1.

Adaptive Design

One of the most basic, but widely used types of machine design is Adaptive Design. Think of
the saying “don’t reinvent the wheel”. Oftentimes, there is a machine component or design
element that already exists and has been widely embraced that could be adapted to suit your
purposes.
Adaptive Design utilizes basic features and tweaks them slightly to better fit a particular
application. Modifying technology that has already been proven effective can save engineers
time and businesses money, and is often far more effective than trying to design apart from
scratch.
2. Developmental Design

Similar to Adaptive Design, Developmental Design uses existing

concepts and technology but adds or combines new machine
elements and components to create something unique.

An example often referred to in Developmental Design is the

motorcycle, which is essentially the marriage between a bicycle and
a combustion engine.

The motorcycle was certainly a massive development in

manufacturing technology and machine design, but it relies on
preexisting mechanical elements to serve as the building blocks for
something new.

3. New Design

The vast majority of machine design will fall into the previous two
categories, but there are still new and unique parts and technology
being created all the time. These one-of-a-kind innovations would be
considered New Design, where engineers and designers come up
with something entirely original.

This is far less common, and often requires a great deal of time,
money, and research. Because we live in a world of shared
knowledge and technology, it is usually more productive and
efficient to modify that which already exists,

But with the right idea and the proper experience, elements in the
New Design space can be extremely lucrative and beneficial to the
manufacturing world as a whole.
Designs based on the methods used can be classified as follows:

• Rational Design: This type of design depends on

mathematical formulas of the principle of mechanics.
• Empirical Design: This type of design depends on
empirical formulas based on practice and past
experience.
• Industrial Design: This type of design depends on the
product features for manufacturing any machine
component in the industry.
• Optimal design: It is the best design for a given objective
function under specified constraints. This can be achieved
by reducing undesirable effects.
• System Design: It is the design of any complicated
mechanical system like a motor car.
• Element Design: It is the design of any part of a
mechanical system such as a crankshaft, piston,
connecting rod, etc.
• Computer-Aided Design: This type of design relies on the
use of computer systems to aid in the construction,
modification, analysis, and optimization of a design.
What Are The General Considerations In Machine Design?

The following are general considerations in designing machine

components:

1. Type Of Load And Stress Due To Load

The load on a machine component can act in many ways due to

which internal stresses establish.

2. The Motion Of Machine Parts Or Kinematics

The successful operation of any machine depends largely on the

simplest arrangement of the parts that will provide the required
speed. The speed of the parts can be:

• Rectilinear motion including unidirectional and

recrossing motion.
• curvilinear motion consisting of rotary, oscillation, and
simple harmonic.
• Steady speed.
• Constant or variable acceleration.
3. Selection Of Materials

It is essential that a designer should have an in-depth knowledge of

the properties of materials and their behavior in working conditions.
Some important features of the materials are strength, durability,
flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, moldability,
welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc.

4. Size And Shape Of Parts

Form and shape are based on decisions. The smallest practical cross-
section can use. But it can test that the stresses induced in the
designed cross-section are more secure. To design the part of any
machine for form and shape.

It is necessary to know the forces that the part must maintain. It is

also important to estimate any sudden applied or impact loads that
may cause failure.

5. Abrasion Resistance And Lubrication

There is always a loss of power due to abrasion resistance and it

should be noted that the starting friction is greater than the running
friction. Therefore, it is necessary that careful attention should be
paid to the case of lubrication of all surfaces, which run in contact
with others, whether they are in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings.

6. Convenient And Economical Features

In designing, the operating characteristics of the machine must be

carefully studied. Starting, controlling, and stopping the lever must
be located on the basis of convenient handling.

Wear adjustments must provide to employ various take-up devices

and to organize them so that the alignment of the parts is preserved.
If parts are replaced for different products or replaced due to wear or
breakage, easy access should provide, and if possible, the need to
remove other parts to accomplish this should avoid.

The economical operation of a machine, which is to use for

production, or for the processing of materials, must be studied to
find out whether it has the maximum capacity to correspond to the
production of good work.
7. Use Of Standard Parts

The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, as the cost of

standard or stock parts is only one part of the cost of similar parts
made to order.

Standard or stock parts should use whenever possible; Parts for

which patterns already exist such as gears, pulleys, and bearings.

And parts that can select from regular shop stock such as screws,
nuts, and pins. Bolts and studs should be as short as possible to avoid
delays in changing drills, reamers, and taps. As well as reducing the
number of wrenches required.

8. Safety Of Operation

Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those that are

fast to insure production at the maximum rate. Therefore, any
moving part of a machine, which is within a worker’s zone, is
considered a risk of accident and may cause injury.

Therefore, it is necessary that a designer should always provide safety

equipment to protect the operator. Safety devices should not
interfere with the operation of the machine in any way.

Workshop Facilities

A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his

employer’s workshop. So, as to avoid the need to work in some other
workshop. Sometimes it is necessary to plan and supervise the
operation of the workshop and to draft methods for casting,
handling, and machining special parts.

The Number Of Machines To Be Manufactured

The number of articles or machines manufactured affects design in

many ways. Engineering and shop costs called fixed charges or
overhead expenses are distributed over the number of articles
manufactured.

If only a few articles are to make, the additional expense is not

reasonable unless the machine is large or of some special design. An
order calling for a small number of products will not allow for any
undue expense in the workshop processes so designers can limit
their specifications to standard parts.

Cost Of Manufacture

The cost of building an article is the most important consideration

involved in the design. In some cases, it is very possible that the high
cost of an article may immediately prevent it from further
consideration.

If an article has been invented and tests of handmade samples have

shown that it has commercial value. It is possible to justify the
expense of a considerable amount of money in the design and
development of automated machines for the production of the
article.

Especially if it is Can be sold in large numbers. The objective of the

design engineer, under all conditions, should be to minimize
manufacturing costs.

9. Assembling

Each machine or structure must assemble as a unit before

functioning. Larger units must often assemble in the shop, be tested,
and then transported to their place of service. The final location of
any machine is important and the design engineer must estimate
the exact location and local facilities for manufacture.

What Is The General Procedure In Machine Design?

In designing machine components, there is no hard and fast rule.

The problem can try in many ways. However, the general procedure
for resolving a design problem is as follows:

• Recognition of Necessity: First, make a complete

statement of the problem, indicating which purpose or
purpose the machine is to be designed for.
• Synthesis (a mechanism): Select the possible
mechanism or group of mechanisms that will give the
desired speed.
• Analysis of forces: Find the forces acting on the energy
transmitted by each member of the machine and each
member.
 • Material Selection: Select the most appropriate material
for each member of the machine.
• Design of Elements: Find the size of each member of the
machine by considering the force and permissible stress
on the member for the material used. It should be kept in
mind that each member should not deflect or deform
beyond the permissible limit.
• Modification: Modify the size of the member to agree
with previous experience and decision to facilitate
construction. Modification may also be necessary by
considering manufacturing to reduce overall costs.
• Detailed drawing: Draw a complete drawing of the
assembly of each component and machine with the
entire specification for suggested manufacturing
processes.
• Production: The component is manufactured in the
workshop according to the drawing.
How Do You Design A Machine?

Machine Design Procedure:

• Identifying the need for the Equipment or a Machine.

• Selecting the possible Mechanisms.
• Analysis of Forces.
• Selection of Materials.
• Design of Elements.
• Modification.
• Detailed Drawings.
• Production.

The 7 steps of the design process

The engineering design process is typically approached in these seven steps:

1. Define the problem

Crucial to solving any design problem is to begin by asking the right questions.
Consider the pain point or need of the problem you're trying to solve, whose
pain point it is and why you should solve it—keeping in mind how competitors
may have already addressed this need. Use the following questions to help you
formulate answers:
 • What are the main goals of this project?
• Who is the end-user of this product?
• What is the pain point that this product will address?
• How will this product address the pain point?
• What resources will you need to complete this project?
• How will you measure success?
• What is this product's unique value proposition?
• Are there similar products on the market?
• How will this be better than similar products on the market?

Read more: What Is Design Thinking?

2. Conduct research

Research competitors and study similar projects, taking note of opportunities

for improvement and positive outcomes. Work with your marketing and R&D
teams to conduct competitive analysis, consumer behavior and market trends
to better understand the scope of the overall market. Ask yourself these
questions to promote results-driven research:

• Why would a user choose this product?

• How often will a user realistically use this product?
• What other solutions to this pain point has the user tried?
• Where do users generally shop for similar products?
• What changes would make an existing product better serve the user?

Related: Research and Development: What It Is and When To Use It

3. Brainstorm and conceptualize

After you've defined the basis for your project and its specific requirements,
ideas will begin to form. Come together with your team to brainstorm and
compare ideas to decide on the best features for your product.

Use personas, scenarios and storyboards to help you get a clear user
perspective to outline your product’s development and marketing strategy.

Read more: How To Create User Story Mapping (Plus Major Benefits)

4. Create a prototype
Test your concepts by creating a prototype that mimics the finished product.
Throughout this process, you'll likely find new areas of improvement as well as
user experience validation of your existing concepts. User testing of your
prototype will clarify answers to important questions as well as identify
potential flaws or drawbacks. This feedback will help you troubleshoot and
reiterate your prototype as many times as needed to produce a final product.

Related: 10 Types of Prototypes (With Explanations)

5. Select and finalize

Review all the feedback you gathered from prototype testing and begin
building the 'final' product. When your finished product is ready to be released
to the public, it's time to prepare for the next step, which is product analysis.

6. Product analysis

When your product has been bought, used and reviewed, you can begin to
evaluate and gain insight into how your product accomplished solving the
originally stated problem. Feedback about the user experience is extremely
important to consider when developing the next version of your product. It will
tell you what needs to be adjusted, why the adjustments are necessary and how
an updated version will better serve the needs of the end-user.

Read more: How To Conduct a Competitor Products Analysis

7. Improve

Gather all user feedback, prototype testing, competitor analysis and market
sales to inform and improve upon your product. Use this information to create
a more customized solution to your market’s unique problem or need.
Design Considerations

Several structural design considerations should be taken into account for

economical and efficient welding.

Several structural design considerations should be taken into account for economical
and efficient welding. Many of these apply to other joining methods, and all apply to
both subassemblies and the complete structure.
Recognize and analyze the design problem: Designs must perform well under
expected and worst-case conditions. The designer should consider this before sitting
down at the drawing board or CAD terminal. Considerations include: Is it more
economical to build an irregular shape from welded pieces or to cut it from a plate,
with the accompanying waste? Can bending replace a welded joint? Are preformed
sections available? How, when, and how much should the structure be welded? Can
weight be reduced cost-effectively by using welded joints? Will fewer parts offer
equal or better performance?

Determine load conditions: Structures will be subject to tension, compression,

torsion, and bending. These loads must be calculated under service conditions.
Locations of critical loads must be determined and the structure designed to handle
the loads efficiently. Careful designers will locate joints away from high-stress areas
when possible.

Consider producibility:The most elegant design is useless if it cannot be made

efficiently. Welders cannot always fabricate what designers think up. Designers
should spend time in the shop and consult foremen or manufacturing engineers
during design to become familiar with the challenges of translating drawings into
products.

Optimize layout: When drawing the preliminary design, engineers should plan
layout to reduce waste when the pieces are cut from plate. Preformed beams,
channels, and tubes also may reduce costs without sacrificing quality.

Anticipate plate preparation: Many designers assume that metals are

homogeneous, but real-world metal does not have equal properties in all directions.
Therefore, the type of plates used should be considered.

Many properties of rolled plates are directional, with the most desirable properties in
the direction of rolling. Strength and ductility often are low through the thickness
because nonmetallic impurities in many plates weaken them in that direction. Thus,
designers should avoid loading rolled plates through their thickness.

One way to get around through-thickness problems is called buttering. Joint surfaces
are gouged or ground out and refilled with weld metal, so welds are made against
weld metal instead of base metal. The properties of weld metal do not vary so much
with direction because the weld metal was never rolled.

Designers must also plan for residual stresses in joints from weld shrinkage. These
stresses may cause lamellar tearing in the base metal, especially in thick plate
weldments.

In addition to inherent metal properties, designers must consider how plates must be
prepared for welding. Parts must be thoroughly cleaned before they are welded, and
some joints require machined bevels or grooves.

Consider using standard sections and forms: Preformed sections and forms
should be used whenever possible. Specifying standard sections for welding is usually
cheaper than welding many individual parts. In particular, specifying bent
components is preferable to making welded corners.

Select weld-joint design: There are five basic types of joints: butt joints, corner
joints, T-joints, lap joints, and edge joints. In addition, the American Welding Society
recognizes about 80 different types of welding and joining processes. Each process
has its own characteristics and capabilities, so joint design must be suitable for the
desired welding process. In addition, the joint design will affect access to the weld.

Restrain size and number of welds: Welds should match, not exceed, the
strength of the base metal for full joint efficiency. Overwelding is unnecessary,
increases costs, and reduces strength.

Welding sometimes induces distortions and residual stresses in structures. It is best

to specify the minimum amount of welding needed. To check for overwelding,
determine joint stresses versus stress in the adjoining members.

When full-penetration joints through the thickness of the material are used, weld-
metal strength must equal or exceed that of the base metals. Fillet welds must be
appropriately sized to provide full strength. To determine adequate fillet size or
depth of penetration, calculate stresses and joint loads, as well as the safety factor
required. Designers often specify much bigger fillet welds than codes demand even
with a safety factor. This adds to cost and distortion.

Use subassemblies: Whenever possible, large assemblies should be made in

smaller sections before final welding. Subassemblies are easier to transport, position,
and access for welding. They also permit some distortion control at intermediate
stages of fabrication.
What are Failure Modes of Materials –
Definition
In materials science, material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a material unit.
The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to minimize the
possibility of failure. Failure Modes of Materials

In materials science, material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a

material unit. The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer
to minimize the possibility of failure. Whether we like it or not, various components in
service suffer failure (either breakage or change of shape) and cannot perform their
designated function. The usual causes of failure are improper materials selection
and processing and inadequate design of the component or its misuse.The failed
component requires, in the best case, replacement, and, if we do not want a
repetition of the failure, we must understand what caused it.Thus, it is important to
understand the mechanics of the various mecahnical failure modes: fracture, fatigue,
and creep. In addition, be familiar with appropriate design principles that may be
employed to prevent inservice failures. This is the main task for very important
scientific field known as the failure analysis.

Failure analysis (FA) is a multidisciplinary scientific field, connecting areas of

engineering from diverse backgrounds and bodies of knowledge. From applied
mechanics to electrochemistry and corrosion and from numerical modeling, to the
understanding of surface science and tribology. The complexity of the nature of the
subject requires the embracing of various engineering disciplines, to succeed high
process performance and effective root-cause analysis, which is the core and the
central objective of the failure investigation process. The following section is
addressed to simple fracture (both ductile and brittle modes), fundamentals of
fracture mechanics, fracture toughness testing, the ductile-to-brittle transition,
pressurized thermal shocks, fatigue, and creep.

• Fracture of Material. A fracture is the separation of an object or material into

two or more pieces under the action of stress. Engineers need to understand
fracture mechanisms. There are fractures (e.g. brittle fracture), which occur
under specific conditions without warning and can cause major damage to
materials. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any
warning. This is a consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack
propagation. However, for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic
deformation gives warning that failure is imminent, allowing preventive
measures to be taken. A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in
materials may be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.

• Fatigue of Material. In materials science, fatique is the weakening of a

material caused by cyclic loading that results in progressive, brittle and
localized structural damage. Once a crack has initiated, each loading cycle
will grow the crack a small amount, even when repeated alternating or cyclic
stresses are of an intensity considerably below the normal strength. The
stresses could be due to vibration or thermal cycling. Fatigue damage is
caused by:
• simultaneous action of cyclic stress,
• tensile stress (whether directly applied or residual),
 • plastic strain.
If any one of these three is not present, a fatigue crack will not initiate
and propagate. The majority of engineering failures are caused by
fatigue.

• Wear. In general, wear is mechanically induced surface damage that results

in the progressive removal of material due to relative motion between that
surface and a contacting substance or substances. A contacting substance
may consist of another surface, a fluid, or hard, abrasive particles contained
in some form of fluid or suspension, such as a lubricant for example. In most
of the technological applications, the occurrence of wear is highly undesirable
and it is an enormously expensive problem since it leads to the deterioration
or even failure of components. In terms of safety it is often not as serious (or
as sudden) as fracture. This is because wear is usually anticipated.

• Corrosion. Corrosion is usually a negative phenomenon, since it is

associated with mechanical failure of an object. Metal atoms are removed
from a structural element until it fails, or oxides build up inside a pipe until it is
plugged. All metals and alloys are subject to corrosion. Even the noble
metals, such as gold, are subject to corrosive attack in some environments.

• Creep. Creep, known also as cold flow, is the permanent deformation that
increases with time under constant load or stress. It results due to long time
exposure to large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding and is
more severe in material that are subjected to heat for long time. Creep is a
very important phenomenon if we are using materials at high temperature.
Creep is very important in power industry and it is of the highest importance in
designing of jet engines. For many relatively short-life creep situations
(e.g. turbine blades in military aircraft), time to rupture is the dominant design
consideration.