O LEVEL

ADDITIONAL
MATHEMATICS
REVISION KIT

PREPARED BY:
AHMED SAYA
Contents

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 2

INDICES AND SURDS ..................................................................................................................................... 6
COORDINATE GEOMETRY ............................................................................................................................ 9
PROPERTIES OF SHAPES ............................................................................................................................. 15
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS............................................................................................................................ 17
FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 26
BINOMIAL THEOREM ................................................................................................................................. 38
TRIGONOMETRY ......................................................................................................................................... 40
CIRCULAR MEASURE................................................................................................................................... 48
LOGARITHMS .............................................................................................................................................. 50
LINEAR LAW ................................................................................................................................................ 53
REMAINDER FACTOR THEOREM ................................................................................................................ 54
DIFFERENTIATION....................................................................................................................................... 56
INTEGRATION ............................................................................................................................................. 60
VECTORS ..................................................................................................................................................... 63
KINEMATICS................................................................................................................................................ 65
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION ......................................................................................... 70
 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

1. Variables: The unknowns denoted by alphabets that can take more than one value. (e.g.
in 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6; ‘𝑥’ is a variable).
2. Coefficients: The numerical constant quantity placed before the variable. (e.g. in 3𝑥 2 +
4𝑥 + 6; ‘3’ and ‘4’ are coefficients).
3. Constants: The value in equation or expression that doesn’t change. (e.g. in 3𝑥 2 +
4𝑥 + 6; ‘6’ is the constant).
4. Power: Specifies the number of times the variable/number is multiplied to itself. (e.g. in
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6; ‘2’ is the power of 𝑥).
5. Equation: It is a mathematical statement showing that two things are equal with an
expression on each side of an “equals” sign. (e.g. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6 = 2 or 2𝑥 + 3 = 5𝑥 − 9).
6. Expression: It comprises of variables, coefficients, constants and power. An expression
does not have an “equals” sign hence it can’t be solved. (e.g. 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6).
7. Simultaneous Equations: When two or more equations intersect each other at same
instant it is known as intersection point. Simultaneous equations help us to find that
point of intersection.

Simulatenous
Equations
Linear Quadratic
Max only 1 possible y=mx+c
Line Power Parabola Max
Graph solution Power 0,1 or 2 y=ax2+bx+c
is 1
is 2 possible
solutions

Situations where simultaneous equations are applied:

 Line with line Situation
  Line with curve Situation

 Curve with Curve Situation

There are four ways to solve Simultaneous Equations:

1. Elimination Method
2. Substitution Method
3. Graphical Method
4. Matrix Method (NOT IN SYLLABUS)
ELIMINATION METHOD:
Steps to solve simultaneous equation using Elimination Method:

1. Multiply both the equations with the constant in such a manner that the coefficient of
one variable in both the equations become same.
2. Add or subtract the two equations obtained in step 1 so that the variable with the same
coefficient is eliminated.
3. Hence, the value of the remaining variables will be found.
4. Insert the value of the variable found in one of the original equations and hence find the
value of the other variable.
Example:
𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟑  10𝑥 − 14𝑦 = 6  5𝑥 − 7(1) = 3
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟓 (−) 10𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 25  5𝑥 = 10
2(5𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3) (−14𝑦) – (5𝑦) = (3) – (25) 𝒙=𝟐
5(2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5)  −19𝑦 = −19
10𝑥 − 14𝑦 = 6  𝒚=𝟏
 10𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 25 Taking equation (5𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 3)

Substitution Method:
Steps to solve simultaneous equation using substitution method:
1. Make the 3rd equation from the easier of the two equations.
2. If the 3rd equation is made from 1st equation substitute it in the 2nd equation but if the
3rd equation is made from the 2nd equation substitute it in the 1st equation.
3. Automatically a variable will be cancelled off and the value of the other variable will be
found.
4. Insert the value of the variable found in equation 3 and hence find the value of other
variable.
Example:
𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟑
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟓

 3rd eq.  𝑦 = 5 − 2𝑥 𝒙= 𝟐

5𝑥 − 7(5 − 2𝑥) = 3 𝑦 = 5 − 2(2)
5𝑥 − 35 + 14𝑥 = 3 𝑦 = 𝟏
19𝑥 = 35 + 3
19𝑥 = 38

Graphical Method:
Steps to solve simultaneous equation using graphical method:
1. Make y the subject of the formula in both the equations.
2. Insert some random values of x and obtain the corresponding value of y.
3. Using the values of x and y draw the graph of both equations.
4. The point where two graphs meet is the solution.
Example:
𝟓𝒙 − 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟑
𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟓
1st equation:

X 1 2 3 4
Y 2/7 1 12/7 17/7
2nd equation:

X 1 2 3 4
Y 3 1 -1 -3

1
2 X

Represents equation 1
Represents equation 2
Solution: (2,1)

IF QUESTION ASKS FOR THE POINT OF INTERSECTION WRITE YOUR ANSWER IN

CARTESIAN FORM (𝑥,y). ELSE, IF QUESTIONS JUST ASKS FOR THE VALUE OF 𝑥 AND
Y; WRITE YOUR ANSWER LIKE X: _____ Y:______
 INDICES AND SURDS
Ax Power/index

Base
INDICES
Indices are the rules concerning the bases which have power.
RULE 1: 𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
When the bases are same and there is multiply sign in between we take base common and add
the power. E.g. 23 x 22 =23+2 =25 = 32.
RULE 2: 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦
When the bases are same and there is divide sign in between we take base common and
subtract the powers. E.g. 7876 = 78-6 = 72 =49.
RULE 3: 𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑥

When the bases are different, but the powers are same and there is multiply sign in between,
we multiply the bases and take power common. E.g. 53x23= (5x2)3= 103= 1000.
RULE 4: 𝑎 𝑥  𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎/𝑏)𝑥
When the bases are different, but the powers are same and there is divide sign in between, we
divide the bases and take power common. E.g. 6232 = (6/3)2=22= 4.
RULE 5: (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
When the base has power and the whole thing has another power then we take base common
and multiply the powers. E.g. (22)3 = 22x3 = 26 =64
RULE 6: a0=1
Any base with power zero is 1.
RULE 7: a1=a
Any base with power one results in the same base.
RULE 8: 1𝑥 = 1
One raised to the power of any number results in 1.
RULE 9: 0𝑥 = 0
0 raised to the power of any number results in 0.
 RULE 10: 𝑎−𝑥 = 1/(𝑎 𝑥 )
If the base has negative power, in order to convert it to the positive power we will reciprocate
the base. E.g.  5-3=1/53= 1/125 (3/5)-2= (5/3)2= 25/9
𝑥 𝑥
RULE 11: 𝑎1/𝑥 = √𝑎 RULE 12: 𝑎 𝑦/𝑥 = √𝑎 𝑦
If the power of the base is in the fraction, we take denominator as the root and numerator as
power of that base. E.g.  271/3=3√27 =3
 82/3 =3√82 (there are three ways to solve this)

- 3√64 =4
- 3√(2x2x2)2 = 3√(2x2x2x2x2x2) =2 x 2 = 4
- (23)2/3=22=4
SURDS

Surds indicate that whenever anything involves square root it must be in the most simplified
form. Moreover, it also emphasizes on the fact that there can never be the root in the
denominator. If throughout add math any solution has root in denominator, it needs to be
rationalized else the solution will be considered incorrect.
RULE 1: Give answer in most simplified form. E.g. √80
2 80
2 40
2 20 √2x2x2x2x5 =2x2√5 =4√5
2 10
5 5
1
RULE 2: If there is a single root in the denominator multiply both the number and the
denominator by that root. E.g.
3 √2 3√2 𝟑
x = = 𝟐 √𝟐
√2 √2 2

RULE 3: Whenever there is an expression in the denominator which involves root then multiply
both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.

CONJUGATE:->> a + b =a - b

2 + √3 = 2 - √3

4 - √7 = 4 + √7
E.g.
5 2− √3 3 4+√2
× 2− × 4+√2
2+√3 √3 4−√2

5(2−√3) 3(4+√2)
2 2
(2)2 −(√3) (4)2 − (√2)

10−5√3 12+3√2
4−3 16−2

𝟏𝟐+𝟑√𝟐
10-5√3 𝟏𝟒

RULE 4: same as rule 3.

2+√3 4+ √2 2−√3 2− √3
x 4+ x 2−
4−√2 √2 2+√3 √3

2(4+√2)+√3(4+√2) 2(2−√3)−√3(2−√3)
(4)2 − (√2)2 (2)2 − (√3)2

8+2√2+4√3+√6 4−2√3+2√3+3
16−2 4−3

𝟖+𝟐√𝟐+𝟒√𝟑+√𝟔
7-4√3
𝟏𝟒
 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Q. What is the difference between a point and coordinate?
Coordinate determines the location of the point where point comprises of x and y
coordinates.
Midpoint: It is a point that lies exactly halfway between the two points. It is denoted by the
formula:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
( , )
2 2
E.g. A= (3,8) B= (7,10)
3+7 8+10
( , ) = (5,9)
2 2

Distance: Distance between two points is also known as length of the line. It shows how far
is one point from the other point. The formula to calculate this distance is:

√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

E.g. A= (3,8) B= (7,10)

2
√(7 − 3)2 + (10 − 8)2
2
√16 + 4

𝟐√𝟓
Gradient: Gradient is the slope of the line. It indicates how inclined a line is. A horizontal
line has a gradient of 0. While the vertical line has a gradient of infinity and the formula to
calculate gradient is:
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1

E.g. A = (3,8) B =(7,10)

10−8 2 𝟏
= =
7−3 4 𝟐
𝑦 −𝑦 change in y rise perpendicular
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = change in x = = = tan(∝) ∝
2 1 run base

Q. Find the gradient of the line inclined at 30o to the horizontal.

Ans: tan(30) = 0.57
Equation of the line:
In order to find the equation of the line we require two things either 2 points must be given
or a point and a gradient must be given so that equation of the line can be formed. The
basic form of the equation for a line is: y=mx+c ; m= gradient c= y-intercept
E.g. A=(3,8) B=(7,10) y=(1/2)(x) + (13/2)
𝑌 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 as calculated above m= ½ y=(x+13)/2
8= (1/2)(3)+c 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑
C= 13/2
The alternative method to find the equation of a line is by using the formula:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
where x1 and y1 are the coordinates of a point.
E.g.
𝐴 = (3,8) 𝐵 = (7,10) 𝑚 = 1/2
𝑦 − 10 = (1/2) (𝑥 − 7)
𝑦 − 10 = (1/2)𝑥 – 7/2
2𝑦 − 20 = 𝑥 − 7
𝟐𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑
Parallel line: Lines are parallel if they do not intersect and has the same gradient. When
solved simultaneously the solution of parallel lines does not exist.

m
m

Perpendicular Line: Lines are considered to be perpendicular if they intersect at right angle
and their gradients are negative reciprocal of each other.
(m1 x m2 = -1)

-1/m
m
Perpendicular Bisector:

1. They intersect at right angles.

2. They intersect at midpoint.
3. Their gradients are negative reciprocal of each other.

-1/m
m
Mid-point
The only difference between perpendicular bisector and perpendicular lines is that
perpendicular bisector cuts the other line at midpoint and at right angle, while
perpendicular line only cuts at right angle.
Steps to find an equation of perpendicular bisector of a line:

1. Find the midpoint of given points.

2. Find the gradient of the given points.
3. Negative reciprocate the gradient found in step 2.
4. Using the gradient calculated in step 3 and the midpoint (step 1), find the equation of
perpendicular bisector.

Collinear Points: Points are considered to be collinear if they lie on the same straight line
having the same gradient, same equation and same y-intercept. Therefore, if A,B,C are
collinear then m of AB= m of AC= m of BC; equation of AB= AC=BC.
C

B
A

Concurrent lines: Lines are concurrent if more than 2 lines intersect at a common point.
Hero’s Formula: Whenever we need to find the area of geometry or non-geometry figure
then we can apply the Hero’s Formula.
For 3-sided figure:

1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥1
2 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 𝑦1
1/2 [(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 ) – (𝑥1 𝑦3 + 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )]
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:
1. If a line is parallel to x-axis it is called a horizontal line.
2. If a line is parallel to x-axis it gradient is ‘0’.
3. If a line is parallel to x-axis its y-coordinate is its equation.
4. If a line parallel to y-axis it is called a vertical line.
5. If a line is parallel to y-axis, its gradient is infinity.
6. If a line is parallel to y-axis its x-coordinate is its equation.
7. On x-axis y=0; therefore, equation of x-axis is y=0
8. On y-axis x=0; therefore, equation of y-axis is x=0
9. When a line cuts the x-axis, the point where it cuts the x-axis is called x-intercept.
10. When a line cuts the y-axis, the point where it cuts the y-axis is called y-intercept “c”.
11. If the gradient and y-intercept is given the equation of line can be formed by inserting
“m” and “c” in the equation y=mx+c
12. If the lines are parallel their gradients are same and they do not intersect each other.
13. If the lines are perpendicular, they intersect at right angles and their gradients are
negative reciprocal of each other.
14. If the lines are perpendicular bisector of each other, they will intersect at right angles,
they will intersect at midpoint and their gradients will be negative reciprocal of each
other.
15. For rules 13 and 14 the following condition is applied: m1 x m2= -1
16. If the points are collinear, they lie on a same straight line (having same gradient, same
equation and y-intercept).
17. If more than two lines intersect at a common point, they are referred to as concurrent
lines and their points of intersection is called concurrent point.
18. In order to find the area of a geometrical or non-geometrical figure we apply Hero’s
formula.
19. Diagonals of the following figure intersect at midpoint:
 Rectangle
 Square
 Parallelogram
 Rhombus
20. Diagonals of the following figures intersect at right angle:
 Square
 Rhombus
 Kite
21. Based on 19 and 20 the diagonals of the following figure are perpendicular bisector of
each other:
 Rhombus
 Square
22. In order to find the angle a line makes with the horizontal axis, use the formula:
∝=tan-1m
23. To find the point which is equidistant from 3 or more points, we have to find the
equation of perpendicular bisector of all the three points and solve it simultaneously.
The points where all perpendicular bisector will intersect is the point which is
equidistant from all the points.
 PROPERTIES OF SHAPES
Square:

1. All sides are equal.

2. All sides intersect at right angle.
3. Diagonals are equal.
4. Diagonals intersect at right angle.
5. Diagonals meet at midpoint.
Rectangle:

1. Opposite sides are equal.

2. Opposite sides are parallel.
3. All sides intersect at right angle.
4. Diagonals intersect at midpoints.
5. Diagonals are equal.
Rhombus:

1. All sides are equal.

2. No side intersects at right angle.
3. Diagonals intersect at midpoint.
4. Diagonals intersect at right angles.
5. Diagonals are not equal.
Parallelogram:

1. Opposite sides are equal.

2. Opposite sides are parallel.
3. Diagonals intersect at midpoint.
4. Diagonals are not equal.
5. Diagonals do not intersect at right angle.
6. No side intersects at right angle.
Kite:

1. Two sides are equal and other two sides are equal.
2. Diagonals intersect at right angle.
3. Diagonals act as angle bisector.
4. Sides do not intersect at midpoint or at right angle.
5. The longer diagonal passes through the midpoint of the shorter diagonal.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Method of solving Quadratic equations:
1. Factorization.
2. Quadratic formula.
3. Completing square method.
4. Graphical method.
Factorization:
Steps to solve Quadratic equation using factorization:
1. Multiply the coefficient of x2 with the constant.
2. Break the middle term in such a manner that product of the middle term is equal to
answer of step 1 and the sum of the middle term is equal to the original middle term.
3. Take things common and simplify.
For example:

𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎
4𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0
2𝑥(2𝑥 + 5) − 1(2𝑥 + 5) = 0
2𝑥 + 5 = 0 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑥 = −5/2 𝑥 = 1/2
Quadratic Formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Where 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
a is the coefficient of 𝑥 2
b is the coefficient of 𝑥 2
c is the constant in the equation.

For example: 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎

−8 ± √82 − 4(4)(−5)
2(4)

−8 ± √64 + 80
8
−8 ± √144
8
−8+12 −8−12
8 8
𝑥= ½ 𝑥 = −5/2
Graphical Method:

To find the solution of a quadratic equation using graphical method, we will first draw the
graph and the point where the graph will intersect the x axis is the solution to the quadratic
equation.

Represents 2 solutions Represents 2 solutions

Represents 1 solution No solution

Completing Square Method:
Completing square method has been derived from the following equation:

(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
Method:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 (𝑎𝑥 2 /𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥/𝑎 + 𝑐/𝑎) = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥/𝑎 + 𝑐/𝑎 = 0/𝑎
𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥/𝑎 + 𝑐/𝑎 = 0 Y is a number which when
Same multiplied to 2 is equal to
x2 +2x(y) + (y)2 –(y)2 +(c/a)=0 “b/a”.
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 – (𝑦)2 + (𝑐/𝑎) = 0 signs
Equate further…
For example:

4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 5 = 0
4 ( 4𝑥 2 /4 + 8𝑥/4 − 5/4) = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5/4 = 0

𝑥 2 + 2(𝑥)(1) + (1)2 – (1)2 – (5/4) = 0

(𝑥 + 1)2 − 1 − 5/4 = 0

(𝑥 + 1)2 − 9/4 = 0 completed square form [a (x +h)2 +k]

(𝑥 + 1)2 = 9/4

√ (𝑥 + 1)2 = √9/4

𝑥 + 1 = ± 3/2

𝑥 = 3/2 − 1 𝑥 = −3/2 − 1

𝑥= ½ 𝑥 = −5/2

Expressing the quadratic equation in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘

Example: 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 𝑎 (𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘

𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 ) + 𝑘

𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑎ℎ𝑥 + 𝑎ℎ2 + 𝑘

3𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 2𝑎ℎ𝑥 − 8 = 𝑎ℎ2 + 𝑘

𝒂=𝟑 − 2 = 2(3)(ℎ) − 8 = (3)(−1/3)2 + 𝑘

−2 = 6ℎ − 8 = 1/3 + 𝑘

−𝟏/𝟑 = 𝒉 − 𝟐𝟓/𝟑 = 𝒌

ANS: 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏/𝟑)𝟐 − 𝟐𝟓/𝟑

 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The quadratic curve is called parabola. The parabolas are divided into 2 categories a) upright
parabola b) inverted parabola.

1. Upright parabola: upright parabolas are also called minimum curves this is because the
turning of upright parabola is the minimum possible point on the curve. If in the
equation y=ax2+bx+c a>0 that is ‘a’ is positive, the parabola obtained will be the
minimum curve or upright parabola.

Minimum point
2. Inverted parabola: inverted parabolas are also called maximum curves, this is because
the turning point of the inverted parabola is the maximum possible point on the curve.
If in the equation y=ax2+bx+c a<0 that is a is negative, the parabola obtained will be
maximum curve or inverted parabola.
Maximum point

The turning point is also known as stationary point or ‘vertex’. If it is an inverted parabola the
turning point will be the max possible point or the greatest point. If it is an upright parabola,
the turning point will be minimum point or the least possible point.
There are three ways of finding the turning point:
1. (-h,k); when the quadratic equation is expressed in the form y=a(x+h)2+k that is
completed square form.
2. -b/2a will give the x-coordinate of turning point, if equation is in the form y=ax2+bx+c.
3. Differentiate the equation and equate dy/dx = 0.

Parabolas are symmetrical in nature and hence they possess a line of symmetry. A line of
symmetry divides the curve into two equal halves. In case of parabolas, whether upright or
inverted, the line of symmetry will always be a vertical line passing through the turning point
hence the equation of line of symmetry will always be the x-coordinate of the turning point.
Sketching of Quadratic Curves:
There are three situations when you might be asked to sketch the curve.
1. When the turning point, y-intercept and both x-intercepts are given. This is the ideal
situation because the curve will be sketched in the best possible manner.

2. Only both x-intercepts are given.

p q p q p q

(x-p)(x-q) (p-x)(x-q) (p-x)(q-x)

3. Only the turning point and the y-intercept is given then we can only make half of the
curve. The other half will be reflected with the help of line of symmetry.
 NOTE:
 WHENEVER THE MINIMUM POINT IS ABOVE THE X-AXIS THE WHOLE
CURVE LIES ABOVE THE X-AXIS.
 WHENEVER THE X-INTERCEPTS ARE GIVEN IN A PARABOLA THEN THE X-
COORDINATE OF THE TURNING POINT WILL BE MIDPOINT OF THE TWO
X-INTERCEPTS.

Inequalities:
1. Linear Inequalities.
2. Quadratic inequalities.
Linear Inequalities:

 3𝑥 − 5 > 4
3𝑥 > 4 + 5
𝑥 > 9/3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
𝒙 > 𝟑
 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐 ≥ −𝟔
4𝑥 ≥ −6 − 2
4𝑥 ≥ −8 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
𝑥 ≥ −2
Whenever there is a negative sign with the variable in an inequality, irrespective of the sign on
the other side of the inequality, ‘The sign of the inequality’ changes.
Quadratic Inequalities:
Steps:
1. Solve the quadratic equation.
2. Find the roots.
3. Sketch the quadratic curves.
4. If f(x) ≥ 0 or f(x) >0; it indicates that the part above the x-axis is required.

a b
5. If f(x) ≤ 0 or f(x) < 0; it indicates that the part of curve below the x-axis is required.

a b
Determinants of the root:
In order to solve the quadratic equation, we apply quadratic formula that is :
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
In this formula b2 - 4ac play the most significant and vital role in deciding whether there will be
one root, two roots or no root. Hence, b2 – 4ac is known as “Determinants of root”.
1. If b2 – 4ac >0, it indicates that there are two distinct roots hence are called real and distinct
roots. It results in 2 solutions.

2. If b2 – 4ac=0 it indicates that the roots are real and equal that is the two roots obtained are
equal, hence there is only one solution. This situation is also called “a condition of
tangency”. These roots are also called repetitive roots because the two roots obtained are
repeating themselves. There is only one solution.
Tangent is a line that touches the curve just once.

3. If b2 -4ac < 0; the roots are imaginary roots or complex roots, this is because there exist no
real roots. Hence, the curve does not intersect the line or the x-axis. There is no solution.

4. If b2 -4ac ≥ 0; the roots can be real and equal or real and distinct. Therefore, there is 1 or 2
solutions.
 FUNCTIONS
Inverse of a function:
To find the inverse of a function the following steps are to be applied:
1. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) by y.
2. Make "𝑥” the subject of the formula.
3. Replace "𝑥” by “𝑓 − 1(𝑥)” and “𝑦” by “𝑥".
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1

𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1
𝑦 + 1 = 3𝑥
(𝑦 + 1)/3 = 𝑥
(𝒙 + 𝟏)/𝟑 = 𝒇 − 𝟏(𝒙)
Compound function:
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2
𝑔2 (𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 7
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = ?
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑓(𝑥)) + 5
2(3𝑥 − 7) + 5
6𝑥 – 14 + 5
= 𝟔𝒙 – 𝟗
The compound function of a function and its inverse will always be x because it shows the
geometrical significance of a function and its inverse; which is the fact that they are reflection
of each other along line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Sketching g(x) and g-1(x)
𝒈(𝒙) y= 𝒙

𝒈−𝟏 (𝒙)
3

Whenever the function is reflected about line y=x; the coordinate interchanges their places that
is the x-coordinate become the y-coordinate and the y-coordinate becomes the x-coordinate.
The graphs of f(x) and f-1(x) will always intersect the line y=x.

Whenever you need to find the value of x for which the function is not defined, always equate
denominator with zero and find the corresponding value of x.
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1

𝑥−1 = 0
𝑥 = 1 𝑥 is undefined at 1.
Types of functions:

1. One to one function:

A 1
B 2
C 3

Each object has just one image hence it is called one to one function, which is a real
function.
2. Many to one function:
A 1
B 2
C 3
D

More than one object has the same image, the function is said to be many to one
function which is a real function.
3. One to many function:
A 1
B 2
C 3
4
If one object has more than one image, the function is said to be one to many function
which is not a real function.

IF A FUNCTION IS NOT A REAL FUNCTION, IT’S INVERSE IS NOT POSSIBLE.

 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
-The inverse of a quadratic function can’t be found because when drawn on graph it
results in a parabola which is a one to many function. One to many function is not a real
function and hence it does not have an inverse.
-if we wish to find inverse of a quadratic equation we must first fulfill the following
conditions:
1. The quadratic equation must be converted into completed square form that is in the
form 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘.
2. One to many function must be converted into one to one function.
In order to convert one to many function into one to one function either the part of the
curve before the turning point or the part after the turning point should be removed
hence one to many function will be converted to one to one function.

𝑥 > 𝑥-coordinate of turning point 𝑥 < 𝑥-coordinate of turning point

2
Q. Given that f(x) is 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 6
(i) express 𝑓(𝑥) in the form 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘.
(ii) state the coordinate of turning point.
(iii) state whether the curve is maximum or minimum.
(iv) state the equation of line of symmetry.
(v) Does 𝑓(𝑥) has an inverse?
(vi) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 2 find the range of values of 𝑥.
Given that 𝑔(𝑥) is 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6; where 𝑥 ≥ 𝑚
(vii) find the value of M for which g(x) has an inverse.
(viii) hence find 𝑔−1 (𝑥)
(ix) sketch g(x) and 𝑔−1 (𝑥) making clear the relationship between them.
Solution:
(i) 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6 = 𝑎(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 𝑘
𝑎(𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥 + ℎ2 ) + 𝑘
𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑎ℎ𝑥 + 𝑎ℎ2 + 𝑘
2𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2
2
4𝑥 = 2𝑎ℎ𝑥 − 6 = 𝑎ℎ2 + 𝑘
𝑎= 2 4 = 2(2)(ℎ) − 6 = (2)(1)2 + 𝑘
ℎ=1 −8=𝑘
2
2(𝑥 + 1) − 8
(ii) (-1,-8)
(iii) Minimum because 𝑎 > 0
(iv) 𝑥 = −1
 (v) It does not have an inverse because it is one to many function.
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 2
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 6 − 2 ≤ 0
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑥 = 1.236 , 𝑥 = −326
(vii) m=-1
(viii) 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = = −1 + √𝑦 + 8/2
(drawing not to scale as question states “sketch”)

y=x

g-1(x) g(x)

Range and Domain:

Domain is the range of values of “𝑥” e.g.
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7
Range is the range of values of “y” e.g.
𝑝 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑞, −3 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 7
Since the function and its inverse are reflection of each other along line 𝑦 = 𝑥 therefore

Domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = Range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = Domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a minimum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥-coordinate of turning
point, or 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥-coordinate of turning point then the range will be y ≥ y-coordinate of
turning point.

𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 - coordinate of turning point 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥-coordinate of turning point

Range = 𝑦 ≥ 𝑦-coordinate of turning point
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a minimum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑥 > 𝑥-coordinate turning
point or 𝑥 < 𝑥-coordinate of turning point then the range will be 𝑦 > 𝑦-coordinate of
turning point. Range = 𝑦 > 𝑦-coordinate of turning point

𝑥 < 𝑥-coordinate of turning point 𝑥 > 𝑥-coordinate of turning point

3. If 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum curve and the Domain is in the form 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥-coordinate of turning
point and 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 coordinate of turning point, then the range will be y ≤ y-coordinate of
turning point.

𝑥 ≤ 𝑥-coordinate of turning point 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥-coordinate of turning

point
 Range = y ≤ y coordinate of turning
4. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a maximum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑥 > 𝑥-coordinate of turning
point and 𝑥 < 𝑥-coordinate of turning point then the range will be y < y-coordinate of
turning point.

𝑥 < 𝑥-coordinate of turning point 𝑥 > 𝑥-coordinate of turning point

Range = y < y-coordinate of turning point
5. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a minimum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then in order to
find the range the following steps are to be applied:
i) Y-coordinate of turning point will act as minimum possible point.
ii) Insert ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the original equation 𝑓(𝑥) and find the corresponding values of y.
iii) The higher of the two values obtained in step 2 will act as the maximum point.
iv) The final range will be step 1 ≤ y ≤ step 3.
Range = -6 ≤ y ≤ 18

18

a b

(3,-6)

6. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a minimum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 then in order to
find the range the following steps are to be applied:
i) Y-coordinate of turning point will act as minimum possible point.
ii) Insert ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the original equation 𝑓(𝑥) and find the corresponding values
of y.
iii) The higher of the two values obtained in step 2 will act as the maximum point.
iv) The final range will be step 1 ≤ y < step 3.
Range = -6 ≤ y < 18
 18

a b

(3, -6)
7. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a maximum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then in order to
find the range the following steps are to be applied:
i) Y-coordinate of turning point will act as maximum possible point.
ii) Insert ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the original equation 𝑓(𝑥) and find the corresponding values
of y.
iii) The lower of the two values obtained in step 2 will act as the minimum point.
iv) The final range will be step 3 ≤ y ≤ step 1.
Range = -8 ≤ y ≤ 15
15

a b

-8
8. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a maximum curve and the domain is in the form 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 then in order to
find the range the following steps are to be applied:
i) Y-coordinate of turning point will act as maximum possible point.
ii) Insert ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the original equation 𝑓(𝑥) and find the corresponding values of y.
iii) The lower of the two values obtained in step 2 will act as the minimum point.
iv) The final range will be step 3 < y ≤ step 1.
Range = -8 < y ≤ 15
15

a b

-8

9. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function and the domain is in the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then the
range will be y-coordinate of a ≤ y ≤ y-coordinate of b.
B

A
10. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function and the domain is in the form 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 then the
range will be y-coordinate of a < y < y-coordinate of b.

A
11. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a decreasing function and the domain is in the form 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then the
range will be y-coordinate of b ≤ y ≤ y-coordinate of a.
a

b
12. If 𝑓(𝑥) is a decreasing function and the domain is in the form 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 then the
range will be y-coordinate of b < y < y-coordinate of a.
a

b
Absolute Valued Functions:
Absolute valued functions are also known modulus functions. Anything within the modulus sign
always turns out to be positive.
Y= I5I y =5; Y = I-5I y = 5
When solving any equation involving modulus sign please remember that when modulus sign
will be removed it will result in a positive and a negative.
2𝑥 + 3 = |𝑥 + 1|
2𝑥 + 3 = +(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 + 3 = −(𝑥 + 1)
2𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 3 = −𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 – 𝑥 = 1 − 3 2𝑥 + 𝑥 = −1 – 3
𝑿 = −𝟐 3𝑥 = −4 𝒙 = −𝟒/𝟑
Whenever there is a modulus sign on both sides of the equation then to solve such equation we
will square both the sides. Squaring both the sides will not cancel the modulus sign, it will only
remove the modulus sign. E.g.

|𝑥 + 5| = |2𝑥 − 1|
(|𝑥 + 5|)2 = (|2𝑥 − 1|)2
(𝑥 + 5)2 = (2𝑥 − 1)2
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25 = 4𝑥 2 – 4𝑥 + 1
3𝑥 2 – 14𝑥 – 24 = 0
𝒙 = 𝟔 𝒙 = −𝟒/𝟑
Graphs of Absolute Valued Function:

o When drawing the graphs of absolute valued functions everything below the x-axis is
reflected above the x-axis.
o When a point is reflected above the x-axis, the x-coordinate does not change, but the
sign of y-coordinate changes.
 Y= IxI y=Ix-5I
5

-5
𝑦 = |𝑥 + 3| + 2

Line of 𝑥+3

Line of I𝑥+3I

Final graph

𝑦 = 2 − |𝑥 + 1|
Line of I𝑥+1I
Line of (-) I𝑥+1I
Final graph

 TRY THIS: |(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)|

 BINOMIAL THEOREM
Bi means 2. Nomial means expression
Binomial is an expression with 2 terms.
(a+b)2 -> a2 + 2ab + b2

(a+b)n -> hence in such case where direct expansion is not possible we will apply binomial
theorem which is:-
nc (a)n-r (b)r
r

where ‘n’ is the power; ‘a’ is the first term; ‘b’ is the second term and ‘r’ varies from ‘0’ to ‘n’.

e.g. (1 + 𝑥)5

(5c0) (1)5−0 (𝑥)0 = 1×1×1 = 1

5c (1)5−1 − 1 (𝑥)1 = 5 × 1 × (𝑥) = 5𝑥

1

5c (1)5−2 (𝑥)2 = 10 × 1 × 𝑥 2 = 10𝑥 2

2

5c (1)5−3 (𝑥)3 = 10 × 1 × 𝑥 3 = 10𝑥 3

3

5c (1)5−4 (𝑥)4 = 5 × 1 × 𝑥 4 = 5𝑥 4
4

5c (1)5−5 (𝑥)5 = 1 × 1 × 𝑥 5 = 𝑥 5
5

(𝟏 + 𝒙)𝟓 = 𝟏 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟑 + 𝟓𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟓

 TRY THESE: (𝑥 + 2)4 , (𝑥 − 1)7 , (2 − 𝑥)6
Please note that in any binomial expansion the total number of terms is one greater than the
power. Hence if a particular term is required then the value of r will always be 1 less than the
required term. r = required term -1

e.g. (𝑥 + 2)10 find 2nd term

r= 2-1 = 1
10c (𝑥)10-1 (2)1 = 10 x 𝑥9 x 2 = 20𝒙9
1

If you are required to find the middle term. Please remember, it is only possible if the power
is an even number because when the power is odd, the middle term does not exist.
(1+5)5 = 1 + 5𝑥 + 10𝑥2 + 10𝑥3 + 5𝑥4 + 𝑥5
(2-𝑥)6 = 64 – 192𝑥 + 240𝑥 2 - 160𝒙3 + 60𝑥4 – 12𝑥5 + 𝑥6
In order to find the middle term, in case of even powers the value of r = n/2
(2 – 𝑥)6 r = 6/2 =3
6c (2)6-3 (-𝑥)3 = 20 x 8 x (-𝑥 3) = -160𝒙3
3

Expand (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2)5 up to and including the term in 𝑥2.

But the expression mentioned above isn’t in the binomial form (a+b)n, but it can be converted
into binomial by means of substitution.
Let y be 𝑥 + 𝑥2
(1+y)5 = 1 + 5y + 10y2 + 10y3 + 5y4 + y5
1 + 5(𝑥 + 𝑥2) + 10(𝑥 + 𝑥2)2 + 10(𝑥 + 𝑥2)3 + 5(𝑥 + 𝑥2)4 + (𝑥 + 𝑥2)5
1 + 5𝒙 + 5𝒙2 + ….
Expand (1 + 𝑥)6 hence find (1.01)6 using its expansion.
(1 + 𝑥)6 = 1 + 6𝑥 + 15𝑥2 + 20𝑥3 + 15𝑥4 + 6𝑥5 + 𝑥6
(1 + 𝑥)6 = (1.01)6
1 + 𝑥 = 1.01; x = 0.01
1 + 6(0.01) + 15(0.01)2 + 20(0.01)3 + 15(0.01)4 + 6(0.01)5 + (0.01)6 = 1.06
TRY THIS: Expand (2+𝑥)5 hence using the expansion find (2.03)5
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. If in the binomial expansion ‘𝑥’ is at the second place, then the value of ‘r’ is equals to
the required power of ‘𝑥’.
r = required power of 𝑥
2. If in the expansion ‘𝑥’ is at the first place, then the value of ‘r’ will be obtained by
deducting required power of ‘𝑥’ from the power of the binomial.
r = n – required power of 𝑥
3. If 𝑥 is both at the first as well as the second place, then in order to find the value of ‘r’
we will compare the basic binomial expansion with the required power of 𝑥.
nc (a)n-r (b)r = 𝑥 required power
r
8
e.g. (𝑥 + 2/𝑥) ; required power = 2
8c (𝑥)8-r (2/𝑥)r = 𝑥 2
r
8c (𝑥)8-r (2)r(𝑥)-r = 𝑥 2
r
Considering 𝑥 only.
𝑥8-r-r = 𝑥2 ; 8-2r = 2; r = 3
8c (𝑥)8-3 (2/𝑥)3 = 56 𝑥 (𝑥)5 x 8/𝑥 3 = (56 x 8)(𝑥 5-3) = 448𝑥 2
r
 TRIGONOMETRY
Triangles are divided into 6 categories:
1. Scalene Triangles: All sides and all angles are different.
2. Equilateral Triangles: All three sides are equal and all angles are 60o.
3. Isosceles Triangles: Two sides and two angles are equal.
4. Acute angled Triangles: All angles are less than 90o.
5. Obtuse angled Triangles: One angle is greater than 90o.
6. Right angled Triangles: One angle is equal to 90o.
Triangles

RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLES NONRIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES

 Pythagoras theorem  Area

 Areas of triangles  Sine Rule
 Basic trigonometric functions  Cosine Rule
 Other trigonometric functions
 How to find angles in degree and
radians
 Trigonometric identities

Hypotenuse
Perpendicular
Hyp2= base2 + prep2

Base

Basic Trigonometric Function:

HYPOTENUSE=h

PERPENDICULAR= p = OPPOSITE= o

BASE= b = ADJACENT= a
O

Sin𝜃 = p/h = o/h Sph Cbh Tpb

Cos𝜃 = b/h = a/h
Soh Cah Toa
Tan𝜃 = p/b = o/a
Other Trigonometric Functions: (see third letter)

Cosec𝜃= 1/sin 𝜃 = h/p =h/o

Sec𝜃= 1/cos 𝜃 = h/b = h/a
Cot𝜃 = 1/tan 𝜃 = b/p = a/o

Area of right-angled triangle:

½xbxh
Area of nonright-angled triangle:
½ ab sin(c)
Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two sides and ‘c’ is the angle between the two sides.

b
c
Rules to remember: a

 Sin(90-𝜃) = Cos𝜃
 Cos(90-𝜃) = Sin𝜃
 Tan(90-𝜃) = Cot𝜃 = 1/tan𝜃
 Sin (180-𝜃) = Sin𝜃
 Cos(180-𝜃) = -Cos𝜃
 Tan(180-𝜃) = -Tan𝜃 90o
Sin = +ve
The four quadrants: Sin = +ve
Cos = +ve
Cos = -ve
Tan = +ve
Tan = -ve

180o 0/360o
Sin = -ve Sin = -ve

Cos = -ve Cos = +ve

Tan = +ve Tan = -ve

270 o
1st Quadrant = 0 to 90o = O = All positive
2nd Quadrant = 90 to 180o = Sin positive
3rd Quadrant = 180 to 270o = Tan positive
4th Quadrant = 270 to 360o = Cos positive
ANGLES

Degrees Radians

180o 𝜋 rad
Q. How to convert Degree into Radians?

A. To do so we will multiply by 𝜋 /180.

e.g. 270 x 𝜋 /180 = 3 𝜋 /2

Q. How to convert Radians into Degree?

A. To do so we will multiply the angle by 180/𝜋 .

e.g. 2 𝜋 /3 x 180/𝜋 = 120o

Steps to find angles in degrees using trigonometry:

Step1: Check the range.
Step2: Alter the range. (if necessary)
Step3: Find the basic angles.
Step4: Apply ASTC and check in which quadrants answers are lying.
Step5: Apply the following rues:
1st Quadrant = 𝜃
2nd Quadrant = 180 – 𝜃
3rd Quadrant = 180 + 𝜃
4th Quadrant = 360 – 𝜃
Step6: Give the final answer within the basic range.
e.g. sin(𝑥) = 0.5 RANGE: 0 < 𝑥 < 360
𝑥 = sin-1(0.5) = 30o

30, 180 – 30
Therefore, 𝑥 = 30o, 150o.
Steps to find angles in radians using trigonometry:
Step1: Check the range.
Step2: Alter the range. (if necessary)
Step3: Find the basic angles.
Step4: Apply ASTC and check in which quadrants answers are lying.
Step5: Apply the following rues:
1st Quadrant = 𝜃
2nd Quadrant = π - 𝜃
3rd Quadrant = π + 𝜃
4th Quadrant = 2π - 𝜃
Step6: Give the final answer within the basic range.
e.g. sin(𝑥) = 0.5 RANGE: 0 < 𝑥 < 360
𝑥 = sin-1(0.5)
𝑥 = 0.52 or π /6

0.52, π - 0.52
Therefore, 𝑥 = 0.52, 2.62.
IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS “ASTC” IS NOT APPLIED WHEN SOLVING QUESTIONS USING
TRIGONOMETRY:
Sin(𝑥) =1, -1, 0
Cos(𝑥) = 1, -1, 0
Tan(𝑥) = 0
This is because in these situations we have to draw the trigonometric graph to find the angle.
SIN(𝒙)
Sin(𝑥) = 0

𝑥 = 0o, 180o/π, 360o/2π.

Sin(𝑥) = 1

𝑥 = 90o or π/2.

Sin(𝑥) = -1

𝑥 = 270o or 3 π /2.
COS(𝒙)
Cos(𝑥) = 0

𝑥= 90o or π/2, 270o or 3 π /2.

Cos(𝑥) = 1

𝑥 = 0o, 360o or 2 π.

Cos(𝑥) = -1

𝑥 = 180o or π.
 TAN(𝒙)

WHENEVER IN A TRIGONOMETRIC QUESTION A TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION IS CANCELLED IT IS

ALWAYS EQUATED TO ZERO.

Example:
3 cos 𝑦 = −cot 𝑦
cos 𝑦
3 cos 𝑦 = −
sin 𝑦
cos 𝑦 1
3 =−
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦
1
sin 𝑦 = −
Since cos y was 3
cancelled, 𝛼 = 19.5°
equate it to 0
180 + 19.5, 180 − 19.5
99.5, 340.5

cos 𝑦 = 0
90, 270
Final Answer: 90, 99.5, 270, 340.5
TERMINOLOGIES:
1. ASYMPTOTES: are represented by doted lines on the graph of tan. They indicate the
undefined region.

ASYMPTOTES

2. AMPLITUDE: is the maximum distance from the 𝑥-axis. For e.g. in 2sin(𝑥), 2 will be the
amplitude.
3. Number of Cycles: determines how many times within 360o, does the curve repeat itself.
For e.g. In sin2𝑥, 2 represents the number of cycles.
Sin2𝑥 -> 360/2 = 180o hence, 180 will be the period.
4. Period: indicates after how many degrees does the cycle repeats itself. The greater the
number of cycles, the shorter the period will be. Ideally, the graph of sin and cos have a
period of 360o and the graph of tan has period of 180o.
For sin and cos-> 360/n where “n” is the number of cycles and for tan -> 180/n.
5. Range: determines the range of values of y within which the graph lies.
As in B𝑥 + C where A= amplitude; B= number of cycles; C= shifting of graph
Therefore, range= -A+C ≤ y ≤ A+C.
SINE RULE:
It is applied to non-right-angled triangles. If two sides are given and an angle opposite
one of the given sides is also given and we need to find the angle opposite other given
side, then we must apply sine rule.

<- ANGLE “A” IN THIS

CASE.

Similarly, if two angles are given and a side opposite to one of the given angles is given
and you need to find the side opposite to the other given angle, you must apply sine
rule.
Sine rule is applied as follow:

Where A,B,C are angles and a,b,c are sides.

COSINE RULE:
It is applied to non-right-angled triangles. If two sides are given and an angle between
the 2 sides is given we need to find the opposite side of the given angle, we will apply
the cosine rule.

Similarly, if all 3 sides are given and we need to find angle opposite to any given side
once again we need to apply the cosine rule.

Cosine rule is applied as follow:

Where A,B,C are angles and

a,b,c are sides.
 CIRCULAR MEASURE

SECTOR

DIAMETER

CIRCUMFERENCE: It is the outer boundary of the circle.

Arc: It is the part of the circumference.
Radius: It is a line that starts from the center of the circle till the boundary of the
circle.
Chord: It is the line that touches the circumference twice.
Diameter: It is the chord that passes through the center of the circle and is twice
the radius.
Sector: It is the part of the circle bounded by 2 radii and an arc length.
Segment: It is the area bounded by arc length and the chord.
NOTE:

CONCENTRIC CIRCLES ARE THOSE CIRCLES THAT START FROM THE CENTER.
 FORMULAS

DEGREES RADIANS

Area of Circle 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑟 2
Circumference 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
Area of semi-circle 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑟 2
2 2
Arc Length of Semi-circle 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
Perimeter of Semi-circle 𝜋𝑟 + 2𝑟 𝜋𝑟 + 2𝑟
Arc Length of sector 𝜃 𝑆 = 𝑟𝜋
× 2𝜋𝑟
360
Perimeter of sector 𝜃 𝑆 + 2𝑟 𝑶𝑹 𝑟𝜃 + 2𝑟
( × 2𝜋𝑟) + 2𝑟
360
Area of Sector 𝜃 1 2 1
× 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜃 𝑶𝑹 𝑟𝑠
360 2 2
Perimeter of Segment Arc length + length of chord Arc length + length of chord

Area of Segment Area of Sector – Area of Area of Sector – Area of

triangle triangle
Arc Length of Quadrant 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
2 2
Perimeter of Quadrant 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
+ 2𝑟 + 2𝑟
2 2
Area of Quadrant 90 2
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑟 2
× 𝜋𝑟 =
360 4 4
 LOGARITHMS
There are certain equations relating indices that can’t be solved. So, to solve such things we
need to apply logarithms. For e.g. 2𝑥 = 3
Rules of logarithms:
Rule1: logab + logac = loga(b x c)

When logs with a same base but different powers are added we take log with a common base
and multiply the powers.
Rule2: logab – logac = loga(b/c)
When logs of same base but different powers are subtracted we take log with a common base
and divide the powers.
Rule3: logabc =clogab

If log with a base and power has another power of the power, then we will multiply the power
of the power with the log function.
Rule4: clogab = logabc
If something is multiplied to the log function it can become the power of the power of the log.
Rule5: logaa = 1
Log with same base and power is 1.
Rule6: loga1 = 0
Log with any base with power 1 is zero.
Rule7: loga0 = NOT POSSIBLE
Log with any base with power zero does not exist.
Rule8: loga-n= NOT POSSIBLE
Log with any base with negative power does not exist.
Rule9: log10 = lg
Log with base of 10 is known as lg.
Rule10: loge = ln
Log with a base e is known ln.
Rule11: loga𝑥 = logay
If two log functions with a same base are equated, their powers are equal.
Rule12: logab = 1/logba
If power and base of log function are to be changed then we will reciprocate the log function.
Rule13: How to convert indices into logs?
In introducing log base remains the same and the number after the equals sign becomes the
power and the power goes after the equal sign. For e.g. 2𝑥 = 3; log23 = 𝑥.
Rule14: How to convert logs into indices?

Remove logs, base remains the same, the number after the equals sign becomes the power and
the power goes after equals sign. For e.g. log28 = 3; 23 =8.
Rule15: How to solve log?
1. X= log23
lg3/lg2 = 1.58
2. X= log23
ln3/ln2 = 1.58
GRAPHS OF ln(𝒙) AND 𝒆𝒙
ex and ln𝑥 are inverse functions of each other and hence they are reflection of each other along
line y=𝑥.
 𝑒 𝑥 +1

𝑒𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 −1

ln(𝑥+1)
ln𝑥

ln(𝑥-1)

𝑒 𝑥 /𝑒 2𝑥/3𝑥 etc.

-𝑒 𝑥

ln𝑥+1
ln𝑥
ln𝑥-1
 LINEAR LAW
When a non-linear equation is plotted on the graph it does not result in a straight line hence to
convert all such non-linear equation into straight lines we need to apply linear law. To do so the
non-linear equation will be converted into linear equation by changing the axis.

The question will also provide us with some experimental values of 𝑥 and y. we have to change
these experimental values as per the new values we have determined. The experimental values
will be altered.
Now using the new axis determined we will draw the graph in such a manner that it should at
least cover 75% of the graph paper and hence the scale must be set accordingly. When the
values will be plotted on the graph the accurate straight line might not be obtained and hence
we will be required to prepare a line of best fit.
The second variety of questions involving linear law comprise of the deriving the equation from
the given graph. In such cases, the straight-line graph, new axis, and points of the straight line
will be given. Using all these things, the following steps must be applied:
1. Find the gradient of the given points.
2. Find the y-intercept.
3. Form the equation of the line in the form y=m𝑥+c.
4. Replace y by the new y-axis and 𝑥 by the new 𝑥-axis.
5. Make y the subject of the formula.
 REMAINDER FACTOR THEOREM
Dividend = Quotient x Divisor + Remainder
WHAT IS A REMAINDER?
When something is divided by another thing, which does not completely solve the function,
then the number which is answer which is left is called the remainder.
WHAT IS A FACTOR?
When two things are divided and there remains no remainder then the divisor is a factor of
dividend.
HOW TO SOLVE CUBIC EQUATION?

To solve cubic equation, we need to apply the trial and error method to find the first factor.
Once the first factor is found either by

a) Comparison.
b) Long division.
c) Synthetic Method.
Comparison:
(𝑥-2)(a𝑥2 + b𝑥 + c) = 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 – 11𝑥 – 6
𝑥(a𝑥2 + b𝑥 + c) -2( a𝑥2 +b𝑥 + c) = 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 – 11𝑥 – 6
a𝑥3 + b𝑥2 + c𝑥 -2a𝑥2 – 2b𝑥 – 2c = 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 – 11𝑥 – 6

a𝑥3 + (b-2a)𝑥2 + (c-2b)𝑥 -2c = 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥2 – 11𝑥 – 6

a𝑥3 = 2𝑥3; a = 2.

(b-2a)𝑥2 = 3𝑥2; b-2(2) = 3; b = 7.

-6 = -2c; c= 3.
Long Division Method:

Synthetic Method:

If you are required to find only the remainder, when two functions are divided, then we
apply the synthetic method rather than long division. This is because synthetic method is
less time consuming and more error free. But if a question requires both quotients along
with remainder then we need to apply long division method.

𝑥3 + 5𝑥2 -12𝑥 + 4 ÷ 𝑥+1

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥3 + 5𝑥2 -12𝑥 + 4; 𝑥 + 1 = 0; 𝑥 = -1
𝑓(-1) = (-1)3 + 5(-1)2 -12(-1) + 4
𝑓(-1) = 20.
 DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation is referred to as the gradient function because it helps in finding the gradient of
the curve at each different point. Since we obtain an equation of gradient it is called gradient
function.
y’ -> dy/d𝑥 -> (Change in Y)/ (Change in 𝑥) -> y2-y1/ 𝑥2-𝑥1 -> m
Model 1: y= 𝑥n dy/d𝑥 = n(𝑥)n-1
Model 2: y= a𝑥n dy/d𝑥 = a(n)(𝑥)n-1
Model 3: Differentiation of a constant is always “zero”.
Model 4: y= (a𝑥 +b)n dy/d𝑥 = n(a𝑥 +b)n-1 × (differential of the bracket)
Model 5: y= [f(𝑥)]n dy/d𝑥 = n[f(𝑥)]n-1 × f’(𝑥)
Model 6: Product Rule: If two functions are being multiplied in such a manner that they cannot
be simplified into a single function then in order to solve such functions we apply the product
rule as follow:
Y = (a𝑥 + b)(c𝑥 +d)
u= a𝑥 + b v= c𝑥 +d
u’= a v’= c
dy/d𝒙 = uv’ +vu’
Model 7: Quotient Rule: If two functions are being divided in such a manner that they cannot
be converted into a single function then in order differentiate it, we have to apply quotient rule
as follow:
y= (a𝑥 +b)/ (c𝑥 + d)
u= a𝑥+ b v= c𝑥+ d
u’= a v’= c
𝒅𝒚 𝒗𝒖′ − 𝒖𝒗′
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒗𝟐
Model 8: Finding the value of the gradient at a particular point:
1. Find dy/d𝑥.
2. Insert the 𝑥 coordinate of the given point in answer of step1.
3. The answer hence obtained is the gradient of the curve.
Model 9: Stationary point/ Turning point/ Vertex: Whenever we need to find the turning
point, stationary point, vertex, minimum point or maximum point then we must equate
dy/d𝑥 to zero. The answer hence obtained is the 𝑥-coordinate of the turning point.

Model 10: Nature of the turning point: If we need to determine the nature of the turning
point, whether the turning point obtained is a maximum point or a minimum point then to
find it, we will double differentiate the equation of curve and then insert the 𝑥-coordinate
of the turning point in it. If the d2y/d𝑥2 > 0; it is minimum else maximum.
Model 11: Equation of a tangent:
What is a tangent? Tangent is a line that touches the curve or a circle just once.
Steps to find the Equation of Tangent:

1. Find the differential of the equation.

2. Insert the 𝑥-coordinate of the given point in answer of step1.
3. The answer hence obtained is the gradient of that tangent.
4. Using the gradient and the given point find the equation of the tangent.
Model 12: Equation of a Normal:

What is Normal? Normal is a line which is perpendicular to the tangent, at the point of
tangency.
Steps to find the Equation of the Normal:
1. Find the differential of the equation.
2. Insert the 𝑥-coordinate of the given point in the answer of step 1.
3. Then answer hence obtained is the gradient of the tangent.
4. Negative reciprocate the gradient to find the gradient of the Normal which is -d𝑥/dy.
5. Using the gradient of Normal and the given point find the equation of normal.
Model 13: Differentiation applied to exponential functions:
1. y= 𝑒 𝑥 dy/d𝑥= 𝑒 𝑥
2. y= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 dy/d𝑥= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (a)= a𝑒 𝑎𝑥
3. y= 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ) × 𝑓’(𝑥)= 𝑓’(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) )
Model 14: Differentiation applied to logarithmic functions:
1. y= ln(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= 1/𝑥.
2. y= lna𝑥 dy/d𝑥= 1/(a𝑥) × (a)= 1/𝑥.
3. y= lnf(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= 1/(𝑓(𝑥)) × (𝑓’(𝑥))= 𝑓’(𝑥)/𝑓(𝑥).
Model 15: Differentiation applied to basic trigonometric functions:
1. y= sin(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= cos(𝑥).
2. y= cos(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= -sin(𝑥).
3. y= tan(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= sec2(𝑥).
4. y= cosa𝑥 dy/d𝑥= -sina𝑥 × a.
5. y= sina𝑥 dy/d𝑥= cosa𝑥 × a.
6. y=tana𝑥 dy/d𝑥= sec2a𝑥 × a.
7. y= sinf(𝑥) dy/d𝑥= cos𝑓(𝑥) × 𝑓’(𝑥).
Model 16: Differentiation applied to higher power of trigonometry.
y= [𝑓(𝑥)]n dy/d𝑥= [𝑓(𝑥)]n-1 × 𝑓’(𝑥).
Model 17: Differentiation Applied to combination of functions. Applying product and
quotient rule.
Model 18: Small Changes/ Approximate Changes.

If a small change in 𝑥 causes a small change in y or a small change in y causes small change
in 𝑥. The question falls under the category of approximate changes and we apply the
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
following formulas:𝛿𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 × 𝛿𝑥. OR 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 × 𝛿𝑦.

Model 19: Rate of Change:

If one variable changes with respect to time and causes the other variable to change with
time as well then the question falls under the category of rates of change, and in order to
solve such questions we have to apply “The Chain Rule”. For e.g.
Q) The radius of a circle is increasing at 2 cm per second. Find the rate of change of area at
the instant when radius is 5 cm.
dr/dt= 2 cms-1
dA/dt= ?
A= πr2
dA/dr = 2πr; 2π(5)= 10π
dA/dr= dA/dr × dr/dt
dA/dr= 10π × 2= 20π cm2s-1.
Model 20: Maxima Minima:
Q) The dimensions of a cuboid are 2𝑥 by 𝑥 by h. Given that the perimeter of the cuboid is
72cm. find:
(i) h in terms of 𝑥.
(ii) volume in terms of 𝑥.
(iii) given that the volume varies, find the stationary values of 𝑥 and the corresponding
value of h.
(iv) Determine whether the volume is max or min.
Solution:
(i) 4(2𝑥) + 4(𝑥) + 4(h)= 72.
12𝑥 + 4h= 72.
4h= 72-12𝑥.
h= 18-3𝑥.
(ii) V= l × b× h.
V= 2𝑥 × 𝑥 × h.
V= 2𝑥2 × (18 - 3𝑥).
V= 36𝑥2 – 6𝑥3.
(iii) dv/d𝑥=0
dv/d𝑥= 72𝑥-18𝑥2
0= 72(𝑥)- 18(𝑥 2)
𝑥=0 or 𝑥= 4.
h= 18-3(4) = 6.
(iv) dv/d𝑥 = 72𝑥- 18𝑥2.
d2v/d𝑥2 = 72- 36𝑥
d2v/d𝑥2 = 72- 36(4) = -72.
-72 < 0 hence it is maximum.
 INTEGRATION
It is the reverse process of differentiation, while differentiation is used to find the
gradient function, integration is used to derive the equation of the curve from the
given differential. Moreover, it is also used to find the area under the curve with its
specified limits.
𝑑𝑦
Model 1: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1
y= +c
𝑛+1
𝑑𝑦
Model 2: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
𝑎𝑥 𝑛
y= 𝑛+1 + 𝑐
In integration, we always add ‘c’ to the integral in order to keep the place value of
the constant which is dropped when the function was differentiated. If 𝑥 and y are
given in the question, the corresponding value of ‘c’ can be found.
𝑑𝑦
Model 3: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛
y= (𝑛+1)×𝑎
(a𝑥 +b) should always be linear otherwise it won’t be integrated.
Model 4: Definite Integration/ Integration with in limits:
𝑏
∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = |𝑓(𝑥)|𝑏𝑎
𝑎
= f(b) -f(a)
Whenever we integrate within the limits there is no need to write ‘c’ because ‘c’
automatically cancels off.
Model 5: Finding the equation of the curve from given differential:
1. Integrate the given differential.
2. Insert the given points in answer of step 1.
3. Hence find the value of ‘c’.
4. Using the integral and the value of ‘c’, form an equation.
Model 6:
𝑑𝑦
1. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ; y= 𝑒 𝑥 + c.
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
2. ∫ = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ; y= + 𝑐.
𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ; y= 𝑓′ (𝑥) + 𝑐.

Model 7: Integration applied to trigonometric functions:

1. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐.
2. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐.
3. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐.
 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑥
4. ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
5. ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑥
6. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑎
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑓(𝑥)
7. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑥)
8. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑓′(𝑋)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑓(𝑥)
9. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑓(𝑥) = + 𝑐.
𝑓′(𝑥)

POINTS TO REMEMBER =>

𝑏 𝑎
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢; ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑣; ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)

Model 8: Area under which the curve using integration:

In order to find the area under the curve within the specified limits we have to
integrate the equations of the curve within those limits.
𝑏
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑏 𝑐
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫𝑏 𝑔(𝑥)

a b c
 𝑏 𝑏
3. ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

a b
𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

a b

𝑏 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

a b
 VECTORS
There are two types of qualities in math: Scalar quantity and Vector quantity. When we
talk about the Scalar quantity we only refer to magnitude while direction is not
important. But when we refer to vector quantity both magnitude as well as direction are
important.
Representation of Vectors:
Vectors are represented in 3 ways:
1. Coordinate form (𝑥,y,z).
𝑥
2. Column Vector form (𝑦𝑧).
3. Cartesian form 𝑥i + yj + zk.
Where ‘i’ represents movement along 𝑥-axis; ‘j’ represents movement along y-axis; ‘k’
represents movement along z-axis.

Magnitude: is the length of the vectors or the distance between the two vectors . it is
represented by a vector with in the modulus.
To find the magnitude of a vector we apply the following formula:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡)2 + (𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡)2 + (𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡)2

|𝐴𝐵

Position Vector: is a vector with respect to origin. Position vector of A will be

represented by OA, position vector of B will be represented by OB and so on.

Equal Vector: Vectors are considered to be equal vectors if both their magnitudes as
well as direction are same.

Negative Vector: Vectors are considered to be negative vectors if they have the same
magnitude but are in opposite direction.

Parallel Vectors: Vectors are considered to be parallel vectors if they are in the same
direction but have a different magnitude which is in the same ratio.
2 8
Given that PQ= (3) and XY = (𝑦). Given that PQ and XY are parallel, find the
4 𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ also find the values of y and z.
relationship between 𝑃𝑄 and 𝑋𝑌

𝑋𝑌 = k ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑄 Y= 3k = 12.

8 2 Z = 4k = 16.
(𝑦) = 𝑘 (3)
𝑧 4 Z= 16.

8 = 2𝑘
K= 4.
Collinear Vectors: vectors are considered to be collinear if they lie on a same straight line,
hence having the same direction but a different magnitude, which is in the same ratio. The
mathematical treatment of colinear vectors and the parallel vectors is exactly same.

Zero vector: are vectors with a magnitude of ‘0’. Only origin is the zero vector. It is represented
0
by: (0).
0
Unit Vector: is a vector with a magnitude of ‘1’. It is denoted by a cap over the vector. The
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
̂ =
formula to calculate unit vector is: 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
|𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS:

Algebraic Multiplication of Vectors: if a constant is multiplied to the vector it will be multiplied

to all the components of a vector. As shown in example of parallel vectors above.
Scalar Multiplication (dot product): if two vectors are multiplied to each other we should
perform the dot product. To do so x- component is multiplied by x-component, y-component is
multiplied to y-component and z-component is multiplied to z-component.
Perpendicular Vectors: vectors are considered to be perpendicular if their dot product is zero.
ADDITION OF VECTORS:

In order to add the vector, we have to apply the head-to-tail rule. Head-to-tail rule means the
point where one vector ends and the other vectors begins.

ANGLE BETWEEN THE TWO VECTORS: In order to find the angle between the two vectors, we
𝑎.𝑏
will apply the following formula: cos𝜃 = |𝑎|.|𝑏|
.
 KINEMATICS
Kinematics means motion of particles with respect to time.
 Scalar quantities: {Distance, Speed and time} only magnitude is important irrespective of
the direction.
 Vectors quantities: {Displacement, velocity, acceleration} magnitude and direction both
are important.
 Distance: It is the length of the movement of particles since its start irrespective of the
direction.
 Speed: It is the rate of change of distance i.e. the rate at which distance is covered.
 Displacement: It is the shortest distance from the starting point.
 Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement but it can be both positive and negative.
 Acceleration: It is the rate of change of both, velocity as well as speed.
Types of questions of Kinematics:
1. Motion of the particle travelling at a constant speed.
𝑫 = 𝑺 × 𝑻 (km or m)
𝑫
𝑺= (km/hr or m/s)
𝑻
𝑫
𝑻= (hrs. or sec)
𝑺
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅: .
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
1000
To convert from km/hr to m/s: × 3600.
3600
To convert from m/s to km/hr: × .
1000
2. Motion of the particles travelling at varying speed but constant acceleration. (Multiple
phased journey) In order to solve such questions, we will make:
I. Distance-time graphs.

0 to d: constant speed; straight line at d: rest; at t2 it is resuming the journey back at constant
speed.
II. Speed-time graphs.

A – B: m of S – T graph is constant acceleration. It indicates increasing speed.

B – C: m = 0; constant speed. Particle is not at rest.
At C: Particle has applied brakes.
C – D: m of S – T is negative constant acceleration (Deceleration or Retardation). Particle is
slowing down and coming to rest.
Area under the S – T graph: Distance.
III. Displacement-time graphs.

0 – 5: m of Displacement – Time graph is constant velocity.

5 – 12: m = 0; speed = 0; particle is at rest. Particle has turned.
At 5: Particle has reached the maximum displacement.
At 12: Particle has resumed its motion.
12 – 14: Particle is travelling in the opposite direction. ‘m’ of Displacement– Time graph = V.
At 14: Particle has reached the starting point.
14 – 15: Particle has gone beyond the starting point.
IV. Velocity-time graphs.

‘x’

‘y’
0 – 5: ‘m’ of V – T graph is acceleration (increasing velocity). 5 – 12: Particle is travelling at a
constant velocity. Acc = 0. At point 12: Particle has applied brakes and is slowing down. 12 – 14:
m of V – T graph is deceleration/ retardation / negative acceleration, decreasing velocity. At 14:
Particle has turned. 14 – 15: Particle is now moving in opposite direction.

3. Motion of the particles travelling at varying speed but constant acceleration. (Single
phased journey) To solve such questions we apply the following formulas:
I. 𝑉 2 − 𝑈 2 = 2𝑎𝑠.
1
II. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡.
1
III. 𝑠= ( 𝑢 + 𝑣)𝑡.
2
IV. 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡.
4. Motion of the particle, falling freely under gravity. Gravity is equal to constant
acceleration of 9.8ms-2 or 10ms-2. If question is silent; g=10ms-2.
Gravity: Gravity is the acceleration with magnitude 10ms-2
Dropped: Whenever the particle is dropped, it will always have an initial speed of 0. When the
particle is dropped it will fall vertically downwards.
Thrown downwards: When the particle is thrown downwards, it will definitely have some initial
speed.
Thrown upwards: When the particle is thrown upwards, it will always move vertically upwards.
It must have some
initial speed.
 When particle is moving downwards, its gradient is positive i-e. 10 m/s.
 When particle is moving upwards, its gradient is negative i-e. -10 m/s.
 When a particle falls freely under gravity. Its motion is symmetrical. If the motion is not
obstructed by any hurdle.
MAX HEIGHT
g= -10 g= 10.

 When the motion of the particle is obstructed then the particle will never reach the
maximum height, instead it will reach the greatest height.

When the motion is obstructed, then it is not symmetrical.

Note: - Velocity at max height is zero; velocity at greatest height is not zero. When a particle
moves freely on a smooth slope then acceleration of the particle is g sin ө.
5. Motion of the particle travelling at varying acceleration with respect to time. To solve
such questions, we apply “The calculus" that is, differentiation and integration.
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:
1. At initial time, t = 0.
2. At turning point, v = 0.
3. At max velocity, acc = 0.
4. When the particle is instantaneously at rest, velocity is zero.
5. Therefore, at turning points, velocity is zero.
6. At max displacement, velocity is zero.
7. At starting point, displacement is zero.
8. When particle is moving away from the starting point, displacement is increasing.
9. When particle is moving towards the starting point, displacement starts decreasing.
10. Displacement is the shortest distance from the starting point.
11. When the particle goes beyond the starting point, displacement is negative.
12. Terminal speed is the speed at which acceleration is zero.
13. When you are told to find the displacement, insert the time in the equations of
displacement.
14. When you are told to find the distance, follow the following steps:
 Step 1: Check whether the particle is turning within the required time.
 Step 2: If the particle does not possess the turning or does not turn within the required
time, the distance is equal to displacement.
 Step 3: If the particle turns within the required time; the distance is not equal to
displacement and hence to find distance, the following steps are to be followed.
(a) Insert the time of turning in the equation of displacement.
(b) Insert the time at which distance is required in the equation of displacement.

15. When the distance from 0 is required, it means that the question is asking for
displacement.
 ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

SERIES

PROGRESSION SEQUENCES

ARTHEMATIC: when GEOMATRIC: when

there exists a common there exists a common
difference between the ratio or multiple 1,4,9,16,25...
preceding and between preceeding
proceeding term. and proceeding term.

ARITHEMATIC PROGRESSION:
In an A.P. any particular term is the average of its preceding and proceeding terms. In order to
find a particular term in a A.P., we need to apply the following formula: Tn = a + (n-1)d.

Where ‘a’ is the first term; ‘d’ is the common difference; ‘n’ is the required term and Tn is the
value of the required term.
SUM OF SERIES IN AN A.P.:
To find the sums of series in an A.P. we can apply the following formulae:
𝒏 𝒏
Sn = 𝟐 [ 𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅] OR Sn = 𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒍)

Where ‘a’ is the first term; ‘d’ is the common difference; ‘l’ is the last term; ‘n’ is the required
term and ‘Sn’ is the sum of all term.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION:

If there exists a common ratio or multiple between the terms, the series is said to be a
geometric progression. In order to ensure that the series is geometric we check if T3/T2 =
T2/T1.

In a geometric progression, any particular term is the square root of the product of the
preceding and proceeding term; and the formula to find a particular term of a G.P. is: Tn= arn-1.
Where ‘a’ is first term; ‘r’ is common ratio; ‘n’ is the required term; ‘Tn’ is the value of the
required term.
SUM OF ALL THE TERMS IN G.P.:
In order to find the sum of the terms of a G.P., the following formulae are applied:
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
When r> 1 Sn = .
𝑟−1

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
When r< 1 Sn = .
1−𝑟

SUM TO INFINITY (S∞):

Conditions to apply sum to infinity:

1. The series must be in a geometric progression.

2. The series must be convergent.
3. The value of r must lie between -1<x<1.
𝑎
The formula applies is S∞ = 1−𝑟.