1

1. what is meant by evaluation survey? How it differs from base line survey?

An evaluation survey is a type of survey used to assess the effectiveness and impact of a
specific program, project, or intervention. The goal of an evaluation survey is to gather
data and feedback from participants or stakeholders in order to determine whether the
program or intervention has achieved its intended goals and objectives.

In contrast, a baseline survey is conducted at the beginning of a program or intervention

to establish a starting point against which progress can be measured. Baseline surveys
typically collect information on key indicators or outcomes related to the program or
intervention, such as knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, and serve as a benchmark for
later evaluations.

The main difference between an evaluation survey and a baseline survey is their timing
and purpose. While baseline surveys are conducted at the beginning of a program to
establish a starting point, evaluation surveys are conducted at the end or after a program
has been implemented to assess its impact and effectiveness. Additionally, while baseline
surveys are typically used to establish a benchmark for later evaluations, evaluation
surveys are used to assess the effectiveness of the program itself.
Q2. Describe the terms ' funneling questions' and 'sequencing question' in
questionnaire.

In questionnaire design, both funneling questions and sequencing questions are

important techniques used to structure questions in a logical and effective way.

Funneling questions are a type of question that starts with a broad or general topic and
then gradually narrows down to a more specific aspect of that topic. The purpose of a
funneling question is to help the respondent move from general to more specific
information, and to ensure that all relevant aspects of the topic are covered. For example,
a funneling question in a customer satisfaction survey might start with a general question
like "Overall, how satisfied are you with our products and services?" and then follow up
with more specific questions about different aspects of the company, such as customer
service, pricing, and product quality.

Sequencing questions, on the other hand, are questions that are arranged in a particular
order to create a logical flow of information. Sequencing questions can help to ensure
that respondents understand the context of the questions and that they are able to
provide accurate and relevant information. For example, a sequencing question in a survey
about employee satisfaction might start by asking about the respondent's role in the
company, followed by questions about their work environment, job responsibilities, and
benefits.
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Q3. what do you mean by data archiving? What steps should be taken old data
resource is going to be archived?

Data archiving is the process of moving data that is no longer actively used to a separate
storage location for long-term retention. The purpose of data archiving is to free up space
on active storage systems and to preserve data that may be needed for legal or regulatory
reasons, or for future reference or analysis.

When old data resources are going to be archived, several steps should be taken to ensure
that the process is done effectively and efficiently:

1. Identify data to be archived: Determine which data sets are no longer actively used
and can be safely archived.
2. Evaluate data retention requirements: Identify any legal or regulatory requirements
that dictate how long the data must be retained.
3. Determine archiving method: Decide on the best method for archiving the data,
based on factors such as the amount of data, the type of data, and the cost of
storage.
4. Prepare data for archiving: Clean up the data, remove any unnecessary files or
duplicates, and organize it in a way that makes it easy to retrieve when needed.
5. Choose an archive storage location: Select a secure and reliable storage location
that meets the organization's needs for accessibility, scalability, and cost.
6. Migrate data: Transfer the data to the archive storage location, using a reliable and
secure method.
7. Verify data integrity: Confirm that the data has been successfully transferred and
that it remains intact and accessible.
8. Document the archiving process: Create a record of the archiving process,
including the data sets that were archived, the archiving method used, and the
location of the archive storage.
Q.4. what does a satellite mean? Describe about geostationary satellite.

A satellite is a man-made object placed in orbit around the Earth for various purposes
such as communication, observation, and navigation. A geostationary satellite is a type of
satellite that orbits the Earth at an altitude of approximately 36,000 km above the equator.
At this altitude, the satellite's orbital period matches the Earth's rotation period, which
allows it to appear stationary from an observer's perspective on the ground. Geostationary
satellites are commonly used for telecommunications, broadcasting, and other
applications that require continuous coverage of a particular area.
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Q5. What do you mean by GIS? Discuss the applications of GIS in various fields.

GIS stands for Geographic Information System. It is a system that is designed to capture,
store, analyze, manage, and present geospatial data, which is data that has a geographic
or spatial component. GIS combines maps and data to help users visualize and analyze
complex information about a particular location or region.

The applications of GIS are numerous and span a variety of fields, including:

1. Urban Planning: GIS is used to analyze and manage data related to land use,
zoning, transportation, and infrastructure planning.
2. Environmental Management: GIS is used to monitor and manage natural resources,
such as water, forests, and wildlife habitats, and to analyze environmental impacts
of various activities.
3. Public Health: GIS is used to track and analyze patterns of disease spread, identify
areas at risk for disease outbreaks, and plan healthcare facilities and services.
4. Business: GIS is used to identify potential business locations, analyze customer
demographics, and track sales and marketing activities.
5. Agriculture: GIS is used to manage and analyze data related to crop yields, soil
composition, weather patterns, and land use.
6. Emergency Management: GIS is used to plan for and respond to natural disasters
and other emergencies, including tracking and managing evacuation routes and
identifying areas at risk.
7. Military: GIS is used to plan and execute military operations, track troop
movements, and analyze terrain and other geographic factors.
Q6. Describe different methods of analyzing and interpreting spatial data.

There are several methods of analyzing and interpreting spatial data, including:

1. Spatial clustering: This method involves identifying areas with high concentrations
of specific features or phenomena, such as clusters of crime incidents or disease
outbreaks.
2. Spatial autocorrelation: This method examines the degree to which spatial features
are similar or dissimilar to one another, and can help identify patterns or clusters
of similar features.
3. Spatial interpolation: This method involves estimating values for unmeasured
locations based on values at nearby measured locations. It is commonly used in
environmental modeling, where it can help predict pollution levels or other
environmental conditions in areas where measurements are not available.
4. Spatial regression: This method involves examining the relationships between
spatial features and other variables, such as demographic or environmental factors.
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It can help identify factors that influence the spatial distribution of particular
phenomena.
5. Geostatistics: This method involves analyzing spatial data using statistical
techniques, such as kriging, to estimate values at unsampled locations and assess
uncertainty in the data.
6. Spatial pattern analysis: This method involves examining the distribution of
features and patterns in spatial data to identify trends and relationships between
variables.
Q7. What do you mean by cohort study? Discuss the benefits of using cohort studies.

A cohort study is a type of observational study that follows a group of individuals who
share a common characteristic or experience over a period of time to investigate the
development of a particular outcome or disease. Participants are selected based on their
exposure to a particular risk factor or characteristic, and their outcomes are compared to
those of a control group that does not have the same exposure.

The benefits of using cohort studies include:

1. Longitudinal nature: Cohort studies can track participants over an extended period
of time, allowing researchers to assess the long-term effects of a particular
exposure or characteristic.
2. Ability to identify risk factors: Cohort studies can identify risk factors for specific
outcomes or diseases, helping to inform interventions and public health policies.
3. Ability to study rare outcomes: Cohort studies can be used to investigate rare
outcomes that would be difficult to study in a randomized controlled trial.
4. Relatively low cost: Cohort studies are often less expensive than randomized
controlled trials and can be conducted with existing data sources.
5. Ability to examine multiple outcomes: Cohort studies can examine the relationship
between a particular exposure or characteristic and multiple outcomes, providing
a broader picture of the impact of the exposure.
6. Can assess temporality: Cohort studies are able to establish the temporal sequence
of events, allowing researchers to assess whether the exposure occurred before the
outcome.
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Q8.What do you mean by survey proposal? What components a survey proposal

should consist of? Also explain the major problems taking place in survey and the
ways of reducing the problems of identifying respondents.
A survey proposal is a document that outlines the purpose, objectives, methodology, and
timeline of a proposed survey. It is a crucial step in the survey research process, as it helps
to ensure that the survey will be well-designed, feasible, and able to meet its research
goals.

Components of a survey proposal typically include:

1. Introduction: This section should provide an overview of the purpose of the survey,
the research questions being addressed, and the scope of the survey.
2. Literature review: This section should summarize previous research on the topic of
the survey, highlighting any gaps in the existing knowledge.
3. Methodology: This section should describe the sampling strategy, data collection
methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used in the survey.
4. Timeline: This section should outline the timeline for the survey, including when
data collection will occur and when the final report will be delivered.
5. Budget: This section should provide a detailed breakdown of the costs associated
with the survey, including any expenses related to data collection, data analysis,
and reporting.

When conducting a survey, there are several problems that can arise, such as:

1. Non-response bias: This occurs when respondents who choose not to participate
in the survey differ systematically from those who do participate, leading to biased
results.
2. Social desirability bias: This occurs when respondents provide socially desirable
answers rather than their true opinions or behaviors.
3. Sampling bias: This occurs when the sample of respondents is not representative
of the population of interest, leading to biased results.

To reduce these problems, survey researchers can take several steps, including:

1. Using random sampling techniques to ensure that the sample is representative of

the population of interest.
2. Using incentives to encourage participation and reduce non-response bias.
3. Using anonymous or confidential surveys to reduce social desirability bias.
4. Pilot testing the survey to identify potential problems and refine the survey design
before full-scale data collection.
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Q9. Define remote sensing. Describe various types of resolutions used in remote
sensing.

Remote sensing refers to the process of gathering information about the environment or
an object without physically touching it. It involves the use of sensors, such as cameras or
satellites, to detect and measure electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from the target. The
information obtained through remote sensing can be used to generate maps, monitor
changes in the environment, or identify features of interest.

There are three main types of resolutions used in remote sensing:

1. Spatial resolution: This refers to the size of the smallest feature that can be
detected in an image. High spatial resolution means that small objects or features
can be detected, while low spatial resolution means that only large objects or
features can be detected. Spatial resolution is determined by the sensor's pixel size
and the altitude of the platform (e.g., satellite or aircraft) from which the image was
captured.
2. Spectral resolution: This refers to the ability of a sensor to detect different
wavelengths of the EMR spectrum. A sensor with high spectral resolution can
detect a wide range of wavelengths, while a sensor with low spectral resolution can
only detect a narrow range of wavelengths. Spectral resolution is determined by
the number and spacing of spectral bands in the sensor.
3. Temporal resolution: This refers to the frequency with which images are captured
over a particular area. High temporal resolution means that images are captured
frequently, while low temporal resolution means that images are captured less
frequently. Temporal resolution is determined by the frequency of the sensor's
orbits or flights over the area.

In addition to these types of resolutions, there are also specialized types of resolutions
used in remote sensing, including:

1. Radiometric resolution: This refers to the ability of a sensor to detect small

differences in the intensity of EMR. A sensor with high radiometric resolution can
distinguish subtle differences in brightness or color, while a sensor with low
radiometric resolution may not be able to detect small variations.
2. LIDAR resolution: LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is a remote sensing
technology that uses lasers to measure the distance to objects. LIDAR resolution
refers to the density of points in a LIDAR dataset, which determines the level of
detail in the resulting 3D models.
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3. Polarimetric resolution: This refers to the ability of a sensor to detect and measure
the polarization of EMR. Polarimetric resolution is used to identify and map
different materials based on their reflective properties.

Overall, the choice of resolution depends on the specific application and the level of detail
required to achieve the research or management objectives.

Q10. Give the meaning of GIS technology and explain its functions. Also define GIS
data model and discuss on various GIS data models.

GIS (Geographic Information System) technology is a computer-based tool that allows

users to store, analyze, and visualize spatial data. GIS technology involves the integration
of various data types, including maps, satellite images, aerial photographs, and GPS
(Global Positioning System) data, to create a comprehensive view of a specific location or
region.

The main functions of GIS technology include:

1. Data input: This involves the collection and input of spatial data, such as maps,
satellite images, and GPS data, into the GIS system.
2. Data storage: This involves the organization and storage of the spatial data in a
database, allowing users to retrieve and manipulate the data easily.
3. Data analysis: This involves the application of various analytical tools to the spatial
data, such as spatial queries, spatial statistics, and modeling, to generate new
insights and knowledge.
4. Data visualization: This involves the creation of maps, charts, and other visual
representations of the spatial data to aid in data interpretation and
communication.

GIS data model refers to the structure of the spatial data within a GIS system. There are
two main types of GIS data models: vector and raster.

1. Vector data model: In the vector data model, spatial data is represented by points,
lines, and polygons. Points represent single locations, lines represent linear
features such as roads or rivers, and polygons represent areas such as lakes or
buildings. Vector data models are more precise and accurate than raster data
models, and they are used for tasks such as network analysis and geocoding.
2. Raster data model: In the raster data model, spatial data is represented by a grid
of cells, each of which has a value representing a specific attribute or feature. Raster
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data models are commonly used for tasks such as land-use mapping and terrain
analysis.

There are also hybrid GIS data models that combine both vector and raster data models
to take advantage of the strengths of each model. For example, the TIN (Triangulated
Irregular Network) data model combines vector and raster data to represent terrain and
elevation data. Other hybrid data models include the point cloud and the image map.

Overall, the choice of GIS data model depends on the specific application and the type of
spatial data being analyzed.

Q1. Define survey. Discuss the general features of social survey.

A survey is a research method that involves collecting data from a sample of individuals
or organizations using standardized instruments, such as questionnaires, interviews, or
observation.

Social surveys are a specific type of survey that are used to collect data about social
phenomena, such as attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviors, and social structures. The
general features of social surveys include:

1. Sample selection: Social surveys are usually conducted on a sample of individuals

or households that are selected to represent the population of interest. The sample
size and sampling method should be appropriate for the research question and
the level of precision required.
2. Standardized instruments: Social surveys use standardized instruments, such as
questionnaires, that are designed to collect data in a consistent and reliable
manner. The questions should be clear, unbiased, and relevant to the research
question.
3. Data collection methods: Social surveys can be conducted using different methods,
such as face-to-face interviews, telephone surveys, online surveys, and postal
surveys. The method should be appropriate for the target population and the
research question.
4. Data analysis: Social survey data is usually analyzed using statistical methods, such
as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and multivariate analysis. The analysis
should be appropriate for the research question and the type of data collected.
5. Ethics and confidentiality: Social surveys should adhere to ethical principles, such
as informed consent, confidentiality, and protection of human subjects. The data
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collected should be used for the intended purpose and not disclosed to
unauthorized persons.
6. Generalizability: Social survey data should be generalizable to the population of
interest. The sample should be representative and the data collected should be
valid and reliable.

Overall, social surveys are an important tool for social research and provide a way to
collect data on a large scale in a systematic and reliable manner. They are used in a variety
of fields, such as sociology, psychology, economics, and public health, to investigate social
phenomena and inform policy decisions.

Q2. Describe the terms 'branching questions' and 'routing question' in a

questionnaire.

Branching questions and routing questions are types of questions that are used in
questionnaires to direct respondents to different sections or questions based on their
responses.

A branching question is a type of question that offers respondents different paths to

follow depending on their answer. For example, a questionnaire may ask respondents if
they have children, and if they answer "yes," they may be directed to a section with
questions about their children, while those who answer "no" may be directed to a different
section.

Routing questions are used to direct respondents to different sections or questions based
on their previous responses. For example, a questionnaire may ask respondents about
their age, and if they are under 18 years old, they may be directed to a section with
questions about their parents, while those who are 18 or older may be directed to a
section with questions about themselves.

Branching and routing questions can be used to create more personalized questionnaires
that are tailored to each respondent's individual characteristics and experiences. This can
help to increase response rates and improve the quality of the data collected. However, it
is important to ensure that the questionnaire is well-designed and tested to ensure that
the branching and routing logic is clear and easy to follow, and that the questionnaire
does not become too complex or confusing for respondents.
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Q3. Why administrative data is considered a good source of secondary data? Discuss
the problems on using administrative data.

Administrative data refers to data that is collected and maintained by organizations as

part of their administrative or operational activities. Administrative data is considered a
good source of secondary data for several reasons:

1. Reliability: Administrative data is often collected as part of routine activities, such

as registration or record-keeping, and is therefore likely to be reliable and accurate.
2. Coverage: Administrative data covers a wide range of topics, such as health,
education, and employment, and can provide information on populations that may
be difficult to reach through other data sources.
3. Longitudinal data: Administrative data is often collected over long periods of time,
which can provide insights into trends and changes over time.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Administrative data is often less expensive to obtain than other
types of data, as it is already being collected and maintained by organizations.

Despite these advantages, there are also several problems associated with using
administrative data as a source of secondary data:

1. Quality: Administrative data may suffer from issues of incomplete or inaccurate

data, as well as inconsistencies in data collection and recording.
2. Bias: Administrative data may be biased towards certain groups or areas, as it is
often collected for administrative purposes rather than research purposes.
3. Confidentiality: Administrative data may contain sensitive information that needs
to be protected, and access to the data may be restricted by data protection laws
or regulations.
4. Lack of control: Researchers may have limited control over the data that is collected
and maintained by organizations, and may not be able to access all of the
information that they need.
5. Compatibility: Administrative data may not be compatible with other types of data,
which can make it difficult to combine and analyze with other sources of data.

To overcome these problems, it is important for researchers to carefully consider the

strengths and limitations of administrative data, and to take steps to ensure the quality,
confidentiality, and compatibility of the data. This may include working closely with data
providers to ensure that the data is collected and maintained in a consistent and reliable
manner, and developing appropriate methods for data cleaning, validation, and analysis.
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Q4. Define satellite and sensors. Distinguish their characteristics.

A satellite is an artificial object that is placed into orbit around the Earth or another
celestial body. Satellites are used for a variety of purposes, including communications,
navigation, remote sensing, and scientific research.

Sensors, on the other hand, are devices that are used to detect and measure physical
properties of the environment, such as temperature, pressure, or radiation. In the context
of satellite remote sensing, sensors are used to capture data about the Earth's surface,
atmosphere, and oceans.

While satellites and sensors are often used together in remote sensing applications, they
have different characteristics and functions. Some key differences between satellites and
sensors are:

1. Function: Satellites are used to observe the Earth from space and to transmit data
to the ground, while sensors are used to capture data about the environment.
2. Mobility: Satellites are designed to remain in orbit around the Earth or another
celestial body, while sensors can be moved or repositioned as needed.
3. Sensitivity: Sensors are typically highly sensitive and are designed to capture
detailed and accurate data about the environment, while satellites may have
limited sensitivity or resolution depending on their design and capabilities.
4. Size: Satellites are generally much larger than sensors, as they need to house a
range of instruments and equipment for data transmission and storage.

Q5.Define GIS and discuss its data sources.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system that is used to capture,
store, manipulate, analyze, and display spatial or geospatial data. GIS allows users to
integrate various types of data, such as satellite imagery, maps, and demographic data,
to better understand and visualize complex spatial relationships.

GIS data sources can come from a variety of different sources, including:

1. Remote sensing data: This includes satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and other
forms of remotely sensed data that can be used to capture information about the
Earth's surface.
2. Survey data: This includes data collected through field surveys, such as land use
surveys, population surveys, and environmental surveys.
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3. GPS data: Global Positioning System (GPS) data can be used to capture precise
location information, which can be used to create accurate maps and spatial
models.
4. Census data: This includes demographic data collected through national or
regional censuses, such as population data, income data, and employment data.
5. Digital maps: This includes digital versions of traditional paper maps, which can be
used to create spatial models and analysis.
6. Historical data: This includes historical maps, photographs, and other forms of
archival data that can be used to create historical GIS models and analysis.
7. Social media data: This includes data collected from social media platforms, such
as Twitter or Facebook, which can be used to analyze spatial patterns of social
media activity.

Q6. Define buffering. Discuss how it is done in spatial data analysis

Buffering is a common operation in spatial data analysis that involves creating a zone of
a specified distance around a spatial feature or set of features. This zone is referred to as
a buffer, and it is usually used to represent an area of influence or impact that extends
out from the original feature or set of features.

Buffering is a useful tool in spatial data analysis as it can help identify areas that are within
a certain distance of a specific feature or set of features. For example, a city planner may
use buffering to identify areas that are within 100 meters of a proposed highway
expansion. This can help the planner understand the potential impacts of the expansion
on nearby neighborhoods and businesses.

In spatial data analysis, buffering is done using GIS software tools that allow the user to
create buffers around spatial features or sets of features. The software allows the user to
specify the distance of the buffer and the type of buffer that is created. For example, a
buffer can be created as a straight line, a circle, or a polygon, depending on the type of
analysis that is being done.

There are several ways to perform buffering in GIS software. One method involves
selecting the spatial feature or set of features that the buffer will be based on, specifying
the buffer distance, and then creating the buffer zone. Another method involves using a
spatial analysis tool to create a buffer based on a set of criteria, such as the distance to
the nearest highway or the proximity to a protected area.

Once the buffer is created, it can be used for a variety of spatial analyses, such as
identifying areas that are within a certain distance of a feature or set of features, creating
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a new set of features based on the buffer, or analyzing the relationship between the buffer
and other spatial features.

Q7. What do you mean by panel study? Discuss the benefits of using panel studies.

Panel studies, also known as longitudinal studies, involve collecting data from the same
individuals or groups over an extended period of time. This allows researchers to observe
changes or trends over time, and to examine how variables may be related to one another.
Panel studies can be used in a variety of fields, such as sociology, economics, and public
health.

The benefits of using panel studies include:

1. Identifying causal relationships: Panel studies allow researchers to track changes in

variables over time, which can help identify causal relationships between variables.
For example, a panel study may be used to determine whether changes in income
are related to changes in health outcomes.
2. Examining individual differences: Panel studies can help researchers identify
individual differences in how people respond to changes in variables over time.
This can help identify subgroups that may be at higher risk for certain outcomes,
or who may benefit more from specific interventions.
3. Capturing changes in complex systems: Panel studies can be used to capture
changes in complex systems, such as changes in the economy or in social networks,
that may be difficult to observe in cross-sectional studies.
4. Examining change over time: Panel studies can provide insight into how variables
change over time, and whether those changes are linear or nonlinear. This can help
researchers develop more nuanced theories and models.

Q8. What do you mean by survey instruments? Discuss the fundamental principles
of developing survey instrument. Also describe the skills that needed to develop an
effective survey instrument.

Survey instruments refer to the tools used to collect data in a survey, such as
questionnaires, interviews, and observation checklists. The development of a survey
instrument is an essential step in the research process, as it ensures that the data collected
is reliable and valid.

Fundamental principles of developing a survey instrument include:

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1. Clearly defining the research question: The research question should be well-
defined, and the survey instrument should be developed with the specific research
question in mind.
2. Selecting appropriate data collection methods: The data collection method should
be selected based on the research question, the characteristics of the population
being studied, and the resources available.
3. Using clear and concise language: The language used in the survey instrument
should be clear and concise, avoiding technical jargon or ambiguous terminology.
4. Avoiding leading or biased questions: The survey questions should be neutral and
avoid leading or biased language that may influence the participant's response.
5. Piloting the survey instrument: The survey instrument should be piloted with a
small sample of participants to identify any issues or areas for improvement.

Developing an effective survey instrument requires a range of skills, including:

1. Knowledge of research methods: A thorough understanding of research methods

is essential for developing a survey instrument that is valid and reliable.
2. Communication skills: Effective communication skills are required to develop
survey questions that are clear and concise, and to communicate with participants
and stakeholders throughout the research process.
3. Critical thinking skills: Critical thinking skills are essential for identifying potential
sources of bias or error in the survey instrument, and for developing appropriate
strategies to mitigate these risks.
4. Technical skills: Technical skills are required to develop and implement the survey
instrument using appropriate software and data collection methods.
5. Flexibility: Developing an effective survey instrument requires a willingness to
adapt and modify the instrument based on feedback from stakeholders and
participants.

In summary, developing an effective survey instrument requires a range of skills and a

thorough understanding of research methods. By following fundamental principles of
survey instrument development, researchers can ensure that their data collection tool is
valid, reliable, and meets the needs of their research question.
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Q9. Define remote sensing technology with examples. Describe the physical basis of
remote sensing.

Remote sensing technology refers to the collection of information about an object or area
from a distance, typically using sensors mounted on aircraft or satellites. Remote sensing
can be used to gather a wide range of data, including temperature, radiation, and
electromagnetic spectra.

Some examples of remote sensing technology include:

• Satellite imagery: This involves using satellites to capture images of the Earth's
surface, which can be used for a variety of applications, including monitoring
weather patterns, mapping land use, and tracking changes in vegetation cover.
• LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): This technology uses laser pulses to measure
the distance between the sensor and the object being measured. LiDAR can be
used to create detailed 3D maps of terrain, vegetation, and buildings.
• Radar: This technology uses radio waves to detect and measure the location, size,
and movement of objects. Radar can be used for a variety of applications, including
monitoring weather patterns, mapping topography, and tracking changes in sea
levels.

The physical basis of remote sensing involves the interaction between electromagnetic
radiation and matter. Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that travels through
space at the speed of light. When electromagnetic radiation encounters matter, it may be
absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.

Different types of matter interact with electromagnetic radiation in different ways. For
example, vegetation absorbs and reflects different wavelengths of light depending on its
moisture content and chlorophyll concentration. Water absorbs and transmits different
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation depending on its temperature, salinity, and
other factors.

Remote sensing technology takes advantage of these interactions to gather information

about an object or area. By analyzing the electromagnetic radiation that is absorbed,
reflected, or transmitted, remote sensing technology can provide valuable insights into a
range of environmental and social phenomena.
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Q10. Elucidate the importance and applications of GIS in modern era. Also describe
about various functional components of GIS.

GIS (Geographic Information System) is a powerful tool for managing and analyzing
spatial data. It is widely used in various fields such as urban planning, environmental
management, natural resource management, transportation planning, disaster
management, and many more. The importance and applications of GIS are as follows:

1. Spatial Analysis: GIS provides spatial analysis tools for understanding and
visualizing spatial patterns and relationships, which helps in making informed
decisions.
2. Data Visualization: GIS can create interactive maps and charts, which help in
visualizing complex spatial data.
3. Data Integration: GIS allows integration of different types of spatial and non-spatial
data from different sources, which helps in better analysis and decision-making.
4. Planning and Management: GIS is used for urban and regional planning, natural
resource management, transportation planning, disaster management, and many
other planning and management tasks.
5. Environmental Studies: GIS is used in environmental studies for mapping and
monitoring environmental features, analyzing environmental data, and modeling
environmental processes.
6. Market Analysis: GIS is used in market analysis for studying customer behavior,
market trends, and identifying potential markets.

The functional components of GIS are as follows:

• Hardware: The hardware component includes computers, servers, storage devices,

and other hardware required for running GIS software.
• Software: The software component includes GIS applications, GIS database
management systems, and other software tools used for GIS analysis.
• Data: The data component includes spatial data, non-spatial data, and metadata.
Spatial data includes maps, satellite imagery, aerial photography, and other types
of geospatial data.
• People: The people component includes GIS users, GIS professionals, and GIS
stakeholders.
• Procedures: The procedures component includes the methods and techniques
used for GIS analysis, data management, and data visualization.

In summary, GIS is a powerful tool for managing and analyzing spatial data, which has a
wide range of applications in various fields. The functional components of GIS include
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hardware, software, data, people, and procedures, which work together to provide
effective GIS solutions.

Q1. Suppose you are going to study an impact of climate change in a particular area,
what essential things should you have with you for your field study? Discuss.

Studying the impact of climate change in a particular area can be a complex and
challenging task. It requires careful planning and preparation to ensure that the field study
is carried out effectively and efficiently. Here are some essential things you should have
with you for your field study:

1. Research Plan: Before starting the field study, you should have a well-defined
research plan that outlines the objectives, research questions, and methodology
for your study. This plan should also include the location and timeframe of the
study.
2. Field Notebook: A field notebook is an essential tool for recording observations,
measurements, and other data during the study. It should be waterproof, durable,
and have space for notes, sketches, and annotations.
3. Weather and Climate Monitoring Tools: To measure and record temperature,
humidity, rainfall, and other weather-related data, you need weather and climate
monitoring tools. Some commonly used tools include thermometers, barometers,
rain gauges, and anemometers.
4. GPS and Maps: A GPS and maps are necessary tools for navigating and recording
the location of study sites. They also help to identify the specific topography, soil
types, and vegetation cover of the study area.
5. Sampling Tools: Depending on the research design, you may need to collect
samples of water, soil, vegetation, or other materials for analysis. Sampling tools
such as core samplers, soil augers, and water samplers are essential for collecting
accurate and representative samples.
6. Camera and Video Equipment: A camera and video equipment are useful for
capturing visual evidence of changes in the environment and for documenting your
study. They can also be used to record interviews with local people and
stakeholders.
7. Protective Gear: Depending on the study site, you may need protective gear such
as gloves, boots, and masks to protect yourself from hazards such as toxic
chemicals, sharp objects, or extreme weather conditions.
8. First Aid Kit: A first aid kit is an essential item for any field study. It should include
basic medical supplies such as bandages, antiseptic, and pain relief medication.
 18

9. Communication Devices: You need communication devices such as radios or

satellite phones to maintain contact with your team and to request assistance in
case of an emergency.
10. Permits and Legal Documents: It is essential to obtain permits and legal documents
necessary to conduct research in the study area. This may include permission from
local authorities, landowners, or other stakeholders.

In conclusion, a successful field study of climate change requires careful planning,

preparation, and execution. Having the right tools and equipment can help ensure that
the study is carried out effectively and efficiently.
Q2. Define and distinguish between cohort study and panel study. What basic steps
are different in designing questionnaires for these studies?

Cohort study and panel study are two types of longitudinal research designs that are
commonly used in social and medical research. While both designs involve collecting data
over time, there are some key differences between the two.

A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study that follows a group of individuals who share
a common characteristic or experience over a specified period of time. The cohort is
identified at the start of the study and followed up at regular intervals to collect data on
various outcomes of interest. The aim of a cohort study is to identify risk factors for disease
or other health outcomes, and to determine the natural history of disease progression.

On the other hand, a panel study involves following a group of individuals over time,
collecting data on the same individuals at multiple points in time. The aim of a panel study
is to identify changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, and to investigate
the causes of these changes.

Now, coming to the designing of questionnaires for these studies, the basic steps differ
in the following ways:

1. Identifying the Study Population: In a cohort study, the study population is selected
based on a specific characteristic or exposure, and the questionnaire should be
designed to capture information about this characteristic or exposure. In a panel
study, the study population is often a random sample of individuals from the
general population, and the questionnaire should be designed to capture
information about a range of attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes.
2. Selection of Variables: In a cohort study, the variables of interest are typically
related to health outcomes, such as disease incidence or mortality. Therefore, the
questionnaire should include questions that are relevant to the study objectives,
 19

such as medical history, lifestyle factors, and exposure to risk factors. In a panel
study, the variables of interest may be more diverse, and the questionnaire should
include questions on a range of topics, such as socio-demographic characteristics,
attitudes, and behaviors.
3. Frequency of Data Collection: In a cohort study, data is typically collected at
baseline and at regular intervals over the follow-up period. The questionnaire
should be designed to capture data at each follow-up time point. In a panel study,
data is typically collected at fixed intervals, such as yearly or bi-annually. The
questionnaire should be designed to capture changes in attitudes, behaviors, and
outcomes over time.
4. Data Analysis: In a cohort study, the data is typically analyzed using survival analysis
techniques to identify risk factors for disease or other health outcomes. In a panel
study, the data is typically analyzed using longitudinal data analysis techniques to
identify changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time.

In conclusion, cohort study and panel study are both types of longitudinal research
designs that involve collecting data over time. The choice of study design and
questionnaire design should be based on the research objectives and the characteristics
of the study population.

Q3. What is meant by data administering? Discuss the steps to be followed for
secondary data management.

Data administration refers to the management of an organization's data resources. This

includes overseeing the collection, storage, processing, and sharing of data, as well as
ensuring the quality, security, and privacy of data. Data administration is essential for
ensuring that data is used effectively and efficiently to support the organization's goals
and objectives.

Secondary data management refers to the process of managing data that has been
collected by other organizations or researchers. This data can be used for research,
analysis, or other purposes. Here are the steps to be followed for secondary data
management:

1. Identify Data Sources: The first step in managing secondary data is to identify
relevant data sources. This can include government agencies, academic
institutions, research organizations, or commercial data providers. It is important
to identify reliable and trustworthy sources of data.
 20

2. Obtain Data: Once data sources have been identified, the next step is to obtain the
data. This may involve purchasing data from commercial providers or requesting
data from government agencies or research organizations. It is important to ensure
that the data is obtained legally and ethically.
3. Evaluate Data Quality: After obtaining the data, it is important to evaluate the
quality of the data. This can include checking for completeness, accuracy, and
consistency of the data. It is important to assess the reliability and validity of the
data for the intended use.
4. Prepare Data for Analysis: Once the data has been evaluated for quality, it may
need to be cleaned, coded, or formatted for analysis. This may involve removing
duplicates, resolving inconsistencies, and recoding variables as needed.
5. Store and Manage Data: It is important to establish a system for storing and
managing the data. This can include creating a database, establishing backup
procedures, and ensuring the security and privacy of the data. It is also important
to establish procedures for sharing data with others.
6. Analyze Data: Once the data has been prepared and stored, it can be analyzed
using appropriate statistical methods. This may involve descriptive statistics,
inferential statistics, or other data analysis techniques.
7. Interpret and Report Results: Finally, the results of the data analysis should be
interpreted and reported in a clear and concise manner.

Q4. What is meant by data quality issue? What activities should performed to ensure
quality issues of data?

Data quality issues refer to problems or errors in data that can affect the accuracy,
completeness, consistency, and relevance of the data. These issues can arise from various
sources, such as errors in data entry, incomplete data, or inconsistencies in data across
different sources.

To ensure data quality, there are several activities that should be performed:

1. Data Profiling: Data profiling involves analyzing the data to identify any quality
issues, such as missing data, duplicate data, or inconsistent data. This activity helps
to identify the extent of data quality issues and the areas that require attention.
2. Data Cleaning: Data cleaning involves correcting any quality issues identified
during data profiling. This may include removing duplicate data, filling in missing
data, and correcting inconsistent data. Data cleaning is an important step in
ensuring that the data is accurate and complete.
 21

3. Data Standardization: Data standardization involves establishing standard

definitions and formats for data elements. This helps to ensure that the data is
consistent and can be compared across different sources. Data standardization can
also help to prevent data quality issues from arising in the future.
4. Data Validation: Data validation involves checking the accuracy and completeness
of the data. This can be done through manual or automated methods. Data
validation helps to identify any errors or inconsistencies in the data that may affect
its quality.
5. Data Governance: Data governance involves establishing policies and procedures
for managing data quality. This includes defining roles and responsibilities for data
management, establishing standards for data quality, and monitoring compliance
with these standards.
6. Data Documentation: Data documentation involves creating and maintaining
documentation about the data, including its source, quality, and any
transformations that have been performed. Data documentation helps to ensure
that the data is transparent and can be understood by others.
7. Data Auditing: Data auditing involves periodically reviewing the data to ensure that
it continues to meet quality standards. This helps to identify any quality issues that
may have arisen since the data was last reviewed.

Q5. Why interaction of electromagnetic radiations with atmosphere is important in

remote sensing technology? Describe different interaction processes of solar energy
with the atmosphere.

The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere is important in remote

sensing technology because it affects the way in which radiation is transmitted, absorbed,
and scattered as it travels through the atmosphere. These interactions can provide
important information about the physical properties and composition of the atmosphere,
as well as the surface or object being observed.

There are several different interaction processes that occur when solar energy interacts
with the atmosphere:

1. Reflection: Reflection occurs when electromagnetic radiation encounters a

boundary between two media with different refractive indices. Some of the
radiation is reflected back in the direction it came from, while the rest is transmitted
into the second medium. This process is responsible for the reflection of sunlight
from the surface of the Earth and clouds.
 22

2. Absorption: Absorption occurs when radiation is absorbed by molecules in the

atmosphere. Different molecules absorb radiation at different wavelengths,
depending on their physical and chemical properties. For example, ozone
molecules absorb UV radiation, while water vapor absorbs radiation in the infrared
part of the spectrum.
3. Scattering: Scattering occurs when radiation encounters particles in the
atmosphere that are much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. The
particles scatter the radiation in different directions, depending on their size, shape,
and composition. This process is responsible for the blue color of the sky, as well
as the appearance of clouds and haze.
4. Transmission: Transmission occurs when radiation passes through the atmosphere
without being absorbed, reflected, or scattered. This process is important for
remote sensing because it allows some radiation to reach the surface or object
being observed, which can then be detected by remote sensing instruments.

Q6. What is GIS technology? How GIS can be useful in different areas of scientific
investigations? Discuss.

GIS (Geographic Information System) technology is a computer-based tool that allows for
the collection, storage, analysis, and visualization of geospatial data. It involves the
integration of various data sources, such as satellite imagery, maps, and survey data, and
enables the creation of interactive maps and models that can be used to solve spatial
problems.

GIS technology has a wide range of applications across various scientific investigations,
including:

1. Environmental Science: GIS can be used to map and analyze environmental data,
such as air quality, water resources, and land use patterns. It can help identify areas
at risk of natural disasters, monitor changes in ecosystems, and assess the impact
of human activities on the environment.
2. Urban Planning: GIS can be used to model and analyze urban landscapes, such as
transportation networks, housing patterns, and land use planning. It can help
identify areas of high population density, model traffic patterns, and plan for future
urban growth.
3. Public Health: GIS can be used to map and analyze public health data, such as
disease outbreaks, hospital locations, and healthcare access. It can help identify
areas at risk of disease transmission, target health interventions, and track the
spread of diseases over time.
 23

4. Agriculture: GIS can be used to map and analyze agricultural data, such as crop
yields, soil types, and weather patterns. It can help identify areas suitable for certain
crops, optimize irrigation and fertilization, and predict crop yields.
5. Archaeology: GIS can be used to map and analyze archaeological data, such as the
locations of artifacts and sites, topography, and geological features. It can help
reconstruct past landscapes, model ancient settlements, and identify areas of high
archaeological potential.

Q7. Describe different descriptive statistical methods that can be used in spatial data
analysis.

Spatial data analysis involves the use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze
and summarize data that has a spatial component. Descriptive statistics are used to
summarize and describe the distribution and variability of data, while inferential statistics
are used to test hypotheses and make predictions based on sample data. Here are some
of the descriptive statistical methods that can be used in spatial data analysis:

1. Measures of Central Tendency: Measures of central tendency are used to describe

the typical or average value of a set of data. The most commonly used measures
of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. In spatial data analysis, these
measures can be used to describe the central location of a set of spatial data points.
2. Measures of Dispersion: Measures of dispersion are used to describe the variability
or spread of a set of data. The most commonly used measures of dispersion are
the range, variance, and standard deviation. In spatial data analysis, these measures
can be used to describe the spatial variation or heterogeneity of a set of data
points.
3. Frequency Distributions: A frequency distribution is a summary of the number of
times each value appears in a set of data. In spatial data analysis, frequency
distributions can be used to describe the spatial distribution of a variable across a
study area.
4. Spatial Autocorrelation: Spatial autocorrelation is a measure of the degree to which
data points that are close together in space are more similar than data points that
are far apart. Spatial autocorrelation can be used to describe the degree of spatial
dependence or clustering of a variable in a study area.
5. Interpolation: Interpolation is a method used to estimate the value of a variable at
unsampled locations based on the values of nearby sampled locations. In spatial
 24

data analysis, interpolation can be used to create maps or surfaces of a variable

across a study area.
6. Spatial Clustering: Spatial clustering is a method used to identify areas of high or
low values of a variable in a study area. In spatial data analysis, spatial clustering
can be used to identify areas of high crime rates, disease prevalence, or other
phenomena that exhibit spatial clustering.

Q8. Is Survey a type of field study? Justify your answer with its features. What are
the essential components for a survey? Also discuss the characteristics of structured
and semi structured survey instruments.

A survey is a type of research method that involves collecting data from a group of
individuals by asking them a set of questions. It is a systematic approach to gather
information about a specific topic or phenomenon.

Survey is not a type of field study. Field studies are research methods that involve
observing and gathering data in a natural setting, often over an extended period of time,
whereas surveys are more commonly conducted in a controlled environment. Surveys are
more focused on gathering information about a specific group of people or population
rather than on the environment or the context in which they live.

The essential components of a survey are:

1. A clear research question or hypothesis: This is the starting point for any survey.
The research question or hypothesis should be specific and clearly define the
purpose of the survey.
2. Sample selection: The sample selection process involves identifying the population
to be surveyed and selecting a representative sample of individuals from that
population.
3. Survey instrument design: The survey instrument should be designed to collect
relevant and reliable data that addresses the research question or hypothesis.
4. Data collection: The data collection process involves administering the survey
instrument to the selected sample.
5. Data analysis: The data collected through the survey instrument should be
analyzed to provide insights into the research question or hypothesis.
 25

Structured and semi-structured survey instruments have different characteristics.

A structured survey instrument is a questionnaire that contains closed-ended questions

with predefined response options. Respondents are limited to selecting one of the given
response options. Structured surveys are generally easier to analyze and allow for
straightforward comparisons between different groups or time periods.

A semi-structured survey instrument, on the other hand, includes both closed-ended and
open-ended questions. This allows for more in-depth responses from the respondents
and may reveal unexpected information or insights. Semi-structured surveys are often
used in exploratory research or when the research question is not well-defined. However,
they are more difficult to analyze due to the diversity of responses.

Q9. What are remote sensors? How they are different from satellites? Describe the
various type resolutions of sensors used in RS with their characteristics.

Remote sensors are electronic devices that are used to gather information from a distance,
without physical contact with the object or environment being studied. Remote sensors
can be used to collect data from the ground, the air, or space, and are commonly used in
remote sensing (RS) applications.

Satellites are a type of remote sensor that orbit the Earth and are used to collect data on
a wide range of environmental and atmospheric phenomena. However, not all remote
sensors are satellites. Some remote sensors are mounted on aircraft, drones, or other
types of vehicles, while others are stationary and monitor specific locations on the ground.

There are various types of resolutions used in RS sensors. These include:

1. Spatial resolution: This refers to the smallest discernible area on the ground that
can be distinguished by the sensor. High spatial resolution sensors can identify
smaller features on the ground than low spatial resolution sensors. For example, a
high spatial resolution sensor might be able to distinguish individual buildings in
a city, while a low spatial resolution sensor might only be able to identify the city
itself.
2. Spectral resolution: This refers to the number and width of the spectral bands that
a sensor can detect. High spectral resolution sensors can detect a wide range of
wavelengths, providing detailed information about the composition of the object
or environment being studied.
 26

3. Radiometric resolution: This refers to the sensitivity of a sensor to differences in

energy levels. A sensor with high radiometric resolution can distinguish small
differences in energy levels, providing more detailed information about the object
or environment being studied.
4. Temporal resolution: This refers to the frequency at which a sensor can collect data
on a particular area or phenomenon. High temporal resolution sensors can collect
data more frequently, providing more up-to-date information.
5. Polarization resolution: This refers to the ability of a sensor to distinguish the
polarization of electromagnetic waves. Polarization resolution is important for
certain RS applications, such as identifying oil spills on water or mapping
vegetation.

Overall, the type of resolution used in RS sensors depends on the specific application and
the level of detail required for the analysis. High-resolution sensors are generally more
expensive and require more processing power, but can provide more detailed and
accurate information for a particular application.

Q10. What are GIs data sources? What are the properties of map projections in GIS?
Also discuss the types of projection in GIS technology.

GIS data sources refer to the various sources of data that can be used to create and
analyze geographic information within a GIS system. These sources include:

1. Primary data: This refers to data that is collected specifically for a GIS project, such
as GPS data or data collected through remote sensing.
2. Secondary data: This refers to data that is obtained from existing sources, such as
government agencies, private organizations, or academic institutions.
3. Tertiary data: This refers to data that has been derived or created from primary or
secondary data sources, such as digital elevation models or land-use classifications.

Map projections are an important aspect of GIS because they allow the representation of
a three-dimensional surface of the earth on a two-dimensional map. Map projections have
specific properties that affect the accuracy and reliability of GIS analysis, including:

1. Shape: The shape of a projection refers to how accurately the projection represents
the shape of the earth's surface.
2. Area: The area of a projection refers to how accurately the projection represents
the area of different regions on the earth's surface.
 27

3. Distance: The distance of a projection refers to how accurately the projection

represents the distance between different points on the earth's surface.
4. Direction: The direction of a projection refers to how accurately the projection
represents the direction between different points on the earth's surface.

There are several types of map projections in GIS technology, including:

1. Cylindrical projections: These projections wrap a cylinder around the earth's

surface, with the equator as the reference line. Cylindrical projections are useful for
mapping areas along the equator but can result in distortion towards the poles.
2. Conic projections: These projections wrap a cone around the earth's surface, with
a reference line along a meridian. Conic projections are useful for mapping areas
that are closer to the poles but can result in distortion towards the equator.
3. Planar projections: These projections represent the earth's surface as if projected
onto a flat plane. Planar projections are useful for mapping areas near the poles
but can result in distortion towards the equator.
4. Azimuthal projections: These projections represent the earth's surface as if viewed
from a point at the center of the earth. Azimuthal projections are useful for
mapping areas centered on the poles but can result in distortion towards the
equator.

Each type of projection has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the appropriate
projection depends on the specific GIS application and the region being mapped.

Q1. Do you think that the skill of designing survey proposal is essential for a
researcher? Why? Explain the components that should be reflected in a survey
proposal.

Yes, the skill of designing a survey proposal is essential for a researcher, particularly if the
researcher intends to gather primary data through survey research. Survey research is a
popular and effective method for collecting data from a sample of individuals or groups,
and a well-designed survey proposal is necessary to ensure that the survey data collected
is accurate, reliable, and relevant to the research question.

A survey proposal should include the following components:

1. Background and rationale: This section should provide an overview of the research
question and explain why survey research is an appropriate method for answering
the research question.
 28

2. Objectives: This section should clearly state the specific objectives of the survey
research, including the research questions or hypotheses that the survey research
will test.
3. Research design: This section should describe the research design for the survey
research, including the sampling strategy, the survey instrument, and the data
collection procedures.
4. Sampling strategy: This section should describe the target population for the
survey research and the sampling strategy that will be used to select a
representative sample of the population.
5. Survey instrument: This section should describe the survey instrument that will be
used to collect data, including the questions that will be asked, the response
options, and the format of the survey.
6. Data collection procedures: This section should describe the procedures that will
be used to collect data, including the mode of administration (e.g., online, phone,
mail), the timing of data collection, and the recruitment of participants.
7. Data analysis: This section should describe the data analysis techniques that will be
used to analyze the survey data, including descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics.
8. Ethical considerations: This section should describe the ethical considerations
associated with the survey research, including the protection of human subjects,
the informed consent process, and the confidentiality of the survey data.
Q2. Why web-based questionnaires are important in these days? Discuss its
advantages as well as disadvantages.

Web-based questionnaires have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their
ease of use, accessibility, and cost-effectiveness. They offer several advantages over
traditional paper-based surveys, including:

Advantages:

1. Convenience: Web-based questionnaires can be accessed from anywhere in the

world, making it easier for participants to respond to the survey at their
convenience. This makes it possible to reach a larger and more diverse population,
especially those who are difficult to reach by traditional survey methods.
2. Cost-effective: Web-based questionnaires eliminate the need for paper, printing,
and postage, making them a more cost-effective way of conducting surveys. This
is especially important for researchers or organizations with limited budgets.
3. Increased response rate: Web-based questionnaires have been shown to have a
higher response rate compared to traditional paper-based surveys. This is because
 29

they are more convenient and accessible, and participants can complete them at
their own pace.
4. Real-time data collection: Web-based questionnaires allow for real-time data
collection, which means that researchers can access and analyze the data as soon
as it is collected. This allows for quicker decision-making and faster turnaround
times.

Despite these advantages, there are also some disadvantages to using web-based
questionnaires, including:

1. Limited sample: Web-based questionnaires may not reach some segments of the
population, such as elderly or low-income individuals, who may not have access to
the internet or may not be comfortable using it.
2. Technical issues: Technical issues such as slow internet speeds or browser
compatibility issues can prevent participants from completing the survey, resulting
in incomplete data.
3. Lack of control: Web-based questionnaires can be completed in any environment,
which means that researchers have less control over the conditions under which
the survey is completed. This can impact the reliability and validity of the data
collected.
4. Potential for bias: There is a potential for response bias in web-based
questionnaires, as participants may not take the survey seriously or may provide
false or incomplete responses.

Q3. Define the term "data mining'. Discuss the stages of data mining process.

Data mining refers to the process of extracting useful information and insights from large
datasets, often using advanced statistical and machine learning techniques. It involves
analyzing and examining large data sets to discover patterns, relationships, and trends
that can help organizations make informed decisions.

The stages of data mining process are as follows:

1. Data Cleaning: This stage involves preparing the data for analysis by identifying
and correcting errors, handling missing data, and dealing with outliers. This ensures
that the data is accurate and reliable.
2. Data Integration: This stage involves combining data from different sources and
integrating them into a single dataset. This can include merging datasets, handling
redundant data, and dealing with data in different formats.
 30

3. Data Selection: This stage involves selecting the relevant data for analysis based on
the research question or business problem. This involves identifying the variables
and attributes that are relevant to the analysis.
4. Data Transformation: This stage involves transforming the data into a format that
can be analyzed. This may include normalizing the data, reducing the data to a
smaller set of variables, or transforming the data into a new form.
5. Data Mining: This stage involves applying advanced statistical and machine
learning techniques to the data to identify patterns, relationships, and trends. This
can include clustering, classification, regression, and association rule mining.
6. Pattern Evaluation: This stage involves evaluating the patterns and relationships
that have been identified in the data to determine their significance and usefulness.
This helps to determine which patterns are relevant and can be used to make
informed decisions.
7. Knowledge Representation: This stage involves presenting the findings of the data
mining process in a way that is understandable and useful to stakeholders. This can
include visualizations, reports, or dashboards.

Q4 what are the major problems take place in survey? How can the problem of
identifying respondents be reduced?

Surveys can encounter a variety of problems that can impact their validity, reliability, and
generalizability. Some common problems that can occur during surveys are:

1. Non-response bias: This occurs when individuals who do not respond to the survey
differ systematically from those who do respond, which can lead to biased results.
2. Sampling bias: This occurs when the sample is not representative of the population
of interest, which can also lead to biased results.
3. Social desirability bias: This occurs when individuals respond to the survey in a way
that is socially desirable, rather than reflecting their true attitudes or behaviors.
4. Response bias: This occurs when individuals respond to the survey questions
inaccurately or inconsistently, which can lead to unreliable or invalid results.

To reduce the problem of identifying respondents, researchers can use several strategies,
including:

1. Use of screening questions: Researchers can use screening questions to ensure that
respondents meet the eligibility criteria for the survey. This can help to identify
potential respondents and reduce the problem of identifying them.
 31

2. Use of incentives: Offering incentives such as monetary compensation, gifts, or

prizes can motivate respondents to participate in the survey and reduce the
problem of identifying them.
3. Use of multiple contact methods: Researchers can use multiple contact methods,
such as email, phone, or postal mail, to increase the chances of reaching potential
respondents and reduce the problem of identifying them.
4. Use of personalized communication: Personalizing communication with potential
respondents can increase their willingness to participate in the survey and reduce
the problem of identifying them.

Q5. What do you mean by resolution in remote sensing? Distinguish in between spatial
resolution and spectral resolution.

In remote sensing, resolution refers to the ability to distinguish and separate objects or
features in an image. It is the level of detail that can be captured in the image, and it is
determined by the sensor's characteristics and the image processing techniques used.

There are two types of resolution in remote sensing: spatial resolution and spectral
resolution.

1. Spatial resolution: Spatial resolution refers to the level of detail that can be
captured in an image in terms of the size of the smallest object or feature that can
be detected. It is usually measured in terms of the pixel size, which is the area on
the ground that each pixel in the image represents. A higher spatial resolution
means that smaller objects or features can be distinguished in the image, and the
image has a higher level of detail. For example, a satellite image with a spatial
resolution of 1 meter can distinguish objects on the ground that are 1 meter or
larger, while an image with a spatial resolution of 10 meters can only distinguish
objects that are 10 meters or larger.
2. Spectral resolution: Spectral resolution refers to the ability of a sensor to
distinguish different wavelengths of light or electromagnetic radiation. It is
measured in terms of the number and width of the spectral bands that the sensor
can capture. A higher spectral resolution means that the sensor can capture a wider
range of wavelengths and distinguish between more subtle differences in the
spectral characteristics of objects. For example, a sensor that captures only three
spectral bands (e.g., red, green, and blue) has lower spectral resolution than a
sensor that captures ten spectral bands (e.g., including near-infrared and thermal
bands).
 32

Q6. What does a spatial information system mean? Describe briefly about different
spatial data models.

A Spatial Information System (SIS) is a computer-based system that is used to capture,

store, manipulate, analyze, and present spatial data. Spatial data refers to any data that
has a location or spatial context associated with it, such as geographic features,
boundaries, and addresses. A SIS can be used in a variety of applications, including urban
planning, environmental management, natural resource management, and emergency
response.

There are three main spatial data models used in SIS:

1. Vector data model: The vector data model represents spatial data using points,
lines, and polygons. Points are used to represent individual locations, lines are used
to represent linear features such as roads and rivers, and polygons are used to
represent areas such as land parcels and administrative boundaries. Vector data
models are useful for representing discrete features and are widely used in GIS.
2. Raster data model: The raster data model represents spatial data using a grid of
cells, where each cell represents a value or attribute. Raster data models are useful
for representing continuous data such as elevation, temperature, and rainfall.
3. TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) data model: The TIN data model represents
spatial data using a set of non-overlapping triangles, where each triangle has a
height value. TIN data models are useful for representing terrain and elevation
data, and are commonly used in 3D modeling applications.

Each of these data models has its own advantages and limitations, and the choice of
model depends on the specific requirements of the application. SIS use a combination of
these data models to capture, store, manipulate, and analyze spatial data. The spatial data
can then be used to create maps, analyze patterns and relationships, and support
decision-making processes.

Q7. Define overlay and buffering. How the overlay is done through GIS system?

Overlay and buffering are two important spatial analysis techniques used in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) to analyze and manipulate spatial data.

Overlay is the process of combining two or more layers of spatial data to create a new
layer that represents the spatial relationships between the original layers. The result of
overlay analysis is a new layer that can be used to identify areas where the features from
the original layers intersect, overlap, or are adjacent to each other. Overlay is a useful tool
 33

for spatial analysis as it allows users to identify patterns and relationships between
different layers of spatial data.

Buffering is the process of creating a zone or a buffer around a feature or a set of features.
The buffer is usually created as a circular or polygonal area around the feature or features.
Buffers are useful for a range of spatial analysis tasks, including identifying areas that are
within a certain distance of a feature, assessing the impact of development on natural
resources, and creating catchment areas for service delivery.

Overlay can be performed through a GIS system by combining two or more layers of
spatial data using a variety of methods, including intersect, union, and difference. The
process involves selecting the layers to be overlaid, defining the relationship between the
layers (such as intersection or union), and setting any additional parameters, such as the
field attributes to be included in the output layer.

Buffering can also be performed through a GIS system by selecting the feature or features
to be buffered, defining the buffer distance, and specifying any additional parameters,
such as the shape of the buffer. The result of buffering is a new layer that represents the
buffer zone around the selected features.

Q8. Define survey instrument and describe the basic principles of developing survey
instrument. If you have to conduct a spatial survey in environmental issue, what
items do you include to develop survey instrument frame work? and What steps do
you adopt to prepare a final questionnaire?

A survey instrument is a tool used to collect data from respondents in a structured and
systematic manner. It can be in the form of a questionnaire, interview schedule, or
observation form, and is used to gather information on a variety of topics, including
attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and experiences.

The basic principles of developing a survey instrument include the following:

1. Clearly define the research question: The survey instrument should be developed
with a clear understanding of the research question and objectives.
2. Determine the target population: The survey instrument should be tailored to the
target population to ensure that the questions are relevant and meaningful to the
respondents.
 34

3. Develop appropriate questions: The questions in the survey instrument should be

designed to elicit the information needed to answer the research question. They
should be clear, concise, and unambiguous.
4. Use appropriate question types: The survey instrument should include a mix of
question types, including closed-ended, open-ended, and Likert-scale questions,
to ensure that the data collected is both quantitative and qualitative.
5. Pretest the survey instrument: The survey instrument should be pretested with a
small group of respondents to identify any potential problems with the questions
or response options.

If you were to conduct a spatial survey on environmental issues, you would need to
include the following items in the survey instrument framework:

1. Demographic information: This includes questions about the respondent's age,

gender, education level, and income.
2. Environmental awareness: This includes questions about the respondent's
knowledge of environmental issues and their attitudes towards environmental
conservation.
3. Environmental behavior: This includes questions about the respondent's behavior
with regard to environmental issues, such as recycling, energy conservation, and
water conservation.
4. Perception of environmental issues: This includes questions about the
respondent's perception of the severity of environmental issues in their
community, such as air pollution, water pollution, and deforestation.
5. Spatial data: This includes questions about the respondent's location, land use
patterns, and environmental conditions in their area.

To prepare a final questionnaire for the spatial survey on environmental issues, the
following steps can be adopted:

1. Draft the questions: Based on the items identified in the survey instrument
framework, draft the questions to be included in the questionnaire.
2. Review the questions: Review the questions to ensure that they are clear, concise,
and unambiguous.
3. Test the questions: Test the questions with a small group of respondents to identify
any potential problems with the questions or response options.
4. Refine the questions: Refine the questions based on feedback from the test group
and ensure that they are appropriate for the target population.
5. Finalize the questionnaire: Finalize the questionnaire by arranging the questions in
a logical order and including instructions for completing the survey.
 35

Q9. What do you mean by satellite and its platforms? Describe different types of
platforms. Describe components of satellite orbital characteristics with reference to
geostationary and sun-synchronous satellites.

A satellite is an artificial object that orbits the Earth or other celestial body in space.
Satellites are used for a wide range of applications, including telecommunications, remote
sensing, navigation, and scientific research. They are launched into space using various
types of platforms.

There are several types of satellite platforms, including:

1. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at a
distance of approximately 36,000 km above the equator and have an orbital period
of 24 hours, which allows them to remain stationary above a fixed point on the
Earth's surface. They are commonly used for telecommunications and weather
forecasting.
2. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at altitudes ranging
from 160 km to 2,000 km above the surface. They have a shorter orbital period and
are used for applications such as remote sensing, navigation, and scientific
research.
3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at altitudes
ranging from 2,000 km to 36,000 km above the surface. They are used for
navigation and positioning applications such as GPS.
4. Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) satellites: These satellites have highly elliptical orbits,
with apogees (farthest distance from the Earth) ranging from 10,000 km to 100,000
km. They are used for applications such as communication and remote sensing.

The components of satellite orbital characteristics include:

1. Altitude: This refers to the height of the satellite above the Earth's surface and is
measured in kilometers.
2. Inclination: This refers to the angle between the plane of the satellite's orbit and
the equator.
3. Orbital period: This refers to the time it takes for the satellite to complete one orbit
around the Earth.
4. Eccentricity: This refers to the shape of the satellite's orbit, which can be circular or
elliptical.
5. Longitude of the ascending node: This refers to the point where the satellite's orbit
crosses the Earth's equator from south to north.
 36

For geostationary satellites, the orbital characteristics include:

1. Altitude: Approximately 36,000 km.

2. Inclination: Zero degrees.
3. Orbital period: 24 hours.
4. Eccentricity: Nearly zero.
5. Longitude of the ascending node: Fixed at the equator.

For sun-synchronous satellites, the orbital characteristics include:

1. Altitude: Varies depending on the application, but typically between 600 km and
800 km.
2. Inclination: Typically 98 degrees.
3. Orbital period: Varies depending on the altitude, but typically around 100 minutes.
4. Eccentricity: Nearly zero.
5. Longitude of the ascending node: Varies depending on the application, but
typically fixed relative to the sun.

Q10. Define GIS? How is it different than other information systems? Discuss in
details the components of GIS and processing of cycle of GIS.

GIS stands for Geographic Information System, which is a computer-based system

designed for capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying spatial and geographic data.
GIS is used to manage and analyze geographic information, including maps, satellite
imagery, aerial photography, and survey data. Unlike other information systems, GIS
allows users to view, analyze, and manipulate data based on its geographic location.

The components of GIS include:

1. Hardware: This includes the physical devices used to store and process data, such
as computers, servers, and storage devices.
2. Software: This includes the applications and tools used to create, manage, analyze,
and display spatial data, such as mapping software, data management tools, and
data analysis tools.
3. Data: This includes the spatial data used by GIS, such as maps, satellite imagery,
aerial photography, and survey data.
4. People: This includes the individuals who use and manage GIS, including GIS
analysts, data managers, and decision makers.
 37

The processing cycle of GIS consists of four stages:

1. Data input: This involves collecting and capturing data from various sources, such
as maps, satellite imagery, and GPS devices. The data is then stored in a GIS
database.
2. Data management: This involves organizing, storing, and maintaining the GIS
database. This includes tasks such as data editing, data quality control, and data
validation.
3. Analysis: This involves using GIS tools and techniques to analyze the spatial data.
This includes tasks such as spatial queries, spatial modeling, and spatial statistics.
4. Output: This involves presenting the results of the analysis in a visual format, such
as maps, charts, and graphs. The output can be used for decision making and
communication.

GIS is different from other information systems in several ways. First, GIS is designed
specifically for managing spatial and geographic data, whereas other information systems
are designed for managing other types of data, such as financial data or customer data.
Second, GIS allows users to analyze and manipulate data based on its geographic location,
which is not possible with other information systems. Finally, GIS can be used in a wide
range of applications, including urban planning, natural resource management, and
emergency response, among others.

Q1. What do you mean by specific survey and general survey? How they are
different?

A specific survey is a type of survey that is designed to collect data about a specific topic
or issue. For example, a survey about customer satisfaction with a particular product or
service would be a specific survey. Specific surveys are typically focused on a narrow topic
or issue, and the questions are tailored to that topic.

On the other hand, a general survey is a type of survey that is designed to collect data on
a broad range of topics or issues. General surveys are typically more comprehensive and
cover a wide range of issues, and the questions are more general in nature. For example,
a survey about the lifestyle habits of a particular demographic group would be a general
survey.

The main difference between specific surveys and general surveys is the focus of the
questions. Specific surveys are designed to collect data on a particular topic or issue, while
general surveys are designed to collect data on a broad range of topics or issues. Specific
 38

surveys are often used to collect data that is more detailed and specific, while general
surveys are used to collect data that is more general and broad in nature. Additionally,
specific surveys are often shorter in length than general surveys, as they only focus on a
narrow range of questions.

Q2. What are the steps to be adopted designing a good questionnaire? Explain.

Designing a good questionnaire is essential for collecting accurate and reliable data. Here
are the steps to be adopted for designing a good questionnaire:

1. Define the research objectives: Before designing the questionnaire, it is important

to define the research objectives and the specific information you want to collect.
This will help you determine what questions to include in the questionnaire.
2. Choose the appropriate question types: Different types of questions are used in
questionnaires, such as closed-ended, open-ended, rating scales, and multiple-
choice questions. Choose the appropriate question types based on the research
objectives and the information you want to collect.
3. Write clear and concise questions: Write clear and concise questions that are easy
to understand. Avoid using technical jargon or ambiguous language that can
confuse respondents.
4. Order questions logically: Organize the questions in a logical sequence that is easy
for respondents to follow. Start with general questions and move to more specific
questions.
5. Avoid biased questions: Avoid questions that are leading or biased. This can
influence the responses of the respondents and affect the accuracy of the data
collected.
6. Pre-test the questionnaire: Before distributing the questionnaire, pre-test it with a
small sample of respondents. This will help you identify any potential problems
with the questionnaire and make necessary changes.
7. Consider the format of the questionnaire: Consider the format of the questionnaire,
such as paper-based or online. The format of the questionnaire can affect the
response rate and the quality of the data collected.
8. Keep the questionnaire short: Keep the questionnaire short and focused on the
research objectives. Long questionnaires can be time-consuming and may
discourage respondents from completing the questionnaire.
9. Provide clear instructions: Provide clear instructions to respondents on how to
complete the questionnaire. This can include instructions on how to answer specific
question types and how to submit the completed questionnaire.
 39

By following these steps, you can design a good questionnaire that is effective in
collecting accurate and reliable data.

Q3. define trend study and discuss the benefits of using trend studies.

A trend study is a research design that involves analyzing data over time to identify
changes or patterns in a particular phenomenon. The goal of a trend study is to examine
how a particular variable or phenomenon has changed over time, and to identify potential
factors or causes that may have contributed to those changes.

The benefits of using trend studies include:

1. Identification of long-term changes: Trend studies allow researchers to identify

long-term changes in a particular phenomenon. By analyzing data over time,
researchers can identify patterns and trends that may not be visible in shorter-term
studies.
2. Understanding of causal factors: Trend studies can help identify potential causal
factors that contribute to changes in a particular phenomenon. For example, a
trend study of crime rates over time may help identify changes in social or
economic conditions that may have contributed to changes in crime rates.
3. Prediction of future trends: By analyzing historical trends, trend studies can help
predict future changes in a particular phenomenon. This can be useful for
policymakers and planners who need to anticipate future changes and plan
accordingly.
4. Evaluation of interventions: Trend studies can be used to evaluate the effectiveness
of interventions or policies over time. By analyzing changes in a particular
phenomenon before and after an intervention, researchers can assess the impact
of the intervention on the phenomenon.
5. Identification of data gaps: Trend studies can help identify data gaps or areas
where more research is needed. By analyzing data over time, researchers may
identify gaps in the data or areas where more detailed data is needed to fully
understand changes in the phenomenon.

Overall, trend studies provide a valuable tool for understanding long-term changes in a
particular phenomenon and identifying potential factors or causes that may have
contributed to those changes.
 40

Q4. What do you mean by data quality issues in secondary data? How the qualities
of data measured?

Data quality issues in secondary data refer to potential problems or limitations that may
exist with data that has been previously collected and made available for secondary
analysis. These issues can include errors in data collection or processing, missing data,
inconsistencies, and bias.

There are several measures used to assess the quality of secondary data. Some of the
commonly used measures are:

1. Accuracy: This refers to the degree to which the data reflects the true values of the
variable being measured. Accuracy can be measured by comparing the secondary
data with primary data collected through new research.
2. Completeness: This refers to the extent to which the data is complete and free from
missing values. Completeness can be measured by calculating the proportion of
missing data points.
3. Consistency: This refers to the degree to which the data is consistent across
different sources and over time. Consistency can be measured by comparing the
secondary data with other sources of data, such as primary data or data from other
studies.
4. Relevance: This refers to the degree to which the data is relevant to the research
question being addressed. Relevance can be assessed by examining the extent to
which the data covers the relevant variables and time periods.
5. Timeliness: This refers to the degree to which the data is up-to-date and reflects
current conditions. Timeliness can be assessed by examining the date of the data
collection and the time period covered by the data.

Overall, assessing the quality of secondary data is important to ensure that the data is
appropriate for the research question being addressed and to avoid potential problems
or limitations in the analysis.

Q5. Define satellite and sensors. Distinguish their characteristics.

A satellite is an object that is placed into orbit around the Earth to perform a specific
function or task. Satellites can be natural, such as the moon, or artificial, such as those
used for communication, navigation, weather forecasting, and remote sensing. Satellites
are equipped with various instruments and sensors that allow them to collect and transmit
data to Earth.
 41

Sensors are the instruments mounted on a satellite that collect data about the Earth's
surface or atmosphere. These sensors can be passive or active. Passive sensors detect and
measure the radiation emitted or reflected by the Earth, while active sensors emit their
own radiation and measure the response.

Some key differences between satellites and sensors include:

1. Function: Satellites are designed to perform specific functions, such as

communication, navigation, or remote sensing. Sensors are the instruments that
enable satellites to collect data about the Earth's surface or atmosphere.
2. Orbit: Satellites are placed into orbit around the Earth at specific altitudes and
positions, depending on their function. Sensors are mounted on the satellite and
are designed to collect data from specific altitudes and positions.
3. Data Collection: Satellites collect data continuously or periodically, depending on
their function. Sensors collect data during the time that the satellite is passing over
a specific area on the Earth's surface.
4. Data Resolution: The resolution of the data collected by a satellite depends on the
capabilities of the sensors mounted on the satellite. Sensors with higher resolution
can collect more detailed and precise data.
5. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a sensor refers to its ability to detect and measure
changes in the Earth's surface or atmosphere. Sensors with higher sensitivity can
detect smaller changes in the Earth's surface or atmosphere.

Overall, satellites and sensors work together to enable remote sensing of the Earth's
surface and atmosphere, and their capabilities and characteristics are closely linked.

Q6. Explain buffering. Discuss how it is done in spatial data analysis.

Buffering is a common spatial analysis technique used in geographic information systems

(GIS) to create a polygon area around a feature or set of features. This area is defined by
a specific distance or buffer zone, within which other features can be identified or
analyzed.

In spatial data analysis, buffering is typically done using GIS software. The process involves
selecting the feature or features for which a buffer zone is to be created and specifying
the distance or buffer size. The buffer zone is then generated as a new layer in the GIS,
typically as a polygon shapefile.

Buffering can be used for a variety of purposes, such as:

 42

1. Identifying features within a specific distance of a given location or set of locations.

2. Analyzing the spatial relationships between features, such as the proximity of land
use types or ecological habitats.
3. Creating a visual representation of a specific area of interest, such as a buffer zone
around a protected area or proposed development site.

Buffering can also be used in conjunction with other spatial analysis techniques, such as
overlay analysis, to identify areas of overlap or intersection between different features or
buffer zones.

Q7. Discuss the resolution in remote sensing?

Resolution is an important concept in remote sensing, and refers to the level of detail and
clarity that can be seen in an image or dataset. There are several types of resolution that
are relevant in remote sensing:

1. Spatial Resolution: Spatial resolution refers to the size of the smallest feature that
can be detected or resolved in an image. It is typically measured in terms of the
size of each pixel in the image, and is often expressed in meters or kilometers. A
higher spatial resolution means that smaller features can be detected and more
detail can be seen in the image.
2. Spectral Resolution: Spectral resolution refers to the number and size of the
wavelength bands that are captured in an image. It is typically measured in terms
of the bandwidth of each band, and is often expressed in nanometers. A higher
spectral resolution means that more specific information can be captured about
the properties of the targets being observed.
3. Radiometric Resolution: Radiometric resolution refers to the sensitivity of the
sensor in detecting and measuring variations in the intensity of the
electromagnetic radiation that is captured in an image. It is typically measured in
terms of the number of bits used to represent the data, and determines the level
of contrast and detail that can be seen in the image.
4. Temporal Resolution: Temporal resolution refers to the frequency at which images
or data are collected over a particular area or target. It is typically measured in
terms of the time interval between successive observations, and determines the
ability to track changes over time.
 43

Q8. What does letter of identification of a survey worker stands for? Discuss what
components the latter of identification should include? Also discuss the advantage
and disadvantages of survey over other methods of research.

A letter of identification for a survey worker is a formal document that is issued by the
organization conducting the survey to verify the identity and credentials of the survey
worker. This letter is typically given to the survey worker to present to potential
respondents as proof that they are authorized to conduct the survey.

The components that should be included in a letter of identification for a survey worker
include:

1. The name and contact information of the organization conducting the survey.
2. The name and contact information of the survey worker.
3. The purpose and scope of the survey.
4. The expected duration of the survey.
5. A statement indicating that the survey worker has been authorized by the
organization to conduct the survey.
6. A request for cooperation from potential respondents.

Advantages of survey research:

1. Surveys can collect large amounts of data quickly and efficiently.

2. Surveys can be conducted remotely, which can save time and money.
3. Surveys can be easily standardized to ensure consistency and comparability of
data.
4. Surveys can be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
5. Surveys can be used to gather data on sensitive or confidential topics.

Disadvantages of survey research:

1. Surveys are limited by the quality of the questions asked and the responses
received.
2. Response rates can be low, which can limit the representativeness of the sample.
3. Survey data can be affected by response bias, where respondents may not answer
truthfully or accurately.
4. Surveys may not capture the complexity and nuances of certain topics.
5. Surveys may not be appropriate for studying rare or hard-to-reach populations.

Overall, survey research is a valuable method of data collection that has advantages and
disadvantages depending on the research question and context. It is important to
 44

carefully design and conduct surveys to maximize the quality and usefulness of the data
collected.

Q9. Discuss the closed questions and open questions with suitable examples. Which
types of questions do you proper to use in explorative studies? Why?

Closed questions and open questions are two types of survey questions that are
commonly used in research studies.

Closed questions are questions that provide respondents with a limited set of answer
choices to choose from. These questions are typically used to gather quantitative data
and are useful for measuring attitudes, behaviors, and demographic information. Closed
questions can be further categorized into dichotomous questions (two answer options)
or multiple-choice questions (three or more answer options).

Examples of closed questions:

• Have you ever smoked a cigarette? (Dichotomous question with "Yes" or "No" as
answer options)
• What is your highest level of education completed? (Multiple-choice question with
answer options such as "High school diploma," "Associate's degree," "Bachelor's
degree," etc.)

Open questions are questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words
without providing predetermined answer choices. These questions are typically used to
gather qualitative data and are useful for exploring attitudes, opinions, and experiences.
Open questions can be further categorized into short-answer questions (one or two-word
answers) or open-ended questions (longer answers with more detail).

Examples of open questions:

• What do you think about the current state of healthcare in your community?
• What motivated you to pursue your current career path?

In explorative studies, it is generally more appropriate to use open questions to allow for
the exploration and discovery of new themes and patterns. Open questions provide
greater flexibility in responses and can help identify unexpected insights and perspectives.
However, closed questions may also be useful in exploratory studies if the research
question is well-defined and the answer choices are relevant and clear.
 45

Overall, the choice between closed and open questions depends on the research question,
study design, and goals of the research. Researchers should carefully consider the
advantages and limitations of each type of question before selecting the most appropriate
question format for their study.

Q1. Why researchers think survey as a method of collecting primary data? Justify
your answer with its features.

Researchers often choose surveys as a method of collecting primary data because surveys
offer several features that make them a useful tool for gathering information from a large
number of people. Here are some of the key features of surveys that make them attractive
to researchers:

1. Standardization: Surveys allow researchers to ask the same questions in the same
way to each participant. This standardization reduces the potential for bias and
ensures that all respondents are being asked the same questions. This makes it
easier to compare responses across participants and analyze the data.
2. Flexibility: Surveys can be administered in a variety of formats, such as online,
paper-and-pencil, or telephone. This flexibility makes surveys accessible to a wide
range of participants and can help to increase response rates.
3. Efficiency: Surveys can be administered to a large number of people relatively
quickly and inexpensively, making them a cost-effective method of collecting data.
4. Anonymity: Surveys can be designed to allow participants to respond
anonymously, which may encourage more honest responses to sensitive or
personal questions.
5. Quantitative data: Surveys often produce quantitative data, which can be easily
analyzed using statistical techniques. This can allow researchers to identify patterns
and relationships in the data and draw conclusions about the population being
studied.

Overall, surveys offer a standardized, flexible, efficient, and anonymous way to collect
quantitative data from a large number of people, making them a popular choice for
researchers.
 46

Q2. Discuss with examples closed questions and open questions? Which type of
questions do you prefer to used in explorative studies? Why?

Closed questions and open questions are two types of questions commonly used in
research and surveys.

Closed questions are questions that offer a limited set of pre-defined answer options,
usually in the form of a multiple-choice question or a scale. Closed questions are useful
for collecting specific information and for quantifying responses. Here are some examples
of closed questions:

• Have you ever purchased a product from our company? (Yes/No)

• On a scale of 1-10, how satisfied are you with our customer service? (1=Not at all
satisfied, 10=Completely satisfied)
• What is your age range? (18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55 and over)

Open questions are questions that allow for a variety of responses and provide more
opportunity for participants to express their opinions and experiences. Open questions
are useful for exploratory research and for gaining in-depth insights into a topic. Here are
some examples of open questions:

• What do you think about our product?

• Can you describe a time when you had a positive experience with our customer
service?
• How do you feel about the current political climate?

In exploratory studies, open questions are often preferred because they allow participants
to express their opinions and experiences in their own words, which can provide valuable
insights into the research topic. Open questions can also help researchers identify new
themes and areas of interest that they may not have considered before.

However, closed questions can also be useful in exploratory studies when the research
question requires a more quantitative approach or when the researcher wants to compare
responses across participants using statistical techniques.

Ultimately, the choice between closed and open questions depends on the research
question, the research goals, and the type of data the researcher wants to collect. Both
types of questions have their own strengths and limitations, and researchers should
carefully consider which type of question is most appropriate for their study.
 47

Q4. What are the activities that a surveyor should perform for finding respondents?
Also mention the instruments that the surveyor must have with him/her.

The process of finding respondents for a survey can be challenging, but there are several
activities that a surveyor can perform to increase the likelihood of finding willing
participants. Here are some activities that a surveyor should perform for finding
respondents:

1. Identifying the target population: The first step in finding respondents is to identify
the target population for the survey. This may involve identifying specific
demographics or characteristics that the survey is targeting.
2. Selecting a sampling method: The surveyor must select a sampling method that
will be used to identify potential participants. This may involve using a random
sampling method or selecting participants based on specific criteria.
3. Contacting potential participants: Once the target population and sampling
method have been identified, the surveyor can begin contacting potential
participants. This may involve sending emails or letters, making phone calls, or
using online advertising to reach potential respondents.
4. Providing incentives: Offering incentives such as gift cards or cash can be an
effective way to encourage people to participate in a survey.
5. Following up with non-respondents: Following up with non-respondents can help
to increase response rates. This may involve sending reminder emails or letters,
making additional phone calls, or using other methods to encourage participation.

In addition to these activities, the surveyor must have several instruments with them to
conduct the survey. Here are some instruments that a surveyor must have:

1. Questionnaire: The surveyor must have a well-designed questionnaire that includes

all the necessary questions to gather the required information.
2. Data collection tool: The surveyor must have a data collection tool such as a
computer or tablet to administer the survey and record the responses.
3. Informed consent form: The surveyor must have an informed consent form that
explains the purpose of the survey, how the data will be used, and any risks or
benefits associated with participation.
4. Contact information: The surveyor must have contact information for potential
respondents so they can follow up with non-respondents or answer any questions
that arise.
5. Incentives: If incentives are being offered, the surveyor must have these on hand
to distribute to participants.
 48

Q5. Describe remote sensing? Describe how remote sensors detect the object on the
earth's surface and collect the information?

Remote sensing is the process of collecting data about the Earth's surface from a distance,
typically from an aircraft or satellite. Remote sensing involves the use of sensors that can
detect and measure physical properties of objects or features on the Earth's surface, such
as temperature, reflectance, and electromagnetic radiation.

There are two main types of remote sensing: active and passive. Active remote sensing
uses a sensor that emits energy (such as a radar or lidar), while passive remote sensing
uses sensors that detect energy emitted or reflected by the Earth's surface (such as optical
or thermal sensors).

To collect information about objects on the Earth's surface, remote sensors detect the
electromagnetic radiation emitted or reflected by the objects. Different objects reflect or
emit different amounts and types of electromagnetic radiation, depending on their
physical properties. For example, vegetation reflects more green light and absorbs more
red and blue light than water or bare soil, which have different spectral signatures.

Remote sensors detect and measure these differences in electromagnetic radiation using
a variety of technologies, including cameras, scanners, and radiometers. The data
collected by remote sensors can be used to create images and maps of the Earth's surface,
which can be analyzed to identify and monitor features such as vegetation cover, land
use, and water resources.

Some examples of remote sensing applications include:

• Mapping and monitoring deforestation and other land use changes

• Monitoring crop health and yield
• Detecting and monitoring natural hazards such as wildfires, floods, and
earthquakes
• Mapping and monitoring urban development and infrastructure
 49

Q6. Discuss the common steps to be adopted for spatial and survey data analysis?

Spatial and survey data analysis involve several common steps, which are outlined below:

1. Data collection: The first step in spatial and survey data analysis is to collect the
relevant data. This may involve using survey instruments, such as questionnaires,
or collecting spatial data using remote sensing or geographic information systems
(GIS).
2. Data preparation: Once the data has been collected, it must be prepared for
analysis. This may involve cleaning the data, removing outliers, and formatting the
data in a way that is suitable for analysis.
3. Exploratory data analysis: Exploratory data analysis involves exploring the data to
identify patterns and relationships that may exist. This may involve using statistical
techniques such as descriptive statistics, histograms, and scatter plots.
4. Spatial analysis: For spatial data, additional steps are required to perform spatial
analysis. This may involve using GIS software to analyze and visualize the data, such
as creating maps and spatial models.
5. Statistical modeling: Once the data has been explored and analyzed, statistical
models can be developed to test hypotheses and make predictions. This may
involve using techniques such as regression analysis, time series analysis, or
machine learning.
6. Interpretation: The final step in spatial and survey data analysis is to interpret the
results and draw conclusions. This may involve identifying key findings, making
recommendations based on the analysis, and presenting the results in a clear and
concise manner.

Q8 Define longitudinal and cross-sectional studies? Are this method

opposite/analogous? Discuss the designing questionnaire for these methods.

Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are two common types of research designs used
in social science and medical research.

Longitudinal studies involve collecting data from the same group of individuals over an
extended period of time, often months or years. This allows researchers to observe
changes in the variables of interest over time and to examine the impact of various factors
on those changes. For example, a longitudinal study may follow a group of individuals
over several years to examine changes in their health status, income level, or employment
status.

In contrast, cross-sectional studies involve collecting data from different groups of

individuals at a single point in time. This allows researchers to compare different groups
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of individuals and to examine the relationships between different variables. For example,
a cross-sectional study may compare the health status of different age groups or different
socioeconomic groups.

These two methods are not opposite or analogous, but rather serve different research
purposes. Cross-sectional studies are useful for examining the relationships between
variables at a single point in time, while longitudinal studies allow researchers to examine
changes in variables over time and to identify causal relationships between variables.

When designing questionnaires for longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, researchers

must carefully consider the research questions being addressed and the specific
characteristics of the study population. For longitudinal studies, it is important to ensure
that the questionnaire is designed in a way that allows for repeated measurement of the
same variables over time. This may involve using the same questions or scales at each
time point and ensuring that questions are worded in a consistent manner.

For cross-sectional studies, it is important to ensure that the questionnaire is designed to

capture the relevant variables of interest and to provide accurate and reliable data. This
may involve using established survey instruments or developing new questions that are
tailored to the specific research questions being addressed. It is also important to ensure
that the questionnaire is designed in a way that is culturally sensitive and appropriate for
the study population.

Q9. Differentiate between satellite and sensors. Discuss the type of imaging sensors
with their function and applications.

Satellites and sensors are both important components of remote sensing systems, which
are used to collect and analyze data about the Earth's surface from a distance.

A satellite is a man-made object that is placed in orbit around the Earth to collect data
about the Earth's surface. Satellites can be used for a variety of applications, including
weather forecasting, navigation, communication, and remote sensing.

A sensor, on the other hand, is a device that is used to detect and measure physical
quantities, such as temperature, pressure, or radiation. In the context of remote sensing,
sensors are used to collect data about the Earth's surface, such as the reflectance or
emission of electromagnetic radiation.

There are several types of imaging sensors used in remote sensing, each with their own
function and applications. These include:
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1. Optical sensors: Optical sensors detect electromagnetic radiation in the visible,

near-infrared, and shortwave-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
They are used for a variety of applications, including land cover mapping,
vegetation monitoring, and urban planning.
2. Thermal sensors: Thermal sensors detect thermal radiation emitted by objects on
the Earth's surface. They are used for applications such as temperature mapping,
urban heat island monitoring, and wildfire detection.
3. Radar sensors: Radar sensors use radar waves to detect and measure features on
the Earth's surface. They are used for applications such as land cover mapping, soil
moisture monitoring, and flood detection.
4. LiDAR sensors: LiDAR sensors use laser pulses to measure the distance to objects
on the Earth's surface. They are used for applications such as topographic mapping,
vegetation structure analysis, and urban planning.

Overall, imaging sensors play a critical role in remote sensing, providing valuable data
that can be used for a variety of applications, from monitoring the Earth's environment to
planning and managing land use.

Q10. Why GIS technology is popular in modern Era? Discuss how spatial and
attribute data are linked though GIS. Also describe about different types of GIS data
models in details.

GIS (Geographic Information System) technology is popular in the modern era due to its
ability to store, analyze, and display geographic data. GIS technology has revolutionized
the way we use and understand spatial information, allowing us to make better decisions
based on a comprehensive understanding of geographic patterns and relationships.

Spatial and attribute data are linked through GIS by the use of a common unique
identifier, such as a location or address. GIS software enables users to overlay spatial data
on top of attribute data, making it possible to analyze relationships between different
types of information.

There are several types of GIS data models, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.
The three main types of GIS data models are:

1. Vector data model: The vector data model represents features on the Earth's
surface as points, lines, and polygons. This model is useful for representing discrete
features, such as buildings, roads, and water bodies. The vector data model is
typically used for mapping and analysis applications.
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2. Raster data model: The raster data model represents features on the Earth's surface
as a grid of cells. Each cell in the grid represents a single value, such as elevation
or land use. The raster data model is useful for representing continuous data, such
as temperature or precipitation. The raster data model is typically used for
modeling and analysis applications.
3. Object-based data model: The object-based data model represents features on the
Earth's surface as collections of objects, each with its own set of attributes. This
model is useful for representing complex features, such as vegetation or land use.
The object-based data model is typically used for classification and analysis
applications.

Within each data model, there are also different data types, such as points, lines, polygons,
or grids, which are used to represent specific types of features. The choice of data model
and data type depends on the specific application and the type of data being analyzed.