Chemistry Report

Water Treatment and Purification in Antigua and

Barbuda

Teacher: Ms. Trudy Jackson

Name: Razonique Looby
INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for all life processes, but much of the earth’s water is
inaccessible for daily human use in its unaltered state. Thus, it must be purified, or
treated. Water purification refers to the process by which undesired chemical
compounds, organic and inorganic materials, and biological contaminants are
removed from water (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2023), where water treatment
refers to the process involving different types of operations (physical, chemical,
physicochemical and biological), the aim of which is to eliminate and/or reduce
contamination or non-desirable characteristics of water (Acciona, 2020).
This report examines general water purification and treatment methods currently
in place, water problems facing the twin island state of Antigua and Barbuda, and
includes full descriptions of the pros, cons and scientific theory behind the water
treatment methods used in the nation. Finally, this report includes
recommendations for the future of Antiguan and Barbudan water treatment
methods.

Table of Contents
Background

- Water is all over the planet, but not always accessible for human use
- Methods of Water Treatment Commonly in Use
- Antigua and Barbuda, a Very Dry Twin Island State

Body

- Examination of Methods Used In Antigua and Barbuda

● Reverse Osmosis
● Surface Water
● Ground Water
- Recommendations

Conclusions
BACKGROUND

Water is all over the planet, but not always accessible for human
use.
Water is abundant on and under the Earth’s surface, but the vast majority of it
(99%) is solid frozen in ice caps and glaciers, or present as salt water in oceans and
lagoons. Ocean water contains about 35 grams per litre (4.5 ounces per gallon) of
dissolved minerals or salts, making it unfit for drinking and for most industrial or
agricultural uses (Britannica, 2023).
Although the quantity of available fresh water (defined as water containing less
than 3 grams of salt per litre) is enough to satisfy the needs of all humans on the
planet, this water is unequally distributed and is not always available to those in
need in suitable quanta, which can result in water scarcity in drier areas on the
globe. Water is needed to meet the domestic, public, commercial and industrial
needs of a population. There is not always enough fresh water available to meet
these needs, thus water must be treated or purified to achieve a quality that
meets specified goals.

There are several common methods of water treatment and

purification.
Water purification techniques are essential for ensuring the availability of clean,
safe water. Water is treated in a variety of physical and chemical methods. Several
current techniques are employed, often in conjunction to remove contaminants
and impurities from water sources, below is a brief overview of a few widely used
water purification techniques:

● Filtration - This process involves passing water through a physical barrier to

remove suspended particles, sediments, and large organisms. Common
filtration methods include slow sand filtration, rapid sand filtration, and
 membrane filtration (such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and
nanofiltration) (NASEM, 2019).
● Coagulation and Flocculation - Coagulation involves adding a coagulant,
such as aluminium sulphate or ferric chloride, to water, which destabilised
the suspended particles. Flocculation follows, where particles aggregate
and form larger flocs which can then be easily removed through
sedimentation or filtration processes.
● Disinfection - This process aims to inactivate or destroy microorganisms in
water, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, to prevent waterborne
diseases. Common disinfection methods include chlorination (using
chlorine or chloramines), ozonation, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and
advanced oxidation processes like peroxide-based methods or
photocatalysis (NASEM, 2019).
● Distillation - Distillation involves heating water to its boiling point,
vaporising it, and then condensing the steam to collect purified water.
Most contaminants with higher boiling points than water remain behind in
the distilling vessel (including heavy metals, minerals, and certain organic
compounds). Volatile impurities (with boiling points less than 100°C) can
evaporate and be carried into the distillate. Distillation is energy-intensive
and is often used for specialised applications or in areas with limited water
sources.
● Reverse Osmosis (RO) - utilises a semipermeable membrane to separate
contaminants from water. It applies pressure to the water, forcing it
through the membrane while leaving behind dissolved salts, organic
compounds, and microorganisms. This method is explained in detail in the
latter part of this report.
● Activated Carbon Adsorption - Activated carbon is a porous material with a
high surface area that can adsorb organic compounds, chlorine, and some
heavy metals. Water is passed through a bed of activated carbon, which
traps and removes impurities through adsorption.
 ● Ion Exchange - Ion exchange involves replacing unwanted ions in water
with ions of a similar charge from an exchange resin. Cation exchange
removes positively charged ions, such as calcium and magnesium, while
anion exchange removes negatively charged ions, including nitrates and
sulphates. This technique is commonly used for water softening and
removing specific contaminants. (NASEM, 2019)

It is important to note that different water purification techniques have specific

strengths and limitations. A combination of methods may be used in water
treatment facilities to ensure comprehensive purification and meet specific water
quality requirements.

Antigua and Barbuda, a very dry twin-island state.

Antigua and Barbuda experiences a dry, tropical maritime climate with one of the
lowest annual rainfalls in the Caribbean at a range from 890 to 1400 mm and an
average annual rainfall of 1040 mm. Barbuda is even drier and has an annual
average rainfall between 750 and 950 mm (United Nations Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2007). Currently, the nation
requires 7 million imperial gallons a day (APUA, 2023).
Historically, the people of Antigua and Barbuda obtained their drinking water
from rainwater and from natural springs. Rainwater was collected in large
catchment systems, which consisted of sloping roofs and gutters that funnelled
the rainwater into large storage tanks. The water was then treated with lime or
bleach to kill bacteria and other harmful organisms.

In addition to collecting rainwater, the people of Antigua and Barbuda also used
natural springs as a source of drinking water. The water from these springs was
naturally filtered by the surrounding rock and soil, making it relatively clean and
safe to drink.
Today, the sources used for water supply are surface water, groundwater,
harvested rainwater and desalinated water. The Antigua Public Utilities Authority
estimates that its five RO plants and two water treatment plants have a total
installed capacity of 8.83 million imperial gallons a day, however this number is
greatly affected by factors such as sea conditions and the age of the plants. There
are no perennial rivers in Antigua and all major streams are intermittent and yield
very small quantities of fresh water for a few months after heavy rainfalls (United
Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2007). As a
drought-prone nation, there is a heavy reliance on desalinated water because of a
shortage of freshwater for domestic water supply. In Barbuda, water is supplied
from a single well that serves the most populous area of the island, Codington
(Pure Aqua, n.d.). Ground water is generally saline with the notable exception of
the shallow aquifers of Palmetto Sands, a 600 ha area of beach sands on the
southwestern shore (Cooper, Brian and Bowen, Vincent, 2001).
BODY

Desalination By Reverse Osmosis in Antigua

In Antigua and Barbuda pure water for drinking or industry can is obtained from
seawater by desalination. Desalination refers to the process by which dissolved
salts are removed from seawater and in some cases from the brackish (slightly
salty) waters to produce potable water (Britannica, 2019). Various wide-scale
methods of desalination include ion exchange, electrodialysis, and distillation
which is very energy intensive. In the Caribbean, reverse osmosis is the most
common technique for the purification of saline water.

Description of process

Figure 1: The Sir Ivan Rodrigues Reverse Osmosis Plant. Photo Credits: Razonique Looby

The RO process involves several steps, but the process begins at the intake
pipelines. In the Antiguan Ivan Rodriguez RO Plant these intake pipes are 30-25
feet deep, 100 yards out with a filter on the end. They are black pipes made out of
specialised material to manage weight. The material most often used globally for
these pipelines is high density polyethylene (HDPE or PE). The end of the pipe
lays approximately six feet off the bottom of the ocean on a concrete slab. Every
three months, a scuba diver comes to the RO plant to clear the stainless screen
filter at the end of the pipeline. Water for desalination is taken from wells on the
coast, therefore the wells are monitored for saltwater intrusion by the APUA.
The feed pumps below ground level pull water in. There are four such pumps,
each goes to a different unit. After intake, the water must be prefiltered to
remove larger impurities before it is put through the membrane.

Stages of Filtration

Figure 2: Diagram showing different methods of filtration and the particle sizes they are
used to separate. Credits: Freshwater Systems

1. Media filtration (big green tanks)

Ideally, the pressure going into the filter and the pressure going out is the same,
or it must be as close as possible. The difference between the first pressure
reading (going into the filter) from the pump and second reading must not
exceed 12/11 PSI or pounds per square inch. These filters may occasionally become
blocked by stones and algae, shell particles, sand, grass or crustaceans, in which
case antiscalant is applied in a ratio of 20:180 with water to reduce buildup. Media
filtration is the physical capture of pollutants and adsorption of pollutants
through chemical reaction. The pollutants become trapped in the voids of the
media particles and their surfaces. Media filters contain stones of four different
decreasing sizes to filter water, the final of which is called anticide. Smaller and
smaller pollutants are removed from the water as it passes through the
increasingly smaller spaces between the media particles. The stones are arranged
in a specific ratio of sizes depending on capacity and may be changed when the
results of the backwash process remain unideal.

2. Five micron cartridge filter

This is fine filtration to remove any impurities larger than 5 microns remaining,
and is made of 27 spools of wool or cotton, amounting to 54 yards in total.

Figure 3: To the left above: Model showing ratio of stone sizes in

media filter
Figure 4: Below: Five micron cartridge filter

3. Membrane filtration - Reverse Osmosis

This stage removes salt and minerals such as CaCO
and manganese. As a result, water is desalinated and
softened, making it more acidic and easier to lather.
The RO process works by applying high external
pressures of 700 PSI to push water molecules
through a semipermeable membrane, leaving
contaminants, such as salts and minerals, behind. In
osmosis, a membrane separates two solutions of
different solute concentrations and water molecules
move through the membrane towards the solution
with a higher concentration of solutes, tending to
equalise the solute concentration on the two sides of the membrane. This is
driven by the difference in osmotic pressures of the two solutions. In reverse
osmosis, external (hydrostatic) pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is
applied and water molecules are expelled from the concentrated solution,
creating a reverse flow; that is a flow against the osmotic pressure gradient
(Lazarides and Katsanidis, 2003). The membrane contains tiny pores that only
allow water molecules to pass through, while blocking larger molecules and
pollutants. RO systems use a cross-flow or tangential filtration process whereby
incoming water flows parallel to the membrane surface (Wilf and Vuthaluru,
2013).
 Figure 5: Movement of water through a cellulose acetate membrane. Adapted from
Lacey (1972).

Membranes currently used in commercial reverse osmosis installations are

asymmetric, flat sheet membranes of cellulose acetate (CA). The above diagram
depicts the structure of a typical CA membrane and shows the chemical affinity
of the membrane for water molecules. The chemically induced negative repulsion
of the ions in solution and the preferential repulsion of pure water to the
membrane result in the rejection of ions, thus preventing them from permeating
the membrane. This allows purified water to flow through the membrane while
contaminants and other impurities are flushed out (Lazarides and Katsanidis,
2003).. Salt water is pumped into the system via the feed end and goes through
six different wrap membranes, each with increasing filtration (finer pores) and
leaves the system as fresh, potable water via the product end. Total dissolved
solids tests may be undertaken to test the purity of the water. 35% of the water
that enters the system is purified and recovered, whilst the rest is out-taken as
brine.

Figure 6: Diagram Showing the Internal Structure of a RO System

Oil and sand are the greatest enemies of membrane filters. Pipes must be
cleaned and replaced when necessary to encourage productivity. In the event
that the productivity of the membrane filters drop, high pH or low pH cleaning is
applied. High PH cleaning removes organic foulants which contain carboxylic
functional groups. Weak acids will gain an anionic charge at the high pH allowing
them to disperse. High pH cleaning chemicals chelate the calcium that bridges
foulants and biofilms to each other and to the membrane surface (Olszak, 2019).
Low ph cleaning removes scale deposits such as inorganic substances,
carbonates, metals, and phosphates (Pure Aqua, n.d.). This cleaning process takes
approximately two days and is carried out every six months.

Now purified, water is stored in large tanks (at a pressure of 125 PSI) which hold
about 20 ft of water minimum and are never full, as water is always continuously
leaving. Chlorine is added to the water which leaves the tanks to ensure that
pipes are kept clean and to disinfect the water, reducing residuals. Product
pumps, aided by booster pumps take product water from the tank and send it to
the valves, then to houses.

Brine is removed via outtake pipes which are quite similar to the intake pipes
described previously and are installed at the same depth and distance. The
further out you carry the outtake, the better.

Reverse Osmosis Plants in Antigua

● The APUA Crabbs RO Plant – 3.1 million imperial gallons
● The APUA Camp Blizzard Plant – 600,000 imperial gallons
● The Ffryes Beach Reverse Osmosis Plant – 600,000 imperial gallons
● The Pigeon Point RO Plant (utilises well extraction as opposed to open
extraction) – 330,000 imperial gallons
● The Ivan Rodrigues RO Plant – 1.6 million imperial gallons

The process is continuous; no delays possible because all pumps must be running
to disallow capacitation. The entire procedure from intake to outtake will be
three/four minutes.
Surface and Groundwater

Surface water is virtually nonexistent in Antigua, but groundwater well fields

produce a very small 400,000 imperial gallons a day (APUA, 2023). In the
hydrologic cycle, water returns to the earth’s surface as precipitation. Surface
water is the residue of precipitation. Water that infiltrates Earth’s surface
becomes groundwater, slowly seeping downward into extensive layers of porous
soil and water-bearing rock called aquifers (Britannica, 2023). In low areas it
emerges in springs and streams.

Figure 7: Picture of Potworks dam surface water reservoir

Surface Water
Surface water reservoirs are built by blocking the flow of water by a dam, creating
an artificial lake. Conservation reservoirs in Antigua such as Potworks Dam and
Wallings Reservoir store water from periods of heavy rainfall for use during times
of drought. A water intake structure is built within the reservoir, with inlet ports
and valves at several depths. Surface water usually needs more extensive
treatment than does groundwater, because it does not undergo the natural
filtration that groundwater does and reservoirs in Antigua are often quite
polluted. Common pollutants include suspended silt, organic material, decaying
vegetation, and microbes from animal wastes. The clearer the water is, the less
turbid; the less clear it is, the more turbid. The very small particles of water
contaminants are negatively charged and the repulsive forces between them
help to keep them in suspension. The coagulant aluminium sulphate (alum) is
added which forms highly positively charged ions in water which destabilise the
charge on the surface of the particles (Manning, 2003). Then, attractive forces
between the alum ions and particles cause the particles to agglomerate and
replace the repulsive forces creating larger particles called floc. This process is
called flocculation. The water is then sent to a sedimentation tank where the
dense floc particles readily settle in water due to gravity. Potassium
permanganate and chlorine are added to adjust taste and colour as desired. The
water is then filtered to remove the flocs, after which it is stored in underground
storage tanks called clearwells where it is disinfected with chlorine before
distribution.

Figure 8: Maps of Antigua and Barbuda showing the location of water bodies

Groundwater
The quality of an aquifer for the sourcing of groundwater is dependent on the
porosity of the geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed (Britannica, 2023).
Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well. In Antigua,
groundwater is obtained from a number of wells drilled to depths between 24
and 30 m in depth. A submersible pump driven by an electric motor can be used
to raise the water to the surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate an
artesian aquifer, in which case natural hydrostatic pressure raises the water to the
surface. Groundwater is usually free of microbes and suspended solids because of
the natural filtration which occurs as water moves through soil, though it often
contains relatively high concentrations of dissolved minerals from its direct
contact with soil and rock. It may also absorb gases such as hydrogen sulphide
and methane. In populated areas the quality of surface water as well as
groundwater is directly influenced by land use and by human activities.

In Antigua, wells are pumped to get rain water but a problem may arise when a
well is overdrawn and the water becomes salty. By the time water enters the
water table, it is clear. All that is left to do to the water is to chlorinate it. Chlorine
kills microbes via a series of steps where the cell wall barrier is first disrupted by
reactions of chlorine which break down chemical bonds in their molecules. This
results in the release of vital cellular constituents from the cell and the
subsequent death of the microorganism.
Pros Cons and Recommendations
Reverse Osmosis
Pros:
1. Can remove almost all types of contaminants including minerals, bacteria,
viruses, and chemicals.
2. Has a high-rate rejection rate of up to 99%.
3. Uses a simple and convenient process that ensures water quality.

Cons:
1. High initial and ongoing operational costs.
2. Produces a lot of wastewater by-products.
3. Requires specialised maintenance and cleaning.
4. There are some limitations to its effectiveness, such as its inability to remove
certain volatile organic compounds and some heavy metals.

Surface Water Treatment

Pros:
1. Removes physical, chemical and biological impurities.
2. Cheaper initial costs compared to Reverse Osmosis
3. Effective when matched with appropriate treatment technology.

Cons:
1. Does not remove all types of contaminants
2. Can cause by-product formation in water
3. Has difficulty in removing dissolved organic matter

Groundwater Treatment
Pros:
1. Can be used for public water systems and small-scale residential systems.
2. Usually has a lower need for chemical use since the groundwater quality is
relatively cleaner.
3. Groundwater is usually available throughout the year and is reliable.

Cons:
1. Can have high levels of naturally occurring contaminants which require
additional treatment.
2. Requires well drilling which can be expensive.
3. Contamination can occur due to groundwater movement and extraction.

Recommendations

● Reverse osmosis is incredibly energy intensive. To start the desalination

process in Antigua, 600 volts of energy is required. This energy is
ascertained from the burning of fossil fuels which is detrimental to the
environment. In the future, Antigua could use renewable energy sources
such as hydroelectric or solar power to fuel the RO process.
● In Antigua, the brine is just disposed of. Larger desalination plants recover
energy from the rejected brine by running it through turbines to generate
electricity that can be used in the plant. Such a recovery system could lead
to energy savings of up to 30%, reducing energy costs and greenhouse gas
emissions considerably.
● In the future, surface water reservoirs such as Potworks dam could be
made into multipurpose reservoirs which provide food control,
hydroelectric power, and recreation in addition to potable water.
● Chlorine is a toxic gas and there may be risks associated with its use. Thus,
in the future, Antiguan water plants could use ozone, ultraviolet radiation,
or hydrogen peroxide disinfection instead of chlorine.
● The country could collaborate with neighbouring islands for water
purification improvement, research and development, tech-support and
cost-sharing to enhance water quality and accessibility in the region. This
 could encourage regional integration and sentiments of increased trust
and goodwill.

Conclusions
Water purification is a complex process which involves taking water from a
source and removing impurities, improving taste, colour, smell, appearance and
finally disinfection. In Antigua and Barbuda, water is sourced for the usage of the
population from the sea via desalination by reverse osmosis and the treatment of
ground and surface water. As a drought prone maritime country, most of our
water supply comes from desalination, with a lesser percentage being supplied
by groundwater wells. Reverse osmosis uses a semi-permeable membrane to
remove impurities from water. The process works by applying pressure to the
feed water, forcing it through the membrane, and leaving behind a concentrated
salt solution and purified water. This process requires large amounts of energy.
Surface and groundwater treatment in Antigua are much simpler processes.
Surface water treatment involves the addition of a coagulant to water which
destabilises suspended particles and causes them to clump together as larger
flocs, which can then be easily removed through sedimentation and filtration
processes. Groundwater treatment simply involves the addition of chemicals such
as potassium permanganate and chlorine to adjust taste and appearance, then
disinfection. These processes are not without their downfalls. Less toxic modes of
disinfection may be employed (such as UV, ozone etc) in place of chlorine. RO is
immensely expensive and energy intensive, well-drilling is expensive, and organic
contaminants and other impurities may remain in water after treating surface
water. Water purification in Antigua is far from perfect, but there is room for
improvement. As it stands, Antiguan purification processes are heavily reliant on
energy from fossil fuels and this can be improved by a greater utilisation of
renewable energy sources. Hydroelectric energy is of especial interest due to the
possibility of its being generated at multipurpose surface reservoirs, and from the
brine effluent produced in the RO process. Finally, greater cooperation in the
realm of water purification could be a means of improving the systems of all, and
encouraging regional integration.
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