● Sensory neurons carry impulses

Nervous System from the sense organs, such as the

eyes and ears, to the spinal cord
Functions of Nervous System and brain.
1. Gathers information from both inside ● Motor neurons carry impulses
and outside the body - Sensory Function from the brain and the spinal cord
2. Transmits information to the processing to muscles and glands.
areas of the brain and spine ● Interneurons process information
3. Processes the information in the brain from sensory neurons and then
and spine – Integration Function send commands to other
4. Sends information to the muscles, interneurons or motor neurons.
glands, and organs so they can respond
appropriately – Motor Function Neuroglia
● Neuroglia, also known as the glial
Cells of the Nervous System cells, is a supportive cell of the
nervous system that forms 40% of
Neurons the brain’s bulk.
● Basic functional cell of nervous
system Types of Neuroglia
● conducting cells
● Neurons receive stimuli and ● Astrocytes supply nutrients
transmit impulses to other neurons to neurons and help
or to other body organs such as maintain their ability to
muscles. transmit impulses.
● Ependymal cells produce
Parts of the Neurons the cerebrospinal fluid (a
Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it protective cushion) and the
impulses toward the cell body bathe brain and the spinal
• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most cord.
of cytoplasm ● Microglial cells help in
• Axon – fiber which carries impulses removing debris and
away from cell body bacteria from the central
• Schwann Cells – cells which produce nervous system (CNS).
myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral ● Oligodendrocytes in the
Nervous System CNS and Schwann cell in
• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which the peripheral nervous
insulates the axon – makes the axon look system (PNS) produce the
gray protective myelin sheath for
• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the the insulation of axons.
myelin sheath
Parts of Nervous System
Types of Neurons
Nervous System
● Neurons can be classified into The nervous system consists of
three types according to the two divisions: the central nervous
direction in which an impulse system containing the brain and
travels. spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system which is a network
 of nerves and neural tissues Forebrain
branching out throughout the body. The forebrain (prosencephalon) controls
body temperature, reproductive functions,
Major Division of Nervous System eating, sleeping, and the display of
emotions.
● The CENTRAL NERVOUS ● Cerebrum – conscious activity
SYSTEM, – controls including perception, emotion,
intelligence, sensory, and thought, and planning
motor activities involving ● Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard –
muscle tone, balance, and filters and then relays information
coordination. to various brain regions
The Central Nervous System ● Hypothalamus – involved in
The Brain • The major areas of the regulating activities internal
brain—Brain stem – medulla, pons, organs, monitoring information
midbrain; Diencephalon – thalamus & from the autonomic nervous
hypothalamus; Cerebellum; Cerebrum system, controlling the pituitary
gland and its hormones, and
The Spinal Cord • The main regulating sleep and appetite
communication link between the brain and
the rest of the body Cerebrum
It consists of two hemispheres
Meninges divided by a fissure – corpus
callosum
Meninges are the three coverings around
the brain & spine and help cushion, It includes the
protect, and nourish the brain and spinal ● Cerebral cortex – is the layer of
cord. the brain often referred to as gray
● dura mater is the most outer layer, matter because it has cell bodies
very tough and synapses but no myelin
● arachnoid mater is the middle layer ● Medullary body – is the white
and adheres to the dura mater and matter of the cerebrum and
has web like attachments to the consists of myelinated axons
innermost layer ● Basal ganglia – masses of gray
● pia mater is very thin, transparent, matter in each hemisphere which
but tough, and covers the entire are involved in the control of
brain, following it into all its voluntary muscle movements
crevices (sulci) and spinal cord
Lobes of the Brain
Brain ● Frontal – motor area involved in
The brain is the control center of the movement and in planning &
human body; coordinating behavior
● It is encased by the bone of the ● Parietal – sensory processing,
head called the skull. attention, and language
● The brain is divided into parts ● Temporal – auditory perception,
according to position: – forebrain in speech, and complex visual
front, – midbrain in the middle, perceptions
and– hindbrain at the back.
 ● Occipital – visual center – plays a ● The cerebellum is the second
role in processing visual largest part of the brain.
information ● It contains nerve fibers that
connect it to every part of the
Midbrain central nervous system.
The midbrain or mesencephalon is the ● It coordinates voluntary and
forwardmost portion of the brainstem and involuntary patterns of movements.
is associated with vision, hearing, motor ● It also adjusts muscles to
control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal automatically maintain posture.
(alertness), and temperature regulation.
Pons
Hindbrain ● The pons, while involved in the
Hindbrain, also called rhombencephalon, regulation of functions carried out
region of the developing vertebrate brain by the cranial nerves it houses,
that is composed of the medulla works together with the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum. oblongata to serve an especially
The hindbrain coordinates functions that critical role in generating the
are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm of breathing.
respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, ● Active functioning of the pons
and wakefulness. may also be fundamental to Rapid
Eye Movement (REM) sleep.
Brainstem
● acts as a relay center connecting Spinal cord
the cerebrum and cerebellum to ● The spinal cord is a long, thin,
the spinal cord. tubular structure made up of
● It performs many automatic nervous tissue, which extends from
functions such as breathing, heart the medulla oblongata in the
rate, body temperature, wake and brainstem to the lumbar region of
sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, the vertebral column.
coughing, vomiting, and ● It encloses the central canal of
swallowing. the spinal cord, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid.
Structures in Brainstem ● The spinal cord is a column of
nerves that connects your brain
● the gray matter of the midbrain with the rest of your body, allowing
control visual reflexes and sense of you to control your movements.
hearing.
● the white matter of the pons plays Cerebrospinal Fluid
a role in regulating visceral ● A colorless fluid produced in the
(internal organ) control. ventricles of the brain.
● the medulla oblongata connects ● Protect brain and spinal cord from
the rest of the brain to the spinal trauma.
cord. It regulates breathing, ● Supply nutrients to nervous
swallowing, coughing, sneezing, system tissue.
vomiting, heartbeat, and blood ● Remove waste products from
pressure. cerebral metabolism.

Cerebellum Major Division of Nervous System

The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – heart, lungs, liver, skin, thymus,
consists of nerves and supporting cells, gastrointestinal mucosa, and placenta
– The peripheral system allows the brain also produce and release hormones.
and spinal cord to receive and send
information to other areas of the body, The primary endocrine glands are the
which allows us to react to stimuli in our pituitary (the master gland), pineal,
environment. thyroid, parathyroid, islets of
Langerhans, adrenals, ovaries in the
Division of Peripheral Nervous System female and testes in the male. The
function of the endocrine system is the
• The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – production and regulation of chemical
The somatic system is the part of the substances called hormones.
peripheral nervous system responsible for
carrying sensory and motor information to Hormones
and from the central nervous system. A hormone is a chemical transmitter. It is
Motor neurons: Also called efferent released in small amounts from glands,
neurons, motor neurons carry information and is transported in the bloodstream to
from the brain and spinal cord to muscle target organs or other cells. Hormones
fibers throughout the body. are chemical messengers, transferring
Sensory neurons: Also called afferent information and instructions from one set
neurons, sensory neurons carry of cells to another.
information from the nerves to the central
nervous system. Hormones regulate growth,
development, mood, tissue function,
• The AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM metabolism, and sexual function.
– The autonomic system is the part of the Hyposecretion or hypersecretion of any
peripheral nervous system that's hormone can be harmful to the body.
responsible for regulating involuntary body Controlling the production of hormones
functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat, can treat many hormonal disorders in the
digestion, and breathing. body.
Parasympathetic system: This helps
maintain normal body functions and Nervous System and Endocrine
conserve physical resources.
System
Sympathetic system: the sympathetic
system triggers a response by
accelerating heart rate, increasing The endocrine system and nervous
breathing rate, boosting blood flow to system work together to help maintain
muscles, activating sweat secretion, and homeostasis… balance. The
dilating the pupils. hypothalamus is a collection of
specialized cells located in the brain, and
is the primary link between the two
Endocrine System systems. It produces chemicals that either
stimulate or suppress hormone
Endocrine System secretions of the pituitary gland.
The endocrine system is made up of
glands and the hormones they secrete. Secretions from the Anterior Pituitary
Although the endocrine glands are the Gland
primary hormone producers, the brain,
Growth Hormone (GH): essential for the parturition. A synthetic version of this
growth and development of bones, hormone, used to induce labor, is called
muscles, and other organs. It also Pitocin. It also stimulates the mammary
enhances protein synthesis, decreases glands to release milk.
the use of glucose, and promotes fat
destruction. Secretions from the Pineal Gland

Adrenocorticotropin(ACTH): essential The pineal gland is pine-cone-shaped

for the growth of the adrenal cortex. and only about 1 cm in diameter.
Melatonin: communicates information
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): about environmental lighting to various
essential for the growth and development parts of the body. Has some effect on
of the thyroid gland. sleep/awake cycles and other biological
events connected to them, such as a
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): is lower production of gastric secretions at
a gonadotropic hormone. It stimulates the night.
growth ovarian follicles in the female
and the production of sperm in the male. Serotonin: a neurotransmitter that
regulates intestinal movements and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH): is a affects appetite, mood, sleep, anger, and
gonadotropic hormone stimulating the metabolism.
development of corpus luteum in the
female ovarian follicles and the production Secretions from the Thyroid Gland
of testosterone in the male. The yellow
corpus luteum remains after ovulation; it The thyroid gland plays a vital role in
produces estrogen and progesterone. metabolism and regulates the body’s
metabolic processes.
Prolactin (PRL): stimulates the
development and growth of the mammary Calcitonin: influences bone and calcium
glands and milk production during metabolism; maintains a homeostasis of
pregnancy. The sucking motion of the calcium in the blood plasma.
baby stimulates prolactin secretion.
The two pairs of parathyroid glands are
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone located on the dorsal or back side of the
(MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid
promotes the deposit of melanin in the (PTH) which plays a role in the
skin after exposure to sunlight. metabolism of phosphorus. Too little
results in cramping; too much results in
Secretions from the Posterior Lobe of the osteoporosis or kidney stones.
Pituitary Gland
The Islets of Langerhans
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): stimulates
the reabsorption of water by the renal The islets of Langerhans are small
tubules. Hyposecretion of this hormone clusters of cells located in the pancreas.
can result in diabetes insipidus.
● Alpha cells facilitate the
Oxytocin: stimulates the uterus to breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
contract during labor, delivery, and This elevates the blood sugar.
 ● Beta cells secrete the hormone Epinephrine is also called adrenalin. It
insulin, which is essential for the elevates systolic blood pressure,
maintenance of normal blood increases heart rate and cardiac output,
sugar levels. Inadequate levels speeds up the release of glucose from the
result in diabetes mellitus liver… giving a spurt of energy, dilates the
● Delta cells suppress the release bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and
of glucagon and insulin. dilates the pupils to see more clearly. It is
often used to counteract an allergic
The Adrenals Glands reaction.

The triangular-shaped adrenal glands are Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is

located on the top of each kidney. The released when the body is under stress. It
inside is called the medulla and the creates the underlying influence in the
outside layer is called the cortex. fight or flight response. As a drug,
however, it actually triggers a drop in heart
Secretions from the Adrenal Cortex rate.

Cortisol: regulates carbohydrate, protein, Secretions from the Ovaries

and fat metabolism; has an
anti-inflammatory effect; helps the body The ovaries produce several estrogen
cope during times of stress hormones and progesterone. These
hormones prepare the uterus for
Hyposecretion results in Addison’s pregnancy, promote the development of
disease; hypersecretion results in mammary glands, play a role in sex drive,
Cushing’s disease. and develop secondary sex characteristics
in the female. Estrogen is essential for
Corticosterone: like cortisol, it is a the growth, development, and
steroid; influences potassium and sodium maintenance of female sex organs.
metabolism.
Secretions from the Testes
Aldosterone: essential in regulating
electrolyte and water balance by The testes produce the male sex hormone
promoting sodium and chloride retention called testosterone. It is essential for
and potassium excretion. normal growth and development of the
male sex organs. Testosterone is
Androgens: several hormones including responsible for the erection of the penis.
testosterone; they promote the
development of secondary sex Secretions from the Placenta
characteristics in the male.
During pregnancy, the placenta serves as
Secretions from the Adrenal Medulla an endocrine gland.It produces chorionic
gonadotropin hormone, estrogen, and
Dopamine is used to treat shock. It dilates progesterone.
the arteries, elevates systolic blood
pressure, increases cardiac output, and Secretions from the Gastrointestinal
increases urinary output. Mucosa
The mucosa of the pyloric area of the • In addition, the female reproductive
stomach secretes the hormone gastrin, system produces female sex hormones
which stimulates the production of gastric that maintain the reproductive cycle.
acid for digestion.
What Parts Make Up The Female
The mucosa of the duodenum and Anatomy?
jejunum secretes the hormone secretin,
which stimulates pancreatic juice, bile, The External Female Reproductive
and intestinal secretion. Structure

Secretions from the Thymus The function of the external female

reproductive structures (the genitals) is
The thymus gland has two lobes, and is twofold:
part of the lymphatic system. It is a ● To enable sperm to enter the body
ductless gland, and secretes thymosin. and
This is necessary for the Thymus’ normal ● To protect the internal genital
production of T cells for the immune organs from infectious organisms.
system.
Labia Majora
Female Reproductive System ● The labia majora enclose and
protect the other external
reproductive organs.
Where is this body system located?
● Literally translated as "large
The human female has a reproductive system
located entirely in the pelvis. lips," the labia majora are
• The external part of the female reproductive relatively large and fleshy, and are
organs is called the vulva which is located comparable to the scrotum in
between the legs. males.
• A female's internal reproductive organs are ● The labia majora contain sweat
the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and and oil-secreting glands.
ovaries. ● After puberty, the labia majora are
covered with hair.
Role
The female reproductive system is Labia Minora
designed to carry out several functions. It ● Literally translated as "small
produces the female egg cells lips," the labia minora can be very
necessary for reproduction. The system is small or up to 2 inches wide.
designed to transport the ova to the site ● They lie just inside the labia
of fertilization. majora, and surround the openings
• Conception, the fertilization of an egg by to the vagina and urethra.
a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian
tubes. Bartholin's Gland
• After conception, the uterus provides a ● These glands are located beside
safe environment for a baby to develop the vaginal opening and produce a
before it is time for it to make its way into fluid (mucus) secretion.
the outside world.
• If fertilization does not take place, the Clitoris
system is designed to menstruate. ● The two labia minora meet at the
clitoris, a small, sensitive
 protrusion that is comparable to ● The endometrium is the inner
the penis in males. layer that lines the uterus. It is
● The clitoris is covered by a fold of made up of glandular cells that
skin, called the prepuce, which is make secretions.
similar to the foreskin at the end of ● The myometrium is the middle
the penis. Like the penis, the and thickest layer of the uterus
clitoris is very sensitive to wall. It is made up mostly of
stimulation and can become erect. smooth muscle. The myometrium
and the endometrium, are all
Perineum important in preparing the uterus to
The perineum is the area located carry out its functions of protection,
between the vaginal opening and the nutritional support and waste
anus. It is a muscular sheet that can be removal for the developing fetus.
torn during childbirth.Some doctors avoid ● The perimetrium is the outer
uncontrolled tearing of the perineum by serous layer of the uterus. It helps
making a surgical incision called an keep everything in place.
episiotomy.
Functions of Uterus(womb)
The Internal Female Reproductive The uterus has 3 functions:
Structure 1. The endometrium sheds the lining
of the uterus every 21 to 40 days
Vagina by menstruation
● The vagina is a canal that joins the 2. It provides a place for the
cervix (the lower part of uterus) to protection and nourishment of the
the outside of the body. fetus during pregnancy
● It also is known as the birth 3. It contracts during labor to expel
canal. the fetus

Uterus(womb) Fallopian Tube

● The uterus is a hollow, ● These are narrow tubes that are
pear-shaped organ that is the attached to the upper part of the
home to a developing fetus. uterus and serve as tunnels for the
● The uterus is divided into two ova (egg cells) to travel from the
parts: ovaries to the uterus. (4-6 inches
– the cervix, which is the lower long)
part that opens into the vagina, ● Conception, the fertilization of an
and egg by a sperm, normally occurs in
– the main body of the uterus, the fallopian tubes. The fertilized
called the corpus. The corpus egg then moves to the uterus,
can easily expand to hold a where it implants into the lining of
developing baby. the uterine wall.
● A channel through the
cervix allows sperm to Structures in the Fallopian Tube
enter and menstrual
blood to exit. ● Tube widens to form the ampulla
● The isthmus is the portion that
Structures in the Uterus(womb) connects to uterus
 ● Fimbria are the finger-like contains sebaceous glands to keep
projections around the opening the skin conditioned.
that trap the egg as it leaves the ● In the center is the nipple, where
ovary ducts from the lobules open.
● End of tube is called the ● The first secretion from the breast
infundibulum is not a true milk, but a thin
● Opening is called the ostium yellowish substance called
colostrum. • Colostrum contains
Ovaries nutrients and the mother’s
● The two ovaries are attached to immunities that can protect baby.
each side of the uterus by a
ligament. What Happens During Menstrual Cycle?
● They are oval-shaped, about the
size of a large olive, and lie close Ovarian Cycle
to the fimbria at the end of the ● The ovarian cycle refers to the
fallopian tubes.Each ovary is filled, series of changes in the ovary
already at birth, with during which the follicle matures,
egg-containing sacs called the ovum is shed, and the corpus
follicles. Each egg is called an luteum develops.
ovum.
Phases of Ovarian Cycle
● Once every 21 days, one follicle in
one ovary ripens. This mature Follicular Phase
follicle is a graafian follicle. This phase typically takes place from days
● The follicle ruptures in response 6 to 14.
to hormones from the pituitary ● During this time, the level of the
gland, releasing the ovum/egg, a hormone estrogen rises, which
process called ovulation.After the causes the lining of the uterus
follicle ruptures, it becomes a mass (called the endometrium) to grow
of yellow cells called the corpus and thicken.
luteum. This is a temporary, ● In addition, another
progesterone-producing hormone—follicles-stimulating
structure hormone—causes follicles in the
ovaries to grow.
Breast ● During days 10 to 14, one of the
The breasts are the mammary glands, developing follicles will form a fully
varying in size according to age, heredity, mature egg (ovum).
and the amount of fatty tissue present
● . Each breast has 15-20 glandular Ovulatory Phase
lobes separated by connective ● The ovulatory phase, or ovulation,
tissue. starts about 14 days after the
● After childbirth, the pituitary gland follicular phase started.
stimulates these lobules with the ● The ovulatory phase is the
hormone prolactin and they midpoint of the menstrual cycle,
produce milk. with the next menstrual period
Structures in the Breast starting about two weeks later.
● The dark-colored circle at the tip
of the breast is called the areola. It Ovulatory Phase(events)
 ● The rise in estrogen from the preparation of the uterus for
dominant follicle triggers a surge in pregnancy.
the amount of luteinizing hormone ● The menstrual cycle occurs due
that is produced by the brain. This to the rise and fall of estrogen.
causes the dominant follicle to
release its egg from the ovary. Phases Of Uterine Cycle
● As the egg is released (a process
called ovulation), it is captured by Menstrual Flow Phase
finger-like projections on the end of ● This is the part of the cycle when a
the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The person has their period.
fimbriae sweep the egg into the ● The cycle starts when the egg from
tube the previous menstrual cycle does
● . Also during this phase, there is not become fertilized. Hormone
an increase in the amount and levels of estrogen and
thickness of mucus produced by progesterone drop.
the cervix (lower part of the ● Because the thickened uterine
uterus). If a woman were to have lining is not needed, it will break
intercourse during this time, the down and shed. This lining and the
thick mucus captures the man's egg then exit through the vagina
sperm, nourishes it, and helps it to during the menstrual period.
move towards the egg for ● The period consists of a
fertilization. combination of uterus tissue,
mucus, and blood. The menstrual
Luteal Phase phase can last for 3–8 days.
● This phase lasts from about day 15
to day 28 Proliferative Phase
● . After the egg is released from the ● From the end of the period
ovary it begins to travel through the until ovulation • The uterus
fallopian tubes to the uterus. builds up a thick inner
● The level of the hormone lining.
progesterone rises to help prepare ● This is called the
the uterine lining for pregnancy. proliferative phase
● If the egg becomes fertilized by a because the endometrium
sperm and attaches itself to the (the lining of the uterus)
uterine wall, the woman becomes becomes thicker.
pregnant. If pregnancy does not ● The endometrium is
occur, estrogen and progesterone thinnest during the period,
levels drop and the thickened lining and thickens throughout
of the uterus is shed during the this phase until ovulation
menstrual period. occurs. The uterus does
this to create a place where
Uterine Cycle a potential fertilized egg
● The menstrual cycle is the regular can implant and grow
natural change that occurs in the Secretory Phase
female reproductive system that ● From ovulation until the start of the
makes pregnancy possible. next period
● The cycle is required for the ● The lining of the uterus releases
production of oocytes, and for the or secretes chemicals that will
 either help an early pregnancy ● LH triggers the creation of steroid
attach if an egg was fertilized, or hormones from the ovaries.
help the lining break down and ● Additionally, LH helps to regulate
shed if no egg was fertilized the length and order of the
● The secretory phase gets its menstrual cycle in females by
name because the endometrium is playing roles in both ovulation and
secreting (producing and implantation of an egg in the
releasing) many types of chemical uterus.
messengers. The most notable of
these messengers are the Progesterone
prostaglandins, which are secreted ● Progesterone prepares the
by endometrial cells and cause endometrium for the potential of
changes to other cells nearby. pregnancy after ovulation.
● It triggers the lining to thicken to
What Happens During Menstrual Cycle? accept a fertilized egg.
● It also prohibits the muscle
Roles of Hormones in the Female contractions in the uterus that
Reproductive System would cause the body to reject an
egg
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone(GnRH)
● • Produced from the cells of Estrogen
hypothalamus. ● Ovaries: Estrogen helps stimulate
● Gonadotropin hormone-releasing the growth of the egg follicle.
hormone (GnRH) is the key ● Vagina: In the vagina, estrogen
regulator of the reproductive axis. maintains the thickness of the
● •Its pulsatile secretion determines vaginal wall and promotes
the pattern of secretion of the lubrication.
gonadotropins follicle stimulating ● Uterus: Estrogen enhances and
hormone and luteinizing hormone, maintains the mucous membrane
which then regulate both the that lines the uterus. It also
endocrine function and gamete regulates the flow and thickness of
maturation in the gonads. uterine mucus secretions
● . Breasts: The body uses
Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH) estrogen in the formation of breast
● Follicle stimulating hormone is one tissue. This hormone also helps
of the hormones essential to stop the flow of milk after weaning.
pubertal development and the
function of women's ovaries. Male Reproductive System
● In women, this hormone
stimulates the growth of ovarian
● The male reproductive
follicles in the ovary before the
system is mostly located
release of an egg from one follicle
outside of the body.
at ovulation.
● These external organs
● It also increases estradiol
include the penis, scrotum
production.
and testicles. Internal
Luteinizing Hormone(LH) organs include the vas
 deferens, prostate and The glans:
urethra. ● This is the cone-shaped end of the
● The male reproductive penis.
system is responsible for ● The glans, which is also called
sexual function, as well as the head of the penis, is covered
urination. with a loose layer of skin called
Purpose of Organs foreskin.
These organs do the following jobs within ● This skin is sometimes removed in
your body: a procedure called circumcision.
● They produce, maintain and
transport sperm (the male Facts about Penis
reproductive cells) and semen (the ● The opening of the urethra — the
protective fluid around the sperm) tube that transports both semen
● . They discharge sperm into the and urine out of the body — is
female reproductive tract. located at the tip of the glans
● They produce and secrete male penis.
sex hormones responsible for ● The penis also contains many
maintaining the male reproductive sensitive nerve endings.
system. ● Semen, which contains sperm, is
expelled (ejaculated) through the
What are the External Male Reproductive end of the penis when a man
Structures reaches sexual climax (orgasm).
● When the penis is erect, the flow
Penis of urine is blocked from the
● The penis is the male sex organ, urethra, allowing only semen to be
reaching its full size during puberty. ejaculated at orgasm.
● In addition to its sexual function,
the penis acts as a conduit for Scrotum
urine to leave the body • The scrotum is the loose
Parts pouch-like sac of skin that hangs
The root: This is the part of the penis that behind the penis.
attaches to the wall of your abdomen. • It holds the testicles (also called
testes), as well as many nerves
The body or shaft: and blood vessels.
• Shaped like a tube or cylinder, the body • The scrotum protects your testes,
of the penis is made up of three internal as well as providing a sort of
chambers. climate control system.
• Inside these chambers there’s a special,
sponge-like erectile tissue that contains Testes
thousands of large spaces that fill with • The testes are oval organs about
blood when you’re sexually aroused. the size of very large olives that lie
• As the penis fills with blood, it becomes in the scrotum, secured at either
rigid and erect, which allows for end by a structure called the
penetration during sex. spermatic cord.
• The skin of the penis is loose and • Most men have two testes.
elastic, allowing for changes in penis size
during an erection. Function
 ● The testes are responsible sperm that emerge from the testes
for making testosterone, are immature and incapable of
the primary male sex fertilization.
hormone, and for ● During sexual arousal,
producing sperm. contractions force the sperm into
● Within the testes are the vas deferens.
coiled masses of tubes
called seminiferous Vas Deferens
tubules. The vas deferens is a long, muscular
● These tubules are tube that travels from the epididymis into
responsible for producing the pelvic cavity, to just behind the
the sperm cells through a bladder. • The vas deferens transports
process called mature sperm to the urethra in preparation
spermatogenesis. for ejaculation.
Sperm cell
● It is produced in the testes. Ejaculatory Ducts
● It fertilizes the egg to become ● These ducts are formed by the
mature ovum. fusion of the vas deferens and the
● The primary function of the sperm seminal vesicles.
is to pass on the necessary ● The ejaculatory ducts empty into
biological information required to the urethra.
produce a new organism.
● The sperm cell, which come from Urethra
the testes, travel in the ● The urethra is the tube that
epididymis, where they are carries urine from the bladder to
temporally stored until they are outside of your body.
released. ● In males, it has the additional
● The sperm cells are released and function of expelling (ejaculating)
moved along the vas deferens. semen when you reach orgasm.
● Along the way, the sperms are ● When the penis is erect during
combined with the nutrients sex, the flow of urine is blocked
secretions from the prostate from the urethra, allowing only
gland and seminal vesicles. This semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
mixture is called semen
● . The semen will be transported Seminal Vesicles
into the urethra and out of the ● The seminal vesicles are sac-like
penis. pouches that attach to the vas
What are the Internal Male Reproductive deferens near the base of the
Structures? bladder.
● The seminal vesicles make a
Epididymis sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that
● The epididymis is a long, coiled provides sperm with a source of
tube that rests on the backside of energy and helps with the sperms’
each testicle. ability to move (motility).
● It carries and stores sperm cells ● The fluid of the seminal vesicles
that are created in the testes. It’s makes up most of the volume of
also the job of the epididymis to your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
bring the sperm to maturity — the
Prostate Gland • Gonadotropin hormone-releasing
● The prostate gland is a hormone (GnRH) is the key regulator of
walnut-sized structure that’s the reproductive axis.
located below the urinary bladder • Its pulsatile secretion determines the
in front of the rectum. pattern of secretion of the gonadotropins
● The prostate gland contributes follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
additional fluid to the ejaculate. hormone, which then regulate both the
● Prostate fluids also help to nourish endocrine function and gamete maturation
the sperm. in the gonads.
● The urethra, which carries the
ejaculate to be expelled during Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH)
orgasm, runs through the center of ● Released by Pituitary Gland
the prostate gland. ● FSH enters the testes, stimulating
the Sertoli cells, which help to
Bulbourethral Gland nourish the sperm cells that the
● The bulbourethral glands, or testes produce, to begin facilitating
Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized spermatogenesis.
structures located on the sides of
the urethra, just below the prostate Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
gland. ● Released by Pituitary Gland
● These glands produce a clear, ● LH plays an important role in
slippery fluid that empties directly sexual development and
into the urethra. functioning.
● This fluid serves to lubricate the ● Luteinizing hormone stimulates
urethra and to neutralize any the production of testosterone from
acidity that may be present due to Leydig cells in the testes.
residual drops of urine in the
urethra. Testosterone
● Produced by Leydig cells in
How does the Male Reproductive System testes.
● Testosterone is a sex hormone
Male Reproductive System that plays important roles in the
● The entire male reproductive body.
system is dependent on hormones. ● In men, it's thought to regulate
● These are chemicals that sex drive (libido), bone mass, fat
stimulate or regulate the activity of distribution, muscle mass and
your cells or organs. strength, and the production of red
● The primary hormones involved in blood cells and sperm.
the functioning of the male
reproductive system are Hereditary :Inheritance and
follicle-stimulating hormone
Variation
(FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)
and testosterone.
DNA and It’s Structure
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone(GnRH)
● Produced from the cells of DNA(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
hypothalamus
 ● It carries genetic information of an The rings are not only made of carbon.
organism
● It plays a vital role in the transfer Deoxyribonucleic Acid
of genetic materials from parents • Nucleotides are linked together by
to offspring • In human body, DNA covalent bonds called phosphodiester
is found in the nucleus, small linkage.
amount found in the mitochondrion
● Codes for genes, which are DNA double helix and Hydrogen Bonding
segments of the DNA molecule Salient features of the Double-helix
that transmits hereditary structure of DNA:
information ● It is made of two polynucleotide
● Each gene contains instructions for chains, where the backbone is
making proteins in the cell. DNA constituted by sugar-phosphate,
controls protein synthesis and the bases project inside.
● Controls protein synthesis, the ● The two chains have antiparallel
process by which proteins are polarity. It means, if one chain has
formed from amino acids. the polarity 5’ 3’, the other has 3’
5’.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
● Portions of DNA are called genes RNA and It’s Structure
● . DNA is tightly wound into Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
chromosomes and located in the ● RNA is SINGLE STRANDED and
nucleus of cells does not have to stay in the
● . DNA cannot leave the nucleus. nucleus!
● DNA is DOUBLE STRANDED(2 ● RNA is not found in
sides) chromosomes because it does not
Each strand consist of : carry the genetic code, however it
1. A Sugar Phosphate Backbone can read the DNA code and take
2. Four Base Chemicals the information out of the nucleus.
Adenine pairs with Thymine ● RNA’s main job is to build
Guanine pairs with Cytosine proteins!
Structure
● Basic structure of DNA is a RNA Structure
sugar-phosphate backbone with 4 ● The building blocks of RNA are
variable nitrogenous bases. Nucleotides, just like DNA.
● This structure is called a ● A Nucleotide in RNA is still made
nucleotide. of 3 important things
: 1. 6-Carbon Sugar - Ribose (instead of
The Nitrogen Base Deoxyribose)
They are divided into two groups 2. Phosphate
Pyrimidines and Purines 3. Nitrogen base
1. Pyrimidines (made of one 6 member ● there are 4 nitrogen bases in
ring) • Thymine RNA, A,G,C, and U that pair
• Cytosine together)
2. Purines (made of a 6 member ring, A -U C- G
fused to a 5 member ring)
• Adenine Three MAins Parts of RNA
• Guanine
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) – transcribes the replication process takes place
the genetic information from the DNA into accurately.
a form that can be read and used to make ● Therefore DNA replication is a
proteins and it carries genetic information process that produces identical
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the helices of DNA from a single
cell. strand of the DNA molecule.
● DNA replication is an essential
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – is the mechanism in enhancing cell
structural component of ribosomes. It growth, repair, and reproduction of
directs the translation of mRNA into an organism.
proteins.
Mechanism of DNA Replication
3. Transfer RNA ( tRNA) – transports DNA replication takes place in
specific amino acids to the ribosomes that three major steps.
correspond to each 3 – nucleotide codon ● Opening of the
of rRNA. The amino acids in the double-stranded helical
ribosomes are then joined together in structure of DNA and
proper order to make a specific amino acid separation of the strands
sequence specified by the mRNA. ● Priming of the template
strands
DNA Replication ● Assembly of the newly
formed DNA segments.
DNA Replication
● This is a complex process that During the separation of DNA, the two
takes place during cell division, strands uncoil at a specific site known as
(interphase, S phase) whereby the origin. With the involvement of several
DNA makes copies (duplicates) enzymes and proteins, they prepare
before the cell divides through (prime) the strands for duplication.
mitosis and meiosis.
● DNA replication is a ● At the end of the process, DNA
semiconservative process where polymerase enzyme starts to
a parental strand (template) is organize the assembly of the new
used to synthesize a new DNA strands.
complementary daughter strand ● These are the general steps of
using several protein elements DNA replication for all cells, but
which include enzymes and RNA they may vary specifically,
molecules depending on the organism and
● . DNA replication process uses cell type.
DNA polymerase as the main ● Enzymes play a major role in
enzyme for catalyzing the joining of DNA replication because they
deoxyribonucleoside 5′- catalyze several important stages
triphosphates (dNTPs) forming a of the entire process.
growing chain of DNA. ● DNA replication is one of the
● Other proteins are also involved for most essential mechanisms of a
initiation of the process and cell’s function and therefore
copying of DNA, along with intensive research has been done
proofreading capabilities to ensure to understand its processes.
 DNA Replication Enzymes and ● templates for the initiation
Proteins of DNA replication.
DNA ligase enzyme
DNA Helicase Enzyme ● This is the enzyme that joins DNA
● This is the enzyme that is fragments together by forming
involved in unwinding the phosphodiester bonds between
double-helical structure of nucleotides
DNA allowing DNA
replication to commence. Exonuclease
● It uses energy that is ● These are a group of
released during ATP enzymes that remove
hydrolysis, to break the nucleotide bases from the
hydrogen bond between end of a DNA chain..
the DNA bases and Topoisomerase
separate the strands. ● This is the enzyme that solves the
● This forms two replication problem of the topological stress
forks on each separated caused during unwinding.
strand opening up in ● They cut one or both strands of
opposite directions. the DNA allowing the strand to
● The helicase enzyme move around each other to release
accurately unwinds the tension before it rejoins the ends.
strands while maintaining ● And therefore, the enzyme
the topography on the DNA catalysts the reversible breakage it
molecule. causes by joining the broken
DNA polymerase strands.
● DNA polymerases are enzymes ● Topoisomerase is also known as
used for the synthesis of DNA by DNA gyrase.
adding nucleotide one by one to
the growing DNA chain. The DNA Replication Steps/Stages
enzyme incorporates I. Initiation
complementary amino acids to the ● This is the stage where
template strand. DNA replication is initiated.
● DNA polymerase is found in both ● DNA synthesis is initiated
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. within the template strand
They both contain several different at a specific coding region
DNA polymerases responsible for site known as origins.
different functions in DNA ● The origin sites are
replication and DNA repair targeted by the initiator
mechanisms. proteins, which recruit
additional proteins that help
DNA primase enzyme in the replication process to
● This is a type of RNA form a replication complex
polymerase enzyme that is around the DNA origin.
used to synthesize or ● There are several origin
generate RNA primers, sites on which DNA
which are short RNA replication is initiated and
molecules that act as they are all known as
replication forks.
 I. Initiation(cont) new strand in the 5′ to 3′ direction,
● The formed replication which is known as the leading
complex contains the DNA strand.
helicase enzyme whose II.Elongation(cont.)
function is to unwind the • Along the template strand, DNA primase
double helix, exposing the synthesizes a short RNA primer at the
two strands, which act as beginning of the template in the 5′ to 3′
templates for replication. direction, which initiates the DNA
● The mechanism of DNA polymerase to continue synthesizing new
helicase enzyme is by nucleotides, extending the new DNA
hydrolyzing the ATP that is strand.
used to form the bonds • The other template (5′ to 3′) is elongated
between the nucleobases, in an antiparallel direction, by the addition
thus breaking the bond that of short RNA primers which are filled with
holds the two strands. other joining fragments, forming the newly
● Additionally, during initiation formed lagging strand. These short
DNA primase enzyme fragments are known as the Okazaki
synthesizes small RNA fragments.
primers that kick-start the • The synthesis of the lagging strand is
function of DNA discontinuous since the newly formed
polymerase. strand is disjointed.
● DNA polymerase enzyme • The RNA nucleotides from the short
functions by growing the RNA primers must be removed and
new DNA daughter strand. replaced by DNA nucleotides, which are
Replication Fork and it’s Functions then joined by the DNA ligase enzyme.
● The replication fork is the site of
active DNA synthesis, where the Leading Strand
DNA helix unwinds and single ● The leading strand is the new
strands of the DNA replicates. DNA strand that is continuously
● The replication fork is formed synthesized by the DNA
during DNA strand unwinding by polymerase enzyme.
the helicase enzyme which ● It is the simplest strand that is
exposes the origin of replication. synthesized during replication.
II.Elongation ● The synthesis starts after the
● This is the phase where the DNA DNA strand has unzipped and
polymerase grows the new DNA separated. This generates a short
daughter strand by attaching to the piece of RNA known as a primer,
original unzipped template strand by the DNA primase enzyme.
and the initiating short RNA primer. ● The primer binds to the 3′ end
● The DNA polymerase is able to (start) of the strand, thus initiating
synthesize a new strand that the synthesize of the new strand
matches the template, by (leading strand).
extending the primer via the ● The synthesis of the leading
addition of free nucleotides to the strand is a continuous process.
3′ end. Lagging Strand
● One of the templates reads in the ● This is the template strand (5′ to 3′)
3′ to 5′ direction, and therefore, the that is synthesized in a
DNA polymerase synthesizes the
 discontinuous manner by RNA III.Termination(cont.)
primers. ● The ends of the parent
● During the synthesis of the leading strand consist of a
strand, it exposes small, short repetition of DNA
strands, or templates that are then sequences known as
used for the synthesis of the telomeres which act as
Okasaki fragments. protective caps at the ends
● The Okasaki fragments of chromosomes preventing
synthesize the lagging strand by the fusion of nearby
the activity of DNA polymerase chromosomes.
which adds the pieces of DNA (the ● The telomeres are
Okasaki fragments) to the strand synthesized by a special
between the primers. type of DNA polymerase
● The formation of the lagging enzyme known as
strand is a discontinuous process telomerase.
because the newly formed strand ● It catalyzes the telomere
(lagging strand) is the sequences at the end of the
fragmentation of short DNA DNA. • On completion, the
strands. parent and complementary
strand coil into a double
Okazaki Fragment helical shape, producing
● Okazaki fragments are short, two DNA molecules each
newly synthesized DNA fragments passing one strand from
that are formed on the lagging the parent molecule and
template strand during DNA one new strand.
replication. Mutations
● They are complementary to the ● A mutation is the permanent
lagging template strand, together alteration of the nucleotide
forming short double-stranded sequence of the genome of an
DNA sections. organism, virus, or extra
chromosomal DNA or other genetic
III.Termination elements.
● After the synthesis and extension ● Mutations result from errors during
of both the continuous and DNA replication or other types of
discontinued stands, an enzyme damage to DNA.
known as exonuclease removes all
RNA primers from the original Cause of Mutations
strands The Two Main causes of Mutation
● . The primers are replaced with ● Mistakes in Cell Replication
the right nucleotide bases. ● Environmental Factors
● While removing the primers,
another type of exonuclease MISTAKES IN CELL REPLICATION
proofread the new stands, • During replication of DNA, double
checking, removing, and replacing strands of DNA are separated. Each
any errors formed during synthesis strand is then copied to become another
● . DNA ligase enzyme joins the double strand. About 1 out of every
Okazaki fragments to form a single
unified strand.
• 100,000,000 times, a mistake occurs Structural Abnormalities
during copying, which can lead to a When the chromosome's structure is
mutation. altered, this can take several forms:
● Mutations can also be caused by ● DELETION
environmental foes. Tobacco, ● DUPLICATION
ultraviolet light and other chemicals ● INVERSION
(Hydroxylamine Base analogs, etc. ● TRANSLOCATION
) alkylating agents are all potential
enemies of DNA. Deletion
● These agents cause the DNA to ● Deletion involves the loss of a
break down. This is not necessarily piece of chromosome or a break of
unnatural — even in the most the DNA molecule.
isolated and pristine environments, ● An example of disorders that
DNA breaks down. results from deletion id cri-du chat
syndrome. It is a disorder known
Types of Mutations as chromosome 5p deletion
Chromosomal Mutation syndrome. The cry of affected
● DELETION infants is similar to that of cat’s cry
● DUPLICATION due to problems with their voice
● INVERSION box and nervous system.
● TRANSLOCATION
Gene Mutation ● Duplication occurs when gene
● POINT MUTATION sequences have been repeated
● FRAMESHIFT MUTATION several to many times.
● One example of a disease caused
Chromosomal Mutation by duplication is the
● A chromosome aberration, or Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.
mutation is a missing, extra, or This genetic disorder is a result of
irregular portion of chromosomal the duplication of a large region on
DNA. It can be from a typical the short arm of chromosome 17.
number of chromosomes or a
structural abnormality in one or
more chromosomes. Inversion
● Inversion occurs when a part of
Numerical disorders the DNA segment within the
● This is called aneuploidy (an chromosome change in direction.
abnormal number of ● Hemophilia A, bleeding disorder
chromosomes), and occurs when caused by factor VIII deficiency, is
an individual either is missing a a result of the rearrangement
chromosome from a pair (inversion) of a section of the long
(monosomy) or has more than two arm of the X chromosome
chromosomes of a pair (trisomy,
tetrasomy etc.). Translocation
● In humans, an example of a ● Translocation happens when a
condition caused by a numerical piece of one chromosome moves
anomaly is Down Syndrome, also to a nonhomologous reciprocal
known as Trisomy 21 chromosome.
Gene Mutation ● Proteins aid in transporting
● A gene mutation is a permanent molecules around the body
alteration in the DNA sequence ● Proteins act as enzymes.
that makes up a gene, such that ● Proteins act as passageway of
the sequence differs from what is molecules and substances into and
found in most people. out of the cell.
● Mutations range in size; they can
affect anywhere from a single DNA Protein Synthesis
building block (base pair) to a large The process of protein synthesis occurs
segment of a chromosome that when DNA produces an RNA template
includes multiple genes. which then directs the amino acids to be
introduced into the growing protein chain
Point Mutation in the proper sequence. A specific
● A point mutation is a type of transferRNA (tRNA) attaches to each
mutation that causes a single specific amino acid and brings the amino
nucleotide base substitution, acid to the RNA for incorporation.
insertion, or deletion of the genetic
material, DNA or RNA Process in Protein Synthesis
Causes of point mutations
● Point mutation is a random SNP Transcription
(single-nucleotide polymorphism) ● Transcription is the first part of the
mutation in the DNA. central dogma of molecular
● A single point mutation can biology:
change the whole DNA sequence. DNA → RNA
● Point mutations may arise from ● It is the transfer of genetic
spontaneous mutations that occur instructions in DNA to mRNA.
during DNA replication. The rate of ● During transcription, a strand of
mutation may be increased by mRNA is made to complement a
mutagens strand of DNA.

Frameshift Mutation Steps of Transcription

● A frameshift mutation (also called • Initiation is the beginning of
a framing error or a reading frame transcription. It occurs when the enzyme
shift) is a genetic mutation caused RNA polymerase binds to a region of a
by indels (insertions or deletions) gene called the promoter. This signals
of a number of nucleotides in a the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can
DNA sequence that is not divisible “read” the bases in one of the DNA
by three. strands. The enzyme is ready to make a
strand of mRNA with a complementary
Protein Synthesis sequence of bases.
Protein • Elongation is the addition of nucleotides
● Proteins are the final product in to the mRNA strand.
the central dogma of molecular • Termination is the ending of
biology. transcription. The mRNA strand is
● They are called the building blocks complete, and it detaches from DNA.
of life because they have diverse
functions in the body. Translation
 ● Translation is the second part of ● Methionine
the central dogma of molecular ● Phenylalanine
biology: ● Threonine Tryptophan
RNA → Protein. ● Valine
● It is the process in which the
genetic code in mRNA is read to Non-essential amino acids
make a protein. ● Alanine
● After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it ● Arginine
moves to a ribosome, which ● Asparagine
consists of rRNA and proteins. The ● Aspartic acid
ribosome reads the sequence of ● Cysteine Glutamic acid
codons in mRNA, and molecules of ● Glutamine Glycine
tRNA bring amino acids to the ● Proline
ribosome in the correct sequence. ● Serine
● Tyrosine
Genetic code
● It is the language of instructions in Evolution
mRNA.
● It is the code for each piece of Evolution
genetic information in DNA (which ● Is an inherited change in
specifies in one amino acid) which the traits of organism over
is transcribed to mRNA to be time.
decoded during translation. ● It is a process wherein new
species came from
Codon and Anticodon preexisting species.
● A triplet code (codon) is a code in
which a sequence of three Lamarck’s Theories of Evolution
nucleotides in DNA and later in
RNA specifies one amino acid. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck , a French
● Anticodon is the triplet code on biologist who first suggested that
tRNA which recognizes and organisms undergo evolution.
complements the codon on mRNA • He proposed that all organisms evolve
during translation. in response to their environment.
– A start codon (code for • He also studied fossils and organisms,
methionine) initiates all which led him to formulate theories
polypeptide synthesis. regarding evolution.
– A terminator (stop) codon • His theory explained why organisms
terminates the elongation of change over time.
polypeptide chain.
Theory of Need
Essential and Non-essential Amino “Organisms change because they need to
Acid and as a response to the environment,
making their traits more adaptable.”
Essential amino acids ● The traits that the organisms
● Histidine manifest are products of their
● Isoleucine altered behaviors
● Leucine
● Lysine
Theory of Use and Disuse Survival of the Fittest
“Organisms developed characteristics by ● Competition is a struggle
the use and disuse.” for existence.
● Lamarck explained that ● All organisms will struggle
organisms can reshape their traits for living space and food in
depending on the importance of the natural world.
those traits to them. ● Because of this struggle
● An organism will develop a trait for survival, organisms are
that is useful to it, and it will lose a compelled to change to fit
trait that is useless. into the environment.
● Failure to do so will result
Theory of Acquired Traits in extinction – a process
“An organism can develop wherein all individuals of a
acquired traits as adaptations, and given species cease to
these traits acquired in its lifetime exist.
could be passed on to its Adaptation to the environment
offspring.” ● Organism who can adapt to their
environment would most likely
Darwins’s Theory of Natural survive and produce an offspring
Selection with adaptable traits.
Charles Darwin, an English Naturalist, ● Adaptation is the process of being
contributed the widely accepted theory of better suited to the environment.
evolution by means of natural selection. ● The fittest organisms would avoid
● His theory of natural extinction and have the ability to
selection provided the reproduce healthy offspring, which
foundation for will guarantee transmission of
understanding the diversity adaptable traits for future
of species on Earth. generations.
● Species refers to a group Natural Selection
of organisms that have ● Environmental conditions affect
similar features and the survival of organisms.
characteristics and can ● Only those organisms that can
produce fertile offspring in a adapt to new environmental
specific environment. conditions will survive and
Major Ideas of the Concept Natural reproduce in greater numbers than
Selection those without the capacity to
Variation of Organism adapt.
● Organisms vary in their physical, Process of Speciation
functional, and behavioral • When new species come to existence,
characteristics. No two individuals speciation occurs.
are the same. • This process happens when favorable
● Variation is important in natural traits are gradually accumulated by the
selection because it allows a new species and the unfavorable traits
specific kind of species to survive disappear
more than other members.
● Variations of organisms are Paleontology
passed on to the next generation.
Paleontology ● It occurs when organism’s
● It is a scientific study of prehistoric remains get frozen.
life, which includes the identity, ● Examples of the effects of
origin, environment, and evolution freezing are the remains of
of organisms. wooly mammoths and
● Fossils are considered as a direct rhinoceroses during the ice
evidence of ancient life. age
● Using fossil records, 3. Desiccation
Paleontologist can identify ● It occurs when the remains dry up
organisms that flourished millions for a long period of time.
of years ago and reconstruct the ● Example of the effect of
environment they inhabited. desiccation is the remains of giant
ground sloths in desert or dry
Indirect Evidence of Fossil areas.
A. Body Fossils – These includes the 4. Carbonization
discovered bones, teeth, shells, and other ● It occurs when the only remaining
hard materials of once living organisms. component of an organism is
carbon – the most common
B. Trace Fossils – These includes component in plant fossils.
imprints of leaves, stems, burrows, tracks, ● Example of this is Amber, a
footprints, coprolites(fossilized feces). fossilized sap of ancient pine trees
that may contain fossil insects or
Fossil Evidence other small animals trapped in the
sticky sap
Fossilization
a gradual process that starts when Stratigraphy
volcanic ash or sediments cover an It is the study of rock layers, wherein
organism or its traces. Fossils can also be scientist compare large and microscopic
formed by: fossils located on different rock layers to
A. Petrification assign relative ages of rocks.
B. Freezing
C. Desiccation Index Fossil
D. Carbonization ● It is used to determined the relative
age of the rocks.
How Fossils are Formed ● Examples of index fossils are
ammonites, trilobites and corals.
1. Petrification/Petrifaction
● It starts when water infiltrates the Radiometric Dating
remains buried underneath and ● It is used to determined the actual
inorganic compounds are age of the rocks.
dissolved replacing minerals in ● Scientists are determining
bones and other hardened tissues. radioactive isotopes presents in
● Accumulation of sediments exerts the sedimentary rocks.
pressure on the burial site of the ● Radioisotopes decay into
organism. nonradioactive elements at a
constant rate.
2. Freezing ● The rate of radioactive decay is
measured by half-life.
 Half-life Biological Evidence
● It is the length of the time
required for half of the Nucleotide and protein sequence
radioisotopes to decay.
● The sequence of
Embryological Evidence nucleotides making up DNA
is also evidence of
Embryology evolution.
● It is the study of how organisms ● The theory of evolution
develop from fertilization to birth. shows that if species
● The development of embryos, evolved over time, their
similarities in the DNA of protein genes must also have
organisms, and protein evolved.
compositions offer additional sets ● In these theory of
of indirect evidence of evolutionary evolution, genes
relationship. accumulate modifications in
● Embryos of different species have their nucleotide sequence.
similarities, especially in the later ● Closely related species
stages of development for more will have genes that show
closely related animals indicating more similarities in the
related ties. nucleotide and protein
sequence than those of
Structural Evidence distantly related species.

Homologous Structures .
● These are body structures of
different organisms that have
similar arrangements and patterns
in embryonic development.
● Several kinds of organisms have
homologous limbs.
● These limbs have common
internal bone structures but are
adapted for different functions.

Analogous Structures
● They have similar appearance and
function, but they differ in origin.
● Examples are the wings of birds,
bats, and insects for flying.
● These types of wings look similar
and perform the same function, but
they possess different internal
structures.
● Vestigial Organs are body parts
without specific functions and
resemble the structure of their
presumed ancestors.