Msa Sensors & Detection

Gas Detection Handbook
Key Concepts & Reference Material for Installed Gas Monitoring Systems
NINTH EDITION
MSAsafety.com
The MSA Gas Detection Handbook is designed to introduce users to key terms and concepts in gas detection and to serve as
a quick reference manual for information such as specific gas properties, exposure limits, and other data.
The Handbook contains:
• A glossary of essential gas detection terms and abbreviations.

• A summary of key principles in combustible and toxic gas monitoring.
• Reference data – including physical properties and exposure limits – for the most commonly monitored gases,
in industrial and various other environments.
• A comparison of the most widely-used gas detection technologies.
• A table indicating the gas hazards common to specific applications within m ajor industries.
• A summary of key gas detection instrumentation approvals information, including hazardous locations classification.
• MSA’s exclusive Sensor Placement Guide, detailing important factors to take into consideration when determining
optimum gas sensor placement.
Note to User:
MSA makes no warranties, understandings or representations, whether expressed, implied or statutory regarding this gas detection handbook.
MSA specifically disclaims any warranty for merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. In no event shall MSA, or anyone else who has
been involved in the creation, production or delivery of this handbook be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or consequential
damages arising out of the use of or inability to use this handbook or for any claim by any other party.
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Table of Contents
Section 1 7 Section 6 111

Gas Detection Terms & Abbreviations Approvals
Hazardous Locations Classification
Section 2 15 CLASS I: Flammable Gases, Vapors or Liquids
CLASS II: Combustible Dusts
Gas Monitoring Categories
CLASS III: Ignitable Fibers & Flyings
Combustible Atmospheres
ATEX Explosive Atmospheres
Toxic Atmospheres
A Selection of Recognized Testing Laboratories
Oxygen Deficiency/Enrichment Atmospheres
System Installation
Gas Detection Technologies
Safety Integrity Levels
Gas Sampling
Section 7 141
Section 3 51
Sensor Placement Guide
Flame Detection
Section 8 149
Section 4 57
Calibration
Gas Information Tables
Section 9 153
Section 5 79
Resources
A Selection of Gases Typically Associated with Various Industries
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Section 1
Gas Detection Terms & Abbreviations
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ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Calibration - Procedure by which the performance of a detector is verified
Alarm Set Point - The selected gas concentration level at which an to maximize the accuracy of its readings. A calibration is performed by:
alarm is activated. (1) comparing the instrument with a known standard, and (2) adjusting
the instrument reading to match the standard.
Ambient Air - Surrounding air to which the sensing element is normally
exposed in its installed position. Calibration Gas (also “Span Gas” or “Cal gas”) - A known concentration
of gas that is used to set instrument accuracy.
Asphyxiant - A substance that impairs normal breathing by displacing
oxygen. Ceiling Limit (C) - The maximum gas concentration to which a worker
may be exposed. (See “TLV - C”.)
ATEX - From the French ATmosphère EXplosible (Explosive Atmospheres);
refers to the European Union (EU) directives regulating explosion Combustible Gas* - A gas that is capable of igniting and burning.
protection. Combustion - The rapid oxidation of a substance involving heat and light.
Atmosphere - The total gases, vapors, mists, and fumes present Confined Space - An area that is large enough for an employee to bodily
in a specific location. enter and perform work, has limited or restricted areas of entry or exit,
Autoignition Temperature [also “Spontaneous Ignition Temperature” and is not designed for continuous human occupancy.
(SIT)] - The minimum temperature at which a combustible substance *A
ny material that will burn at any temperature is considered to be “combustible”, so this term
covers all such materials, regardless of how easily they ignite. The term “flammable” specifically
(gas, vapor, liquid, or solid) will ignite and sustain combustion under refers to those combustible gases that ignite easily and burn rapidly.
its own heat energy.
Bump Check (Functional Test) - Procedure used to verify the response
of an instrument which does not include actual adjustment.
(Also known as “Span Check”.)
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Controller - The part of a gas detector that provides centralized Explosion-proof (XP) - Method of protection in which an explosion in
processing of the gas signal. The controller receives and responds a hazardous location is prevented by containing any combustion within
to the electrical signal from the sensor to output an indication, alarm the device, and thereby, is prevented from spreading into the
or other function. atmosphere surrounding the enclosure.
Cross Sensitivity - The predictable response of a detector to Explosive (or “Flammable”) Limits - Though a flammable liquid can
compounds other than the target gas. support combustion at its flash point temperature, to sustain it requires
Dew Point - The temperature at which a gas (air) is saturated with the vapor concentration to be between two specific levels, or
a condensable component. “flammable limits” – the lower flammable limit and the upper
flammable limit (see below). Any gas or vapor concentration that falls
Diffusion - Process by which particles spread from regions of higher between these two limits is in the flammable range.
concentration to regions of lesser concentration as a result of random
molecular movement. Also used to describe the process by which the • Lower Explosive (or “Flammable”) Limit (LEL) - the minimum
atmosphere being monitored is transported to the gas-sensing element concentration of a vapor (usually expressed as the percentage
by natural random molecular movement. of material in air) required to sustain a fire.
• Upper Explosive (or “Flammable”) Limit (UEL) - the maximum
Electrochemical Sensor - A sensor that uses an electrochemical
concentration of a vapor (usually expressed as the percentage
reaction to provide an electrical output proportional
of material in air) beyond which a fire cannot be sustained, as the
to the measured gas concentration.
amount of oxygen would be insufficient to continue the fire.
Explosion - Rapid uncontrolled combustion process which generates a
high temperature, a large volume of gas, and a pressure or shock wave.
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Explosive (or “Flammable”) Range - The range that encompasses General Purpose (GP) Enclosure - An enclosure intended for indoor
any gas or vapor concentration between the substance’s lower use in non-hazardous rated areas, primarily to prevent accidental
explosive limit and upper explosive limit, and is therefore capable contact of personnel with the enclosed equipment in areas where
of sustaining combustion. unusual service conditions do not exist.
Flameproof - Method of protection in which an internal ignition within Hazardous Atmosphere - (As defined by OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146.)
a flammable atmosphere will not transmit outside of a protective An atmosphere in which workers are exposed to the risk of death,
enclosure, and thereby, will prevent the ignition of surrounding injury, incapacitation, or illness.
flammables in the hazardous area. Humidity - The amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere.
Flammable Gas* - This term applies to a special group of combustible IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health)** – The maximum
gases that ignites easily and burns rapidly. concentration level of a substance (gas) from which a worker could
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off escape within 30 minutes without developing immediate, severe or
enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air (reaching 100% LEL). irreversible health effects, or other escape-impairing symptoms. IDLH
Gas - A state of matter characterized by very low density and viscosity levels are measured in ppm (parts per million).
(relative to liquids and solids), comparatively great expansion and wible gases that ignite easily and burn rapidly.
contraction with changes in pressure and temperature, ability to ** As defined by NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health).
diffuse readily into other gases, and ability to occupy with almost
complete uniformity the whole of any container. (Often used
interchangeably with “vapor”.)
Gas Detection Instrument - A device composed of electrical, optical,
mechanical, or chemical components that senses and responds to the
presence of gas mixtures.
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IECEx - International Electrotechnical Commission system for PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) - An airborne concentration of
certification to standards relating to equipment for use in contaminant that most workers can be exposed to repeatedly in a normal
Explosive Atmospheres. 8-hour day, in a 40-hour week, without adverse health effects. PEL levels
Interferent - Any gas other than the target gas that will cause are measured in ppm (parts per million) and are established by OSHA.
a response from a gas sensor. Permanent (or Fixed) Gas Monitor - A gas monitor that is permanently
Intrinsic Safety (IS) - A method of protection in which an explosion installed in a location.
is prevented through an electrical design using energy storage devices PPB (Parts Per Billion) - A term that expresses the number of units
in which the possibility of ignition is eliminated. (parts) of a given substance that exist as a portion of a greater substance
LEL (Lower Explosive Limit) - (See “Explosive Limits”.) comprised of one billion parts.
LEL.m (Lower Explosive Limit per Meter) - A gas measurement PPM (Parts Per Million) - The most common unit of measurement for
for Open Path Gas Detectors. toxic gases. A “10,000 parts per million” gas concentration level
equals a 1% by volume exposure.
Monitor - An instrument used to continuously measure a condition
that must be kept within specific limits. PPM.m (Parts Per Million per Meter) - A gas measurement for
Open Path Gas Detectors.
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Relative Density - The density of a gas as compared to that of another
OSHA - United States Department of Labor Occupational Safety gas (i.e. typically air). In gas detection, relative density is used to assist
and Health Administration. in determining optimum sensor placement. If the relative density of the
Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere - An atmosphere containing less monitored gas is less than 1, then it will tend to rise in air; if the relative
than 19.5% oxygen by volume. (Possesses a risk of insufficient oxygen density is greater than 1, then it will tend to sink in air and accumulate
for breathing.) at ground level.
Oxygen Enriched Atmosphere - An atmosphere containing more than
20.8% oxygen by volume. (Possesses an increased risk of explosion.)
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Sensor - The part of a gas detector that converts the presence of a gas • TLV - STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit) - The gas concentration
or vapor into a measurable signal. that most workers can be continuously exposed to for a 15-minute
Smart Sensor - Sensor that contains a microprocessor, allowing it to time period without suffering adverse health affects that would
record data, communicate with other devices or control devices such as impair self-rescue or worker safety. This limit should not be repeated
relays. more than 4 times per day and there should be at least 60 minutes
between individual STEL exposure periods.
Span Check - (See “Bump Check”.)
• TLV - C (Ceiling) - The highest gas concentration to which workers
STEL - Short-term exposure limit. (See “TLV - STEL”.) may be exposed. Ceiling TLVs should never be exceeded and they
Spontaneous Ignition Temperature (SIT) - take precedence over all TWAs and STELs.
(See “Autoignition Temperature”.) Toxic Atmosphere - An atmosphere in which the concentration
TLV® (Threshold Limit Value)* - Refers to the airborne concentration of gases, dusts, vapors, or mists exceeds the permissible exposure
of substances and represents conditions under which it is believed limit (PEL).
that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day Toxic Gas or Vapor - Substance that causes illness or death when
without adverse health effects. inhaled or absorbed by the body in relatively small quantities.
There are three categories of TLVs:
• TLV - TWA (Time Weighted Average) - This is the average amount
of gas that a worker can be repeatedly exposed to in a normal 8-hour
day, in a 40-hour week, without adverse health effects.
* As defined by the ACGIH® (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists).
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True Zero - A reading indicating that no amount of target gas is Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted when a solid or liquid is in
present in the sample. (Also known as “baseline”.) equilibrium with its own vapor. Vapor pressure is directly related to
TWA - Time-weighted average (See “TLV-TWA”.) temperature. In gas detection, this is significant because the higher the
vapor pressure of a substance, the greater the amount of it that will
UEL (Upper Explosive Limit) - (See “Explosive Limits”.) be present in vapor phase at a given temperature, and thus a greater
Vapor - Often used interchangeably with “gas”; vapor is generally degree of gas hazard exists.
used to refer to the gaseous phase of a substance that generally Zero Check - Check performed to verify that the instrument reads
exists as a liquid or solid at room temperature, while “gas” is more true zero.
commonly used to refer to a substance that generally exists in the
gaseous phase at room temperature. Zero Gas - A cylinder of gas that is free of the gas of interest and
interferents. It is used to properly zero an instrument’s base line.
Vapor Density - The weight of a volume of pure gas or vapor
compared to that of an equal volume of air at the same temperature
and pressure. A vapor density of less than 1 indicates that the gas
or vapor is lighter than air and will tend to rise. A vapor density of
greater than 1 indicates that the vapor is heavier than air and will tend
to accumulate closer to the ground. It may also move a significant
distance at these low levels to a source of ignition and then flash back
to the original location once ignited. When using vapor density to
determine optimum sensor placement, other factors such as air flow
patterns and temperature gradients should also be considered.
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Section 2
Toxic Atmospheres
Oxygen Deficiency Enrichment Atmospheres
Gas Sampling
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The Four Main Types of Gas Hazards
The following table summarizes the four main reasons why gas monitoring is performed:
Type of Monitoring The Purpose The Hazard Possible Source of Hazard
Leaks, fugitives emissions,

Personal protection Worker safety Toxic gases
industrial process defects
Presence of combustible
Explosive Worker and facility safety Explosions gases/vapors due to leaks,
industrial process defects
Oil leaks into sewers or lakes,

Environmental Environmental safety Environmental degradation
acid gas emissions
Possible fault or other

Industrial process Process control Malfunction of the process
process error
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Gas Monitoring Categories:

1. Combustible/Flammable Gas
• Explosive hazard.
• To avoid an explosion, atmospheric levels must be maintained below the lower explosive limit (LEL) for each gas, or purged of oxygen.
• Generally measured as 0-100% of the lower explosive limit or in parts per million range.
• Combustible gas monitors are designed to alarm before a potential explosive condition occurs.
2. Toxic/Irritant Gases
• Hazardous to human health; worker exposure must be monitored.
• Typically measured in the parts per million (ppm) range.
• Toxic gas monitors are designed to alert workers before the gas level reaches a harmful concentration.
• Some toxic gas monitors can calculate the average exposure over time, providing short-term exposure limit (STEL) and time-weighted
average (TWA) readings.
3. Oxygen
• Atmospheres containing too little oxygen (less than 19.5% oxygen by volume) are considered “oxygen deficient” and interfere
with normal human respiration.
• Atmospheres containing too much oxygen (more than 25% oxygen by volume) are considered “oxygen enriched” and possess
an increased risk of explosion.
• Measured in the percent volume range (normal oxygen percentage in air is 20.8% by volume at sea level).
• Oxygen monitors are generally set to alarm if the atmosphere contains either too little or too much oxygen.
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Fire Triangle
In order for a flame to exist, three conditions must be met. Fire Triangle
There must be:
• A source of fuel (e.g. methane or gasoline vapors).
• Enough oxygen (greater than 10-15%) to oxidize
or burn the fuel. Fuel
• A source of heat (ignition) to start the process.
Examples of Heat and Ignition Sources

• Open flames such as those from lighters, burners, matches,
and welding torches are the most common sources of ignition.
• Radiation in the form of sunlight or coming
from hot surfaces. Heat Oxygen
• Sparks from various sources such as the switching on
or off of electric appliances, removing plugs, static
electricity, or switching relays. Combustion No Co
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Combustible Atmosphere Factors

Vapor vs. Gas
Though often used interchangeably, the terms “vapor” and “gas” are not identical. The term “vapor” is used to refer to a substance that, though
present in the gaseous phase, generally exists as a liquid or solid at room temperature. When we say that a liquid or solid substance is burning,
it is actually its vapors that burn. “Gas” refers to a substance that generally exists in the gaseous phase at room temperature.
Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted when a solid or liquid is in equilibrium with its own vapor. It is directly related to temperature.
An example of vapor pressure is the pressure developed by the vapor of a liquid in a partially-filled closed container. Depending on temperature,
the vapor pressure will increase up to a certain threshold. When this threshold is reached, the space is considered to be saturated.
The vapor pressure and boiling point of a chemical determine how much of it is likely to become airborne. Low vapor pressure means there are
fewer molecules of the substance to ignite, so there is generally less of a hazard present. This also means that there are fewer molecules
to sense, which may make detection more challenging and require higher-sensitivity instrumentation. With higher vapor pressure and a lower
boiling point, there is a greater likelihood of evaporation. If containers of chemicals with such properties are left open, or if they’re allowed to
spread over large surfaces, they are likely to cause greater hazards.
Flashpoint
A flammable material will not give off an amount of gas or vapor sufficient to start a fire until it is heated to its flashpoint. Flashpoint is defined
as the lowest temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to produce a flame. If the temperature is below this point, the liquid will
not produce enough vapor to ignite. If the flashpoint is reached and an external source of ignition such as a spark is provided, the material will
catch fire. The National Fire Protection Agency’s (NFPA) document NFPA-325M, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and Volatile
Solvents, lists the flashpoints of many common substances. See www.nfpa.org.
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Flash points are significant because they give an indication of the
Temperature
degree of hazard presented by a flammable liquid. Generally, the
lower the flash point, the easier it is for flammable fuel-air mixtures
80 80
to form; thus, the greater the hazard.
60 60
Autoignition Temperature 40 40
If heated to a certain point—the spontaneous ignition (or 20 20
“autoignition”) temperature—most flammable chemicals can 0 0
spontaneously ignite under its own heat energy, without 20 20
an external source of ignition.
Below Flash Point Above Flash Point
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Vapor Density
Vapor density is the weight ratio of a volume of flammable vapor compared to an equal volume of air. Most flammable vapors are heavier than
air so they gravitate toward the ground, settling in low areas. A gas or vapor with a vapor density greater than 1 may travel at low levels to find
a source of ignition (e.g. hexane, which has a 3.0 vapor density); a gas or vapor with a vapor density less than 1 will tend to rise (e.g. methane,
which has a 0.6 vapor density). Vapor density is important to consider when determining optimum sensor placement because it helps predict
where the gas or vapor is most likely to accumulate in a room or area.
Explosive Limits
To produce a flame, a sufficient amount of gas or vapor must exist. But too much gas can displace the oxygen in an area and fail to support
combustion. Because of this, there are limits at both low-end and high-end gas concentrations where combustion can occur. These limits are
known as the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL). They are also referred to as the Lower Flammability Limit (LFL)
and the Upper Flammability Limit (UFL).
To sustain combustion, the atmosphere must contain the correct mix of fuel and oxygen (air). The LEL indicates the lowest quantity of gas which
must be present for combustion and the UEL indicates the maximum quantity of gas. The actual LEL level for different gases may vary widely and
is measured as a percent by volume in air. Gas LELs and UELs can be found in NFPA 325.
LELs are typically 1.4% to 5% by volume. As temperature increases, less energy is required to ignite a fire and the percent gas by volume required
to reach 100% LEL decreases, increasing the hazard. An environment containing enriched oxygen levels raises the UEL of a gas, as well as its rate
and intensity of propagation. Since mixtures of multiple gases add complexity, their exact LEL must be determined by testing.
Most combustible gas instruments measure in the LEL range and display gas readings as a percentage of the LEL. For example: a 50% LEL reading
means the sampled gas mixture contains one-half of the amount of gas necessary to support combustion.
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Any gas or vapor concentration that falls between

these two limits is in the flammable (explosive) range. Gas-to-Air Mixture
Different substances have different flammable range
widths — some are very wide and some are narrower.
Those with a wider range are generally more Lean Explosive Rich
hazardous since a larger amount of concentration
levels can be ignited. AIR
Atmospheres in which the gas concentration level
is below the LEL (insufficient fuel to ignite) are referred
to as too “lean” to burn; those in which the gas level
is above the UEL (insufficient oxygen to ignite) are GAS
too “rich” to burn.
Too Flammable Too Much Gas
Little Gas Mixture
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Toxic Atmospheres
Toxic Gas Monitoring

A toxic gas is one which is capable of causing damage to living tissue, impairment of the central nervous system, severe illness or—in extreme
cases—death, when ingested, inhaled or absorbed by the skin or eyes. The amounts required to produce these results vary widely with the nature
of the substance and exposure time. “Acute” toxicity refers to exposure of short duration, such as a single brief exposure. “Chronic” toxicity refers
to exposure of long duration, such as repeated or prolonged exposures.
Toxic gas monitoring is important because some substances can’t be seen or smelled and have no immediate effects. Thus, the recognition
of a gas hazard via a worker’s senses often comes too late, after concentrations have reached harmful levels.
The toxic effects of gases range from generally harmless to highly toxic. Some are life-threatening at even short, low-level exposures, while
others are hazardous only upon multiple exposures at higher concentrations. The degree of hazard that a substance poses to a worker depends
upon several factors which include the gas concentration level and the duration of exposure.
Exposure Limits
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) publishes an annually revised list of recommended exposure limits for
common industrial compounds, titled “TLVs and BEIs Based on the Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices”. (To order a copy, visit www.acgih.org). ACGIH developed the concept of Threshold Limit Value
(TLV), which is defined as the airborne concentration of a contaminant to which it is believed that almost all workers may be repeatedly exposed,
day after day, over a working lifetime without developing adverse effects. These values are based on a combination of industrial experience and
human and animal research.
Time-Weighted Averages (TWAs)
TLVs are generally formulated as 8-hour time-weighted averages. The averaging aspect enables excursions above the prescribed limit as long as
they are offset by periods of exposure below the TLV.
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Toxic Atmospheres
Short-Term Exposure Limits (STELs)

Short-term exposure limits are concentrations above the 8-hour average to which workers may be exposed for short periods of time without
harmful effects. (If the concentration is high enough, even a one-time exposure can produce harmful health effects.) STELs are used to govern
situations in which a worker is exposed to a high gas concentration, but only for a short period of time. They are defined as 15-minute time-
weighted averages that are not to be exceeded even if the 8-hour TWA is below the TLV.
Ceiling Concentrations
For some toxic gases, a single exposure exceeding the TLV may be hazardous to worker health. In these cases, ceiling concentrations are used to
indicate levels that are never to be exceeded.
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs)
PELs are enforced by OSHA. Part 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Section 1910.1000 contains these standards, which are similar to
ACGIH TLVs except that they are legally enforceable rather than simply recommendations. However, the most accurate PELs are listed in the
associated Safety Data Sheets (SDS).
Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH)
NIOSH defines an IDLH exposure condition atmosphere as one that poses a threat of exposure to airborne contaminants when that exposure is
likely to cause death or immediate or delayed permanent adverse health effects or prevent escape from such an environment. Since IDLH values
exist to ensure that a worker can escape from a hazardous environment in the event of failure of respiratory protection equipment, they are
primarily used to determine appropriate respiratory selection in compliance with OSHA standards.
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Toxic Atmospheres
Web resources:
ACGIH: www.acgih.org/TLV
OSHA: www.osha.gov
NIOSH: www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html
Gas detection systems are used to monitor toxic gases in primarily two types of monitoring applications:
1. Ambient air monitoring (includes leak monitoring)
• low-level gas detection for worker safety
• to reduce leakage of expensive compounds (e.g. refrigerants)
2. Process monitoring
• to monitor levels of compounds used in chemical synthesis processes
(e.g. plastics, rubber, leather, and food industries)
• from low ppm levels to high % by volume levels
For toxic gas monitoring, electrochemical, metal oxide semiconductor (solid state), infrared, and photoionization
are the sensing technologies most commonly used.
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Oxygen Deficiency/Enrichment
Oxygen Deficiency
% OXYGEN PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT
Normal ambient air contains an oxygen concentration of 20.8%
by volume. When the oxygen level dips below 19.5% of the total 19.5 - 16 No visible effect.
atmosphere, the area is considered oxygen deficient. In oxygen-
Increased breathing rate. Accelerated
deficient atmospheres, life-supporting oxygen may be displaced 16 - 14 heartbeat. Impaired attention, thinking
by other gases, such as carbon dioxide. This results in an atmosphere and coordination.
that can be dangerous or fatal when inhaled. Oxygen deficiency may
Faulty judgment and poor muscular
also be caused by rust, corrosion, fermentation, or other forms of 14 - 10 coordination. Muscular exertion causing
oxidation that consume oxygen. As materials decompose, oxygen rapid fatigue. Intermittent respiration.
is drawn from the atmosphere to fuel the oxidation process.
Nausea and vomiting. Inability to perform
The impact of oxygen deficiency can be gradual 10 - 6 vigorous movement, or loss of the ability to
or sudden, depending on the overall oxygen concentration and move. Unconsciousness, followed by death.
the concentration levels of other gases in the atmosphere. Difficulty breathing. Convulsive movements.
Typically, decreasing levels of atmospheric oxygen cause the BELOW 6
Death in minutes.
following physiological symptoms (see chart on right).
Oxygen Enrichment
When the oxygen concentration rises above 20.8% by volume,
the atmosphere is considered oxygen-enriched and is prone to
becoming unstable. As a result of the higher oxygen level,
the likelihood and severity of a flash fire or explosion is
significantly increased.
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There are a variety of gas detection technologies in use today. Among the most commonly employed are:
• Catalytic Bead
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor (also known as “solid state”)
• Non-Dispersive Infrared
– Point
– Open Path
• Tuneable Laser Diode Absorption Spectroscopy
• Photoacoustic Infrared
• Electrochemical
– Toxic Gas
– Oxygen
• Ultrasonic (Acoustic)
The tables and diagrams on the following pages summarize the operation of each technology.
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TECHNOLOGY Catalytic bead
GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas
Uses a catalytic bead that changes resistance in response to the presence of a combustible gas; the resulting change is measured
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
and translated into a sensor reading.
A wire coil is coated with a catalyst-coated glass or ceramic material, and is electrically heated to a temperature that allows it
to burn (catalyze) the gas being monitored, releasing heat and increasing the temperature of the wire in direct proportion to the
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED concentration of the gas. As the temperature of the wire increases, so does its electrical resistance. This resistance is measured
by a Wheatstone Bridge circuit and the resulting measurement is converted to an electrical signal used by gas detectors.
A second sensor, the compensator, is used to compensate for temperature, pressure, and humidity.
READINGS % LEL
Long life, less sensitive to temperature, humidity, condensation, and pressure changes; high accuracy; fast response;
PROS
monitors a wide range of combustible gases and vapors in air (e.g. hydrogen, heptane).
Subject to sensor poisoning from silicates or hydrogen sulfide (H2S); requires air or oxygen; shortened life with frequent
CONS
or continuous exposure to high LEL levels.
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Typical Catalytic Bead Sensor Operation Active Reference

(Detector) Bead (Compensator) Bead
Reference
Teflon (Compensator) Bead
Thermal Barrier
18
Platinum Wire
Mounting Base
R RI
Mechanical
Support Post
Active
(Detector) Bead
+ -
The active bead oxidizes (burns) combustible gas molecules. As gas oxidizes on the active bead, the bead temperature rise increases the resistance
The inert reference bead remains permanently non-responsive to gas. of the active bead, and when compared with the reference bead resistance,
results in a measurable voltage differential.
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TECHNOLOGY Metal Oxide Semiconductor
GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas; toxic gas
Made of a metal oxide that changes resistance in response to the presence of a gas; this change is measured
and translated into a concentration reading.
A semiconducting material (metal oxide) is applied to a non-conducting substance (substrate) between two electrodes.
The substrate is heated to a temperature at which the presence of the gas can cause a reversible change in the conductivity
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED of the semi-conducting material. When no gas is present, oxygen is ionized onto the surface and the sensor becomes
semi-conductive; when molecules of the gas of interest are present, they replace the oxygen ions, decreasing the resistance
between the electrodes. This change is measured electrically and is proportional to the concentration of the gas being measured.
READINGS ppm
PROS High sensitivity (detects low concentrations); wide operating temperature range; long life.
Non-specific (cross-sensitive to other compounds); nonlinear output; sensitive to changes in humidity;

CONS
subject to poisoning.
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Typical Metal Oxide Semiconductor (Solid State)

Sensor Operation
Silicon Chip
Sensor Film
Heater
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TECHNOLOGY Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) - Point
Absorptive IR uses a gas’s ability to absorb IR radiation. Two gas samples – the gas of interest, and an inert reference gas –
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION are exposed to infrared light. The amount of light transmitted through each sample is compared to determine the concentration
of the gas of interest.
Uses an electrically modulated source of infrared energy and two detectors that convert the infrared energy into electrical signals.
Each detector is sensitive to a different range of wavelengths in the infrared portion of the spectrum. The source emission is
directed through a window in the main enclosure into an open volume. A mirror may be used at the end of this volume to direct
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED the energy back through the window and onto the detectors.
The presence of a combustible gas will reduce the intensity of the source emission reaching the analytical detector, but not the
intensity of emission reaching the reference detector. The microprocessor monitors the ratio of these two signals and correlates
this to a % LEL reading.
READINGS % LEL
High accuracy and selectivity; large measurement range; low maintenance; highly resistant to chemical poisons; does not require
PROS oxygen or air; span drift potential virtually eliminated (no routine calibration required); fail-safe. Compared to open-path IR,
provides exact gas level (at point of detection only).
CONS Not suitable for measuring gases that do not absorb infrared light: diatomic molecules like oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
MSAsafety.com 32
IR Source
Analytical
Detector
Beam Splitter
Typical Point
Infrared Operation
Reference
Detector
Combustible Gas
Cloud
Sapphire Window
Mirror
33
TECHNOLOGY Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) - Open Path
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Operates similarly to point infrared detectors, except that the IR source is separated from the detector.
Open-path IR monitors expand the concepts of point IR detection to a gas sampling path of up to 150 meters.
Like point IR monitors, they utilize a dual beam concept. The “sample” beam is in the infrared wavelength which absorbs
hydrocarbons, while the second “reference” beam is outside this gas absorbing wavelength. The ratio of the two beams is
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED
continuously compared. When no gas is present, the signal ratio is constant; when a gas cloud crosses the beam, the sample
signal is absorbed or reduced in proportion to the amount of gas present while the reference beam is not. System calculates
the product of the average gas concentration and the gas cloud width, and readings are given in % LEL per meter.
READINGS LEL per meter (LEL.m)
High accuracy and selectivity; large measurement range; low maintenance; highly resistant to chemical poisons;
PROS
does not require oxygen or air; span drift potential virtually eliminated (no routine calibration required); fail-safe.
Not suitable for hydrogen detection.

Compared with point IR detection, is not capable of isolating the leak source.
CONS Requires unobstructed path between source and detector.
Longer path lengths can be more difficult to align and may be susceptible to beam block (loss of IR signal by the detector)
in heavy fog or rain.
MSAsafety.com 34
Typical NDIR (Open Path) Operation
100 m
1m
100%
LEL
Transmitter (Source) 1 LEL meter Receiver (Detector)
35
TECHNOLOGY Tuneable Laser Diode Absorption Spectroscopy (TLDAS) - Open Path
A separate transmitter (source) - which emits an infrared beam - is optically aligned to a receiver - which detects (receives)
the beam. A detection signal is produced when a gaseous mixture crosses the IR beam at any point along its path.
Gas concentrations are detected and measured at specific target gas absorption wavelengths over distances of up to 200 meters
(gas dependant).
The transmitter generates a specific wavelength of IR radiation that will only be absorbed exclusively by the target gas in question.
Control of the generated wavelength is via a retained sample of the target gas in the transmitter. Absorption of the detection
wavelength by the target gas in the open path results in a modified light signal. The 2nd harmonic of this modified signal is analyzed
to confirm the presence and quantity of the target gas.
Enhanced Laser Diode Spectroscopy (ELDS) uses the same technique with 4 levels of harmonic verification which maximizes
false alarm rejection to the highest degree.
READINGS LEL per meter (LEL.m); ppm per meter (ppm.m)
Target gas specific – no false alarms from interferent gases.

Not subject to poisoning; detects large/low concentration and small/high concentration gas escapes.
Greater area of coverage compared to point detection.
PROS
Better uptime availability in heavy fog and rain conditions (i.e., the laser is not absorbed by moisture) and higher sensitivity
than differential IR combustible open path gas detectors.
Able to detect toxic gases; no consumable sensing elements.
CONS Not all gases can be detected by TLDAS technology; requires a clear line of site.
MSAsafety.com 36
CONVENTIONAL LASER ELDS™ TECHNOLOGY
WAVELENGTH ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION ANALYSIS
SINGLE POINT VERIFICATION FOUR POINT VERIFICATION
Low false alarm rejection Highest false alarm rejection
NO GAS TARGET GAS INTERFERENT GAS

HARMONIC IDENTIFIER
37
TECHNOLOGY Photoacoustic Infrared
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Uses a gas’s ability to absorb IR radiation and the resulting change in pressure.
The gas sample is exposed to infrared light; as it absorbs light, its molecules generate a pressure pulse.
The magnitude of the pressure pulse indicates the gas concentration present.
READINGS % LEL; % by volume; ppm; ppb
PROS High sensitivity; linear output; easy to handle; not subject to poisoning; long-term stability.
CONS Not suitable for hydrogen detection.
MSAsafety.com 38
Pumped Photoacoustic Infrared Operation

(Diffusion method also available)
Gas molecules Gas molecules

of sample of sample
Infrared light Infrared light

source source
Optical filter Optical filter
Inlet valve Inlet valve

Outlet valve Outlet valve Microphone
Microphone
(detector) (detector)
Sample gas enters the measuring cell. The gas is irradiated with pulsed infrared energy.
39
Gas molecules Gas molecules

of sample of sample
Infrared light Infrared light

source source
Optical filter Optical filter
Inlet valve Inlet valve

Outlet valve Outlet valve Microphone
Microphone
(detector) (detector)
The gas molecules heat and cool as they absorb the infrared energy. The gas is exhausted and a fresh sample enters the cell. This sampling
The pressure changes as a result of the heating and cooling of the process is continuously repeated.
molecules measured by the detector. This pressure change
is converted into a gas reading.
MSAsafety.com 40
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41
TECHNOLOGY Electrochemical - Toxic Gas
GAS TYPE DETECTED Toxic gas
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Uses an electrochemical reaction to generate a current proportional to the gas concentration.
The sensor is a chamber containing a gel or electrolyte and two active electrodes – the measuring (sensing/working) electrode
(anode), and the counter electrode (cathode). A third electrode (reference) is used to build up a constant voltage between the
anode and the cathode. The gas sample enters the casing through a membrane; oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction takes
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED place at the cathode. When the positive ions flow to the cathode and the negative ions flow to the anode, a current proportional
to the gas concentration is generated.
In comparison, MSA’s XCell® sensors utilize identical electrochemical principles but employ a number of significant physical design
advancements (pictured on the following page).
READINGS ppm
PROS High sensitivity; linear output; easy to handle.
Limited shelf life; subject to interferents; sensor lifetime shortened in very dry and very hot environments; performance impacted
CONS
by extreme humidity environments.
MSAsafety.com 42
Typical Electrochemical Toxic Sensor XCell® Electrochemical Toxic Sensor
Gas Permeable Filter

Gas Entry Membrane
Working Electrode
Sensing Electrode
Electrolyte Area (with catalyst)
Reference Electrode Reference Electrode
Counter Electrode
Electrolyte
Counter Electrode
Electrolyte Reservoir
Circuit Board with ASIC
Connection Pins Connection Pins
The mechanical design of the XCell sensor is optimized for the most effective
interaction between the electrolyte, electrode catalyst, and target gas regardless
of environmental conditions to overcome.
43
TECHNOLOGY Electrochemical - Oxygen (O2)
GAS TYPE DETECTED Oxygen deficiency/enrichment
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Uses an electrochemical reaction to generate a current proportional to the gas concentration.
The sensor is a chamber containing a gel or electrolyte and two electrodes – the measuring (sensing/working) electrode,
and the (usually lead) counter/reference electrode. The gas sample enters the casing through a membrane; oxidation occurs
at the anode and reduction takes place at the cathode. When the positive ions flow to the cathode and the negative ions
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED flow to the anode, a current proportional to the gas concentration is generated.
By contrast, the electrocatalytic system in an XCell® Oxygen Sensor is lead-free and uses a non-consuming chemical reaction,
thus eliminating susceptibility to shelf life limitations related to lead.
READINGS % by volume of oxygen
PROS High sensitivity; linear output; easy to handle; not subject to poisoning.
Limited shelf life; subject to interferents; sensor life shortened in very dry and hot environments.*
CONS
Sensor life negatively affected in enriched oxygen applications.
* Applicable only to lead-based sensors, not XCell O2 sensors.
MSAsafety.com 44
Typical Electrochemical Oxygen Sensor XCell® Electrochemical Oxygen Sensor
NON-CONSUMING
REACTION Oxygen (O2)
Gas Permeable Reduction

Gas Entry (4H+ + O2 + 4e- 2H2O)
Membrane
O2 is reduced to water
Sensing Electrode at the cathode
Gold (or silver) (with catalyst)
working electrode Reference Electrode CATHODE

(cathode) Counter Electrode
Electrolyte Reservoir Water (2H20)
Electrolyte Area,
Typically KOH Circuit Board with ASIC
ANODE
Oxidation
Oxygen (O)
Lead Counter/ (2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4e-)
Reference Electrode Hydrogen Ion (H+) H2O is oxidized at the
(Anode) KEY: anode to produce O2
Hydrogen (H)
Electron (e-) Oxygen (O2)
Connection Pins
Sensor lifetime is determined by the The diagram above illustrates that for every oxygen molecule that is reduced at the working electrode (cathode),
amount of lead on-board. a complimentary oxygen molecule is produced by the oxidation of water (from the electrolyte) at the counter
electrode (anode). This non-consuming process eliminates sensor life limitations exclusively associated with
lead-based designs.
45
TECHNOLOGY Ultrasonic Gas Leak Detection (UGLD)
GAS TYPE DETECTED Pressurized gas leaks
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Ultrasonic gas leak detectors do not measure gas concentration, but rather leaks from high pressure systems.
UGLD detects leaks from pressurized gas systems by sensing the airborne acoustic ultrasound produced by the escaping gas.
When a gas leak occurs, the ultrasound generated by the leak travels at the speed of sound, through the air, from the source to
DESCRIPTION - DETAILED the detector. The response of the UGLD is not dependent on the gas to accumulate into potentially dangerous levels and travel
to the detector, which means that it reacts much faster to a gas leak. These devices are therefore often used to supplement
traditional gas detection devices and can serve as early warning systems.
READINGS Decibels (dB)
Rapid response speed.

Immune to the effects of weather conditions that cause gas dispersal (e.g. wind).
PROS Unaffected by audible noise.
Coverage area can be confirmed using an inert gas.
No routine calibration is necessary.
The target element must be in the gas phase and cannot be a liquid; any object in the sensor path will return an echo;
CONS
sensor reach is limited to shape and size of sound wave emissions.
MSAsafety.com 46
The graphic shows the detection coverage characteristics for UGLD. The distances are based on the detection of methane-based gas leaks using a leak rate of 0.1
kg/s as the performance standard. The response of the UGLD is not dependent on the gas to travel to the detector, which means that it reacts much faster to a
dangerous gas leak.
47
Gas Sampling
Gas Sampling Sensor Mounted Inside Gas Tank

There are three methods of gas sampling:
• Diffusion Sampling
• Pumped Sampling
• Aspirated Sampling
Diffusion Sampling
Diffusion is the natural movement of molecules away from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration. The term “diffusion” denotes COMB
0 % LEL
the process by which molecules or other particles intermingle as a result of

X5000
their random thermal motion. Ambient conditions such as temperature,

air currents, and other characteristics affect diffusion.
Advantages:
• Most effective placement is at desired sampling point.
• Fast response because no sample transport is required.
• No pumps and/or filters to maintain.
Pumped Sampling
Pumped sampling uses a pump to pull the sample from a remote location
into or through the sensor. With pumped sampling, samples can be
gathered simultaneously from two or more locations.
MSAsafety.com 48
Gas Sampling
Conditions Favoring Pumped Sampling: Sensor Mounted Outside Tank

• Sampling point is too hot/cold. with Tube Running into Tank
• Sampling point is difficult to access.
• Heavy vapor present that does not diffuse
well by natural forces.
• An application can be converted from an
explosion-proof (XP) rating to a general purpose (GP) rating
through pumped operation. (Flashback arrestors may be
necessary between the sample port and the sensor.)
• Confined Spaces.
Aspirated Sampling
Aspirated sampling uses suction to draw the sample
from a remote location into or through the sensor.
Advantages of Aspirated Sampling Versus Pumped:
00
• Lower cost.
COMB
COMB %%
LEL
LEL
X5000
X5000
• Reduced maintenance because there are no moving parts.
49
MSAsafety.com
Section 3
Flame Detection
51
Technology — UV/IR Flame Detection
Flames Detected
Hydrocarbon or hydrogen flames
Principle of Operation
Uses separate ultraviolet and infrared sensors to detect electromagnetic radiation indicative of a flame. The detector will indicate
that a fire exists when both sensors determine that a fire is present.
Description Detailed
Uses a ultraviolet phototube and an infrared pyrometer to discern a flames spectral signature from other background radiation.
The UV phototube (Figure 1) is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation given off by a flame in the UV spectral region (Figure 2).
The infrared detector is constantly monitoring for infrared radiation given off by a hydrocarbon flame (Figure 3) or a hydrogen flame (Figure 4).
Reading
UV present. IR present. Flame detected.
Pros
Good false alarm immunity – immune to most background irradiation
Fast response
Wide field of view
Cons
Limited distance
MSAsafety.com 52
Ultraviolet
Radiation
Ultraviolet Region Visible Region Infrared Region
Photocathode Anode
Relative
Energy
Electrons Sun’s radiation
reaching the Earth
Gas-Filled
Phototube
260mm
300mm
400mm
microns
Wavelength
2-3
135mm
-
Figure 1 VDC Figure 2
+
Ultraviolet Region Visible Region Infrared Region Ultraviolet Region Visible Region Infrared Region
Hydrocarbon fires Hydrogen fires

emit CO2 emit IR radiation
@ 4.35 microns @ 2.95 micro
Relative Relative
Energy Energy
Sun’s radiation Sun’s radiation
reaching the Earth reaching the Earth
300mm
400mm
800 mm
microns
microns
300mm
microns
Wavelength Wavelength
2-3
4.35
2.7-3.2
Figure 3 Figure 4
53
Technology – Multi-Spectral IR Flame Detection
Flames Detected
Hydrocarbon flames
Principle of Operation
Uses multiple infrared sensors to monitor for flames while eliminating false alarms associated with UV sources.
Description Detailed
Uses multiple infrared sensors radiation at wavelengths indicative of a flame to determine the presence of a flame. Additional infrared sensors
are used to monitor for radiation at other infrared wavelengths to prevent false alarms. The combination of multiple sensors and complex
algorithms are used to determine that a fire is present.
Reading
Flame detected
Pros
Superior false alarm immunity – immune to background irradiation including arc welding at close distances.
Longest distance protection (see Figure 5).
Cons
Slower response than UV/IR
MSAsafety.com 54
0
15 15
230’
30 210’
30
35 35
40 190’ 40
45 170’ 45
150’
130’
60 110’ 60
90’
70’
50’
30’ High
Medium
Low
Figure 5: Heptane Horizontal Field of View
55
MSAsafety.com
Section 4
Gas Information Tables
57
Gas Information Table
Detection Technologies
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Relative Flash LEL UEL OSHA NIOSH Ignition Boiling
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point Vapor Pressure
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* (°C)1 (mm Hg at 20°C) 1,4
Acetaldehyde Acetic aldehyde C2H4O Heavier d -38 4.0 60 200 2,000 d d d 175 21 740
Acetic acid C2H4O2 Heavier d 39 4.0 19.9 10 50 d d d d 463 118 11
Acetic aldehyde Acetaldehyde C2H4O Heavier d -38 4.0 60 200 2,000 d d d 175 180 740
Acetone C3H6O Heavier d -18 2.5 12.8 1,000 2,500 d d d d 465 56 180
Acetonitrile C2H3N Heavier d 6 3.0 16 40 137 d d d d 524 44 73
Acetylene Ethine, Ethyne C2H2 Lighter d Gas 2.5 100 - - d d d d 305 -83 Gas
Acrylic acid Acroleic acid C2H4O2 Heavier d 50 2.0 8 - - d d d 438 142 3
Acrolein Acrylaldehyde C3H4O Heavier d -26 2.8 31 0.1 2 d d d d 220 52 210
Acrylaldehyde Acrolein C3H4O Heavier d -26 2.8 31 0.1 2 d d d d 220 52 210
Acrylic acid Acroleic acid C2H4O2 Heavier d 50 2.0 8 - - d d d 438 142 3
Acrylonitrile C2H3N Heavier d -1 3.0 17 2 60 d d d 481 77 83
Key: [C] = Ceiling Limit (never exceed) A = Asphyxiant Ca = Carcinogen – = Data not currently available n/a = Data not applicable
MSAsafety.com 58
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Allyl alcohol 2-propenyl C3H6O Heavier d 21 2.5 18 2 20 d d d d 378 97 17
Allyl chloride C3H5Cl Heavier d -31 2.9 11.1 1 250 d d 392 45 295
Ammonia NH3 Lighter d Gas 15 28 50 300 d d d d 651 -33 Gas
Amyl acetate, n- C7H14O2 Heavier d 25 1.1 7.5 100 1,000 d d d 360 149 4
Arsine AsH3 Heavier d Gas 5.1 78 0.05 3 d -62 Gas
Benzene C6H6 Heavier d -11 1.3 7.8 10 500 d d d d 498 80 75
Benzene chloride Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl Heavier d 28 1.3 9.6 75 10 d d d d 638 132 9
Bromine Br2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 3 d 59 172

Bromochlorodi
Halon 1211 CF2ClBr Heavier n/a n/a n/a – – d d d – 3.3 Gas
fluoromethane
Bromomethane Methyl bromide CH3Br Heavier d n/a 10.0 16 20 [C] 250 [Ca] d d d d 537 4 Gas
Halon 1301 ®,
Bromotrifluoro
Trifluorobromo- CBrF3 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 1,000 40,000 d d d – -58 Gas
methane
methane
59
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Relative Flash LEL UEL OSHA NIOSH Ignition Boiling Vapor
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point Pressure
2,000
Butadiene C4H10 Heavier d -76 2.0 11.5 1
[Ca]
d d d 420 -4 Gas
Butane, n- C4H10 Heavier d Gas 1.5 8.5 – 1,600 d d d d 287 -1 Gas
Butanol, n- Butyl alcohol, n- C4H10O Heavier d 29 1.4 11.2 100 1,400 d d d 343 117 6
Butanol, sec- Butyl alcohol, sec- C4H10O Heavier d 24 1.7 9.8 150 2,000 d d d d 405 94 12
Butanone, 2- Methylethylketone C4H8O Heavier d -9 1.4 11.4 200 3,000 d d d d 404 80 78
Butyl acetate, n- C6H12O2 Heavier d 22 1.7 7.6 150 1,700 d d d d 420 127 10
Butyl acetate, sec- C6H12O2 Heavier d 17 1.7 9.8 200 1,700 d d d d – 112 10
Butyl acetate, tert- C6H12O2 Heavier d 22 1.5 – 200 1,500 d d d d – 97 34
Butyl acrylate, n- C6H12O2 Heavier d 29 1.5 9.9 – 113 d d d d 267 127 4
Butyl alcohol, n- Butanol, n- C4H10 Heavier d 29 1.4 11.2 100 1,400 d d d d 343 117 6
Butyl ethylene
Hexene, 1- C6H12 Heavier d -26 1.2 6.9 – – d d d 253 63 308 @ 38˚C
hexylene
MSAsafety.com 60
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Butylaldehyde:
Butyraldehyde C4H8O Heavier d -22 1.9 12.5 1 – d d d d 218 76 2
butanal
Carbon dioxide CO2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 5,000 40,000 d d d – Gas
Carbon disulfide CS2 Heavier d -30 1.3 50 20 500 d 90 46 300
Carbon monoxide CO Slightly lighter d Gas 12.0 75 50 1,200 d d d d d 609 -192 Gas
Carbon
Tetrachloromethane CCl4 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 10 200 d d – 77 91
tetrachloride
Carbonyl chloride Phosgene COCl2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0 2 d d – 8 Gas
Chlorine Cl2 Heavier Gas – n/a 1 [C] 10 d – -34 Gas
Chlorine dioxide ClO2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 5 d – Gas
Chlorobenzene Benzene chloride C6H5Cl Heavier d 28 1.3 9.6 75 1,000 d d d 638 132 12
Chloroethane Ethyl chloride C2H5Cl Heavier d -50 3.8 15.4 1,000 3,800 d d d 519 12 Gas
61
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Chloroform Trichloromethane CHCl3 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 50 [C] 500 d d - 62 160
Chloromethane Methyl chloride CH3Cl Heavier d Gas 8.1 17.4 100 2,000 d d d 632 -24 Gas
Cumene Isopropylenzene C9H12 Heavier d 36 0.9 6.5 50 900 d d d d 425 152 8
Cyclohexane C6H12 Heavier d -20 1.3 8 300 1,300 d d d d 245 82 78
Cyclohexanone C6H10O Heavier d 44 1.1 9.4 50 700 d d d d 420 156 5
Cyclopetane C5H10 Heavier d -37 1.1 8.7 - - d d d d 361 49 400
Diacetone alcohol Diacetone C6H12O2 Heavier d 58 1.8 6.9 50 1,800 d d d d 603 164 1
Diborane Boroethane B2H6 Slightly heavier d -90 0.8 88 0.1 15 d 38-52 -93 224 @ 112°C
Dichlorobenzene 0 C6H4Cl2 Heavier d 66 2.2 9.2 50 [C] 200 d d d d 648 180 1.2
Dichloroethane, 1,1- Ethylidene dichloride C2H4Cl2 Heavier d -17 5.4 11.4 100 3,000 d d d d 458 57-59 182
Dichloroethane, 1,2- Ethylene dichloride C2H4Cl2 Heavier d 13 6.2 15.9 50 50 [Ca] d d d d 413 84 65
Diethyl ether Ethyl ether C4H10O Heavier d -45 1.9 36 400 1,900 d d d d 160 35 440
MSAsafety.com 62
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Diethyl ketone DEK C5H10O Heavier d 13 1.6 6.4 - - d d d d 450 103 35
Diethylamine Diethamine C4H11N Heavier d -26 1.8 10.1 25 200 d d d d 312 56 194
Diethylbenzene Dowtherm C10H14 Heavier d 55 – – - - d d 380 181 0.75
Diisopropylamine C6H15N Heavier d -6 0.8 7.1 5 200 d d d d 316 84 60
11,377
Difluoromethane HFC-32 CH2F2 Heavier d n/a 12.7 33.4 - - d d d 647 -52
@ 21˚C
Dimethyl acetamide C4H9NO Heavier d 70 1.8 11.5 10 300 d d d d 490 165 2
Dimethyl ether DME C2H6O Heavier d Gas 3.4 27 - - d d d d 350 -24 1, 4
1500 @
Dimethylamine DMA C2H7N Heavier d Gas 2.8 14.4 10 500 d d d 430 7
@ 25˚C
Dimethylethylamine C2H11N Heavier d -45 0.9 11.2 - - d d d 190 36 –
Dimethylformamide DMF C3H7NO Heavier d 57 2.2 15.2 10 500 d d d 445 153 3
63
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Relative Flash LEL UEL OSHA NIOSH Ignition
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Boiling Vapor Pressure (mm Hg
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* Point (°C)1 at 20°C) 1,4
Dimethylsulfoxide C2H6SO 95 2.6 42 - - d d d 215 189 <1
Dioxane Diethylene dioxide C4H8O2 Heavier d 13 2.0 22 100 500 d d d d 180 101 29
Dowtherm J Diethylbenzene C10H14 Heavier d 55 3.8 - - - d d 380 181 0.75
Epichlorohydrin Ethylene C3H5OCl Heavier d 34 3.0 21 5 75 d d d d 411 116 13
Ethane C2H6 Slightly heavier d Gas 2.7 12.5 - - d d d d 472 - Gas
Ethene Ethylene C2H4 Slightly lighter d Gas 1.7 15.5) - - d d d d 490 -104 Gas
Ethoxyethanol, 2- Cellosolve® C4H10O2 Heavier d 43 2.0 3.6 200 500 d d d d 235 135 4
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 Heavier d -4 1.4 15.6 400 2,000 d d d d 427 77 73
Ethyl acrylate C5H8O2 Heavier d 9 3.3 11.5 25 300 [Ca] d d d d 372 100 31
Ethyl alcohol Ethanol C2H6O Heavier d 13 0.8 14 1,000 3,300 d d d d 363 78 44
Ethylbenzene C8H10 Heavier d 13 6.2 19 100 800 d d d d 432 136 7
MSAsafety.com 64
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Chemical Density (vs. Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point Vapor Pressure
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* (°C)1 (mm Hg at 20°C) 1,4
Ethyl chloride Chloroethane C2H5Cl Heavier d -50 3.8 15.4 1,000 3,800 d d d d 519 12 Gas
Ethyl ether Diethyl ether C4H10O Heavier d -45 1.9 36 400 1,900 d d d d 160 35 442
Ethylene Ethene C2H4 Slightly lighter d Gas 2.7 3.6 - - d d d d 490 104 Gas
Dichloroethylene,
Ethylene dichloride C2H4Cl2 Heavier d 13 6.2 15.9 50 50 [Ca] d d d d 413 84 100 @ 29˚C
1,2-
Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 Heavier d 111 3.2 15.3 - - d 398 197 <1
Ethylene oxide EtO, ED C2H4O Heavier d -20 3.0 100 1 800 [Ca] d d d d 429 11 Gas
Ethylidene Dichloroethane,
C2H3Cl2 Heavier d -17 5.4 11.4 100 3,000 d d d d 458 57-59 64
dichloride 1,1-
Fluorine F2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 25 d d 429 188 Gas
Furfural Furfurol C5H4O2 Heavier d 60 2.1 19.3 5 100 d d d 316 162 2
Gasoline Heptane, Hexane d -42 1.4 7.6 - [Ca] d d d d 30-300
65
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Bromochlorodi-
Halon 1211 fluoromethane
CF2ClBr Heavier n/a n/a n/a d d d -3.3 Gas
Bromotrifluoro-
Halon 1301 methane
CBrF3 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 1,000 d d d -58 Gas
Heptane, n- C7H16 Heavier d -4 1.1 6.7 500 750 d d d d 204 98 Gas

Hexafluoro-1,
C4F6 Heavier d 7 73 d d d 6 Gas
3-butadiene
Hexafluoropropene Hexafluoropropylene C3F6 Heavier n/a n/a n/a d d d -30 Gas
Hesafluoropropylene Hexafluoropropene C3F6 Heavier n/a n/a n/a d d d -30 Gas
Methyl butyl
Hexanone, 2- C6H12O Heavier d 25 1.2 8 100 1,600 d d d 423 128 11
ketone
Butyl ethylene
Hexene, 1- C6H12 Heavier d <-7 1.2 6.9 d d d 253 63 308 @ 38˚C
hexylene
MSAsafety.com 66
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Hexane, 2- C6H12 Heavier d <-7 d d d 245 67 310 @ 38˚C
HFC - 32 Difluoromethane CH2F2 d n/a 12.7 33.4 d d d 647 -52 Gas
HFE 347E C4F7OH3 Heavier n/a n/a d d d n/a 36 500 @ 22˚C
HFE 7100 Heavier d d d 405 61 202 @ 25˚C
Hydrobromic acid Hydrogen bromide HBr Heavier n/a n/a n/a 3 30 d 74
Hydrocarbons
-252
(see specific)
Hydrogen H2 Lighter d Gas 4.0 75 d d d 500 Gas
Hydrogen bromide Hydrobromic acid HBr Heavier n/a n/a n/a 3 30 d n/a Gas
67
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid HCl Heavier n/a n/ n/a 5 [C] 50 d Gas
Hydrogen cyanide HCN Lighter d -18 5.6 40 10 50 d d 540 26 620
Hydrogen fluoride HF Lighter n/a n/ n/a 3 30 d - 19 Gas
Hydrogen sulfide H2S Heavier d Gas 4.0 44 20 [C] 100 d d 260 -61 Gas
Isoamyl alcohol C5H12O Heavier d 43 1.2 9 100 500 d d 350 132 28

Isobutane C4H10 Heavier d Gas 1.6 8.4 d d d d 460 13 Gas
Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 Heavier 18 1.3 10.5 150 1,300 d d d d 421 118 13
Isophorone C9H14O Heavier d 84 0.8 3.8 25 200 d d d d 460 215 <1
Isoprene C5H8 Heavier d -54 2.0 9 d d d d 220 34 400 @ 15˚C
MSAsafety.com 68
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Relative Flash LEL UEL OSHA NIOSH Ignition
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Boiling Vapor Pressure (mm Hg
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* Point (°C)1 at 20°C) 1,4
Isopropanol Isoropyl alcohol C3H8O Heavier d 12 2.0 12.7 400 2,000 d d d d 399 83 33
Isopropyl acetate C5H10O2 Heavier d 2 1.8 8 250 1,800 d d d d 460 90 42
Isoproryl alcohol Isopropanol C3H8O Heavier d 11 2.0 12.7 400 2,000 d d d d 399 83 33
Isopropyl benzene Cumene C9H12 Heavier d 36 0.9 6.5 50 900 d d d d 425 152 8
Isopropyl ether Diisopropyl ether C6H14O Heavier d -28 1.4 7.9 500 1,400 d d d d 443 69 119
Kerosene/JP-1
Fuel oil no. 1 Heavier d 37- 0.7 5 d d d 210 151-301 5
Jet fuel
Methane CH4 Lighter d Gas 5.0 15 A d d d d 537 -162 Gas
Methanol Methyl alcohol CH4O Heavier d 11 6.0 36 200 6,000 d d d 464 64 96
Methoxyethanol,
Methyl cellosolve C3H8O2 Heavier d 39 1.8 14 25 200 d d d 285 124 6
2-
Methyl acetate C3H6O2 Heavier d -10 3.1 16 200 3,100 d d d d 454 60 173
69
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Methyl alcohol Methanol CH4O Heavier d 11 6.0 36 200 6,000 d d d d 464 64 96
Methyl bromide Bromomethane CH3Br Heavier d n/a 10.0 16 20 [C] 250 [Ca] d d d d 537 4 Gas
Methyl butyl
Hexanone, 2- C6H12O Heavier d 25 1.2 8 100 1,600 d d d d 423 128 11
ketone
Methoxyethanol,
Methyl cellosolve C3H8O2 Heavier d 39 1.8 14 25 200 d d d 285 124 6
2-
Methyl chloride Chloromethane CH3Cl Heavier d -50 8.1 17.4 100 2,000 d d d d 632 24 Gas
Trichloroethane,
Methylchloroform C2H3Cl3 Heavier d 7.5 12.5 350 700 d d d d 500 74 100
1,1,1-
Methyl ethyl
Butanone, 2- C4H8O Heavier d -9 1.4 11.4 100 3,000 d d d d 404 80 78
ketone (MEK)
Methyl fluoride CH3F Heavier d d d d 78 Gas
Methylformate C2H4O2 Heavier d -19 4.5 23 100 4,500 d d d d 456 32 476
MSAsafety.com 70
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Methyl iodide CH3I Heavier n/a n/a n/ 5 100 [Ca] d d d d 43 400
Methyl isoamyl
C7H14O Heavier d 36 1.0 8.2 100 d d d d 191 146 5
ketone
Methyl isobutyl Methylamyl
C6H14O Heavier d 48 1.0 5.5 25 400 d d d d 460 132 3
carbinol alcohol
Methyl isobutyl
C6H12O d 18 1.2 8.2 0.2 500 d d d d 448 117 16
ketone (MIBK)
Methyl
C5H8O2 Heavier d 10 1.7 20.7 100 1,000 d d d d 435 100 29
methacrylate
Slightly
Methylamine Monomethylamine CH5N d Gas 4.9 23 10 100 d d d d 430 -6 Gas
heavier
Methylene
Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 Heavier d - 13.0 9.6 25 2300 d d d d 556 40 350
chloride
Monochloro- (Benezene
C6H5Cl Heavier d 28 1.3 20.7 75 [Ca] d d d d 638 132 9
benzene chloride)
Slightly
Monomethlamine Methylamine CH5N d Gas 4.9 23 10 1,000 d d d d 430 -6 Gas
heavier
71
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point ( Vapor Pressure
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* °C)1 (mm Hg at 20°C) 1,4
Naphtha Coal Tar Heavier d 100 0.9 6 100 1,000 d d d d <5
Napthalene C10H8 Heavier d 79 0.9 5.9 10 250 d d d d 526 218 @ 53 C
Nitric oxide NO Same n/a n/a n/a 25 100 d d -52 Gas
Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 Heavier d 88 1.8 1 200 d d d d 480 211 0.3
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Heavier Gas n/a 5 [C] 20 d d 15 Gas
Nitrogen
NF3 n/a n/a 10 1,000 d d Gas
trifluoride
Nitropropane, 1- C3H7NO2 Heavier d 36 2.2 - 25 1,000 d d d d 421 120-132 8
Nitropropane, 2- C3H7NO2 Heavier d 24 2.6 11 25 100 [Ca] d d d d 428 120-132 13
Nitrous oxide N2O Heavier n/a n/a d d Gas
Octafluorocyclo-
C4F8 Heavier d d d -6 Gas
butane
Octafluorocyclo-
d d d Gas
propene
MSAsafety.com 72
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point Vapor Pressure (mm Hg
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* (°C)1 at 20°C) 1,4
Octane, n- CH8H18 Heavier d 13 1.0 6.5 500 1,000 d d d 206 126 10
Oxygen O2 Same Gas - n/a n/a n/a d 183 Gas
Pentane C5H12 Heavier d -49 1.5 7.8 1,000 1,500 d d d d 260 36 420
Perchloroethlyene Tetrachloroethylene C2Cl4 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 150 [Ca] d d d 121 14
Perfluorohexane n/a n/a d d d >58
Perfluoromethyl
PMVE 7.5 50 d d 135 -25 Gas
vinyl ether
Phosgene Carbony chloride COCl2 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 2 d d 8 568 @ 0˚C
Phosphine PH3 Heavier d Gas 1.8 98 0.3 50 d 38 -88 Gas
Propane C3H8 Heavier d Gas 2.1 9.5 1,000 2,100 d d d d 450 -42 Gas
Propanol, 2- Isopropyl Alcohol C3H6O Heavier d 12 2.0 12.7 400 2000 d d d d 378 97 33
73
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Propanol, n- Propyl alcohol, n- C3H8O Heavier d 22 2.2 13.7 100 800 d d d d 371 97 15
Propyl acetate, n- C5H10O2 Heavier d 13 1.7 8 200 1,700 d d d d 450 102 25
Propyl alcohol, n- Propanol, n C3H8O Heavier d 22 2.2 13.7 200 800 d d d d 371 97 15
Propylene C3H6 Heavier d Gas 2.0 11.1 - - d d d d 455 -47 Gas
Propylene
C3H6Cl2 Heavier d 16 3.4 14.5 75 400 [Ca] d d d d 557 96 40
dichloride
Propylene oxide C3H6O Heavier d -37 2.3 36 100 400 [Ca] d d d 465 34 445
Propyleneglycol
Heavier 43 1,000 670 145 3.7
dimethyl acetate
Silane SiH4 Heavier d - 1.4 96 d - 112 Gas
2,000
Stoddard solvent C8H15BrO2 Heavier d 21 0.9 6 500 d d d 229 149-204 2
mg/m3
Styrene C8H8 Heavier d 31 1.1 7 700 d d 490 145 5
MSAsafety.com 74
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Heavier Gas n/a n/a 5 100 d d -10 Gas
Sulfur d d
SF6 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 1,000 - Gas
hexafluoride
Tetrachloroethylene Perchloroethylene C2Cl4 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 0.1 150 [Ca] d d d 121 13
Tetrachloromethane Carbon Tetrachloride CCl4 Heavier n/a n/a n/a 10 200 d d 77 91
Tetrafluoroethylene C2F4 Heavier d <0 11.0 60 d d d 188 -78 Gas
Tetrahydrofuran C4H8O Heavier d -14 2.0 11.8 200 2,000 d d d 321 66 145
Toluene C7H8 Heavier d 4 1.1 7.1 200 500 d d d d 480 111 22
Trichloroethane, d d d d d
Methyl chloroform C2H3Cl3 Heavier 4 7.5 12.5 350 700 500 74 100
1, 1, 1-
Trichloroethane, d d d d d
C2H3Cl3 Heavier - 6.0 15.5 10 100 [Ca] 113 19
1, 2, 2-
1,000
Trichloroethylene C2HCl3 Heavier d 31 8.0 10.5 100 d d d d 420 87 58
[Ca]
75
Photoacoustic IR
Electrochemical
Semiconductor
Absorptive IR
Combustible
Catalytic
Chemical Density Point (% by (% by PEL IDLH Temp Point Vapor Pressure (mm Hg
Gas or Vapor Synonym Formula (vs. Air)+ (°C)1* vol)1 vol)1 (PPM)2 (PPM)3 (°C)* (°C)1 at 20°C) 1,4
Trichloromethane Chloroform CHCl3 Heavier n/a n/a n/ 50 [C] 500 d d 62 160
Triethylamine C6H15N Heavier d -7 1.2 8 25 200 d d d 249 89 54
Turpentine C10H16 d 35 0.8 100 800 d d d 220 149 4

Vinyl acetate C4H6O2 Heavier d -8 2.6 13.4 d d d d 402 73 83
Vinyl chloride C2H3Cl Heavier d -78 3.6 33 1 Ca d d d d 472 14 2,524
Vinyl fluoride C2H3F Heavier d Gas 2.6 21.7 d d d 385 72 25.2 atm
Vinylidene
C2H2Cl2 Heavier d -19 6.5 15.5 Ca d d d d 570 32 500
chloride
Xylenes C8H10 Heavier d 27-30 1.1 6.7 100 900 d d d d 463-528 137-144 6
MSAsafety.com 76
1 Data
obtained from the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 14th ed., 2010;
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, and material safety data sheets.
2 T he PELs are the maximum 8-hour time weighted average concentrations to which a worker may be exposed, per 29 CFR 1910.1000
Table Z-1; [C] denotes a ceiling limit, the maximum concentration to which a worker may be exposed. They are to be determined from
breathing-zone air samples. Data obtained from National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Documentation for
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations, 1995, and material safety data sheets.
3 ata obtained from U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 29 CFR 1910.1000
D
Table Z-1 Limits for Air Contaminants, and material safety data sheets.
^ See 29 CFR 1910.1028 for specific circumstantial exceptions.
+ Density of gas at 1 atmosphere.
* ‘Gas’ indicates substance is a gas at normal ambient temperature.
77
MSAsafety.com
Section 5
A Selection of Gases Typically Associated
with Various Industries
79
Industry Aerospace/Defense
Test Chambers/Labs Plant Facilities Heat Treating Launch Pads
Combustible gases d d d d
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide d
Nitrogen dioxide
O2 deficiency/enrichment d d d d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d d
Toluene d
VOCs
MSAsafety.com 80
Industry Agriculture
Fruit Greenhouses, Confined Grain
Storage Silos, & Forklift Spaces Storage Poultry Livestock, Oil Soil
Chillers Areas Storage Areas Operation (Silos) & Processing Houses Fumigation Extraction Process Fertilization
Combustible gases d d d
Ammonia d d d d d
Carbon dioxide d d d d d d
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene d d d
Ethylene oxide d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide d
Hydrogen sulfide d
Nitric oxide d d
Nitrogen dioxide d d
O2 deficiency/enrichment d d d
Phosphine d d
Refrigerants d d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d
81
Industry Automotive
Research & Development Engine Testing Environmental Chambers
Combustible Gases d d d
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide d d d
Carbon monoxide d d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide d d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d d
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d
MSAsafety.com 82
Industry Aviation
Aircraft hanger facilities,
Body & Engine Repair fuel & hydraulic fluid storage Confined space Jet fuel vapors, Aircraft parts
& Maintenance & pumping facilities (wing) tank maintenance solvents manufacturing
Combustible Gases d d d d
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide d d
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide d
O2 deficiency/enrichment d d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d d d d
83
Industry Chemical
General leak Confined space Manufacturing, Organic synthesis
detection (liquid nitrogen carriers/ Labs, fine polymers plastics, operations, General leak
process storage tank maintenance, chemical process manufacturing liquid-solid separation, detection,
manufacturing reactor work, tunnels) manufacturing for leaks cleaning agents organic synthesis Textiles
Combustible Gases d d d d d d
Ammonia d d d d d d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d d d d d
Chlorine d d d d d
Chlorine dioxide d d d d
Ethylene d d d d d d
Ethylene oxide d d d d d
Hydrogen chloride d d
Hydrogen cyanide d d d d d
Hydrogen sulfide d d d d
Nitric oxide d d d d
Nitrogen dioxide d d d d
Phosphine d d d
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d d d d d
MSAsafety.com 84
Industry Chemical
Holding tanks, transfer
areas, loading &
Rubber Storage warehouses Solvent recovery unloading areas
Ammonia d d d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine d d
Chlorine dioxide d d
Ethylene d d
Ethylene oxide d
Hydrogen chloride d
Hydrogen cyanide d d
Hydrogen sulfide d d
Nitric oxide d
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine d
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d d d
85
Industry Coatings & Printing Adhesives

Manufacturing floor outside of press Press processes
Combustible Gases d d
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 86
Industry Food & Beverage

Breweries & wineries, Heaters & boilers,
Refrigeration beverage bottling, fermentation gasoline powered
facilities & Fruit storage Grain Edible oil tanks, refrigeration facilities, equipment, vehicles & Coolers,
cold storage areas processing processing meat packing, food processing forklifts baking facilities confined spaces
Ammonia d d d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene d d
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide d
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d d d
Sulfur dioxide d d d
VOCs
87

Fumigation of
Wastewater tanks, Drainage & sewage Fermentation process, yeast & Disinfecting
drainage and areas, boilers & heaters, packaging or gassing mold spores, equipment
sewage areas food packaging foods, confined space sterilization & utensils
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine d d
Chlorine dioxide d d
Ethylene d
Ethylene oxide d d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 88

Cold storage & transport facilities, meat packing
plants, supermarkets, refrigerator & storage locations, Food packaging
food storage systems monitoring (solvent vapor process monitoring)
Combustible Gases d
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d
89
Industry Foundries Fuel Cell Manufacturing

Furnace operation,
coremaking, metal Metal-mining, Heat-treating Confined
preparation & pouring finishing work Coremaking processes space Manufacturing floor, fuel cells
Combustible Gases d d d d d
Ammonia
Carbon monoxide d d d d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide d
Hydrogen sulfide d d d
Nitric oxide d
Nitrogen dioxide d
O2 deficiency/enrichment d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs
MSAsafety.com 90
Industry HAZMAT
Flammable liquid/gas Underground Storage, transfer
HazMat applications storage & pumping facilities Confined space construction and treatment
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d d d
Chlorine d
Chlorine dioxide d
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide d
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine d
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d d d d
91
Industry Heavy Manufacturing
Vehicle Manufacturing Forklift and

manufacturing plants Heat-transfer fluids Vehicle emissions Metal-plating process emissions crane operations
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride d
Hydrogen cyanide d
Hydrogen sulfide d
Nitric oxide d d
Nitrogen dioxide d d d d
O2 deficiency/enrichment
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d d d d
MSAsafety.com 92
Industry Heavy Manufacturing

Chemical loading/ Mechanical
off-loading Paint booths Degreasers equipment rooms
Ammonia d d
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide d
Chlorine d
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxidet
VOCs d d d
93
Industry HVAC
Cold storage & transport
Heating boilers facilities, meat packing plants,
or ducting, Parking Occupied buildings, Parking garages, supermarkets, refrigerator
general office garages, office buildings, tunnels, furnace rooms, Ventilation storage locations, food Mechanical
applications warehouses research labs maintenance garages ducts storage system monitoring rooms
Ammonia d d d d d
Carbon dioxide d d d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide d d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide d d d
Phosphine
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 94
Industry Indoor Air Quality

Occupied buildings (industrial, Parking garages, tunnels, furnace rooms,
commercial, residential), office buildings, research labs maintenance garages, crawl spaces
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d
95
Industry Iron & Steel

Blast furnace
operation and maintenance, Metal-mining, Motor maintenance
converter operation, furnace finishing work, Coking Maintenance & cleaning, coke
& gas pipeline leaks fuel storage operations Welding Confined space rooms (chillers) oven emissions
Ammonia d d d
Carbon dioxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Nitric oxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 96
Industry Medical
Operating rooms, Alcohols, “sick Central supply, Decontamination Mechanical

occupied areas building syndrome” sterilization areas MRI Parking garages areas equipment rooms
Combustible Gases d
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene d d
Ethylene oxide d d d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d d d
97
Industry Mining
Result of combustion (fire),
Mechanized diesel-powered machinery Diesel-powered
Confined space coal cutting Mining process exhaust, confined space blasting Metal mining Diesel exhaust machinery, blasting
Ammonia d
Carbon monoxide d d d d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide d
Nitric oxide d d
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs
MSAsafety.com 98
Industry Oil & Gas

Pipeline Refineries, Incomplete combustion, Conversion processes, isomerization,
compressor petrochemical conversion, coking, catalytic reforming, treatment processes,
Petroleum stations and facilities, perimeter general processing, leak detection, storage vessels,
refining pumping stations Refineries monitoring leak detection perimeter monitoring
Ammonia d d
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride d d d
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide d d d d d
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
VOCs d d d d
99
Industry Oil & Gas

Refining process, Confined space
general leak detection, (tank cleaning Offshore drilling platforms- Refining process,
treatment processes, operations, storage & processing areas, process stream sample Mechanical
crude separation, enclosed bldgs Natural control rooms, living spaces, collection, general equipment Thermal
drilling rigs or structures) gas lines power generation rooms plant operations rooms oxidizers
Combustible Gases d d d d d d d
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide d d d d
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d d d
MSAsafety.com 100
Industry Paper & Pulp

Paper production Chemical pulping, Confined spaces Paper production Mechanical
(bleaching) Kraft pulping (tanks, pits, sumps, vats) (coating & dying) equipment rooms
Ammonia d d
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Chlorine d d
Chlorine dioxide d
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Nitric oxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d d
Sulfur dioxide d d
VOCs d
101
Industry Pharmaceutical
Labs, organic synthesis, liquid-solid separation,
Solvent vapor Chemical Labs, compounding, granulating & tablet-coating
Manufacturing, process synthesis fine chemical operations, drying & packaging,
gas leaks monitoring operations manufacturing fine chemical manufacturing
Ammonia d d d d d
Carbon dioxide d d
Carbon monoxide d
Chlorine d d d
Chlorine dioxide d
Ethylene d
Ethylene oxide d d d d
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide d d d
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d d d
MSAsafety.com 102
Industry Pharmaceutical
Nitrogen blanketing
of storage vessels, reactors and centrifuges Compressed breathing air Utilities
Combustible Gases d
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants d
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs
103
Industry Power Generation

Power Fuel transport Coal & fuel oil oxidization
Home Transformer generation loading Fossil fuel in combustion process
furnace leaks insulation plants Fuel storage & unloading power plants Confined space (emissions)
Ammonia d d d
Carbon monoxide d d d d d d
Chlorine d
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur hexafluoride d
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 104
Industry Semiconductor Fabs

As doping agent in
manufacturing, diffusion Cleaning agents,
Manufacturing, and ion implementation, fluorinated Lithography, etching, oxidation, Compressed
processing chemical vapor deposition compounds metalization, assembly & testing Chiller plant breathing air
Ammonia d
Arsine d
Bromine d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine d
Chlorine dioxide d
Diborane d
Germane d
Hydrogen cyanide d
Nitric oxide d
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine d
Refrigerants d d
Silane d
VOCs d d
105
Industry Shipyard/Marine
Fuel storage
Confined space and pumping Waste Oil tanker U.S. Navy
(storage holds) facilities Engine room treatment Chillers LNG transport pumps ships Ferry boats
Combustible Gases d d d d d d d d
Ammonia d d d d
Carbon dioxide d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide d
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs d d
MSAsafety.com 106
Industry Water & Wastewater

Plant pumps,
plant sewage
Processing; Digesters, basin monitoring
storage tanks, digester Stagnant gas, for solvent leaks General Sewer Confined Dechlorinization, Wet well Pump
rooms & pipes gas storage incinerators or dumping processes work space storage tanks influent stations
Combustible Gases d d d d d d d d d
Ammonia d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine d d d
Chlorine dioxide d d d
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide d d d d d d d
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide d
VOCs d d
107
Industry Welding
Thermite and stud welding, laser welding
Confined space, arc air cutting, flux-shielded & chilling, arc air cutting, arc welding, electric
& gasshielded arc welding, metal cutting resistance & gas pressure welding, metal cutting
& flame gouging, gas pressure welding General operations & flame gouging, brazing
Ammonia d
Carbon dioxide d
Carbon monoxide d d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene d
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs
MSAsafety.com 108
Industry Welding
Arc welding & cutting, stud welding, arc + air cutting, Confined space welding,
gas pressure welding, metal cutting & flame gouging electron beam welding
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide d
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Ethylene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen sulfide
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen dioxide d
Phosphine
Refrigerants
Sulfur dioxide
VOCs
109
MSAsafety.com
Section 6
Class I: Flammable Gases, Vapors, or Liquids
Class II: Combustible Dusts
Class III: Ignitable Fibers & Flyings
ATEX - Explosive Atmospheres
A Selection of Recognized Testing Laboratories
System Installation
Safety Integrity Levels
111
The hazardous location classification system was designed to promote the safe use of equipment in environments defined as “hazardous areas”.
A hazardous area is a location in which the potential presence of a flammable mixture requires special precautions to reduce the possibility of
any equipment in the hazardous area becoming a source of ignition.
In gas detection applications, hazardous areas are generally defined by two factors: the type of gas that may be present, and the degree of
probability that it will be present at any given instant. Different classification methods may be used depending on the local authority, but
essentially the same result is achieved.
Areas are classified according to hazardous material that may be present and the likelihood that they will produce an explosive or ignitable
mixture. In a hazardous area, the equipment must possess the appropriate protection method for safe operation in that area (i.e., to ensure that
it does not become a source of ignition). Various methods of protection are used to meet this need.
Area Classification
Each area is classified according to the likelihood that the hazard will be present at any given instant.
There are two major hazardous location classifications:
• Zones: This is the primary method used throughout the world to indicate the probability of the explosive hazard being present.
There are three different zone options: Zone 0, 1, or 2. Zone 0 indicates the highest probability that the explosive hazard is present
and Zone 2 the least likely.
• Divisions: This method is used primarily in the United States and Canada. The hazardous area can be classified as Division 1 or 2.
Division 1 is essentially the same as Zone 0 or 1 and Division 2 correlates with Zone 2 in the Zone classification method.
Material Type
The hazardous material may be a gas, dust, or fiber/flying. The different types of material may be grouped according to their
explosion-hazard properties.
MSAsafety.com 112
Temperature Class
Gases are also grouped according to their ignition temperature. This is the maximum surface temperature that can be attained by an apparatus
or component at maximum-rated ambient temperature. Six basic temperature classes are used to categorize this factor (T1 through T6).
The higher the temperature class, the lower the maximum surface temperature; thus, the wider the range of gases for which the apparatus
is suitable.
Protection Methods
Various forms of protection are used, such as intrinsic safety, explosion-proof, flameproof, purging/pressurization, hermetic sealing,
and non-sparking design.
Environmental Protection
Environmental protection refers to design methods used to minimize equipment exposure to invasive environmental conditions such as water,
ice, dust, and corrosion. As with Hazardous Area Classifications, equipment environmental protection ratings vary somewhat within and outside
of North America. As seen in the following two tables, National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) and Ingress Protection (IP) Codes
provide similar information regarding instrument protection against various environmental conditions.
Attaining one rating does not imply that the other ratings have also been met.
113
FIRST NUMERAL SECOND NUMERAL
Protection against solid bodies Protection against liquids
INGRESS PROTECTION (IP) CODES
(IEC/EN 60529) No Protection 0 0 No Protection
Objects Greater Vertically

than 50mm 1 1 dripping water
Objects Greater Enclosure titled

than 12mm 2 2 up to 15 degrees
Objects Greater
3 3 Sprayed Water
than 2.5mm
Objects Greater
4 4 Splashed Water
than 1.0mm
Dust-Protected 5 5 Water Jets
Dust-Tight 6 6 Heavy Seas
7 Effects of Immersion
MSAsafety.com 114
Enclosure Ratings
NEMA, UL, & CSA Type Rating Approximate IEC/IP classification Abbreviated protection description
1 IP30 Indoor, from contact with contents

2 IP31 Indoor, limited, from dirt and water
3 IP64 Outdoor, from rain, sleet, windblown dust, and ice damage
3R IP32 Outdoor, from rain, sleet, and ice damage
Indoor and outdoor, from windblown dust, rain, splashing

4 IP66
and hose directed water, and ice damage
Indoor and outdoor, from corrosion, windblown dust, rain,

4X IP66
splashing and hose directed water, and ice damage
Indoor and outdoor, from hose-directed water, water entry

6 IP67
during submersion, and ice damage
12 IP55 Indoor, from dust, falling dirt, and dripping non-corrosive liquids
13 IP65 Indoor, from dust, spraying water, oil, and non-corrosive liquids
115
Hazardous Locations Classification – Class I: Flammable Gases, Vapors, or Liquids
Class I Area Classification Class I Groups, Divisions 1 and 2
Division 1: A Acetylene.
Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, B Hydrogen, fuel and combustible process gases containing
or liquids can exist all of the time or some of the time under more than 30% hydrogen by volume, or gases or vapors
normal operating conditions. of equivalent hazard such as butadiene, ethylene oxide,
Division 2: propylene oxide, and acrolein.
Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, or C Cyclopropane, ethyl ether, ethylene, or gases or vapors
liquids are not likely to exist under normal operating conditions. of equivalent hazard.
D Acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethanol, gasoline,
hexane, methane, natural gas, naptha, propane, or gases
or vapors of equivalent hazard.
Zone 0:
Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors,
or liquids are present continuously or for long periods of time Zones 0, 1, and 2
under normal operating conditions.
IIC acetylene and hydrogen, fuel, and combustible process gases
Zone 1: containing more than 30% hydrogen by volume, or gases or
Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, vapors of equivalent hazard such as butadiene, ethylene oxide,
or liquids are likely to exist under normal operating conditions. propylene oxide, and acrolein.
Zone 2: IIB cyclopropane, ethyl ether, ethylene, or gases or vapors of
equivalent hazard.
Where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases, vapors,
or liquids are not likely to exist under normal operating IIA acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethanol, gasoline,
conditions. hexane, methane, natural gas, naptha, propane, or gases or
vapors of equivalent hazard.
MSAsafety.com 116
Class I Temperature Codes

(Maximum surface temperature of apparatus)
Divisions 1 and 2 Zones 0, 1, and 2

T1 (≤450°C) T1 (≤450°C)
T2 (≤300°C) T2 (≤300°C)
T2A, T2B, T2C, T2D
–
(≤280°C, ≤260°C, ≤230°C, ≤215°C)
T3 (≤200°C) T3 (≤200°C)
T3A, T3B, T3C –
(≤180°C, ≤165°C, ≤160°C)
T4 (≤135°C)
T4 (≤135°C)
T4A (≤120°C)
T5 (≤100°C) T5 (≤100°C)
T6 (≤85°C) T6 (≤85°C)
117
Class I, Divisions 1 and 2 Protection Methods

Applicable Certification Documents
Area Protection Methods USA Canada
• Explosion-proof UL 1203 UL 1203

Div. 1 • Intrinsic safety (2 fault) UL 913 UL 913
• Purged/pressurized (Type X or Y) NFPA 496 NFPA 496
• Nonincendive ISA 12.12.01 ISA 12.12.01

• Purged/Pressurized (Type Z) NFPA 496 NFPA 496
Div. 2
• Any Class I, Div. 1 method — —
• Any Class I, Zone 0, 1, or 2 method UL 60079 Series UL 60079 Series
MSAsafety.com 118
Class I, Zones 0, 1, and 2 Protection Methods

Area Protection Methods USA Canada IECEx Scheme Europe
• Intrinsic safety, 'ia' (2 fault) ISA 60079-11 E60079-11 IEC 60079-11 EN 60079-11
Zone 0
• Special requirements No No IEC 60079-26 EN 60079-26
• Encapsulation, ‘m’ ISA 60079-18 E60079-18 IEC 60079-18 EN 60079-18
• Flameproof, ‘d’ ISA 60079-1 E60079-1 IEC 60079-1 EN 60079-1
• Increased safety, ‘e’ ISA 60079-7 E60079-7 IEC 60079-7 EN 60079-7
• Intrinsic safety, ‘ib’ (1 fault) ISA 60079-11 E60079-11 IEC 60079-11 EN 60079-11
Zone 1 • Oil immersion, ‘o’ ISA 60079-6 E60079-6 IEC 60079-6 EN 50015
• Powder filling, ‘q’ ISA 60079-5 E60079-5 IEC 60079-5 EN 60079-5
• Pressurization, ‘px’ or ‘py’ ISA 60079-2 E60079-2 IEC 60079-2 EN 60079-2
• Any Class I, Zone 0 Yes Yes Yes Yes
• Any Class I, Div. 1 Yes Yes No No
• Non-sparking, 'nA' ISA 60079-15 E60079-15 IEC 60079-15 EN 60079-15
• Enclosed break, 'nC' ISA 60079-15 E60079-15 IEC 60079-15 EN 60079-15
• Energy limited, 'nL' ISA 60079-15 E60079-15 IEC 60079-15 EN 60079-15
• Restricted breathing, 'nR' ISA 60079-15 E60079-15 IEC 60079-15 EN 60079-15
Zone 2
• Pressurization, 'pz' ISA 60079-2 E60079-2 IEC 60079-2 EN 60079-2
• Intrinsic safety, ‘ic’ ISA 60079-11 E60079-11 IEC 60079-11 EN 60079-11
• Any Class I, Zone 0 or 1 method Yes Yes Yes Yes
• Any Class I, Div. 1 or 2 method Yes Yes No No
Note 1: 60079-0 General requirements used in conjunction with 60079-xx. UL 60079-xx. Note 3: The ‘ic’ concept will replace the ‘energy-limited’ (nL) of the type ‘n’ standard IEC 60079-15
and possibly the ‘non-incendive’ concept of North American standards.
Note 2: Requirements subject to change without notice.
Check your local authority having jurisdiction for current requirements. 119
Hazardous Locations Classification – Class II: Combustible Dusts
Class II Area Classification Class II Temperature Codes1
Division 1: Divisions 1 and 2

Where ignitable concentrations of combustible dusts can T1 (≤450°C)
exist all of the time or some of the time under normal
operating conditions. T2 (≤300°C)
Division 2: T2A, T2B, T2C, T2D

(≤280°C, ≤260°C, ≤230°C, ≤215°C)
Where ignitable concentrations of combustible dusts are
not likely to exist under normal operating conditions. T3 (≤200°C)
T3A, T3B, T3C
(≤180°C, ≤165°C, ≤160°C)
Class II Groups T4 (≤135°C)
T4A (≤120°C)
Divisions 1 and 2:
E (metals – Div. 1 only) T5 (≤100°C)
F (coal) T6 (≤85°C)
G (grain)
1: Temperature class of equipment determined with dust layer per the applicable standard.
MSAsafety.com 120
Hazardous Locations Classification – Class II: Combustible Dusts

• Dust-ignition proof UL 1203 CSA-25 or CSA-E1241-1-1

Div. 1 • Intrinsic safety UL 913 CSA-157
• Pressurized NFPA 496 NFPA 496
• Dust-tight ISA 60079-31 CSA-25 or CSA-E1241-1-1

• Nonincendive ISA 12.12.01 —
Div. 2
• Pressurized NFPA 496 NFPA 496
• Any Class II, Div. 1 method — —
121
Hazardous Locations Classification: Hazardous Locations Markings
Class I, II, & III, Divisions 1 & 2 (USA & Canada) Zones 0, 1 & 2 (IECEx Scheme)
This marking may include: This marking may include:
Class(es), Division(s), Gas/Dust Group(s), Gases: Ex, Protection Method(s), Gas Group,
Temperature Code Temperature Code, Equipment protection level
Example: Class I, Division 1, Group C & D, T4A Example: Ex de IIB T4
Dusts: Ex, Protection method, Group, Temperature code
Example: Ex tb IIIC T135˚C
Zones 0, 1 & 2 (Europe)
Class I, Zones 0, 1, & 2 (USA) This marking may include:
This marking may include: Gases: Ex, Protection Method(s), Gas Group,
Gases: Class, Zone, AEx, Protection Method(s), Temperature Code Example: Ex de IIB T4
Gas Group, Temperature Code Dusts: Ex, Protection method, Group, Temperature code
Example: Class I, Zone 1, AEx de IIB T4 Example: Ex tb IIIC T135˚C
Dusts: Zone, AEx, Protection method, ATEX Directive (Europe)
Temperature Code In addition to the European Ex marking string
Example: Zone 21 AEx tD T135˚C noted above, this marking may include:
Non-mining:
CE, Notified Body (NB) Identifier, ,
Equipment Group & Category, G (gas)/D (dust)
Class I, Zones 0, 1, & 2 (Canada)
Example: (for DEMKO): 0539 II 2 D
This marking may include:
Mining:
Class, Zone, Ex, Protection Method(s),
CE, Notified Body (NB) Identifier, ,
Gas Group, Temperature Code
Equipment Group & Category
Example: Class I, Zone 1, Ex de IIB T4
Example: (for DEMKO): 0539 I 2 G
MSAsafety.com 122
Hazardous Locations Classification: Class III: Ignitable Fibers & Flyings
Class III Area Classification
Division 1:
Where easily ignitable fibers or materials producing
combustible flyings are handled, manufactured, or used.
Division 2:
Where easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled.
Class III Groups
Divisions 1 and 2:
None
Class III Temperature Codes
Divisions 1 and 2:
None
Note: Article 503 of the NEC limits the maximum temperature for Class III equipment to 165˚C for equipment not subject to overloading and to 120˚C for equipment that may be overloaded.
123
Hazardous Locations Classification: Class III: Ignitable Fibers & Flyings

• Dust-tight ISA 60079-31 CSA-25

Div. 1
• Intrinsic safety UL 913 CSA-157
• Nonincendive ISA 60079-31 —

Div. 2
• Any Class III, Div. 1 method — —
MSAsafety.com 124
CE Mark
The CE mark (Conformité Européene, or European Conformity) on a product is a declaration by the responsible person (typically the
manufacturer) that the product conforms to all the applicable European Union provisions and all appropriate conformity assessment
procedures have been completed. Typical Directives for gas detection products include ATEX, EMC, and Low Voltage.
ATEX Directive
The ATEX Directive 2014/34/EU covers equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres.
The Directive defines the essential health and safety requirements and conformity assessment procedures, to be applied before
products are placed on the EU market. (Details on next page.)
EMC Directive
The Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive 2004/108/EC is intended to limit the electromagnetic emission of equipment such
that it does not adversely effect the operation of other equipment and to ensure the equipment has an intrinsic level of immunity
to electromagnetic interference. For gas detection equipment this is typically accomplished by designing it to comply with the
requirements of EN 50270.
Low Voltage Directive
The Low Voltage Directive (LVD) 2014/35/EU is a European personal safety Directive that is comparable to a US/Canadian fire/shock
and safety approval. It applies any equipment designed for use with a voltage rating of between 50 and 1000 volts for alternating
current and between 75 and 1500 volts for direct current. A typical standard used for designing to compliance is EN 61010-1.
125
ATEX – Explosive Atmospheres
ATEX (ATmosphère EXplosible, or Explosive Atmospheres) is the term used for the European Union’s Directive 2014/34/EU (replaces the previous
94/9/EC Directive) which concerns equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. The purpose of the
directive is to facilitate trade within the EU by aligning the laws of the Member States in Europe regarding safety requirements for hazardous
area products.
ATEX compliance requires that the following issues be met:
1. Safety requirements
The product must meet the applicable hazardous location requirements.
2. Performance requirements
If the product is designed to monitor combustible gas and/or oxygen, then it must meet certain performance criteria in fields
such as response time, accuracy, and linearity.
3. Quality management certification
The manufacturer must have an approved quality management system.
MSAsafety.com 126
EXPLOSION SAFETY HIERARCHY

(European Standard EN 1127-1)
Avoid the hazard Controlling explosions

• Use non-flammable materials, or Use a protective system to:
• Contain the flammable materials in order to avoid • Contain A
the formation of an explosive atmosphere • Isolate
• Suppress – actively
• Suppress – passively
• Relieve (vent) the explosion
Control the risk Prevent Ignition

If an explosive atmosphere cannot be avoided, even under Identify potential ignition sources:

abnormal conditions: • Electric arcs • Compression ignition B
• Use non-flammable materials, or • Electric sparks • Static electricity
• Contain the flammable materials in order to avoid • Flames • Electromagnetic radiation
the formation of an explosive atmosphere • Hot surfaces • Ionizing radiation
• Mechanical impact • Chemical reactions
• Friction • Acoustic energy
127
Protective Systems
Explosion suppression systems Limitation of concentration Active explosion

Explosion-proof equipment of combustibles extinguishing barriers
A Flame arresters Dust explosion venting systems Explosion barriers for mines
Explosion venting devices Gas explosion venting systems Mechanical explosion barriers
Inerting Explosion suppression devices
Protect Ignition Systems

Category of protection Non-mining equipment – Group II
(EU Directive 2014/34/EU – ATEX) Category 1
Mining equipment – Group I Category M1 Very high level of protection. Used where explosive atmosphere
Very high level of protection. Equipment can be is present continuously or for long periods of time (Zone 0, 20)*


operated in presence of explosive atmosphere Category 2
B Category M2 High level of protection. Used where explosive atmosphere C
High level of protection. Equipment to be is likely to occur in normal service (Zone 1, 21)*
de-energized in presence of explosive atmosphere Category 3
Normal level of protection. Used where explosive atmosphere is
D
unlikely to occur and would be infrequent and for short time
(Zone 2, 22)*
* EN 1127-1:2019. Clause 6.3
MSAsafety.com 128
Methods Of Protection: Standards

Electrical equipment for gas, vapors, and mists (G) Category
Code Cenelec EN IEC M1 M2 1 2 3

General requirements 60079-0 60079-0 + + + + +
Oil immersion o 60079-6 60079-6 +
Pressurized p 60079-2 60079-2 +
Powder filled q 60079-5 60079-5 +
Flameproof d 60079-1 60079-1 + +
Increased safety e 60079-7 60079-7 + +
Intrinsic safety ia 60079-11 60079-11 + +


Encapsulated m 60079-11 60079-11 + +
C Type of protection ‘n’ n 60079-18 60079-18 + + E
Category 1 G 60079-15 60079-15 +
Category M 1 60079-26 - +
Electrical equipment for flammable dusts (D)
Construction and testing 60079-31 + + +
Non-electrical equipment (CEN EN)
General requirements + + + + +
Restrictive breathing enclosure +
Flameproof enclosure + +
Constructional safety + + +
Control of ignition sources + + + +
Liquid immersion + + + + + +
129
Equipment Markings
IEC/CENELEC EU ATEX Directive 2014/34/EU

Ex d IIB T6 Tamb = -40°C to 60°C CE II 1 G

CE Marking
D
EU
Explosive Type of explosive
Atmosphere Atmosphere
Explosion
Symbol (Group II)
Protection Type of
symbol Protection Code
see table above Temperature Class (Group II)
Equipment Equipment G D
Referred to ambient of -20˚C to +40˚C
Group Category Gas Dust
unless indicated as above
vapor
I Mining M1 – energized*
mist
Gas Group T Class Maximum Surface Temp M2 – de-energized*

* In presence of
I Methane (firedamp) Mining Only T1 450˚C explosive atmosphere Zone Zone
E
IIA Propane T2 300˚C II Non-mining 1 – hazard present 0 20
IIB Ethylene T3 200˚C continuously
IIC Hydrogen T4 135˚C 2 – hazard present

intermittently 1 21
II No ignitability classification T5 100˚C
3 – hazard present
Typical gases classified according to T6 85˚C abnormally 2 22
ignitability of gas/air mixture.
MSAsafety.com 130
A Selection of Testing Laboratories
North America
CSA CSA International or Canadian Standards Association
ETL Intertek Testing Services NA
FM FM Approvals LLC
MET MET Laboratories, Inc.
MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration
UL Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Australia
TestSafe TestSafe Australia Safety Engineering, Testing and Certification Services
Brazil
CEPEL Centro De Pesquisas De Energia Electrica
France
INERIS Institut National De L'Environnemant Industriel Et Des Risques (INERIS)
Germany
Dekra EXAM
TÜV SÜD
Russia
GOSSTAND ART Gosstandart of Russia
131
Approvals
System Installation
Hazardous Area
The gas detection system installation will depend
on the area classification, protection technique,
and wiring method. An example of this would be
the installation of an explosion-proof infrared
gas detector suitable for use in Class I, Division 1,
Group A-D hazardous (classified) location with COMB
0 % LEL
explosion-proof conduit. A different area

X5000
classification, protection method, or wiring

method might be chosen to save on
installation costs.
I. Explosion-proof (XP)
The device prevents an explosion in a hazardous
location by containing any combustion within the
device, and thereby preventing it from spreading XP Controller XP Sensor
into the atmosphere surrounding the enclosure.
NOTE: Typically the wiring installation is explosion-proof conduit although other wiring methods are possible per the US or Canadian electrical code.
MSAsafety.com 132
Approvals
Instead of having both the sensor and the controller

rated explosion-proof (XP), explosion-proof sensor
Non-Hazardous Area Hazardous Area
housings are sometimes used with general purpose (GP)
controllers that are located in non-hazardous locations.
• Widely used in US
• More costly to install and maintain
0
• Typically requires conduit and seals

COMB % LEL
X5000
• Non-intrusive calibration enhances installation

• If atmosphere ignites, it remains inside enclosure XP Seal
GP Controller
Sentry io Controller XP Sensor
133
Approvals Hazardous Area Non-Hazardous Area
II. Intrinsically Safe (IS) COMB

0 % LEL
X5000
The device prevents explosions in hazardous locations through an

electrical design in which the possibility of ignition is eliminated.
To achieve this, protective components are often added in series
with energy storage devices. The protective components eliminate
the risk of ignition from sparks COMB
0 % LEL
or an increased component surface temperature.

X5000
In this situation, an intrinsically safe sensor assembly is located

GP Controller
in the hazardous area and an intrinsically safe barrier is installed
in the non-hazardous area to reduce the chance of an electrical SENTRY io Controller
spark reaching the hazardous area. If multiple sensors are required, COMB
0 % LEL
then multiple barriers are used.

X5000
• Eliminates explosion-proof conduit for electrical safety IS Barriers

• Requires electrical barriers to limit energy to sensor
• Both heat and electrical energy are kept below ignition thresholds IS Sensors
MSAsafety.com 134
Approvals
III. Purged/Pressurized
Purged/pressurized equipment cabinets containing spark-producing devices exclude flammable atmospheres. This is done by using compressed
air or an inert gas such as nitrogen to pressurize the cabinet’s interior. The unit is also designed to turn off the spark-producing device and trigger
an alarm in the event of a pressurization failure. NFPA-496 contains specific design requirements for purged/pressurized equipment.
There are three types of purging:
• Type X purging – Reduces the classification within an enclosure
from Division 1 to nonhazardous
• Type Y purging – Reduces the classification within an enclosure
from Division 1 to Division 2
• Type Z purging – Reduces the classification within an enclosure
from Division 2 to nonhazardous
When a purged/pressurized system is used, the unit is located in the hazardous area.
Purging/pressurization works in one of two ways: by either preventing outside atmospheres from entering the enclosed unit,
or by removing flammable gases from the enclosure by flushing it with inert gas and maintaining internal pressure on the unit.
NOTE: When installing a gas detection system, always install in accordance with the authority having jurisdiction and the manufacturer’s installation instructions.
135
The following labels provide examples of approval markings:
Explosion-proof approval markings

A. Explosion-proof Equipment Ratings
B. Nonincendive
C. Dust-ignition proof
A
B D E
Gas Performance Approvals

D. Canadian Standards Compliance
E. United States Standards Compliance
MSAsafety.com 136
Flameproof and dust-ignition
International proof protection concepts
Compliance
European Compliance
Gas Performance
Non-sparking Equipment Rating Approval
protection concept
137
Safety Integrity Levels (SIL)
The global importance of SIL (Safety Integrity Levels) has grown A SIL is a measure of safety system performance, in terms of
substantially in the oil/gas, petrochemical, and other process probability of failure on demand (PFD). This convention was chosen
industries over the last 20 years. based on the numbers: it is easier to express the probability of
failure rather than that of proper performance (e.g., 1 in 100,000
Functional Safety, as defined by IEC standard 61508, is the safety
vs. 99,999 in 100,000). There are four discrete integrity levels
that control systems provide to an overall process or plant.
associated with SIL: SIL 1, SIL 2, SIL 3, and SIL 4. The higher the
Functional Safety is a term used to describe the safety system
SIL level, the higher the associated safety level, and the lower
that is dependent on the correct functioning of the logic solver,
probability that a system will fail to perform properly.
sensors, and final elements to achieve a desired risk reduction
level. Functional Safety is achieved when every safety function
is successfully carried out and the process risk is reduced to the Safety Integrity Risk Reduction Probability of Failure
desired level. Level Factor on Demand
A Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is designed to prevent or
mitigate hazardous events by taking a process to a safe state when SIL 4 100,000 to 10,000 10-5 to 10-4
predetermined conditions are violated. Each SIS has one or more
Safety Instrumented Functions (SIF). To perform its function, a
SIL 3 10,000 to 1,000 10-4 to 10-3
SIF loop has a combination of logic solver(s), sensor(s), and final
element(s). Every SIF within a SIS will have a SIL designation. These
SIL designations may be the same, or may differ, depending on the SIL 2 1,000 to 100 10-3 to 10-2
process. It is a common misconception that an entire system must
have the same SIL for each safety function. SIL 1 100 to 10 10-2 to 10-1
MSAsafety.com 138
It is a very common misconception that individual products or components have SIL ratings. Rather, products and components are suitable
for use within a given SIL environment, but are not individually SIL rated. SILs apply to safety functions and safety systems (SIFs and SISs).
The logic solvers, sensors, and final elements are only suitable for use in specific SIL environments, and only the end user can ensure that the
safety system is implemented correctly. The equipment or system must be used in the manner in which it was intended in order to successfully
obtain the desired risk reduction level. Just buying SIL 2 or SIL 3 suitable components does not ensure a SIL 2 or SIL 3 system.
Risk Management and Selecting a SIS or SIL Level
The identification of risk tolerance is subjective and site-specific. The owner/operator must determine the acceptable level of risk to
personnel and capital assets based on company philosophy, insurance requirements, budgets, and a variety of other factors.
A risk level that one owner determines is tolerable may be unacceptable to another owner.
When determining whether a SIL 1, SIL 2, or SIL 3 system is needed, the first step is to conduct a Process Hazard Analysis to determine the
functional safety need and identify the tolerable risk level. After all of the risk reduction and mitigation impacts from the Basic Process Control
System (BPCS) and other layers of protection are taken into account, a user must compare the residual risk against their risk tolerance.
If there is still an unacceptably high level of risk, a risk reduction factor (RRF) is determined and a SIS/SIL requirement is calculated.
The RRF is the inverse of the Probability of Failure on Demand for the SIF/SIS (see table on previous page).
Selecting the appropriate SIL level must be done carefully. Typically in the process industry, companies accept SIS designs up to SIL 2.
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Section 7
141
Quantity and Placement of Sensors
MSA gas detection systems monitor the concentration of specified gases at the immediate location of the sensor. The installation instructions and
other information from MSA provide only basic guidance on the properties of the gas in question, as well as the effects of certain environmental
conditions on the function of the sensor. While this information may be used to help determine the number of sensors needed and the optimum
sensor placement, do not rely on this information alone to determine the appropriate quantity and placement of the sensors for any particular
site or area to be monitored. It is recommended that the user consult with appropriate industrial hygiene, environmental, and/or health
professionals when determining the quantity and placement of sensors to adequately monitor the specific area in question.
Such service is offered with MSA’s fire and gas mapping solution (www.MSAsafety.com/gas-mapping) which assists in the evaluation of flame
and gas risks within a process facility and reduces them towards an acceptable risk profile.
WARNING: MSA gas detection systems monitor the gas concentration only at the immediate location of the sensor. The user must perform
an appropriate environmental analysis on the specific installation site to determine the preferred quantity of sensors and optimum sensor
placement. Improper installation can cause a gas release to be undetected and result in serious personal injury or loss of life.
MSAsafety.com 142
MSA Guide to Gas Sensor Selection and Placement

STEP 1: To determine where to place sensors, perform an analysis of the potential gas hazards in your facility.
STEP 2: Create drawings indicating all potential leak sites, as well as the severity of each site’s hazard potential.
There are two main categories of hazardous locations:
A. Potential gas discharge points. These are places where hazardous gases may be released, such as valve stem seals, gaskets,
compression fittings, and expansion joints.
B.Potential contact areas. These are places where hazardous gases may endanger workers or damage equipment or property.
Examples include populated areas, confined spaces, pits, stairwells, crawl spaces, shelters, and residential, business, and industrial
environments located nearby.
STEP 3: Since gases do not always behave in the same way, take air flow conditions, as well as potential gas pockets, into consideration
before placing sensors. MSA smoke tubes (P/N 458481) can be useful in measuring the direction and rate of air flow to determine areas
where gases may accumulate.
143
In general, when placing sensors, the following principles should be considered:

• Place sensors in areas where the air currents are likely to produce the highest gas concentration, including areas where gas buildup is likely,
such as corners or stopping points of moving devices that release gas.
• If you are attempting to take a representative room sample, do not place sensors near entrances or fresh air vents
(because sample concentration will be diluted by incoming air) unless there is a need to sample that specific area of the room.
• Place sensors close to the possible gas/leak source.
• Place combustible gas sensors between the potential leak and the ignition source.
• Place toxic (and oxygen deficiency) sensors between the potential leak and the populated area, and in the workers’ breathing zone.
• Consider ease of access to the sensor for maintenance requirements, such as periodic calibration. Use a remote sensor (fitted with an MSA
remote calibration adapter, P/N 10179871) for high or inaccessible locations.
• Avoid mounting sensors near radio transmitters or other RFI-producing sources (e.g., welding activity and induction heaters),
to reduce possible RFI interference.
• Avoid locations where airborne particles may coat or contaminate the sensor, such as paint booths.
• Install in a position that prevents water or dust accumulation on the sensor head (which may impede the diffusion of gas into the sensor).
Preferred position is facing downward; horizontal placement is also acceptable.
• Facility air intakes are generally good locations for sensors.
• Ensure that the entire area in question is sufficiently monitored, including infrequently used areas such as closets, warehouses, and other storage areas.
• Factor in the vapor density of the monitored gases, when compared to air.
MSAsafety.com 144
Combustible Gas Sensors Toxic and Combustible Sensors

• Hydrogen and methane are lighter than air, so place sensors near • Place sensors near the potential release source for process
the ceiling, and in ceiling corners where pockets of air may collect. monitoring applications (e.g. pipelines, valves).
• For electric motor monitoring, place sensors near the ignition source. • Gas cylinder storage areas: If they are ventilated, place sensor
• Gasoline is heavier than air, so place sensors near – but not near the return air vent.
directly on – the floor. • Acid/solvent drum storage areas: These gases are heavier than air
• When monitoring multiple combustible gases, calibrate the (e.g., heavy hydrocarbons) so place sensors close to the ground
instrument for the least sensitive gas. and in corners where air may collect in pockets.
Toxic and Oxygen Gas Sensors • If the hazard is outside, place sensors near the air intake for both
combustible and toxic gas monitoring; if the hazard is inside,
• Place carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide sensors
place sensors near the exhaust.
for indoor air quality monitoring near air intake ducts.
• Some gases may collect in pockets in room corners, at both floor
• In general, in occupied areas (e.g., confined spaces), monitor for
and ceiling levels. Place sensors in these areas if necessary.
oxygen and toxic gases in the workers’ breathing zone (4-6 feet).
This will vary, depending on whether the density of the gas is
Gases Gas Density Sensor Placement
heavier, the same as, or lighter than, air or oxygen.
Carbon dioxide, Closer to the ground
Greater than air
heavy hydrocarbons (6 inches above floor)
Hydrogen,
Less than air Near the ceiling
methane
According to air current path,
Carbon monoxide,
Similar to air at or near breathing level
nitrogen
(usually 4 to 6 ft. from floor)
145
Refrigerant Monitor Placement

• ASHRAE 15 states that a refrigerant monitor capable of detecting the TLV for a refrigerant gas must be installed in a mechanical equipment room.
• Place the end of the sample line in the location most likely to develop a refrigerant gas leak or spill. Such areas include valves, fittings, and the
chiller itself. Also, monitor any refrigerant storage location. It is good practice to keep all sampling lines as short as possible when an aspirated
or pumped sampling system is used.
• Since most refrigerant gases are heavier than air, monitor these gases close to the floor. Any pits, stairwells, or trenches are likely to fill with
refrigerant gas before the main area. It may be necessary to monitor these locations for refrigerant gas.
• If ventilation exists in the chiller room, MSA smoke tubes (P/N 458481) will help to determine the most appropriate gas monitoring locations.
• Remote monitor displays can be placed just outside the doorway of the monitored area. Personnel can check the status of the instrument
before entering the area.
• ASHRAE Standard 147P states the following:
4.8 Refrigerant Monitor. On large refrigerating systems for which a refrigerant monitor is required per ASHRAE 15, a refrigerant monitor
capable of detecting refrigerant concentrations of 1 ppm by volume or less shall be used to provide early warning of leaks.
Guideline for Sensor Placement

When monitoring multiple combustible gases, calibrate the instrument for the least sensitive gas.
Note: This is for informational purposes only and is intended for use as a general guide to important considerations in sensor placement. It is not intended to serve as an
exhaustive review of all considerations. Due to the large number of variables present, each site should be considered individually by a trained professional. The services
of a Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) or Certified Safety Professional (CSP) should be considered if an onsite survey is required.
MSAsafety.com 146
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MSAsafety.com
Section 8
Calibration
149
Calibration
Instrument Calibration
Whether an instrument warns and/or alarms at the proper time depends on its ability to translate the quantity of gas it detects into an accurate
reading. “Calibration” refers to an instrument’s measurement accuracy relative to a known concentration of gas. Gas detectors perform relative
measurements: rather than independently assessing the quantity of gas present, they measure the concentration of the air sample and then
compare it to the known concentration of the gas that the instrument is configured to sample. This “known concentration” serves as the
instrument’s measurement scale, or reference point.
If the instrument’s reference point has moved, then its reading will also move. This is called “calibration drift”, and it happens to most instruments
over time. (Common causes of calibration drift include the normal degradation of sensors, exposure of the sensor to poisons, and harsh operating
conditions.) When an instrument experiences calibration drift, it can still measure the quantity of gas present, but it cannot convert it into an
accurate numerical reading. Regular calibration with a certified standard gas concentration updates the instrument’s reference point, re-enabling
it to produce accurate readings.
There are two methods of verifying instrument calibration: through a functional or “bump” test (or span check) or by performing a full calibration.
Each is appropriate under certain conditions.
Bump (or Span) Check
A bump check is a means of verifying the detector is capable of detecting gas, the display is functioning correctly and the sensor is measuring
accurately, by exposing the instrument to a known concentration of test gas. The instrument reading is then compared to the actual concentration
of gas present (as indicated on the cylinder). If the instrument’s response is within an acceptable range of the actual concentration, then its
functionality and accuracy is verified. When performing a bump test, the test gas concentration should be high enough to trigger the instrument
alarm. If the bump test results are not within the acceptable range, then a full calibration must be performed.
MSAsafety.com 150
Calibration
Full Calibration
A full calibration is the adjustment of the instrument’s reading to coincide with known concentrations (generally a certified standard) of zero and
span gases, to compensate for calibration drift. In most cases, a full calibration is only necessary when an instrument does not pass the bump test
or is outside of local regulations and/or the manufacturer's recommendations.
Zero Check
A zero check is performed to verify that the instrument reads true zero (also referred to as the “baseline”) in an environment in which no amount
of target gas is present. Common situations in which a zero check is performed include:
• After exposure of the sensor to a sensor contaminant
• After the sensor has been exposed to a very high concentration of the target gas
• As the sensor ages, since it may gradually drift
• After the unit has operated in varying background conditions (e.g. humidity levels)
• After exposure to extreme conditions (e.g. high temperature or humidity)
If the instrument fails the zero check, then a zero adjustment should be performed to adjust to a true zero.
Frequency of Calibration
The frequency of calibration depends on the sensor’s operating time, conditions of use (including chemical exposure), and user experience with
the instrument. New sensors should be calibrated more often until the calibration records prove sensor stability. The calibration frequency can
then be reduced to the schedule set by the safety officer or plant manager. Before calibrating the sensors, it is good practice to apply power to
the unit to allow the sensor to adapt to the new environment. Sensors should be powered at least one full hour before any calibration attempt
is made.
The latest MSA H2S and CO electrochemical sensors with TruCal® and Diffusion Supervision technology (www.MSAsafety.com/trucal) allow for
sensor calibrations to be extended up to 24 months. The automatic self-tests every 6 hours ensure accurate sensor measurements and self
adjusts its sensitivity if it has drifted. It also checks if the sensor inlet is blocked, which would prevent gas from reaching the sensor.
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MSAsafety.com
Section 9
Resources
153
Resources:
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 29 Part 1910, U.S. Department of Government Agencies
Labor (DOL), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
Washington, D.C. Available online at: www.osha.gov/laws-regs
www.atsdr.cdc.gov
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, Department of Health
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) www.bls.gov
and Human Services (DHHS), National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), 85-114. Available online at: Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) www.cdc.gov
www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) www.govinfo.gov/help/cfr
Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards, DHHS, DOL, Department of Transportation (DOT) Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Washington, D.C., 1995, DHHS (NIOSH) No. 81-123. Available online at: Administration www.phmsa.dot.gov
www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/81-123/
Federal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission www.fmshrc.gov
Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 14th edition,
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences www.niehs.nih.gov
One Battery Park, Quincy, MA 02269 (2010) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) www.cdc.gov/niosh
Available online at: www.nfpa.org
National Institute of Health (NIH) www.nih.gov
National Safety Council (NSC) www.nsc.org
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) www.nrc.gov
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) www.osha.gov
Office for Mine Safety and Health Research www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (US DHHS) www.hhs.gov
U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) www.msha.gov
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. www.epa.gov
MSAsafety.com 154
Resources:
Professional and Trade Associations Society of Chemical Manufacturers & Affiliates www.socma.org
Air and Waste Management Association www.awma.org Water Environment Federation® (WEF) www.wef.org
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) World Health Organization (WHO) www.who.int
www.acgih.org
World Safety Organization www.worldsafety.org
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) www.aiha.org
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
Approvals and Standards Organizations
www.ashrae.org
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) www.ansi.org
American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP) www.assp.org
CSA Group www.csagroup.org
Board for Global EHS Credentialing (BGC) www.gobgc.org
European Electrotechnical Committee for Standardization
Center for Chemical Process Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(CENELEC) www.cencenelec.eu
www.aiche.org/ccps
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) www.nema.org
Compressed Gas Association www.cganet.com
UL Solutions www.ul.com
International Code Council (ICC) www.iccsafe.org
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) www.iec.ch
Gas Detection Instrumentation Supplier
International Society for Measurement and Control (ISA) www.isa.org
MSA – Safety www.MSAsafety.com/detection
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) www.nfpa.org
National Safety Council (NSC) www.nsc.org
155
Note: This Bulletin contains only a general description of the products shown. While product uses and performance capabilities are MSA operates in over 40 countries
generally described, the products shall not, under any circumstances, be used by untrained or unqualified individuals. The products shall not
be used until the product instructions/user manual, which contains detailed information concerning the proper use and care of the worldwide. To find an MSA office near you,
products, including any warnings or cautions, have been thoroughly read and understood. Specifications are subject to change without
prior notice. MSA is a registered trademark of MSA Technology, LLC in the US, Europe, and other Countries. For all other trademarks visit
please visit MSAsafety.com/offices.
https://us.msasafety.com/Trademarks.
5555-312-MC / 10.2022
© MSA 2022 MSAsafety.com

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Gas Detection Handbook

The Handbook contains:

• A glossary of essential gas detection terms and abbreviations.

Section 1 7 Section 6 111

* As defined by the ACGIH® (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists).

Type of Monitoring The Purpose The Hazard Possible Source of Hazard

Leaks, fugitives emissions,

Oil leaks into sewers or lakes,

Possible fault or other

Gas Monitoring Categories:

Examples of Heat and Ignition Sources

Combustible Atmosphere Factors

Below Flash Point Above Flash Point

Any gas or vapor concentration that falls between

Toxic Gas Monitoring

Short-Term Exposure Limits (STELs)

Gas Detection Technologies

TECHNOLOGY Catalytic bead

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas

Typical Catalytic Bead Sensor Operation Active Reference

TECHNOLOGY Metal Oxide Semiconductor

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas; toxic gas

Non-specific (cross-sensitive to other compounds); nonlinear output; sensitive to changes in humidity;

Typical Metal Oxide Semiconductor (Solid State)

TECHNOLOGY Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) - Point

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas

TECHNOLOGY Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) - Open Path

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas

READINGS LEL per meter (LEL.m)

Not suitable for hydrogen detection.

Typical NDIR (Open Path) Operation

Transmitter (Source) 1 LEL meter Receiver (Detector)

TECHNOLOGY Tuneable Laser Diode Absorption Spectroscopy (TLDAS) - Open Path

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas; toxic gas

READINGS LEL per meter (LEL.m); ppm per meter (ppm.m)

Target gas specific – no false alarms from interferent gases.

CONVENTIONAL LASER ELDS™ TECHNOLOGY

NO GAS TARGET GAS INTERFERENT GAS

TECHNOLOGY Photoacoustic Infrared

GAS TYPE DETECTED Combustible gas; toxic gas

READINGS % LEL; % by volume; ppm; ppb

CONS Not suitable for hydrogen detection.

Pumped Photoacoustic Infrared Operation

Gas molecules Gas molecules

Infrared light Infrared light

Optical filter Optical filter

Inlet valve Inlet valve

Gas molecules Gas molecules

Infrared light Infrared light

Optical filter Optical filter

Inlet valve Inlet valve

TECHNOLOGY Electrochemical - Toxic Gas

GAS TYPE DETECTED Toxic gas

PROS High sensitivity; linear output; easy to handle.

Typical Electrochemical Toxic Sensor XCell® Electrochemical Toxic Sensor

Gas Permeable Filter

Circuit Board with ASIC

Connection Pins Connection Pins

TECHNOLOGY Electrochemical - Oxygen (O2)

GAS TYPE DETECTED Oxygen deficiency/enrichment