Part II.

DAIRY PRODUCTION

Chapter 9. Overview of Dairy Production 35

9.1 Milk and Milk Procedures 35
9.2 Title Philippine Dairy Situation, Year 2007 37
9.3 Globe Milk Output (2007) 39
9.4 Government Effort to Develop the Philippine Industry 39

Chapter 10. Breeds of Dairy Animals 40

10.1 Breeds of Dairy Cattle 41
10.2 Water Buffaloes 42
10.3 Breeds of Goats 43

Chapter 11. Dairy Cattle Production 44

11.1 Physiology and Reproduction 44
11.2 Buff’s Reproductive Physiology 45
11.3 Cow’s Reproductive Physiology 46

Chapter 12. General Dairy Herd Management 48

12.1 Breeding Management 48
12.2 Care of Calves 50
12.3 Feeding Management 51
12.4 Herd Health 53
12.5 Milk Production 54

Chapter 13. Pasture Management 56

13.1 The Need for Improved Pasture 56
13.2 Establishing Pasture 58
13.3 Sowing Time 58
13.4 Management of Improved Pastures 58
13.5 Efficient Pasture Use 58

Chapter 14. Forage Preservation for a Year-Round Food Supply 59

14.1 Strategy of Preservation 59
14.2 Type of Silo 59

Chapter 15. Dairy Cattle Production 60

Chapter 9. OVERVIEW OF DAIRY PRODUCTION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
 The purpose of the dairy industry is to provide milk and milk products for man. Milk,
with its assortment of protein, fat, lactose (milk sugar), minerals, vitamins, enzymes and water,
is considered the most nearly perfect food. The world's people obtain most of their milk from
cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, horse, donkeys, reindeer, yak and camel

A versatile food that is in itself the basis of such products as cheese ice cream, butter,
and cottage cheese. Milk is a major component of the human diet in many developed countries.

Dr. E. V. McColum, a noted American nutritionist, said:

"The people who have achieved, who have become large, strong and vigorous people,
who have the best trades in the world, who have an appreciation for art, literature and music,
who are progressive in science and in every activity of the human intellect, are the people who
have used liberal amount of milk and its products."

Nutritional importance of milk

 Contains all the essential amino acids needed by humans. The protein of milk is
composed of casein, lactalbumin, letoglobulin and serum albumin. Casein is the most
abundant protein constituent of milk. It has many uses in addition to providing protein
in the diet. Lactalbumin is part of the enzyme system that synthesizes lactose in the
mammary gland. It is secreted into milk as a by-product and becomes part of milk
protein. Protein globulins of milk are structural parts of antibodies.
 The first milk a female produces after the young is born is called colostrum. It contains
many antibodies that give the newborn protection from harmful microorganisms that
invade the body and causes illness. The newborn animal has yet to develop antibodies
of its own because it has yet to be exposed to any disease-causing microorganisms. The
gut wall of the newborn is quite porous and permits antibodies in colostrum to enter
the body. Within a few hours the gut wall becomes less porous and the antibody
content of the milk diminishes, but the antibodies that have been absorbed into the
body of the newborn give it protection (passive immunity) until it can develop
antibodies in its own body.
 Other constituents of milk include lactose, minerals such as Ca and P (both of which are
important in bone growth and other body functions), and vitamins. Milk is, however,
low in Fe, therefore young animals consuming nothing but milk may develop anemia.
Milk contains several important vitamins such as vitamin A, which helps keep the
intestinal tract and skin in proper repair, the vitamin B complex, and vitamins D and E.
Vitamin D, along with Ca and P, 1s important in bone growth and repair. Vitamin D is
added to most marketed milk. Milk is low in vitamin C, which prevents scurvy (a disease
characterized by bleeding, spongy gums and loose teeth); Therefore, young children
 who depend heavily on milk for food should be given juices from citrus and fruits.
 In addition to cheese, ice cream, and various iced milk drinks, many delectable and
nutritious foods are prepared from milk. Milk may have a portion of the water it
contains removed and sugar added to produce condensed milk, or it may be dried to
produce either dried whole milk or skim milk. Dried, condensed milk may be
reconstituted to provide milk to drink or it may be used in cooking with or without
reconstitution. Buttermilk is produced when butter is made, or it can be cultured from
milk by the use of proper bacteria. Cottage cheese is made of curdling the milk and
removing most of the liquid (whey). Figure 1 shows the main milk and associated
products.

Figure 9.1 Milk Products

9.2 THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY SITUATIONHerd build-up program; Introduction of 500-1000 dairy
animals annually
  Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) suggested milk intake for Filipinos is 30
kg per person per year.
 Assume that average production of dairy animal (cattle) is 2000 kg per lactation per
year.
 How many dairy cattle do we need to have a per capita of 30 kg?
 Philippine population in 2007= 88 million
Dairy cattle needed = Required per capita x Population
Ave. production of animal/ year
=30 kg x 88 M
2000 kg
= 1.32 M
 Importation of milk and milk products
338.88 million kg
91% were milk and cream
3.5% were butter and butter fat
2.0% were cheese
3.5% were curd
 Source of importation
New Zealand = 36
Australia = 23
Thailand = 12
USA = 11
Others =18
100%

Exportation: 10% of what we import are exported. Mostly milk and cream to Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam and others.

GLOBAL MILK OUTPUT (2007)

Year Milk Population

2005 640 million tons 6.45 Billion
2006 657 million tons 6.50 Billion
2007 683 million tons 6.60 Billion
Question: Is there enough milk for all?

Per caput =Milk supply

(kg/person) world population
 =683 MT
6.6 B
=683 x 10⁹kg
6.6 x 10⁹
=103.5 kg/person

"Enough milk for all"

9.4 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO DEVELOP THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY INDUSTRY

 The most recent is the enactment of R.A. 7884. Otherwise known as the Dairy
Development Act of 1995, signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on 20 February
1995 and became effective on 12 March 1995. The Act integrates all government dairy
development programs into the National Dairy Authority or NDA.
 The DTRI (Dairy Training and Research Institute), organized in 1962 from the Dairy
Husbandry Division of the then Department of Animal Science, UPLBCA, is mandated to
conduct research and training in dairy science.

Chapter 10. BREEDS OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Dairy cattle, The conventional dairy breeds of cattle were developed mainly from the
taurine species. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the six major dairy breeds. Among the Bos
indicus breeds, Sahiwal and Red Sindhi are considered as milk cattle.

In choosing cattle for milk production, some factors used are the breed popular in the
community and high salvage value of the animal. For these reasons, Holstein-Friesian are
preferred. The crossbreds of Holstein and the Bos indicus breed Sahiwal, known as Australian
Friesian Sahiwal (AFS) developed in Australia, are being promoted by the government. In the
selection of dairy cows, dairy operators look for properły attached udder and strong feet. These
characteristics are best indicators that a cow will remain a high producer for a long time.

Water buffaloes. Water buffaloes contribute about one-fifth of the domestic milk
production of the Philippines in 2000. Table 2 shows the river swamp types of water buffaloes.
Exotic breeds are imported by the Philippine Carabao Center (PCC) to improve the local carabao
population in terms of milk, meat and draft characteristics.

Goats, One percent of the national milk production in 2000 is from goat. Table 3
enumerates some of the popular breeds and strains of goats in the Philippines.
Table 10.2 BREEDS OF WATER BUFFALOES

I. River type- Dairy Type

Indian Buffalo Breeds

Murrah Jet black; Horn: spirally—curled; Well-

developed udder

Surti Black to brown; Horn, coiled down and

up; wedge-shaped

Jaffarabadi Black; Broad flat horns, Good udder

Pakistan Buffaalo Breed

Nili-Ravi Black; small horns, lightly-coiled

II. Swamp Type=Draft and Meat Type

Philippine Carabao Black, strong, broad body, some albino

Thai Buffalo Black; strong, broad body

Chapter 11. DAIRY CATTLE REPRODUCTION

Profitable milk production and genetic improvement of dairy cattle are dependent on a
high degree of reproductive efficiency. The production of milk is secondary sex characteristic;
hence milk production is dependent on reproduction.

Genetic improvement is dependent on an adequate supply of high-genetic potential

heifers to replace cows culled for low production or other reasons. The supply of heifers is
again dependent on a high rate of reproductive efficiency, as well as a good calf and heifer-
rearing program.
 Most dairymen agree that a 12-month calving interval is ideal to maximize production
and profit. Failure to maintain this high degree of reproductive efficiency is a major economic
loss to the dairy industry. These losses occur from decrease in milk production, decreased feed
efficiency, decreased number of calves, decrease in value of valuable animals, and increased
treatment costs.

Sterility, which is the complete absence of reproductive ability, describes animals that
cannot reproduce. Such animals are usually easy to identify and should be culled from the herd.
These include freemartin heifers, bulls that do not produce live sperm cells, and other animals
that, through inherent abnormalities, injury, or disease are sterile.

Infertility or lowered fertility, which is subnormal breeding efficiency describes animals

that are not sterile but are not normally fertile. These animals are not so easily detected and
are a more serious and costly for most dairymen than are sterile animals

A normal cow can be described as one that becomes pregnant on the first or second
service and produces a live healthy calf every 12 to 13 months.

Sterility and fertility are not a single problem, but rather a very complex one and may be
the result of any one or more of a broad spectrum of factors. These include management,
genetic, physiological, and disease factors.

11.1 PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

Successful reproduction involves a complex series of physiological functions by both

male and female. The male functions are to:

1. Produce large numbers of viable male germ cells (spermatozoa)

2. Ejaculate these spermatozoa into the vagina of the cow or, in the case of Al, into an
artificial vagina

The function of the female in successful reproduction is more complex than that of the
male because her role continues after fertilization. The female's functions are the following:

1. Productive viable female germ cells (ova)

2. Deliver the ova to the site of fertilization (the oviduct).

3. Provide optimum environment for fertilization, embryo-development,

implantation, and development of the fetus to term.

4. Deliver a live, healthy calf at the end of the gestation period.

 5. Deliver the afterbirth and involute the reproductive tract back to normal size and
condition so the process may be repeated.

11.2 BULL'S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testis, stored in the
epididymis, and at the time of ejaculation pass through the vas deferens, ampulla, urethra, and
penis. During ejaculation, fluids are added to the spermatozoa from the accessory sex glands,
the ampullae (a small amount), seminal vesicles, prostrate, and Cowper's glands. This fluid,
seminal fluid or plasma, serves as a medium for sperm transport, sperm activation (sperm are
relatively immotile until ejaculation), and as a supply of nutrients for the sperm.

 Volume of semen per ejaculate varies from 2 to 12 ml, with average = 5 to 6 ml.
 Sperm concentration ranges from 1 to 3 B sperm per ml, with an average of about 2B
per ml.
 Percent motile cells ranges from 0 to 85%, with an average of 70%
 Based on these figures, an average ejaculate contains about 7B motile cells (5 ml
semen X 2 B/ml X 70%)
 In natural service, maximum fertility rates should be obtained by bulls whose
semen characteristics meet or exceed these average values and contain not
more than 15% abnormal sperm (head or tail abnormalities).
 In natural service a bull may service 50 to 100 cows per year. In Al it is not
unusual for a bull to service 10,000 to 20,000 cows per year \
In Artificial Insemination, semen is normally collected by the use of an artificial vagina.
Volume is recorded and the ejaculate is evaluated for concentration (spermatozoa per mi),
moiity, and morphology. Inferior quality of semen is discarded as its use is likely to result in
lowered conception rates. The semen is diluted with an egg yolk-citrate extender or milk-base
extender, and if the semen is to be frozen, glycerol. Dilution rates are calculated to yield final
motile spermatozoa per insemination of 10 to 12 million. An average ejaculate of 5 ml of
semen that contains 1.25 B live cells per ml after freezing contains enough spermatozoa for 500
to 600 inseminations. The semen is packaged in ampules or straws, frozen and stored (usually
in liquid nitrogen storage tanks) at a temperature of -300 to -320°F (-184 to -196°C. As long as
the semen is maintained at this temperature, it remains viable for 10 to 15 years or more.

11.3 COw'S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Ova are produced in the follicle of the ovary, released from the follicle (ovulation), picked up by
the infundibulum of the oviduct, move into the oviduct, fertilized in the oviduct, moved into the
uterine horn 4 to 6 days after fertilization, and implanted in the uterus 30 to 33 days after
fertilization. The embryo is carried in the uterus while developing into a full term calf, and the
calf is discharged through the cervix, vagina, and vulva. The process of ova production and
release begins at puberty (usually 6 to 10 months of age) and continues on a 21-day cyclic basis
until pregnancy. The cycle is normally reestablished within 40 to 50 days after calving and
continues until pregnancy occurs again.

The development and function of the female reproductive process in the female is also
under the control of the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH stimulate
the development and maturation ofthe follicle that contains the ova. The maturing follicle
secretes estrogen, which causes the animal to exhibit the symptoms of estrus (heat). LH causes
the rupture of the follicle. It also causes luteinization of the follicular cells and the formation
and function of the corpus luteum. The CL secretes progesterone, which prepares the uterus to
receive the fertilized ova and is essential in maintaining pregnancy.

Thus successful reproduction involves the presence of viable male and female cells in
the right place at the right time, in combination with a normal, healthy female to provide
suitable environment for the growth, development, and delivery of a healthy calf.
Synchronization - proper timing - of this series of physiological functions is as critical to
successful reproduction as are viable germ cells and normal healthy reproductive tracts.

Time Breeding to Obtain Optimum Conception Rates. The time of optimum fertility of
the ova is very short, 2 to 4 hours. Ovulation time varies from 5 to 16 hours after the end of
standing heat, with an average of 10 to 11 hours. Fertile life of sperm is limited to about 28
hours in the female reproductive tract. This indicates that timing of breeding is critical to
optimum fertilization rates. Optimum conception rates have been reported by breeding during
the last one-half of the standing heat period. Breeding earlier or later than this reduces
conception because of reduced viability of either sperm or ova. Based on this facts and
conception-rate data, the following recommendations have been followed for some years: if
standing heat is first observed in the morning, breed in the afternoon or evening, if standing
heat is first observed in the afternoon or evening, breed the next morning. These
recommendations are based on an average length of heat period of 18 hours, average ovulation
time of 10 to 11 hours after the end of heat, and the assumption that the first observed
standing heat was near the beginning of the standing heat period.

Chapter 12. GENERAL DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

Cattle are kept for two main purposes: beef production and milk production. Another
type is draft cattle, which are still present in many Third World countries. The management of a
dairy farm is more challenging and complex because it involves not only feeding and
management but also dairy milk production. Dairy herd management is guided by the age and
weight of animals. Starting from the new born calves, the young stocks, yearling to calving
(herd replacement group), the milking cows, dry cows and breeding bulls are managed
accordingly.

12.1 BREEDING MANAGEMENT

The cow comes into estrus the whole year, but chiefly in the summer, heat, season or
estrus lasts for about 18 hours and recurs every three weeks. The period of gestation is about 9
months. These frequent periods of estrus make it possible to arrange that every cow in the
herd does not calve at the same time, and that the supply of milk is more or less distributed
throughout the year. When in heat, a dairy cow may show restlessness, enlarged vulvas, a
tendency to ride other cows and a decline in milk production; other cows tend to ride her too.
The most reliable sign is standing still when mounted on, which is called standing heat. It is
easier to detect dairy cows that are in heat than beef cows because they are milked each day
and therefore are closely observed. The cow can then be bred.

Table 12.1 An ideal dairy herd should have the following composition:

Optimum Make-up
%
Cows-in-milk 45.0
Dry cows 9.5
Bulls 0.5
Total manure stock 55.0

Heifers (above 10 mos.) 24.0

Young stock (1 ½- 10 mos.) 13.0
Calves (<1 ½ mos.) 8.0

Total growing stock 45.0

TOTAL LIVESTOCK INVENTORY 100.0

Source: Surge (Dairy Equipment Manufacturer)
Illinois, USA
Dairy cows are generally hand mated, i.e. the cow is taken to the bull for breeding, or
inseminated artificially. There are technicians available from SCU's and government livestock
breeding centers to artificially inseminate cattle, but individual operators can also do it after
taking and mastering the procedure by participating in artificial insemination training short
courses regularly offered by various organizations as an extension service. It is desirable to use
semen from outstanding or proven sires which usually are the ones used in AI services.
Whatever mating system is used it is well to heed a byword among good cattlemen: "A good
bull is cheap at any price, an inferior bull is expensive at any price".

Heifers of dairy breeds are sometimes served at 15 months, but theygrow better if not
served until at least 18 months old, so that they calved at 2 1/2 years old. The duration of
lactation depends on age, breed, and feeding, but in the case of a first calver usually lasts from
5 to 7 months, while some adult heavy-milking cows may continue in milk for a year. The
average cow is kept in the herd until she is 5 or 6 years old.

Dairy cows should be allowed a period of at least 2 months between lactation to enable
their bodies to replenish fat and protein that previous lactation may have depleted. It is
advisable to dry the cow two months before her next calf is due. Also, during this dry period
globulins accumulate in the mammary gland. Globulins serve as carriers of antibodies in the
colostrum. Cows that are milked out right up to parturation have very low proportion of these
proteins in their milk. One way of drying off a cow is to reduce the number of milking to one
daily and her rations curtailed; later she is milked every other day and not completely stripped.
If milk is not withdrawn from the mammae at frequent intervals, the glands gradually cease
functioning, i.e., the cow stops producing milk.

Cows should not be bred right away after they have freshened since the uterus must
undergo characteristic involution and preparation for their next pregnancy. An average day’s
open or service period of 85 is thought to be ideal. A good practical goal is an average of 100
days open. If the average days open exceeds 110 to 115, it indicates a serious problem and the
causes) should be identified and corrected.

Dairy cows due to calve may do so out of door in summer. However, it is always
advisable, especially for first calvers, that they be separated from other cows, and each be
housed for 2 to 3 weeks before the calf is due in a maternity stall or pen that is bedded with
clean straws. In this way the cow can be observed closely and protected from stray predators
such as dogs that may mangle the newly born calf. The cow in a maternity stall maybe fed there
and must have access to water. The caretaker should be on hand when the cow delivers her calf
in case his assistance is necessary. But by no means should he disturb the cow if the delivery is
without difficulty. Calving difficulties such as caused by abnormal presentations will require the
services of a veterinarian who should be called as early as possible.
 Table 12.2 summarizes the breeding and reproductive characteristics of the three
sources of the domestic milk production in the country. However, this lecture will deal more on
cattle, as they are the main contributor to the production.

Cattle Philippine Goat

(Bos Taurus) Carabao
8-9 months 3- years 5-6 months
Age of Puberty

Age at 1st Breeding 15 months 2 years 8-10 months

Estrus duration 18 hours 21 hours 1-2 days

(1-4 days)
Signs of heat “Standing heat is Most RELIABLE”

Estrus Cycle 21 days 21 day 21 days

(18-24 days) (13-28 days) (18-24 days)
Ovulation 10-11 hours 15 hours after 33 hours after
After end of heat After end of heat Beginning of heat
Gestation 283 days 320 days 150 days
(278-288 days) (295-339 days) (147-155 days)
Rebreeding after 60 days 60 days 60 days
freshening

Dry period 2 months 2 months 2 months

Freshening Interval 12-14 months 16-18 months 8-10 months or 3

kidding in 2 years

12.2. CARE OF CALVES

After a calf is born, it should be wiped dry; any membrane clinging to its mouth and
nostrils should be removed, and its navel dipped in an appropriate disinfectant. On the first day
of its life, the calf should have some of the first milk or colostrum produced by the dam because
this contains antibodies to help calf resist any disease-causing microorganisms. Many dairy
operators often castrate bull calves and grow them out for beef. Heifer calves are usually grown
out and most of them are kept from one lactation to determine how much milk they produce.
Dairy calves are allowed to nurse from their dams from 1 to 3 days of age, or in some cases
weaned or taken away from their mother's milk right at birth, and reared on the pail. It is easy
but important to train or teach the calf to drink on the pail.
 Calves are usually kept in small individual pens or elevated calf stalls as soon as they are
weaned. For the first month of their lives, calves should get whole milk at body temperature,
preferably from their own dam, the ration being about 4 litres, divided into 3 feeds. Grain and
leafy hay are given to the young calves to let them start eating dry feeds and to hasten rumen
development. For the next month or 6 weeks, i.e., until they are about 9 weeks old, whole milk
may be gradually reduced and skim milk or milk substitute given in its place. After 4 weeks, the
calf should begin to eat solid feed, so that at the age of about 9 weeks its ration may consist of
chopped grass of hay, skim milk or a milk substitute, or a concentrate mixture.

12.3 FEEDING MANAGEMENT

The objective of the feeding program for the dairy operation is to provide a ration that
will encourage optimum economic milk production of acceptable composition while conducive
to the health of the cows. Achieving this objective is one of the greatest challenges in dairy herd
management.

The initial step in designing the feeding program for any individual herd should be to
determine the most economical source of nutrients for that herd. In most cases, this involves
evaluating the land resources to determine which crop or combination of crops to grow and
harvest to produce an adequate supply of high quality forage at minimum cost per unit of
nutrient.

Forages may be defined as vegetable feed for domestic animals. Examples are
pasturage, green chopped feeds (soilage), silage, and hay. Because forages are relatively useless
as a nutrient source for humans and other monogastric animals, and the entire plant rather
than the just the seed is consumed, the cost per unit of nutrient from forages is usually much
lower than the cost per unit of nutrient from forages is usually much lower than the cost per
unit of nutrient from concentrate feeds.

Forages are a primary constituent of most dairy rations for physiological and economic
reasons. They can make up to 60 to 70% of the total dry matter intake of dairy cattle. Dairy
cattle must consume adequate amounts of fiber (a minimum of 15% of DM), usually supplied by
forages, to ensure adequate rumen function. Consumption of rations too low in fiber may result
in decreased milk fat percentage and decreased ration digestibility. This is also known as "low
milk fat syndrome" Rations that are too low in fiber is similar to high concentrate ration.

Dairy cattle will consume and can utilize a wide variety of crops as forage including
grasses, legumes, corn, small grains, and other crops. See Table 13.1 for a list of some
important pasture grasses and legumes, including weeds in the Philippines.
 The next step involves supplementing the available forage with a combination of
concentrate feeds that provide the cow with a balanced ration at the lowest total feed cost per
unit of milk produced In addition, the ration should:

1. Contain ad-lib amount of clean, fresh water

2. Contain a total ration crude fiber level on a DM basis of 15 to 24%, 15 to 19% for early
lactation or high producing cows, and 19 to 24% for late lactation or lower producing
cows.
3. Contain a total ration crude protein level on a DM basis of 12 to 16% for early lactation
or high producing cows, and 12 to 14% for late lactation or low producing cows.
4. Be within the DM intake capacity of the cow. This varies widely with individual cows but
in general ranges from 1.5 to 3.6% of body weight depending on milk production level.

A logical step-by-step procedure can be used to formulate rations for milking dairy
cattle. The essentials are

1. Estimate the daily nutrient needs or requirements. Dairy cattle require nutrients for
maintenance, for growth if immature, for reproduction when pregnant, and for
production. Nutrient requirements for maintenance refers to nutrients needed to
maintain the animal body at homeostasis, i.e. gaining nor losing weight, not pregnant,
and not producing. These requirements are in proportion to the body weight of the
animal.
Nutrient requirements for growth are for laying down new muscle and
bone. Growth requirements for dairy cattle continue until they reach five to six years of
age.

Pregnant animals need additional nutrients for reproduction or growth of

the fetus.

Lactating cows also require additional nutrients for the production of

milk. The amount required for this function is proportionate to the amount and
composition (% butterfat) of the milk

2. Determine the nutrient content of the available forage.

3. Determine the forage intake.
4. Calculate the nutrient intake from forage.
5. Calculate the nutrient need from concentrates
6. Balance the ration for energy with concentrates, CC e bro l
7. Balance the ration for protein, calcium, phosphorus, and the other micronutrients by
including proper amounts (of these nutrients in the concentrate mixture.
8. Blend or purchase a mixture of supplemental feeds that provide the needed amounts
of the various remaining nutrients at least cost per unit.
 The recommended nutrient allowances for dairy cattle in ration formulation are
determined using the U.S. National Research Council feeding standards, prepared for dairy
cattle by nutritionists who had made a specialty of dairy cattle nutrition.

Cows in DTRI are fed using challenge feeding, that is, adjusting concentrate amounts
according to milk production of cows-in-milk (Table

12.3). The calves in the elevated individual calf stalls are fed milk in decreasing amount and
concentrate mixture in increasing amounts as they grow older. They are encouraged to nibble
on forage early to hasten rumen development. (Table 12. 4).

Table 12.3 Concentrate feeding of cows calves in DTRI

Cow Feeding

Milk yield/day Ration Example

Concentrate: Milk Milk: Concentrate
11kg+ 1:2 12kg: 6 kg
7-10 kg 1:2.5 10kg: 4kg
3-6 kg 1:3 6kg: 2kg

Table 12.4 Calf Feeding in DTRI

Age % of Body Weight

Weeks Milk Concentrate Grass

1-2 12 1 Ad lib
3-4 10 2
5-6 7.5 Ad lib
7-8 5 Ad lib
<9 70kg 2.5

12.3 HERD HEALTH

Milk secretion is a process which can be carried out by the female with
maximum efficiency only if she is healthy. Dairy cattle are susceptible to a wide variety of
diseases. Among the more serious ones in the Philippines is Foot-and -mouth disease,
tuberculosis, brucellosis, mastitis. Perhaps the most troublesome condition is mastitis, the
inflammation of the udders or mammary glands that destroys tissues and impedes milk
production.

The goals or objectives of a herd health program are to minimize nongenetic culling
(culling resulting from disease, injury, etc.) and mortality while maintaining a healthy herd with
a high degree of reproductive efficiency. To do this requires a herd health program centered on
the prevention of disease and other health problems rather than the sporadic treatment of
various conditions.

The basic principles of an effective herd program should include the following:

1. Prevention of disease problems is more effective and more profitable than treatment.
Prevention can be achieved by the following practices.

a. Preventing exposure to disease-producing organisms. Good sanitation and

cleanliness, isolation of incoming animals, and eradication of certain diseases can
achieve this.
b. Maintaining high level of resistance. This can be achieved by vaccination for
those diseases for which there is an effective vaccine, maintaining all animals at
a good level of nutrition, and providing a comfortable environment.
2. Reducing the spread of diseases that do occur. This can be achieved by the following
practices.
a. Isolation of animals that contract or are suspected of contracting a contagious
disease. Quarters inhabited by that animals should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected before being used.
b. Rapid, accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment of disease problems. This may
involve blood testing and other laboratory diagnostic tests as well as post
mortem examination.
c. Keen observation by herd personnel to detect minor abnormalities before they
become serious problems. Good cowmen can detect minor problems by the
characteristics and behavior of the animals. A cow that is slightly off feed, stands
uneasily, has toughened hair coat, passes feces that are too soft or too hard, or
stands by herself in the corner of the lot or barn one day may be seriously ill the
next. Her condition may be easily remedied if treated immediately; if she has a
contagious disease, immediate isolation may prevent spreading the disease
through the herd.

3. Maintaining and using an accurate health record system. Good health records can aid in
the diagnosis of problems, help alert dairymen to potential problems, and ensure that
 important details are not overlooked such as missing vaccinations on some animals. The
record system should be one that contains the needed information, yet is not so
exhaustive that it is not kept accurately.
4. Cooperation and mutual respect among the owner, manager, herdsmen, veterinarian,
and government animal health extension personnel. A good working relationship among
these persons is essential to the success of the program. Each has vital areas of
responsibility, and the continued success of the program depends on each fulfilling his
or her responsibility in the total effort.
12.5 MILK PRODUCTION

After parturition the level of milk production rises rapidly, until peak lactation is reached
in two to six weeks, then declines slowly until drying off or towards the end of lactation.

Milk secretion declines more rapidly after the 5 th month of pregnancy than in non-
pregnant cows. The effect is due to interaction of hormones which control milk secretion and
the reproductive state of the female. Hormones produced by the ovary and the pregnant uterus
interact with, or influence, the activity of the pituitary gland, the hormones from which control
the level of secretion as well as the amount and state of milk-secreting tissue.

The milk yield is closely dependent upon lactation length. The ideal cow, calving
annually and provided with the necessary annual vacation, should milk for 300 days. Thus,
farmers seeking a high producing herd must take persistency of lactation into account in their
selection techniques. Persistency of lactation is the degree to which lactation is maintained.

A cow with 90% production persistency means that after its peak lactation is reached,
the succeeding monthly milk yields equal 90% of the previous month's milk yield. Persistency
percentages over 90% are desirable and result in high lactation yield when compared to cows
with equal peak yield but lower persistency (Table 12.5).

Table 12. Effect of Consistency on Lactation Production

Month Cow A: persistency= Cow B: persistency= Cow C: persistency=

90% production 85% production 80% production
Daily Monthly Daily Monthly Daily Monthly
1 60.0 1,800 60.0 1,800 60.0 1,800
2 70.0 2,100 70.0 2,100 70.0 2,100
3 63.0 1,890 59.2 1,785 56.4 1,680
4 56.7 1,701 50.6 1,518 44.8 1,344
5 51.0 1,530 43.0 1,290 35.8 1,074
6 45.9 1,377 36.5 1,095 28.6 858
7 41.3 1,239 31.0 930 22.9 687
8 37.2 1,116 26.4 792 18.3 549
 9 33.5 1,005 22.4 672 14.6 438
10 30.1 903 19.0 570 11.7 351
10 month
Total 14,661 12,552 10,881

Length of actual milking. Depending on the number of cows raised, farmers milk their
cows either by hand or by machine. It will take an average of 1 1/2 to 2 hours to milk 10 cows
by hand depending on the skill of the milker. Using the herringbone system of machine milking
a dairyman can milk 40 cows in one hour. Whether the system of milking is by hand or by
machine, milkers should be taught to think cleanliness. Milk must reach the consumers clean,
fresh and safe for drinking.

Chapter 13. PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Forage crops from the basis of the nutritional programs on ruminant livestock in the
Philippines. Most of the about 90% of the cattle in the Philippines which are raised by small
hold or with minimal concentrates. The main sources of this forage or roughage are: 1) weeds
or indigenous/native vegetation, 2) farm by-products or residues and, to a very limited extent,
3) sown pastures.

Native tropical grasslands are mainly composed of short-season species which grow fast
and tall during rainy season, and become dominant in the pasture. While grasses are growing
actively protein is reasonably good.

At the end of the rainy season, the plants develop tall, flowering stems, which decrease
in protein and increase in carbohydrates and fiber. From this point onwards, the grass matured,
dries off and become leached. Feed value is extremely low. Stock grazing this dried off, stalky
mass of material are even provided with a maintenance ration and lose weight. Low levels of
animal production are inevitable because stocking rates must be adjusted to this period of
minimum feed supply.

As native grasses are usually adopted to low soil fertility levels, the direct application of
fertilizers alone will not produce any dramatic improvement in feed value or carrying capacity.
Further, in these native grasslands there is a complete or almost complete absence of legumes
which themselves can supply high protein feed
13.1 THE NEED FOR IMPROVED PASTURE

The value of a forage species is measured by its ability to supply the grazing animal with
energy, protein, vitamins and minerals. The feed value of native forage species and/or farm by-
products or residues is low. The productivity of the ruminants subsisting on these feed is thus
limited by inadequate nutrition. There is now a wide range of forage species, both grasses and
legumes, available to replace native vegetation. Some of these are listed in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1 Some Common Pasture/Grassland Plant Species

Grasses

Scientific Name Common Name

Brachiaria mutica Para grass

Brachiaria decumbens Signal grass
Brachiaria humidicola Koronivia grass, Humidicola
Panicum maximum Guinea grass
Digitaria decumbens Pangola
Pennisetum purpureum Napier grass, elephant grass
Dicanthium aristatum Alabang-X, Angleton grass
Setaria sphacelata syn. Anceps Golden Timothy, Setania
Sorghum halepense Jonson grass
Star grass Cynodon plectostachyus

Legumes

Leucaena leucocephala Ipil-ipil, leucaena

Centrosema pubescens Centrosema, centro
Calopogonium mucunoides Calopo
Macroptilium atropurpureum Siratro, purple bean
Pueraria phaseoloides Puero, Kudzu
Stylosanthes guianensis Schofield, Cook, Common Stylo
Stylosanthes hamata Verano stylo, Caribbean stylo
Stylosanthes humilis Townsville, Magsaysay luceme

Philippine Grassland Community Types

Saccharum spontaneum Talahib

Imperata cylindrical Cogon
Themeda triandra Bagokbok
 Capillipedium parviflorum Misamis grass
Chrysopogon aciculatus Amorsecoo

Weeds

Lanlana camara Lantaña

Bumea balsamifera Sambong
Amorphophallus campanulatus Pongapong
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken fern
Chromolaena odorata Hagonoy, Gonoy
Mimosa invisa Giant mimosa
Solanum ferox Wild eggplant

13.2 ESTABLISHING PASTURES

In a commercial dairy farm, it is necessary to establish pasture as soon as possible. Here, a more
thorough and positive method of establishing pasture is needed. Land preparation is important
in planting grasses as in planting agronomic crops as corn and rice. The intensity of land
preparation depends on whether the land is a newly opened timber or rainforest land, or native
grassland or open woodland. Also the type of planting materials affects the thoroughness of
seedbed preparation. Planting seeds of pasture species usually requires a finer seedbed than
corn and sorghum because the seeds are smaller.

13.3 SOWING TIME

The most reliable time for planting is just before the rain season, or shortly after the first
rains have fallen. For many of the small grass seeds, which must be planted close to the surface,
available moisture is quite critical for germination and emergence. Warmer temperatures
usually occur with the opening rains, and this favors germination of grass and legume seeds.
Further, at this time of the year the air humidity is high and evaporation is reduced. Both these
factors favor seeding survival.

13.4 MANAGEMENT OF IMPROVED PASTURES

Management is as important as selecting the right pasture species and applying the
correct fertilizers. It is perhaps more of art than a science, and the best managers are those
who by observation and practical experience endeavor to combine the welfare of their livestock
with the welfare of the plants in the pasture.

13.5 EFFICIENT PASTURE USE

 Efficient use of the pasture aims at carrying as many stocks as possible but at the same
time animals should be making maximum live weight gains. In other words, as stocking rates
are increased, the output per animal decreases. Maximum production per hectare is measured
by beef or milk produced, or at a point when the output per animal multiplied by the number of
stock carried is at its highest.

Stocking rates must, of course, be kept below a figure where damage to the sward or
influx of weeds occurs. This means that there must be some provision for feeding animals if this
is likely. Alternatives open are conservation of hay or silage, purchase of feed, adjustment or
sale of stock.

Chapter 14. FORAGE PRESERVATION FOR A YEAR-ROUND FEED

SUPPLY
There are two system of preserving forage, namely: silage making and hay making.

The growth of forage crops is affected by several factors, among these are the seasons
of the year. Usually, forage availability is a problem during the dry season in our country. In the
Philippines, most areas with cattle and carabao experience a dry season ranging from 3 to 7
months. Forage production is seriously affected with a telling effect on the performance of
animals. A study on growth curve of crossbred beef cattle conducted in UPLB showed that
steers on optimum feeding program attained slaughter weight in 3-4 years of age while those
under sub-optimum feeding took 7-8 months to reach the same weight.

Livestock production in the temperate zones of the world has been progressively freed
from the seasonality of forage production by using increasing proportions of forage
conservation. For example in Europe, since the last three decades of the 19 century, the meat
and milk production has increased at an accelerated rate per animal, per hectare and per
farmer simultaneously with silage and hay assuming a major role in winter feeding of dairy
cows and fattening cattle

14.1 STRATEGY OF PRESERVATION

Haymaking and silage-making differ in how the moisture content is employed in the
strategy of preservation Fresh forage contains about 80% moisture, that is, 4 kg of water for
every 5 kg of forage. The fundamental strategy 1in the preservation of forage as hay is drying
the forage below 20% moisture content. While in silage making, the strategy is to exclude
oxygen from the forage mass and to reduce the pH rapidly through bacterial fermentation.
14.2 TYPES OF SILO
The most common types of silo in the Philippines are the tower or upright, trench,
bunker and pit silos. These are found in commercial farms, Bureau of Animal Industry and
agricultural colleges. We have also tried drums and concrete culverts with success.