problematical.
The two-handed cobra, like the headstand, requires a practical working
combination of hip flexibility and upper body strength. If your hip flexibility
is minimal you will not be able to lean forward enough to keep your balance,
and the strongest person in the world cannot compensate for that deficit. If
on the other hand you have the ability to flex your hips 12o",the posture is
not much more difficult than the crow. If you are somewhere in between,
your upper body strength makes all the difference in your ability to complete
the posture.
The lifted stick, or the celibate's pose, is the most challenging of these
three postures. Starting in the stick position, depress the scapulaeenough
to lift all of your weight off the floor. What first happens is that you can lift
the buttocks easily but you can't even begin to lift the heels. You will have
to do several things at the same time: lean slightly forward while keeping
your back ramrod straight and bending perhaps rro'at the hips; keep the
knees Iully extended while lifting the thighs, Iegs, and feet with the iliacus,
psoas,and quadriceps femoris muscles; and place your hands as far
fbrward as necessaryfor supporting all of your body weight (fig. lJ.zi).
I'he celibate's pose is difficult f<rrat least five reasons:you have to have
excellent hip flexibility because the extended knees keep the hamstrings
stretched to their limits; you have to have exceptionally strong hip flexors
to lift the extended legs and feet from a pelvis that is floating in mid-air;
you have to have a strong back to keep yourself'sitting upright, again in
mid-air; you have to have strong respiratory and pelvic diaphrappnsas well
as strong abdominal muscles to support the effort with the back muscles;
and you have to have excellent strenp$h in the upper extremities to hold
yourself in the posture. If you can do all of that, you will certainly be able
to do the headstand.

Figure8.25.The lifted stick,or

celibate'spose,challenges your
abdominalmuscles,as well as your 'b-
pelvicand respiratorydiaphragms, *lq-
like no other posture.Likemany
other poses,this one is impossible #ffi.
unlessyou are capableof at least
90' of hip flexibility.
182 ANATOMYOF HATHA TO(;A

THE DOWN.FACING DOG AND VARIATIONS

After the intense abdominal work with the two-handed cobra and the lifted
stick postures, everyone will be ready to do something that provides a
modicum of relief, and one of the best postures for this is the down-facing dog
(seealso chapter 6). Along with the crow, this poseis another excellent semi-
inverted training posture for the headstand. The arms end up flexed tilo'
overhead, or even a little more, and this movement is accompanied by about
(ro" of upward rotation of the scapulae.And since the scapulaeare supporting
much of the weight of the upraised body, the five muscular attachments
between it and torso must all be actively engaged.Allowing them to relax will
cause adduction and elevation of the scapulae, as well as an unsightly
jamming of the shoulders toward the floor. To counteract this tendency,
instrrrctors usually urge students to press the hands strongly against the floor,
lift the buttocks, flatten the back, and press the shoulders toward the feet (fig.
lii.z6).They may not recognize it, but those adjustments also abduct and
depress thc scapulae as well as hold them isometrically in their upwardly
rotated positions, and this happens to be exactly what is neededfor coming up
into the headstand.To compromisethe posture, bend the knees and lift the
heels rather than relax the shouldcr muscles (fig. ll.zZ).
Textbooks usually discussmovements ol'the arm in reference to muscles
that insert on the humerus, but in the down-facing dog thc arm is rela-
tively fixed and acts as an origin instead of an insertion. The teres major
muscle (figs. t.t, [i.rz, and tt.r4),for example,is ordinarily listed as an arm
extensor, taking origin from the lateral border ofthe scapula and inserting
on the humerus. But in the down-facing dog the teres major acts to abduct
the scapula laterally and rotate it upward from a stabilized arm instead of
acting as an arm extensor from a fixed scapula.

Figure 8.26.The down-facing dog posture, in its ideal form with 45" of ankle
flexion and 1'10'of hip flexion (see fig. 6.17 for an intermediate-level pose). The
isometric contraction of the muscles needed for stabilizing the scapulae in their
correct positions comprise excellent training for the headstand.
 8. THE HLADSTAND ,+u3

The rotator cuff muscles are also important in the down-facing dog.
Again, with their origins and insertions reversed, they abduct the scapulae
from fixed arm positions while taking nothing away from their classic role
in stabilizing the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity. The
subscapularis muscle (figs. [t.rr and ft.r3)has a slightly different action from
the other three rotator cuff muscles. Since it attaches to the front of the
humerus rather than to its posterior side, it also acts to pull the scapula
anteriorly as well as abducting it laterally, which assists in keeping it flat
against the chest wall.
In the down-facing dog one other muscle, the serratus anterior, acts to
pull the medial border of the scapula laterally-not from the arm, but from
the front of the chest-and this action is especiallyhelpful becauseit slides
the scapula directly against the chest wall rather than pulling it to the side.
And since the serratus anterior attaches near the inferior angle of'the
s c a p u l a ( f i g s . l t . q a n d l l . r r ) , i t i s p o s i t i o n e dt o p o w e r f u l l y a s s i s t u p w a r d
rotation by pulling the inferior angle of'the scapula laterally.
Although the simple down-facing dog is by itself a good preparation for
the headstand, a variation that will develop arm and shoulder strenEgh
through the ranges of movement needed for the headstand is to first come
into the basic posture and then slowly klwer the shoulders,slide.yournose
forward closeto the floor, straighten the knees, and hold the posture
isometrically in whatever position is especially difficult for you (fig. 13.ztt).
Finally, let the elbows swingJout, zrnd (with considerable relief, at least for
m o s t < l fu s ) e x t e n d t h e e l b o w s s l o w l y i n t o a s i m p l e u p w a r d - I a c i n g d o g
supported between the hands and the flexed toes (fig. S.r+).

Figure 8.27.This easy down-facing dog pose is within reach of almost everyone,
and looks better as hip and ankle flexibility improve. Even from the beginning,
howeveri it is important not to hang from the shoulders.To that end the
serratusanterior muscles keep the scapulae rotated upward and stabilized.
484 ANATOT|Y OF HATITA toGA

THE DOLPHIN

If a hatha yoga instructor were to pick only one all-around training pose for
students who are almost able to do the headstand, it would have to be the
dolphin. This posture is related to the down-facing dog, but it is also a well-
known posture in its own right. It's helpful for developing upper body
strength, hip flexibility, and abdominal and back strength. To do it, begin
in the child's pose (fig. 6.rtt) with the body folded onto itself on the floor'
Then lift up enough to place the forearms on the floor in front of you with
the hands interlocked. With the hips still resting near the heels, the
forearms are positioned at a 9o" angle from one another. Next, keeping

Figure 8.28. Bringing the nose down and forward (and more importantly,
coming back up) from the down-facing dog is an excellent floor exercisefor
building enough strength in the upper extremities to begin practice of the
headstand.You'll want to come forward only a little at first, so you can push
y o u r s e l f b a c k u p i n t o t h e d o w n - f a c i n gd o g . T h i s i s n o p u s h u p - i t ' s m u c h m o r e
difficult.

Figure 8.29.The dolphin posture is the most famous preparatory posture for the
headstand. lt strengthensall the muscles that stabilize the scapulae and arms,
and does so from the V-shaped position of the forearms that is similar to the
customary starting position for the headstand.
 8, I'ITL HEADSTANI) .185

the forearms on the floor, press up into a piked position ending with the
hips flexed 9o'(fig. 8.29).
Coming into the dolphin is accomplished by a combination of whole-
body muscular efforts: lifting the head, straightening the knees with the
quadriceps femoris muscles, and then pushing your weight back with the
shoulders and triceps brachii muscles until the head is in the V between
the forearms. If the hamstrings are so tight that you cannot push back with
the knees straight, bend the knees as much as necessary to permit the
movement, or adjust the feet slightly to the rear.
If you are able to push back into the dolphin, you will be stabilizing the
scapulae in upwardly-rotated positions with the same muscles that assist
the down-facing dog: the teres major and minor, the infraspinatus, the sub-
scapularis, and the serratus anterior. Pushing the torso back and keeping
the arms braced in the rl3o"flexed position ovcrhead is strongly resisted by
the pectoralis maior and latissimus dorsi, so this posture gives those muscles
an excellent workout in the strctched position. Finally, the triceps brachii is
strongly engagedfor extcnsion of the forcarm.
To build strcngth for the headstand, lilt the head over the hands and
stretch forward cnough to touch thc nose or chin to the floor in front ofthe
hands (Iig. l'l..to).If the feet werc well back in thc first place, the body will
now bc almost straight. This makes the exercise too casy, so come back to
thc first position with thc he:rd in the V made by thc forearms and walk thc
feet lbrward to reemphasizc the piked position. Repeat the excrcise, Iifting
the head over thc hands and then pulling it back behind them, over and
over again. 'I'he cklser the kneesare to thc elbows in the preparatory position,
the more strength and hamstring llexibility you will need to accomplishthe
movement gracefully. Finally, as your strength and flexibility continue to
improve, you can take the head even further forward, barely t.uchins thc
floor with the chin.

Figure 8.30. Bringing the nose forward from the dolphin posture and then back
up creates a different exercisethan in the case of coming down and forward
from the down-facing dog. This one is relatively easy if your feet are far enough
back,.but quite difficult if you start the dolphin with an acutely angled pike
position, especiallyif you do not have the ability to flex your hip joints'00..
'tl.t6 ANATOXIYOh-HATHA YOGA

ALTERNATINGTHE UPWARD- AND DOWN-FACING DOG

Another good upper-body exercise is to alternate between the upward-

facing dog (fig. 5.r,+)and the downward-facing dog (figs. 6.t7 and U.z'6).The
easiest way to do this is to do it fast, by using the hip flexors to quickly
swing the hips up into the down-facing dog from the upward-facing dog and
let gravity drop them back down. But that's not so useful, and the better
exercise is to do it slowly, maintaining abdominal tension at all times and
never allowing the body to merely hang between the shoulders. And for
another refinement that is custom designed to develop upper body
strenp$h, start with the upward-facing dog, slowly lower down into a straight
push-up position with the body an inch or so from the floor, touching the
floor only with the hands and the flexed toes, and then instead ofusing the
powerful iliacus and psoas muscles to Iaunch flexion of the hips into the
down-facing dog, initiate the movement from the shoulders, pushing to the
rear with the arms while sliding the nose zrlongthe flotlr until you are ready
to complcte the piked position. In this way you will be using the iliopsoas
musclcs as synergists for completing the posture instead of using them as
prime movers to initiate it. Reverseeverything to come back down, brushing
thc nose against the floor until you are again in a low push-up position
(keep the body only an inch or so away from the floor) befbre lifting up into
the upward-fircing dog.

THE SCORPION
'fhc scorpion posture looks like a scorpion, with a front pair of nipping
claws and a long, slender,.lointedtail ending in a curved poisonousstinger.
'I'hc posture incorporates grzrvity-driven passivebackbending with extreme
hyperextension of'the head and neck, and thus it rcquires more athlctic
ability than the headstand. Even a little practice of the scorpion will give
the student enough confidence to try the headstand. And remaining in the
posture for jo 6o secondsis a real wake-up-but it is not filr the timid.
You can come into the scorpion in one of two ways: either by kicking up
into the posture with the head lifted or coming into it from the headstand.
Kicking up is more athletic. Start in the same position that you used fbr the
dolphin, except that the forearms are at a 6o-75" angle from one another
and the palms are facing down with the thumbs touching (fig. tt.3ta)' You
can also make the posture more difficult by keeping the forearms parallel.
To come into the posture lift the pelvis up into the air, and kick up with
both feet, one immediately after the other, adjusting the kick so that you
get into the posture but do not overshoot and fall to the rear (fig. S.:tb). Be
careful not to try this in a confined region where you might crash into
something if you falt. The knees end up in a flexed position, which makes
it easy for you to support your feet against a wall behind you until you gain
 8. THE HEADSTAND ,t67

confidence. In the final posture the weight is on the forearms, the head is
lifted, the nose is fairly close to the hands, and the feet are as close to the
head as the arch in your back permits.
The sacroiliac joints will be in full nutation for the scorpion, and the
posture may not be comfortable for more than a few secondsfor those who
have a lot of sacroiliac mobility. In any case, anyone with good flexibility
for backbending can easily touch their feet to their head. Come down by
first straightening the body, then flexing the torso, and finally dropping
forward onto the f'eet.

F i g u r e8 . 3 1 .S c o r p i o n ( b ) a n d
starting position (a).To come into
the posture by kicking up, you
toss your feet up from the starting
position and balance your weight
making use of a substantial back-
b e n d . U n t i l l e a r n i n gh o w m u c h
energy to put into the initial kick,
most people use a wall as a prop
so as not to fall over backward.
With more experience you can
forgo the wall. For the final
posture you can keep the knees
straight or you can bend your
knees and drop your feet toward
your head. You can also come into
the scorpion from the headstand,
but if you do that don't delay,
b e c a u s ec o m i n g i n t o t h e s c o r p i o n
after being in the headstand for
more than a few seconds creates
excesspressure in the arterial
c i r c u l a t i o nt o t h e b r a i n .
.+88 ANA',tOMY ()F HATHA ''OGll

When you come into the scorpion from the headstand, you arch the back,
flatten the palms against the floor, transfer your weight to the forearms, lift
the head until you are looking forward, and bend the knees. Ifyou take this
route to the scorpion, however, do it quickly before too much blood and tissue
fluid has accumulated in the head. If you stay in the headstand too long before
converting that posture into the scorpion,the feeling ofpressure in the head
is greatly intensified: it's much more pronounced than what you experience
by simply kicking up, and it's also unnerwing.

BENDING AND TWISTING IN THE HEADSTAND

When you are in the headstandand the hip joints are bearing only the weight
of the lower extremities, you can do much of what you can do standing,
except more creatively. What is m<lre, certain poses that involve complex
combinationsof hip flexion or extensionwith knec flexion and rotation can
be done t-rnlyin thc hcadstand.In this posture you can selectivelystrctch
the adductors and harnstrings;you can work with hip opening cxercises
when the adductors zrndhamstrings are not under tension; you can twist,
flex, and extend the torso alone or in combination with many creative
stretches for thc lower extremities; or you can fold the klwer extremities
into the lotus posture and flex:rnd extend the thighs Irom that position.

WOBKING WITH THE ADDUCTORS

'l'he various adductor musclestake origin all along the inferior pubic rami
from the pubic symphysis to thc ischial tuberosities (figs. t.tz, u.8, and
lJ.r,l-r'+).We have generally been concerned with the trdductors that take
origin posteriorly, and havc notcd that these muscles have er hamstring
character that limits furward bending (chapter 6). It is less common to find
postures that are effective in stretching thc adductors that takc origin
anteriorly. 'lhe only posc so far mentioned that does this involves a
standing backbend (chapter 6) with the f'eet wide apart. To be successful,
any such stretch must also require that the spiraled ischiofemoral,
iliof'emoral, and pubofemoral ligaments be slack enough to limit extension
(fig. 1.0) only after the anterior-most adductors have come under tension.
Although any such standing posture should be approachedwith care, in the
headstand it is easy to bring these specific muscles under an intense but
controllable stretch simply by extending the abducted thighs with the
knees bent. The next three sequencesall make use of a relaxed inverted
backbending pose (fig. 8.zjb) that accomplishes this aim, in addition to
rotating the sacroiliac joints into full nutation. This home-base posture
alternates with three positions that build strength in the deep back
muscles and that shift the sacroiliac joints either into counternutation or
less extreme nutation.
 8. THEHEAD.TTAND ,+ug

Becausethe next three sequencesall involve backbending, they go best

with the bregma headstand. To begin, come into the third stage, the one
with the thighs extended and the knees flexed (fig. 8.6c). Start with a
relaxed and neutral position with the legs more or less parallel to one
another and with the feet and knees slightly apart. Without shifting the
positions of the lower extremities too much, adjust your posture, including
head position, so that you can produce the maximum lumbar lordosis. After
appraising exactly how much of a lumbar curve this posture permits,
abduct the thighs maximally while keeping the {'eet fairly close together,
and then, keeping the knees flexed and the thighs both extended and
abducted, let the I'eet come apzrrt, sensing the position that permits the
lumbar arch to becomethe most pronounced.The sacroiliac.jointswill be
fully nutated in this rclaxed position (fig. tt.-3zb).
This is the home-baseposture.
As a passivelumbar backbend,this posture complementsstanding backbends
in two ways: the klwer extrcmities are not confined by static foot positiclns
as they arc in standing posturcs, and the knees arc flexed maximall.y,which
is obviously not possiblc when you are standing.
Iror the {irst sequencc,from the homc position in the modified bregnna
headstand (fig. ti.z:b), adduct the thighs, bringing the knccs and feet tightly
together, and noticc that this {lattcns the lumbar region and draws the
knees lbrward (fig. tt.-1zzr).
You can go back and Ibrth, abducting thc cxtended
thighs to deepenthe lumbtrr krrdosisand cstnblishmaximum nutation, trnd
then ndducting the extendedthighs tightly to flatten the back and easethe
sacroiliacjoints back into counternutation. 'l'hc adductedposition is peculiar.
It crentesintense tcnsion in the rectus f'emorismusclc as well as in thc latcrtrl
portions of thc quadricepsI'cmorismuscles,and this is what, in a round-
about way, flattens thc lumb:rr region. 'l'he abductcdhome position, on thc
other hand, placcsintense strctch on the adductors whose origins are located
anteriorly along the ini'erior pubic rami.
The secondalternative is to start with the same relaxed homc position
that permits the maximum lumbar a.rch(fig. lt.3zb)and alternately flex and
again hyperextend the thighs while keeping the knees flexed and the thighs
abducted. This is similar to moving back and forth between stagestwo and
three ofthe headstand except that now the thighs are kept fully abducted.
'lo keep your bearings, you
may wish to touch the big toes together for this
particular back and forth sequence, especially as you flex the thighs
forward. Extension of the abducted thighs (fig. u.-tzb)makes this posture
an easy one in which to rest. Flexion of the abducted thighs is more
challenging and will probably be limited by your upper body strength
becauseyou have to support more of your weight with the forearms as you
lower the knees fbrward (fig. tt.3zc).This exercise is easier than moving
back and forth between stage two and three of the headstand with the
:IqO ANA']OTTY OF IIA'IHA I

thighs in a more neutral adducted position, however, because some of

the weight of your lower extremities is pitched out to the side rather
than being held straight in front of you. Even so, flexing the abducted
thighs while keeping the knees bent is one of the most rewarding
exercises for developing strength in the deep back muscles that you can
do in the headstand (fig S.:zc).
Last, come all the way up into stage four of the headstand, that is with the
thighs and legs extended. Then abduct the thighs to the side, and hold the
posture (fig. U.::). Becausethe hips are not hyperextended, adductors that
take origin posteriorly along the inferior pubic rami, as well as internal

:&
s
,b'
ii&.
'li.

--: .
-
a.
b.

{
,!

Figure 8.32a-c.These three postures illustrate

m u s c u k r s k e l e t adl y n a m i c sa n d t r a i n y o u t o b e
i n v e r t e da n d b a l a n c e du n d e r v a r y i n g c i r c u m - \*.,
stances.In 8.32a,the combination of adducted &'""
thighs and flexed knees severely limits the
l u m b a r l o r d o s i s .I n 8 . 3 2 b ,a l l o w i n g t h e k n e e s
to come apart (thighs abducted) permits
extreme hyperextension of the thighs, the
,s
llTl
d e e p e s t p o s s i b l el u m b a r c u r v e ,a n d m a x i m u m .-"#/
sacroiliacnutation. Co back and forth .iiillli:'
between 8.32a and 8.32b severaltimes to feel
and understand what happens and why. "'r.,,,,,,,c'
Shifting from 8.32b to 8.32c requires a major
shift in awarenessfrom an acute, maximum
backbend (but one in which it is easy to bal-
ance) to the necessityof supporting much of
your weight on the forearms, which is similar
to stage two of the headstand except that this
pose with the thighs abducted is easier.Again,
go back and forth between b and c to both
feel and understand what happens arrd why.
 1,\'D ,lgt

structures of the hip joint, limit this particular stretch. You can again
alternate this pose with the home position in which the knees are flexed,
and the thighs are abducted and extended (fig 8.32b).This latter position
takes tension off the adductors that take their origin posteriorly, allows
you to abduct the thighs more fully, and by default brings the stretch to
the adductors that have their origin more anteriorly on the inferior pubic
rami. Go back and forth repetitively for clarification of these principles.

STRETCHINGTHE HAMSTRINGS

In the headstand you can stretch the hamstrings by extending one thigh
posteriorly to approach the limits of hip extension and at the same time
bring the other thigh forward to stretch the hamstrings. To come into this
position you can either abduct the thighs and then swivel them around,
which leavesyou with one thigh extendcd and the other one flexed, or you
can start from stage four of'the headstand and hypercxtend one thigh to
the rear and flex the othcr one forward. I{'you also flex thc back knee, this
will drop more weight to the rcar and you will not have to read.justyour
balanceso much when you llex thc other thigh tlig. lt.;+). Then, as soon as
you arc balanccd you can pull isometrically in <lppositcdirections, erlklwing
the forward knee to bend according to your capacity and inclination for
stretching the hamstrings. Repeat on thc other side.

1!r::

F i g u r e8 . 3 3 .T h i s p o s e ,w h i c h i s
stage four of the headstand
except with the thighs abducted,
stretchesthe adductors that
originate posteriorly along the
inferior pubic rami. To stretch
the adductors that originate
a n l e r i o r l ya l o n g t h e i n f e r i o r
p u b i c r a m i ,w h i c h i s n o t s o e a s y
in standing postures (chapter 6, tn*
h i p f l e x i b i l i t ys t a n d i n g ) g
, o back ,t
! -.ry -
and forth between this pose and
ji;;:p€ \t' .,r::':-
the one with the knees flexed
and the hipsabductedand :;,'l

hyperextended (fig. 8.32b).

:102 ANATOMY OF-ITATHA YOGA

The headstand is one of the best postures in which to work with hamstring
stretches becausethe tension on the base ofthe pelvis that results from hip
flexion and from stretch of the hamstrings on one side is countered by
hyperextension of the opposite hip. The resulting asymmetrical stretch
keeps the pelvis more in line with the spine than the same stretches in
standing forward bends, which often place unwelcome additional tension
on a region that is already being stressed to its limits.

INVERTEDTORSO TWISTS

When you are in the headstand you can do inverted torso twists that are
limited only by your imagination, strenpJth,and balance.You can start with
a twist in a simple headstand and go Irom there to a twist with one thigh
back and the other forward. Simple twists such as these can be done in the
open, but placing yourself near a wall adds to the possibilities. One is to
position the back of the head about two feet from the wall, come up into the
headstand, and twist your lower body to the right so that thc laternl edge
of the right fbot ends up against the wzrll. From that position you can pry
yourself around even morc. This brings the left hip closer to the wall and
the right hip furthcr away. The right thigh is hyperextended, the le{t thigh
is flexed about ttoo, and both knees are flexed comfortably. II'you zrrefairly
flcxible you will be stretching the abductors on the l:rteral aspccts of the
thigh and working directly within the hip joint. Repcat the exerciseon the
'lhis is an excellent wholc-body twist, zrnd you can I'eel the
other side.
results from thc knees to the neck, although the most twist will bc created
in the chest, as expected from thc discussi<lnin chapter 7.

Figure 8.34.You can come into this

pose easily from the one shown in fig.
8.33 by swinging one foot forward and
the other one back. The asymmetrical
stretch of the hamstrings in the flexed
thigh is balanced by hyperextension of
the opposite thigh and tension in its
hip flexors, all of which keep the pelvis
stable and the lower back protected.
 u. THE HF,ADSTAND 493

TORSO EXTENSIONAND HIP FLEXION

A wall is also a good prop for working with passive extension in the lumbar
region. From a simple headstand again facing away from a wall you can
place both feet against the wall and walk them slowly down, or you can
simply hold them within your reasonable limits, making sure you don't
go so far down that you cannot comfortably walk them back up.
Alternatively, you can stabilize one foot against the wall and bring the
other one forward (away from the wall). If you pull down vigorously on
the forward foot using the rectus femoris muscles and the hip flexors on
that side while keeping the knee fairly straight with the quadriceps
femoris muscle as a whole, you can stretch the forward hamstrings at
your leisure; and unlike most standing and sitting forward bends, you
can work with the stretch safely but insistently and without stressing the
back in the slightest. Repeat the exerciseon the other side.

THE LOTUS POSTURE IN THE HEADSTAND

If you are flexible enough to do the lotus posture in the headstand, you
have many options fur developing flexibility and a strong back. Just being
in this posture stretches the adductors and makes the hip .joint itself
more flexible. An excellent excrcise is to lilt the knees as far as possible
toward the ceiling to hvperextend the back (fig. tt.35a)and thcn slowly
lower thcm as far as possible toward the floor (fig. tt.35b)-without
falling, of'course. This is similzrr to going back erndforth bctwccn stages
three and two of the headstand, except that it is easier because the legs
and feet are folded in and bccause a smaller proportion of your lower
body weight is carried forward. It is also rewarding to twist and bend
from side to side in the lotus posture. With the knees up, whatever
stretches you do along those lines will be combined with backbending,
and with thc knees down in a more neutral upside-down sitting lotus,
whatever stretches you do will build strength in the back. Be sure to
repeat all exercisesyou do in the lotus-no matter what the posture-by
alternating the foot you fold in first.

EXTENDING YOUR TIME

When you are completely at home in the headstand, you may eventually
want to increase your time in the posture. If done carefully and system-
atically this is safe, but because of the headstand's special effects on the
brain and circulation there are certain guidelines that should be followed,
not the least of which is consultation with someone who is experienced in
the practice.
494 ANATOMYO]; ilAlrIA t

THE SURFACE

The surface on which you do the headstand is not very important if you
stay in the posture for less than five minutes, but if you are going to hold
it for a longer time, the softer the surface the better so long as your fore-
arms do not spring this way and that when you are trying to adjust. A z-
inch thickness of high-density foam rubber is so springy that it is hard to
keep your balance, but a heary woolen blanket folded three times (eight
thicknesses) or a r-inch thickness of high-density foam is fine. Mattresses
are nearly always too springS'.If you use a futon make sure that you place
your head in a region that is flat. You will certainly create problems for
yourselfifyou place your head on an irregular surface that always favors
one side.

THE CRANIAL VAULT AND SUTURES

Anyone who is serious abt-rutdoing the headstand should be aware of

danger signals from their cranial bones and sutures (fig. li.,+).You
should feel the top o{'the head for any klcalized sorenessas soon as you
come down from the posture. This may not be directly on the region
where you rested your weight; it could be on onc side or thc other or it
could even manif'est as vaf{ue internal discomfort such as headache.

}d
x a'
a.
i:l b.
,::,.
& '':"r.r:.

&
Figure 8.35. For anyone who can do the lotus posture comfortably, working
with this pose in the headstand offers many possibilitiesfor improving back
strength and hip flexibility. Lifting the knees toward the ceiling (a) extends the
back and stretchesthe quadriceps femoris muscles,and bringing your knees
forward and down (b) strengthensthe back muscles as in stage two of the
headstand,except doing this in the lotus is easier because the feet are tucked in
and are not necessitatingthat you support so much of your weight on the
forearms. Like many other stretches,these can be done only in the headstand.
 8. llln HrjADsTAND 195

If this is the case, you should either wait for the discomfort to pass
before doing the headstand again or seek professional advice from any
number of specializedtherapists who are interested in such matters.
Another way to explore for excess sensitivity is to come into a hands-
and-knees position on a soft surface and roll the head around from front
to back and from side to side. Roll all the way forward, bringing the chin
to the sternum, and then roll all the way back so the nose touches the
floor. Roll from side to side, from ear to ear, diagonally, and around in a
circle. If you do this routinely you will become sensitive to whether or not
the headstand is creating difficulties. For example, you might have done
the headstand fifty times in a row for five minutes each morning with no
problems. Then one night you miss sleep, do the headstand the next
morning in a cranky state of mind, and suddenly have a vague feeling
that the posture doesn't feel right. Under these circumstances, if you
have been exploring for exccss sensitivity routinely, you are likely to find
some localized tenderness on your cranium. And if that is the case you
can give yourself a day or two of rest for repair and recuperation.

PAIN AND DISCOMFORT

Any time you are not comfortable in the headstand you should come down.
In twisting, forward bcnding, or backbending postures you can explore the
edges of minor aches and pains without too much worry, but in the head-
stand this is inadvisable becauseyour frame of ref'erenceto what is normal
is too fundamentally askew.
Pain in your shoulders usually means that you are making too much
effort in the posture. If'you slowly learn to balance and build strength and
flexibility, shoulder pain should diminish. Pain in the neck region is always
disquieting. It may be caused by imbalances in muscular tension or
inflammation of vertebral joints. If you feel deep pain, stop doing the head-
stand until it has gone away. Muscles usually respond to joint problems by
tensing at the fulcrum of'the.joint-if you turn your head to a certain point
and find that it is painful to move it further, it indicates that your nelvous
system is objecting. So be conservative, Iisten to the body, and stop doing
the headstand until you can turn your head freely through a normal range
of motion. Get help from knowledgeabletherapists if the problem does not
go away of its own accord.
A recurring theme in the oral (as well as written) tradition of hatha yoga
is that any extensive practice of the headstand should always be followed
by the shoulderstand and related postures. Commentators tell us that
practicing the headstand alone results in an imbalance that manifests as
edginess and irritability. They also say that if you practice the headstand
for more than twenty minutes, it is good to have some food afterward, or
196 ANATOMY Ot- HATHA YO(;A

at least some hot, boiled milk. If you don't, they tell us, you are likely to
experience a raw, uncomfortable feeling in the abdomen later in the day.
Another caution: the headstand does not work well after aerobic exercise.
Hatha yoga postures are fine, but not dozens of sun salutations, walking
briskly, or running. If you do the headstand regularly for more than five
minutes during the course of a regular hatha practice, and then try it some-
time after aerobic exercise, you will quickly sense an impulse to come down,
an impulse it will be wise to follow. An old hatha yogi-a centenarian-from
India once told me in utter seriousness that doing the headstand regularly
after aerobic exercise would cause the skull to soften. Yes? And? The
biological basis for such observations (assuming they might be valid) is
uncertain. What is certain is that you should use common sensewith this
posture and honor all input from the sensesthat tells you to be moderate
or evennot do il at all

E X T R A C E L L U L A RF L U I D A N D M U C U S

When you are in the headstand, extraccllular fluid accumulates in the

tissues ofyour head and neck, and as you bcgin to hold the pose for longer
periods, these tissues start to swell. You'll turn red in the face, which is
obvious, but the swelling also starts to impcde the flow o{'air through the
nose and pharynx, making your breathing more labored and either Ibrcing
you to breathe through the mouth or come out of the posture. This is
usually temporary. I1'you continue to practice the headstand every day, thc
swclling becomcsless of a problem and you will be able to breathe easily in
the posture for longer times. And once you have acclimatcd to staying in
thc posture for tcn minutes or so you may find that you can continue to
increaseyour time. Mucus is a sepzrratebut related problem. If you have a
tendency toward colds or to chronic respiratory problems, doing the head-
stand for even a minute may be uncomfortablc. Don't press the issue. If
you have too much mucus, solve that problem first, and then come back to
the headstand.

HOW LONG TO HOLD THE HEADSTAND

I used to have a habit of asking instructors publicly how long the head-
stand could be held, and their answers, appropriately enough, reflected the
level and experience of their audience. For a general class of young but
inexperienced pupils, experts will ordinarily advise a l- or z-minute
maximum, or they will avoid the issue by saying that you get most of the
important benefits in 3-5 minutes. One yogi traditionalist suggested two
minutes maximum for householders (an Indian euphemism for those who
are sexually active), and any length of time for those who are perfectly
celibate. Many classicaltexts affirm this, hinting not only that orgasm and
 8. THE HEIDSIA\|D 197

frequent headstands do not mix well, but that doing the headstand for long
periods of time helps to maintain celibacy for those who wish to practice
that discipline. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika extols the ability to hold the
headstand for three hours. And finally, yet another elderly hatha yogi from
India had a brilliant answer to my question. He said that you can do the
headstand for any length of time-three hours, six hours, and that you can
even sleep in the posture-but he added cagily that there should never be
the slightest discomfort.

BENEFITS
The headstand lifts your spirits wonderfully. If something is drawing you
down, turn upside down, and uoila-the downward flow is upended into
your head. The headstand is also a great mclrning wake-up. It increases
digestive fire, counters depression, and fills you with enthusiasm for
meeting your day. But doing this posturc to excess is like increasing the
voltaEJein an electrical circuit. Be careful.

",/,qnu nnlr'/t /./i' /uro1.L .Vnu o'///rra/hr, //irt/ t/ 1,r,r,tttr.)

/1zrr,r.rrry'/i.rr.r'. ..9, t/i 1ilqrrn,.nq t/)u'rzrltr, t/n,r, ,rr/./:'/i

i/U/ ,/r///rrr/lV ut 1lr,a///n/. .ilt .Vnl a.rl,rrnrl it 1u.nr,/rrr.,
'/n,
//r,t rrztrtt,//r'.1 ln/rt'r./). ,,r//' /t ry' ,t rr/'1r./i n.irtt.r ,
r'.ry'1.//ira/|rn c/'.yDt'/, it. /,/irt .,/lrrrrrr. "
- Swami Sivananda, inYoga Asano,s,p. t6.
,lglj ANATOITIY OIi IIA'.IIIA IOGA
 CHAPTERNINE
THE SHOULDERSTAND

",7L
7tot" u ca,l.I,Ly'Jlzrr./,//t/./?Ja.t1/t llecauJr'. il t2t//a.ezce.t /./i.r:
r/tyrc/ azr/ r/L.eu.ql iZ /p ,rr,/ic/l 1.,elyr onry' ll f,u.ttctan. , 7n
,7)nt,1,t//a, .'/lr.ro ///€a4.1 r./) ,rr/ieli orrry',(rra.t rtz:a.n.J 1t,
lrr/u.
- Swami Kuvalayananda, in Popular YogaAsanas, p. 65.
'T.
lhe shoulderstand is the queen of postures and the headstand is the king,
the yogis say-the former nurtures the body and the lattcr celebrates
power and consciousness.These concepts will resonate with anyone who
has had a lot of experiencewith both postures. Together they make a team.
The headstand needs balance, and the shoulderstand, with its variations
and scquelae,makes the best complete practice for providing that balance.
The Sanskrit name for the shoulderstandis saruangasana, which means
the "all-member's pose." Not only do all four extremities participatc in
creating it, the posture, at least in its fullest expression, also requires
muscular effort throughout the body. This gives it an entirely different
character Irom the headstand, which is a balancing posc. Placing your
weight on a combination of the shoulders,neck, and head, as you must in
the shoulderstand,requires that the full posture be supported either with
your upper extremities or with a powerful internal effort.
We can learn a lot about the shoulderstand by looking at how it differs
from the headstand.'l'he most obvious point of contrast is that in the head-
stand the weight of the body is on the top of the head and has its primary
skeletal effect on the neck. The headstand compressesits vertebrae axially;
the shoulderstand stretches the neck. Put another way, the neck acts to
support the headstand, and is acted upon by the shoulderstand.
Another difference is that in the headstand the entire spine from Cr to
the sacrum is inverted but straight, and the posture is balanced simply by
standing up. By contrast, all the variations of the shoulderstand and its
associated postures include forward bending somewhere in the body:
the cervical region is flexed in the shoulderstand, and the cervical region,
lumbar region, and hips are flexed in the plow This continuing theme of
forward bending explains why these postures are often followed with back-
bending in the bridge, the fish, and the wheel.

499
5OO AtiA'lOMY OF HATHA
"

One last way in which the shoulderstand differs from the headstand is
that significant time and commitment is required to learn about the nature
of the posture and do it justice. We can get most of the common physical
benefits from the headstand by practicing that posture 3-5 minutes a day,
but any serious student who wishes to get acquainted with the postures in
the shoulderstand series is well advised to practice them for zo-3o minutes
a day for at least three months. After that a more abbreviated practice will
suffice.
In this chapter we'll first summarize the anatomy that is pertinent to
the most advanced expression of the shoulderstand. Next we'll discuss the
entire shoulderstand series, starting with the easiest postures, and then
we'll examine the pklw series. We'll then cover the aspects of circulation
and respiration rclevant to these poses.Finally, we'll look at exercisesand
posturcs that usually follow and balance the shouldcrstand and pltlw, and
end with a brief'discussionof bencfits.

ANATOMY OF THE SHOULDERSTAND

To understand the complex anatomy of the shoulderstand, we'll begin with
a brief description of the posturc in its most extreme expression-the
candle posture. This is an advanccd pose, however, and sht-ruldnot be
attempted until you are warmed up and havc mastcrcd thc preliminary
postures which fbllow. In this pose thc fcct are swung overhead from a
supine position, and thc arms, fbrearms, and hands are placed in a neutral
position alongsidethe thighs (fig. q.t). Thc body is barlancedon a triangular-
shapcdregion compriscd of'the back ofthe head, the neck, and thc shoulders.
The chin is pressedinto thc stcrnum, and the pose is held internally, mostly
with the muscles of the torso and lower extremities. This is not easy.Few
students will have enough back strength to keep the sternum tightly
pressed against the chin, but unless they can do that they will not attain
the full benefit of the posture.

THE NECK

Even though the anatomy of the advanced posture is complex, it is

straightforward and easy to analyze.In the neck, most of the structures in
the cervical spine are stretched, including the posterior longitudinal
iigament on the back of the anterior functional unit, the interspinous
ligaments between the spinous processes,the Iigamenta flava between the
vertebral arches, and the ligamentum nuchae, a fibro-elastic ligament
which runs from the back of the head to all the spinous processesbetween
Ct and Cl ffi1. 4.r3a). The synovial articulations between the adjacent
superior and inferior articulating processeswill be stretched to their limits
as well. Also stretched bv this posture are the muscles that attach to the