TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering Technology

Office of the Program Coordinator

LEARNING MODULE

ELX 232B: SENSORS AND

ACTUATORS

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

PREPARED BY:

GERSHOM A. DEFE, MECE

2020

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 VISION

The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.

MISSION

The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials;
effect technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-
medium scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)

QUALITY POLICY

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

higher and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension
projects; continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel
competence and effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory
requirements; and adhere to its core values.

CORE VALUES

T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the
mandates of the university

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………i
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………..ii
Course Description……………………………………………………….iii
Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………v
General Guidelines/Class Rules………………………………………….v
Grading System…………………………………………………………..vi
Learning Guide (Week No. 1). ………………………………………….
Topic/s…………………………………………………………….
Expected Competencies…………………………………………...
Content/Technical Information……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 2) ………………….………………………...
Topic/s……………………………………………………………..
Expected Competencies……………………………………………
Content/Technical Information ……………………………………
Progress Check…… ……………………………………………….
References………………………………………………………….
Learning Guide (Week No. 3)……………………………………………...
Topic/s……………………………………………………………..
Expected Competencies……………………………………………
Content/Technical Information…………………………………….
Progress Check…….……………………………………………….
References………………………………………………………….
Learning Guide (Week No. 4)……………………………………………...
Topic/s……………………………………………………………..
Expected Competencies…………………………………………….
Content/Technical Information…………………………………….
Progress Check…….……………………………………………….
References………………………………………………………….

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 iii

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This subject covers the fundamental physical principles, methods of operation and uses of sensors,
transducers and actuators. It also deals with the study of characteristics, functions and applications
these devices.

Course Requirement:

Students should:
1. Attend all lectures, practical activity and demonstrations.
2. Participate in all class discussions and laboratory experiment.
3. Complete all assignments, practical activity and submit all requirements on of before
due dates.

Note: Special Exam and quiz is given to those with medical certificate noted by the clinic
or letter of excuse signed by the parent or guardian.

Learning Plan:

Week No. Content/ Topics

6 Temperature and light sensors

7 Signal conditioning devices

8 Signal conditioning devices

9 MIDTERM EXAM

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 iv

LEARNING OUTCOMES

LO1: Understand the fundamental theory and principles underlying the operations of the
sensors and transducers.

LO2: Explain the working principle of the different types of sensors and transducers.

LO3. Understand the industrial application of the sensors and transducers.

LO4. Configure and troubleshoot basic sensors and transducers circuit.

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

1. Make-up exams and quizzes will be given only with prior approval of the instructor
and under exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the exam, the
university policy will be followed.

2. Students are not allowed to leave the classroom once the class has started, unless
extremely necessary. Students who leave the classroom without any valid reason will
be marked absent.

3. Students are expected to comply strictly with the university rule on dress code, class
tardiness and attendance.

4. Cell phones or any e-gadgets must be switched off or put in a silent mode during class
hours, except when allowed by the instructor for activities that require use of such
gadgets.

5. Homework’s or projects submitted later than the two-week allowance or more on

exceptional cases will not anymore be accepted. Students are expected to maintain
complete honesty and integrity in their academic work. Acts of academic dishonesty,
such as cheating, plagiarism, or inappropriately using the work of others to satisfy
course requirements, will not be tolerated and may result in failure of the affected
assignments and/or failure of this class.

Students with Special Needs:

A student with special medical needs is advised to inform the instructor as to

how he/she can best assist him/her. All information will be considered confidential.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 v

GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:

Preliminary examination - 30%

Midterm examination - 30%
Final examination - 40%
_____________
100%

Final Grade = Prelim Weighted Score + Midterm Weighted Score + Final Weighted Score

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 LEARNING GUIDE
Week No. 6
TOPIC:
 Temperature and light sensors

The purpose of this module is to introduce the student to the basic elements of
temperature and light sensors. The module is mainly informative and consists of
examples showing the constructions and working principle of different types of
temperature and light sensors.

On completion of this module the student should be able to do the following.

 Explain the characteristic and specification of temperature and light sensors.

 Explain the basic working principle and application of bimetallic strip sensor.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of resistance temperature
detectors (RTD’s) sensor.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of thermistors sensor.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of thermocouple sensor.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of light sensor.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of photo diode sensor.

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or

contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic
strips, thermocouples, thermistors are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing
processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc. The construction details and
principle of working of some of the temperature sensors are discussed in following
sections.

1. Bimetallic strips

Figure 2.5.1 Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded
together. The metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips
bend into curved strips with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the
outside of the curve. Figure 2.5.1 shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip
used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer
proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then the electric circuit completes
and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired
application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.

2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to
change in its temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows
a linear relationship as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlation is

Rt = R0 (1 + αT) (2.5.1)

where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α
is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The
sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C

Figure 2.5.2 Behavior of RTD materials [1]

Figure 2.5.3 Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Figure 2.5.3 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a
Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected
by a sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the
temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.

RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made
of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a
high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature
in a metal furnace. Other applications are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

3. Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing

temperature. The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material
such as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate
(BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the temperature of semiconductor material
increases the number of electrons able to move about increases which results in more
current in the material and reduced resistance. Thermistors are rugged and small in
dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure
2.5.4 shows the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of
dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is
connected to an electric circuit through two leads. To protect from the environment,
the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Figure 2.5.4 Schematic of a thermistor

Applications of Thermistors

• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry
equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee
makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

4. Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821),
when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, then there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric
circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit
voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature and composition
of two metals. It is given by,

∆VAB = α ∆T (2.5.2)

where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Figure 2.5.5 Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel (95% nickel, 2%
manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a
thermocouple. Table 2.5.1 shows the various other materials, their combinations and
application temperature ranges.

Table 2.5.1 Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges [1]

Materials Range (ºC) (μV/ºC)

Platinum 30% rhodium/platinum 6%

0 to 1800 3
rhodium
Chromel/constantan -200 to 1000 63

Iron/constantan -200 to 900 53

Chromel/alumel -200 to 1300 41

Nirosil/nisil -200 to 1300 28

Platinum/platinum 13% rhodium 0 to 1400 6
Platinum/platinum 10% rhodium 0 to 1400 6
Copper/constantan -200 to 400 43

Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production
and petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in
the steel, iron and aluminum industry

Light sensors

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light
sensors such as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing
and other industrial applications.
Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high
resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS
photoresistor varies inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photoresistor
follows the principle of photoconductivity which results from the generation of
mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Figure 2.5.6 shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is
mounted on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material.
The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires.
On incidence of high intensity light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil
decreases which will be used further to generate the appropriate signal by the
microprocessor via lead wires.

Figure 2.5.6 Construction of a photo resistor

Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control,
safety, amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.

Applications of photo resistor

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to

automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and
robots. The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be
programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control

Photo diodes

Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric

current. It is made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a
p-on-n configuration. When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of
silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created. The
depth at which the photons are absorbed depends upon their energy. The lower the
energy of the photons, the deeper they are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift
apart. When the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across by the
electric field and an electric current establishes.
Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into either
current or voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed to detect vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged with a opening or optical
fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.

Figure 2.5.7 Construction of photo diode detector

Figure 2.5.7 shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed from
single crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It
is very thin and formed by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material
such as boron. Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched between p layer and
bulk n type layer of silicon. Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the back
surface is cathode. The incidence of light on anode generates a flow of electron across
the p-n junction which is the measure of light intensity.

Applications of photo diodes

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash

Control

Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood

Particle Analyzers

Industry
• Bar Code Scanners
• Light Pens
• Brightness Controls
• Encoders
• Position Sensors
• Surveying Instruments
• Copiers - Density of Toner

Safety Equipment
• Smoke Detectors
• Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
• Intruder Alert - Security System
Automotive
• Headlight Dimmer
• Twilight Detectors
• Climate Control - Sunlight Detector

Communications
• Fiber Optic Links
• Optical Communications
• Optical Remote Control

Quiz:

1. ‘In thermistor sensors, resistance decreases in a very nonlinear manner

with increase in temperature.’ State true or false and justify.
2. List the various temperature sensors used by we in/around our
home/office/university.
3. Develop a conceptual design of a Light sensors based control system for
counting a number of milk packets being packed for discharge. Assume
suitable data if necessary.

References
1. Boltan, W., Mechatronics: electronic control systems in mechanical and
electrical engineering, Longman, Singapore, 1999.
 LEARNING GUIDE
Week No. 7-8
TOPIC:
 Signal Conditioning Devices

The purpose of this module is to introduce the student to the basic elements of signal
conditioning devices. The module is mainly informative and consists of examples
showing the constructions and working principle of signal conditioning devices.

On completion of this module the student should be able to do the following.

 Explain the characteristic and specification of signal conditioning operation.

 Explain the basic working principle and application of amplification.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of attenuation.
 Explain the basic working principle and application of filtering.

Signal Conditioning Operations

In previous lectures we have studied various sensors and transducers used in a

mechatronics system. Transducers sense physical phenomenon such as rise in
temperature and convert the measurand into an electrical signal viz. voltage or
current. However these signals may not be in their appropriate forms to employ them
to control a mechatronics system. Figure 2.6.1 shows various signal conditioning
operations which are being carried out in controlling a mechatronics based system.
The signals given by a transducer may be nonlinear in nature or may contain noise.
Thus before sending these signals to the mechatronics control unit it is essential to
remove the noise, nonlinearity associated with the raw output from a sensor or a
transducer. It is also needed to modify the amplitude (low/high) and form
(analogue/digital) of the output signals into respective acceptable limits and form
which will be suitable to the control system. These activities are carried out by using
signal conditioning devices and the process is termed as ‘signal conditioning’.

Figure 2.6.1 Signal conditioning operations

 Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming from a sensor in
terms of:

1. Protection - to protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics system such
microprocessors from the high current or voltage signals.
2. Right type of signal - to convert the output signal from a transducer into the
desired form i.e. voltage / current.

3. Right level of the signal - to amplify or attenuate the signals to a right /acceptable
level for the next element.
4. Noise - to eliminate noise from a signal.

5. Manipulation - to manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear form.

1. Amplification/Attenuation

Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool control unit of a

CNC machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to 10 Volts. However
many sensors produce signals of the order of milli volts. This low level input signals
from sensors must be amplified to use them for further control action. Operational
amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of input signals. The details are
as follows.

1.1 Operational amplifier (op-amp)

Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning

system. It is often abbreviated as op-amp. Op-amp is a high gain voltage amplifier
with a differential input. The gain is of the order of 100000 or more. Differential input
is a method of transmitting information with two different electronic signals which
are generally complementary to each other. Figure 2.6.2 shows the block diagram of
an op-amp. It has five terminals. Two voltages are applied at two input terminals. The
output terminal provides the amplified value of difference between two input
voltages. Op-amp works by using the external power supplied at Vs+ and Vs-
terminals.

Figure 2.6.2 circuit diagram of an Op-amp

In general op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The
output of an operational amplifier can be written as

Vout = G * (V+ - V-) (2.6.1)

where G is Op-amp Gain.

Figure 2.6.3 shows the inverting configuration of an op-amp. The input signal is
applied at the inverting terminal of the op-amp through the input resistance Rin. The
non-inverting terminal is grounded. The output voltage (Vout) is connected back to the
inverting input terminal through resistive network of Rin and feedback resistor Rf.
Now at node a, we can write,

I1 = Vin/R1 (2.6.2)

The current flowing through Rf is also I1, because the op-amp is not drawing any
current. Therefore the output voltage is given by,

Vout = –I1 Rf = –Vin Rf/R1 (2.6.3)

Thus the closed loop gain of op-amp can be given as,

G = Vout/Vin = –Rf/R1 (2.6.4)

The negative sign indicates a phase shift between Vin and Vout.

Figure 2.6.3 Inverting op-amp

1.2 Amplification of input signal by using Op-amp

Figure 2.6.4 Amplification using an Op-amp

Figure 2.6.4 shows a configuration to amplify an input voltage signal. It has two
registers connected at node a. If we consider that the voltage at positive terminal is
equal to voltage at negative terminal then the circuit can be treated as two resistances
in series. In series connection of resistances, the current flowing through circuit is
same. Therefore we can write,

(amplified/attenuated) output voltage for known input voltage.

There are other configurations such as Non-inverting amplifier, Summing amplifier,

Subtractor, Logarithmic amplifier are being used in mechatronics applications. The
detail study of all these is out of scope of the present course. Readers can refer Bolton
for more details.
2. Filtering
Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like
improper hardware connections, environment etc. Noise gives an error in the final
output of system. Therefore it must be removed. In practice, change in desired
frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted noise. This can be rectified by
suing filters. Following types of filters are used in practice:

1. Low Pass Filter

2. High Pass Filter
3. Band Pass Filter
4. Band Reject Filter

2.1 Low Pass Filter

Low pass filter is used to allow low frequency content and to reject high frequency
content of an input signal. Its configuration is shown in Figure 2.6.5

Figure 2.6.5 Circuitry of Low Pass Filter

Figure 2.6.6 Pass band for low pass filter

In the circuit shown in Figure 2.6.5, resistance and capacitance are in series with
voltage at resistance terminal is input voltage and voltage at capacitance terminal is
output voltage. Then by applying the Ohm’s Law, we can write,
 From equation 2.6.8 we can say that if frequency of Input signal is low then
1

would be low. Thus 1+ would be nearly equal to 1. However at higher frequency

1

would be higher, then would be nearly equal to 0. Thus above circuit

1+

will act as Low Pass Filter. It selects frequencies below a breakpoint frequency ω =
1/RC as shown in Figure 2.6.6. By selecting suitable values of R and C we can obtain
desired values of frequency to pass in.

2.2 High Pass Filter

These types of filters allow high frequencies to pass through it and block the lower
frequencies. The figure 2.6.7 shows circuitry for high pass filter.

Figure 2.6.7 Circuitry of High Pass Filter

Figure 2.6.8 Pass band for high pass filter

From the 2.6.10, we can say that if frequency of input signal is low then would
be high and thus would be nearly equal to 0. For high frequency signal,
would be low and would be nearly equal to 1. Thus about the circuit act as
High Pass Filter. It selects frequencies above a breakpoint frequency ω = 1/RC as
shown in Figure 2.6.8. By selecting suitable values of R and C we can allow desired
(high) frequency level to pass through.
2.3 Band Pass Filter

In some applications, we need to filter a particular band of frequencies from a wider

range of mixed signals. For this purpose, the properties of low-pass and high-pass
filters circuits can be combined to design a filter which is called as band pass filter.
Band pass filter can be developed by connecting a low-pass and a high-pass filter in
series as shown in figure 2.6.9.

Figure 2.6.9 Band pass filter

2.4 Band Reject Filter

These filters pass all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the
operator/manufacturer. They are also known as band stop filters or notch filters. They
are constructed by connecting a low-pass and a high-pass filter in parallel as shown in
Figure 2.6.10.

Figure 2.6.10 Band reject filter

Quiz

1. Explain the principle of working of op-amp as an inverting amplifier.

2. What kind of signal conditioning operations will be required to develop a table
top CNC turning center for small job works?