GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

Topic 2 – The allocation of resources

Table of Content

2.1 Microeconomics & Macroeconomics ................................ 2

2.2 The role of markets in allocating resources ...................... 2
2.3 Demand............................................................................ 2
2.4 Supply .............................................................................. 4
2.5 Price determination.......................................................... 5
2.6 Price changes.................................................................... 5
2.7 Price elasticity of demand (PED) ....................................... 5
2.8 Price elasticity of supply (PES) .......................................... 6
2.9 Market economic system ................................................. 7
2.10 Market failure ................................................................10
2.11 Mixed economic system .................................................11
Exam questions ......................................................................12

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
2.1 Microeconomics & Macroeconomics
Microeconomics: study of particular markets & sections of economy
• Individual firms, consumers, & markets making individual decisions within the economy
• E.g. effect of a price change on the demand/supply of a good

Macroeconomics: study of economic behavior & decision making in whole economy

• Aggregates (total supply/demand for g/s in an economy at a particular time)
• E.g. level of inflation, national spending, national output, economic development etc.
• Decisions are made by government in managing the economy as a whole

2.2 The role of markets in allocating resources

Resource allocation – the way in which markets decide what goods & services to provide, how to produce
them & who to produce them for

Price mechanism
• Prices respond to shortages & surpluses
• Price rises: consumers ration
• Reduces amount they are willing/able to buy
o Tells producers there is excess supply in the market
• Gives suppliers incentive to decrease supply
o Shortages causes price to rise
o Surpluses causes prices to fall

Market system - method of allocating resources through market forces of demand & supply
• Goods are bought/sold in a market at an equilibrium price
• Producers produce goods that consumers demand the most

Market equilibrium
• Demand = supply for a good
• Demand changes e.g. ↑income: people can afford more goods
• Supply changes e.g. weather impacts supply (drought) = ↓ crops)
• Market is more likely to be in state of disequilibrium than equilibrium
• Demand & supply constantly change

Economic questions
1. What to produce
2. How to produce
3. For whom to produce

Price mechanism - system of relying on market force of demand & supply to allocate resources

2.3 Demand
Demand – the willingness and ability to buy a product
Effective demand: willingness to buy is backed by the ability to pay for the purchase
Quantity demand: effective demand for a particular goods
• E.g. Want a phone but don't have the money to buy (demand)
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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
• Have the money to buy (effective demand)
Individual demand: demand from one customer
Market demand: total (aggregate) demand; sum of all individual demands of consumers

Demand curve - shows effective demand

Law of demand
• Increased price = decreased demand
• Decreased price = increased demand
Slopes down from left to right
• Demand increases as price falls (vice versa)
Movements are due to change in price
• Price rise = contraction along demand curve (less demand)
• Price falls = extension along demand curve (more demand)
Reasons for shifts
• Consumer incomes
o Increased income = people can afford more e.g. bicycle replaced by motorcycle
• Tax on incomes (more/less disposable income)
• Rise/fall in the price of substitute (eg. tea & coffee)
• Rise in the price of complements (eg. printers & ink cartridge)
o Two products used/consumed together
o As demand for 1 product increases, demand for other product increases
• Successful/unsuccessful advertising
• Weather
• Legislation
• Age distribution
• Fashion/trends
• Demand varies depending on age group
• E.g. trainers are more popular amongst young people
o Majority of population is young people = high demand

↓ price (80 to 60) = ↑ demand ↑ demand (500 to 600) ↓ demand (500 to 400) without
(300 to 500) • ↑ demand due to changes in change in price
• Extension in demand from A other factors (excluding • ↓ demand for a product due
to B price) to changes in other factors
• Causes shift to the right (A to (excluding price)
↑ price (60 to 80) = ↓ in B) • Causes shift to the left (A to
demand (500 to 300) B)

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
• Contraction in demand from
B to A

2.4 Supply
Supply – the willingness of producers to supply a good or services at a given price
Quality supplied: amount of goods producers are willing to make & supply
Market supply: amount of goods all producers supplying the product are willing to supply

Supply curve
Law of supply
• Increased price = increased supply
• Decreased prices = decreased supply
Slopes down from right to left
• Higher supply = increase in price
Movements are due to change in price
• Increase in price = extension in supply (increase in quantity supplied)
• Decrease in price = contraction in supply (reduced quantity supplied)
Reasons for shifts
• Change in costs of production (COP)
o Producers can produce & supply products cheaply
o COP rises = supply falls
• Changes in quantity of resources available
o Resources rise = supply rises (vice versa)
• Technological changes (higher productivity/output)
• Profitability of other products
o Producers might shift to producing more profitable products (reduces supply of initial
product)
• Joint supply - when a product is made as a by-product of another
• Weather
• Regulation/bureaucracy
• Increased number of producers in the market

↑ price (60 to 80) = ↑ supply (500 to 700) ↑ supply without change in price (S to S1) due to
• ↓ supply due to changes in price (without changes in other factors (excluding
changes in other factors) price)
• Causes a contraction in supply
↓ supply without change in price (S to

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
S2) due to changes in other factories (excluding
price)

2.5 Price determination

Market equilibrium: quantity demanded = quantity supplied,
X shortage/surplus
Equilibrium price: price at which demand curve intersects
supply curve
Equilibrium quantity: quality demanded or supplied at the
equilibrium price
• Marginal benefit = marginal cost
• Movements to a new equilibrium
o Increased demand (demand curve shifts right)
o Increased supply (supply curve shifts right)

Market disequilibrium
Disequilibrium price: price at which market demand & supply curves don’t meet

Revenue = Price × Quantity

2.6 Price changes

Cause – change in supply/demand
Consequences
Effect on equilibrium market price Effect on equilibrium market quantity

Demand shifts to the right Increase Increase

Demand shifts to the left Increase Increase

2.7 Price elasticity of demand (PED)

PED: responsiveness of demand to a change in price

Calculation
% △ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐸𝐷 =
% △ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒

• Demand unresponsive to changes in price

PED < 1 Inelastic • Quantity demanded < price
• Eg food, electricity

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

• Demand responsive to changes in price

PED > 1 Elastic • Quantity demanded > price
• Eg luxury

PED = 0 Perfectly inelastic Change in price X effect quantity demanded

PED = ∞ Perfectly elastic Change in price leads to 0 quantity demanded

PED = 1 Unitary %△ quantity demanded = %△ price

Determinants of PED
1. Availability of close substitutes - ↑substitutes → products easily replace if ↑price → elastic
2. Proportion of income spent on products - ↑income, △price X matter → inelastic
3. Cost of substituting between products - ↑substitution cost → inelastic
4. Brand loyalty / habit - less sensitive to △price → inelastic
5. Advertisement - ↓PED → inelastic
6. Necessity - essential → inelastic, luxury → elastic
7. Durability - non-durable → inelastic, durable → elastic
8. Time - takes time for consumers to change habits → long run → elastic

Significance of PED
Firms Gov
• Determine price strategies to max revenue • Decide products to impose taxes (usually on
• Determine if use price discrimination inelastic products)
(Charge different customers different price of
same product coz differences in PED)
• Predict impact on producers following changes
in exchange rate
But - Difficult to calculate accurately as PED
changes constantly

2.8 Price elasticity of supply (PES)

PES: responsiveness of supplied to a change in price

Calculation
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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
% △ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐸𝑆 =
% △ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒

PES < 1 Inelastic Supply unresponsive to changes in price

PES > 1 Elastic Supply responsive to changes in price

PES = 0 Perfectly inelastic Change in price X effect quantity supplied

PES = ∞ Perfectly elastic Change in price leads to 0 quantity

supplied

PES = 1 Unitary %△ quantity supplied = %△ price

Determinants of PES
1. Spare capacity - if has spare capacity, can ↑supply → elastic
2. Level of stock - ↑stock ↑elastic
3. No of firms in industry - ↑no of firms ↑elastic
4. Ease & cost of factor substitution - if capital / labour occupationally mobile → elastic
coz resources can be mobilized to supply extra output
5. Time period & production speed - long time, firm adjust production level → elastic

Significance of PES
Firms Gov
• ↑ competitive • Ensure everyone has access to affordable products
• ↑ profit • Encourage migrant labour
• Relieve shortage of labour
• Improve PES in labour market

2.9 Market economic system

Types
1. Free market economy eg Hong Kong
• Relies on market forces of demand & supply in private sector to allocate resources with minimal
gov intervention
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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

Adv Dis
1. Competition helps firms to pay 1. Income & wealth inequalities
attention & respond quickly to • Richer ppl have more choice & econ freedom
consumers wants • Producers meet needs & wants of rich ppl,
→ stimulate innovation, neglect poor ppl
↑efficiency
2. Environment issues
2. Freedom of choice • E.g. use non-renewable resources → pollution
• Producers & consumers choose
what to produce / consume

2. Planned economy eg North Korea

• Relies on gov in public sector allocating resources

3. Mixed economy eg Japan

• Combination of free market & planned economy
• Changes in demand & supply changes price & quantity
• Allocation of resources is determined by profit motive
Adv Dis
1. Freedom of choice 1. Heavy
2. ↓ social cost coz gov analysis social tax
cost & benefits 2. ↓
3. ↓ inequality efficient
4. Monopolies under close supervision

How gov solve market failure?

Solution Definition Graph Adv Dis
Maximum Gov sets price • Products more • Create
price below equilibrium affordable shortage
price • Encourage • ↑ tax
consumption

Minimum price Gov sets price • Producers know • Create

above equilibrium in advance the surplus
price price they'll • Encourage
receive over-
→ enable production
plan
investment
& output

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
• Encourage
output of
certain
goods/services
Indirect Aim to ↓ demand • ↑ tax • Great impact
taxation for demerit goods ↓ demand on low
• ↑ gov revenue income
earners

Subsidies Payment by gov • ↓production • ↑ tax

cost • Difficult to
set up
appropriate
subsidy coz
hard to
measure
external
benefit

Regulations eg - complete ban • ↓consumption • Cause black

- age limit • ↑awareness markets to
provide
products
• Ppl break
rules
eg fake ID
cards
Privatisation Transfer • ↓gov tax & • Create
ownership of debt monopoly
assets from public • Private firm • Still require
to private sector ↑competitive gov
intervention
→ protect
public
interest
Nationalisation Purchase of • Protect • Large oppo
private sector employment cost
assets by gov • Promote
economic
stability
Direct eg - education • Goods/services • Oppo cost
provision - healthcare accessible to all • Over-
ppl consumed
• Private benefits • Long queues
for individual & • ↑shortage

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
external • Free riders
benefits for 3rd
parties

2.10 Market failure

Market failure - occurs when market force are unsuccessful in allocating resources efficiently

Private costs: direct costs of production & consumption of a individual, firm or gov
Eg (pro) wages, (con) price paid for goods by conusmers

External costs: -ve side-effects of production & consumption incurred by 3rd parties for which
no compensation is paid
Eg (pro) air, (con) passive smoking

Social costs: private costs + external costs

Private benefit: benefits of production & consumption enjoyed by a individual, firm or gov
Eg To producer - profit received
To consumer - satisfaction gained

External benefit: +ve side effects of production & consumption experienced by 3rd parties for
which no money is paid
Eg vaccination protect surrounding ppl

Social benefits: private benefits + external benefits

Types of market failure Definition / Cause Example Gov solution

1. Public goods • goods/services that are non- Street Tax
excludable & lighting
non-rivalrous
• no one willing to pay → producers lack
motivation → X supply
1. Merit goods • goods/services when consumed create Education Subsidy
+ve spillover effects in economy
1. Demerit goods • goods/services when consumed create Cigarettes Tax
-ve spillover effects in economy Banning
• X gov intervention → over-
produced/consumed
1. Monopoly • Single supplier, price maker Attract foreign firms
• X gov control → exploit market power →↑competition
1. Geographical Provide public
immobility housing & transport
1. Occupational Provide more training
immobility

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
1. Information failure • Good where ppl unaware of long-term Chocolate Education
effects

2.11 Mixed economic system

Mixed economy
• Decisions are made by a combination of the govt & the private sector (market)
• Eg. USA, India, China, Singapore, Japan etc.

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 GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources
Exam questions

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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GCSE/IGCSE Economics Notes Topic 2 – The Allocation of Resources

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