LESSON 12A.

Part 1
FABRICATION OF MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES

The purpose of this lesson is to give you a simplified overview of the manufacture
of microelectronic devices. The process is far more complex than will be
described here. Still, you will be able to see that microelectronics is not magic,
but a highly developed technology. Development of a microelectronic device
begins with a demand from industry or as the result of research. A device that is
needed by an industry may be a simple diode network or a complex circuit
consisting of thousands of components. No matter how complex the device, the
basic steps of production are similar. Each type of device requires circuit design,
component arrangement, preparation of a substrate, and the depositing of
proper materials on the substrate. The first consideration in the development of a
new device is to determine what the device is to accomplish. Once this has
been decided, engineers can design the device. During the design phase, the
engineers will determine the numbers and types of components and the
interconnections, needed to complete the planned circuit.
(Watch Lesson 12A Video 1)

I. COMPONENT ARRANGEMENT
Planning the component arrangement for a microelectronic device is a very
critical phase of production. Care must be taken to ensure the most efficient use
of space available. With simple devices, this can be accomplished by hand. In
other words, the engineers can prepare drawings of component placement.
However, a computer is used to prepare the layout for complex devices. The
computer is able to store the characteristics of thousands of components and
can provide a printout of the most efficient component placement. Component
placement is then transferred to extremely large drawings. During this step, care
is taken to maintain the patterns as they will appear on the substrate. Figure
1shows a fairly simple mask patter

II. IC MASK PATTERN.

If this pattern were being prepared for production, it would be drawn several
hundred times the size shown and then photographed. The photo would then be
reduced in size until it was the actual desired size. At that time, the pattern
(Figure 1) would be used to produce several hundred patterns that would be
used on one substrate. Figure 2 illustrates how the patterns would be distributed
to act as a WAFER MASK for manufacturing.
Figure 1. IC mask pattern.

Figure 2. Wafer mask distribution.

A wafer mask is a device used to deposit materials on a substrate. It allows

material to be deposited in certain areas, but not in others. By changing the
pattern of the mask, we can change the component arrangement of the circuit.
Several different masks may be used to produce a simple microelectronic
device. When used in proper sequence, conductor, semiconductor, or insulator
materials may be applied to the substrate to form transistors, resistors, capacitors,
and interconnecting leads.

III. SUBSTRATE PRODUCTION (Watch Lesson 12A video 2)

As was mentioned earlier in this topic, microelectronic devices are produced on
a substrate. This substrate will be of either insulator or semiconductor material,
depending on the type of device. Film and hybrid ICs are normally constructed
on a glass or ceramic substrate. Ceramic is usually the preferred material
because of its durability. Substrates used in monolithic ICs are of semiconductor
material, usually silicon. In this type of IC, the substrate can be an active part of
the IC. Glass or ceramic substrates are used only to provide support for the
components. Semiconductor substrates are produced by ARTIFICIALLY
GROWING cylindrical CRYSTALS of pure silicon or germanium. Crystals are
"grown" on a SEED CRYSTAL from molten material by slowly lifting and cooling the
material repeatedly. This process takes place under rigidly controlled
atmospheric and temperature conditions. Figure 3 shows a typical CRYSTAL
FURNACE. The seed crystal is lowered until it comes in contact with the molten
material-silicon in this case. It is then rotated and raised very slowly. The seed
crystal is at a lower temperature than the molten material. When the molten
material is in contact with the seed, it solidifies around the seed as the seed is
lifted. This process continues until the grown crystal is of the desired length. A
typical crystal is about 2 inches in diameter and 10 to 12 inches long. Larger
diameter crystals can be grown to meet the needs of the industry. The purity of
the material is strictly controlled to maintain specific semiconductor properties.
Depending on the need, n or p impurities are added to produce the desired
characteristics. Several other methods of growing crystals exist, but the basic
concept of crystal production is the same.

Figure 3 Crystal furnace.

The cylinder of semiconductor material that is grown is sliced into thicknesses of

(0.010 to 0.020) inch in the first step of preparation, as shown in figure 4. These
wafers are ground and polished to remove any irregularities and to provide the
smoothest surface possible. Although both sides are polished, only the side that
will receive the components must have a perfect finish.

Figure 4. Silicon crystal and wafers.

IV. FABRICATION OF IC DEVICES

Fabrication of monolithic ICs is the most complex aspect of microelectronic

devices we will discuss. Therefore, in this introductory module, we will try to
simplify this process as much as possible. Even though the discussion is very basic,
the intent is still to increase your appreciation of the progress in microelectronics.
You should, as a result of this discussion, come to realize that advances in
manufacturing techniques are so rapid that staying abreast of them is extremely
difficult.
PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY (Watch Lesson 12A Video 3)

Photolithography is the process of transferring geometric shapes on a mask to

the surface of a silicon wafer. The steps involved in the photolithographic process
are wafer cleaning; barrier layer formation; photoresist application; soft baking;
mask alignment; exposure and development; and hard-baking.

Wafer Cleaning, Barrier Formation and Photoresist Application. In the first step,
the wafers are chemically cleaned to remove particulate matter on the surface
as well as any traces of organic, ionic, and metallic impurities. After cleaning,
silicon dioxide, which serves as a barrier layer, is deposited on the surface of the
wafer. After the formation of the SiO 2 layer, the photoresist is applied to the
surface of the wafer. High-speed centrifugal whirling of silicon wafers is the
standard method for applying photoresist coatings in IC manufacturing. This
technique, known as "Spin Coating," produces a thin uniform layer of photoresist
on the wafer surface.

Positive and Negative Photoresist There are two types of photoresist: positive and
negative. For positive resists, the resist is exposed with UV light wherever the
underlying material is to be removed. In these resists, exposure to the UV light
changes the chemical structure of the resist so that it becomes more soluble in
the developer. The exposed resist is then washed away by the developer
solution, leaving windows of the bare underlying material. In other words,
"whatever shows, goes." The mask, therefore, contains an exact copy of the
pattern which is to remain on the wafer. Negative resists behave in just the
opposite manner. Exposure to the UV light causes the negative resist to become
polymerized, and more difficult to dissolve. Therefore, the negative resist remains
on the surface wherever it is exposed, and the developer solution removes only
the unexposed portions. Masks used for negative photoresists, therefore, contain
the inverse (or photographic "negative") of the pattern to be transferred.

Soft-Baking. Soft-baking is the step during which almost all of the solvents are
removed from the photoresist coating. Soft-baking plays a very critical role in
photo-imaging. The photoresist coatings become photosensitive, or imageable,
only after softbaking. Oversoft-baking will degrade the photosensitivity of resists
by either reducing the developer solubility or actually destroying a portion of the
sensitizer. Undersoft baking will prevent light from reaching the sensitizer. Positive
resists are incompletely exposed if considerable solvent remains in the coating.
This undersoft-baked positive resists is then readily attacked by the developer in
both exposed and unexposed areas, causing less etching resistance.

Mask Alignment and Exposure. One of the most important steps in the
photolithography process is mask alignment. A mask or "photomask" is a square
glass plate with a patterned emulsion of metal film on one side. The mask is
aligned with the wafer, so that the pattern can be transferred onto the wafer
surface. Each mask after the first one must be aligned to the previous pattern.
Once the mask has been accurately aligned with the pattern on the wafer's
surface, the photoresist is exposed through the pattern on the mask with a high
intensity ultraviolet light.
Hard-Baking. Hard-baking is the final step in the photolithographic process. This
step is necessary in order to harden the photoresist and improve adhesion of the
photoresist to the wafer surface.

A. Monolithic IC
Two types of monolithic fabrication will be discussed. These are the DIFFUSION
METHOD and the EPITAXIAL METHOD.

DIFFUSION METHOD.—
The DIFFUSION process begins with the highly polished silicon wafer being placed
in an oven (figure 5). The oven contains a concentration impurity made up of
impurity atoms which yield the desired electrical characteristics. The
concentration of impurity atoms is diffused into the wafer and is controlled by
controlling the temperature of the oven and the time that the silicon wafer is
allowed to remain in the oven. This is called DOPING. When the wafer has been
uniformly doped, the fabrication of semiconductor devices may begin. Several
hundred circuits are produced simultaneously on the wafer.

Figure 5.—Wafers in a diffusion oven.

The steps in the fabrication process described here, and illustrated in figure 6,
would produce an NPN, planar-diffused transistor. But, with slight variations, the
technique may also be applied to the production of a complete circuit,
including diodes, resistors, and capacitors. The steps are performed in the
following order:
Figure 6.—Planar-diffused transistor.

1. An oxide coating is thermally grown over the

n-type silicon starting material.
2. By means of the photolithographic process,
a window is opened through the oxide layer.
This is done through the use of masks, as
discussed earlier.
3. The base of the transistor is formed by
placing the wafer in a diffusion furnace
containing a p- type impurity, such as boron.
By controlling the temperature of the oven
and the length of time that the wafer is in the
oven, you can control the amount of boron
diffused through the window (the boron will
actually spread slightly beyond the window
opening). A new oxide layer is then allowed
to form over the area exposed by the
window.
4. A new window, using a different mask much
smaller than the first, is opened through the
new oxide layer.
5. An n-type impurity, such as phosphorous, is
diffused through the new window to form the
emitter portion of the transistor. Again, the
diffused material will spread slightly beyond
 the window opening. Still another oxide layer
is then allowed to form over the window.
6. By means of precision-masking techniques,
very small windows (about 0.005 inch in
diameter) are opened in both the base and
emitter regions of the transistor to provide
access for electrical currents.
7. Aluminum is then deposited in these windows
and alloyed to form the leads of the
transistor or the IC. (Note that the pn
junctions are covered throughout the
fabrication process by an oxide layer that
prevents contamination.)

EPITAXIAL METHOD.—
The EPITAXIAL process involves depositing a very thin layer of silicon to form a
uniformly doped crystalline region (epitaxial layer) on the substrate. Components
are produced by diffusing appropriate materials into the epitaxial layer in the
same way as the planar- diffusion method. When planar-diffusion and epitaxial
techniques are combined, the component characteristics are improved
because of the uniformity of doping in the epitaxial layer. A cross section of a
typical planar-epitaxial transistor is shown in figure 7. Note that the component
parts do not penetrate the substrate as they did in the planar-diffused transistor.

Figure 7.—Planar-epitaxial transistor.

ISOLATION.—
Because of the closeness of components in ICs, ISOLATION from each other
becomes a very important factor. Isolation is the prevention of unwanted
interaction or leakage between components. This leakage could cause
improper operation of a circuit. Techniques are being developed to improve
isolation. The most prominent is the use of silicon oxide, which is an excellent
insulator. Some manufacturers are experimenting with single-crystal silicon grown
on an insulating substrate. Other processes are also used which are far too
complex to go into here. With progress in isolation techniques, the reliability and
efficiency of ICs will increase rapidly.
B. Thin Film IC

Thin film is the term used to describe a technique for depositing passive circuit
elements on an insulating substrate with coating to a thickness of 0.0001
centimeter. Many methods of thin-film deposition exist, but two of the most
widely used are VACUUM EVAPORATION and CATHODE SPUTTERING.

VACUUM EVAPORATION.— (Watch Lesson 12A Video 4)

Vacuum evaporation is a method used to deposit many types of materials in a
highly evacuated chamber in which the material is heated by electricity, as
shown in figure 8. The material is radiated in straight lines in all directions from the
source and is shadowed by any objects in its path.

Figure 8.—Vacuum evaporation oven.

The wafers, with appropriate masks (figure 9), are placed above and at some
distance from the material being evaporated. When the process is completed,
the vacuum is released and the masks are removed from the wafers. This process
leaves a thin, uniform film of the deposition material on all parts of the wafers
exposed by the open portions of the mask. This process is also used to deposit
interconnections (leads) between components of an IC.
Figure 9.—Evaporation mask.

The vacuum evaporation technique is most suitable for deposition of highly

reactive materials, such as aluminum, that are difficult to work with in air. The
method is clean and allows a better contact between the layer of deposited
material and the surface upon which it has been deposited. In addition,
because evaporation beams travel in straight lines, very precise patterns may be
produced.

CATHODE-SPUTTERING.— (Watch Lesson 12A Video 5)

A typical cathode-sputtering system is illustrated in figure 10. This process is also

performed in a vacuum. A potential of 2 to 5 kilovolts is applied between the
anode and cathode (source material). This produces a GLOW DISCHARGE in the
space between the electrodes. The rate at which atoms are SPUTTERED off the
source material depends on the number of ions that strike it and the number of
atoms ejected for each ion bombardment. The ejected atoms are deposited
uniformly over all objects within the chamber. When the sputtering cycle is
completed, the vacuum in the chamber is released and the wafers are
removed. The masks are then removed from the wafers, leaving a deposit that
forms the passive elements of the circuit, as shown in figure 11.

Figure 10.—Cathode-sputtering system.

Figure 11.—Cathode-sputtering mask.

Finely polished glass, glazed ceramic, and oxidized silicon have been used as
substrate materials for thin films. A number of materials, including nichrome, a
compound of silicon oxide and chromium cermets, tantalum, and titanium, have
been used for thin-film resistors. Nichrome is the most widely used. The process for
producing thin-film capacitors involves deposition of a bottom electrode, a
dielectric, and finally a top electrode. The most commonly used dielectric
materials are silicon monoxide and silicon dioxide.

C. Thick Film IC

Thick films are produced by screening patterns of conducting and insulating

materials on ceramic substrates. A thick film is a film of material with a thickness
that is at least 10 times greater than the mean free path of an electron in that
material, or approximately 0.001 centimeter. The technique is used to produce
only passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors.

PROCEDURES.—
One procedure used in fabricating a thick film is to produce a series of stencils
called SCREENS. The screens are placed on the substrate and appropriate
conducting or insulating materials are wiped across the screen. Once the
conducting or insulating material has been applied, the screens are removed
and the formulations are fired at temperatures above 600 degrees Celsius. This
process forms alloys that are permanently bonded to the insulating substrate. To
a limited extent, the characteristics of the film can be controlled by the firing
temperature and length of firing time.

RESISTORS.—
Thick-film resistance values can be held to a tolerance of ± 10 percent. Closer
tolerances are obtained by trimming each resistor after fabrication. Hundreds of
different cermet formulations are used to produce a wide range of component
parameters. For example, the material used for a 10-ohm-per-square resistor is
quite different from that used for a 100-kilohm-per-square resistor.

CAPACITORS AND RESISTOR-CAPACITOR NETWORKS.—

Capacitors are formed by a sequence of screenings and firings. Capacitors in
this case consist of a bottom plate, intra-connections, a dielectric, and a top
plate. For resistor-capacitor networks, the next step would be to deposit the
resistor material through the screen. The final step is screening and firing of a
glass enclosure to seal the unit.

D. Hybrid Microcircuit
A hybrid microcircuit is one that is fabricated by combining two or more circuit
types, such as film and semiconductor circuits, or a combination of one or more
circuit types and discrete elements. The primary advantage of hybrid
microcircuits is design flexibility; that is, hybrid microcircuits can be designed to
provide wide use in specialized applications, such as low-volume and high-
frequency circuits. Several elements and circuits are available for hybrid
applications. These include discrete components that are electrically and
mechanically compatible with ICs. Such components may be used to perform
functions that are supplementary to those of ICs. They can be handled, tested,
and assembled with essentially the same technology and tools. A hybrid IC
showing an enlarged chip is shown in figure 12.

Figure 12.—Hybrid IC showing an enlarged chip.

Complete circuits are available in the form of UNCASED CHIPS

(UNENCAPSULATED IC DICE). These chips are usually identical to those sold as
part of the manufacturer's regular production line. They must be properly
packaged and connected by the user if a high-quality final assembly is to be
obtained. The circuits are usually sealed in a package to protect them from
mechanical and environmental stresses. One-mil (0.001-inch), gold-wire leads
are connected to the appropriate pins which are brought out of the package to
allow external connections.