18ECL67 Communication LAB MANUAL

VISVESWARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
K. S. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT

# 15, Mallasandra, off Kanakapura Road, Bangalore-560109
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Communication Lab Manual

Sub Code: 18ECL67
Semester: VI
PREPARED BY
Manu D K Associate Professor

Gopalakrishna Murthy C R Assistant Professor
Puneeth S Assistant Professor
NAME: ______________________________
USN: ________________________________
BATCH: _____________________________
List of Experiments
Sl Page
No.
Experiment
No.
PART-A
1. Amplitude Modulation and Detection. 1
2. Frequency modulation and Demodulation. 4
3. Pulse sampling, Flat Top Sampling and reconstruction. 8
4. TDM of two Band Limited Signals 14
5. FSK and PSK Generation & Detection 17
Measurement of Frequency, Guide Wavelength, Power ,VSWR, and
6. 26
Attenuation in Microwave Test Bench.
7. Obtain the Radiation Pattern and Measurement of directivity and gain of

microstrip dipole and Yagi antennas. 29
a. Determination of
b. Coupling, Isolation, Directivity Characteristics of Directional
8. Coupler.
32
c. Resonance Characteristics of Micro Strip Ring Resonator.
d. Power Division and Isolation of Micro Strip Power Divider.
PART-B
Simulate NRZ, RZ, Half-Sinusoid and Raised Cosine Pulses and
1. 43
Generate Eye Diagram for Binary Polar Signaling.
2. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation System. 49

Computations of the Probability of bit error for coherent binary ASK,
3. FSK and PSK for an AWGN Channel and Compare them with their 50
Performance curves.
4. Digital Modulation Schemes i) DPSK Transmitter and receiver, ii)
52
QPSK Transmitter and Receiver.
Communication Laboratory
The Communication Laboratory covers design and verification of the
concepts of modern digital communication systems that operate from MHz-
GHz range. The lab includes experiments on applications of Digital coding
and modulation techniques, Fiber Optic Communication, and Characteristics
of microwave waveguide components. This lab is equipped with
Oscilloscopes, Function Generators, and Modules for Digital Modulation and
Demodulation techniques and Power Supply units.
To enhance precise measurement and observe waveform with better

clarity Digital Storage Oscilloscopes are used. The Microwave test benches
are used to conduct experiments in the GHz frequency range. Various digital
coding and modulation kits are used apart from discrete components to
demonstrate the basic concepts involved in digital communication. An OFC
kit is used to demonstrate communication and multiplexing through Light
waves.
Objectives
 Introduction to design and verification of the concepts of modern digital

communication systems that operate from MHz-GHz range.
 Simplified practical illustrations of various Digital Modulation and Demodulation
techniques.
 Exposure to the challenges and characteristics of communication over an OFC
channel.
 Introduction to basic antenna types and their radiation patterns.
 Introduction to the fundaments of microwave communication and challenges.
Outcomes
 Understand the microwave signal measurement using VSWR and frequency meter.
 Understand the design, application and practical implementation of various Digital

Modulation techniques.
 Understand the challenges in the practical implementation of Microwave

Communication Systems.
 Understand the characteristics of various antennae and its coverage area.
 Understand the characteristics and various losses associated with OFC channel.
 Understand the various elements involved in the Physical Layer of modern
communication systems.
Communication Lab (18ECL67) 2020-21
EXPERIMENT NO 1:
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & DEMODULATION USING
TRANSISTOR/ FET
AIM: a) To generate Amplitude Modulated wave & to calculate the modulation index.
b) To perform demodulation of amplitude Modulated wave.
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Sl. Name of Component Specification/Range Quantity

No.
1 Transistor SL100 1
2 Diode OA79 1
3 Resistors 56 kΩ, 5.6 kΩ, 560 kΩ, 1 each
10 kΩ - 2, 16 kΩ(DRB)
4 Capacitors 100µF,10µF,0.01µF 1 each
5 CRO (0-20) MHz 1
6 Function Generator 1MHz 2
7 Regulated Power supply (0-30V),1A 1
8 Connecting probes/ wires As required
THEORY:
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is
varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal m(t).The standard form the
amplitude modulated wave is defined as,
𝑺(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 [𝟏 + 𝑲𝒂 𝒎(𝒕)] 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕
where, Ka is called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator
The Demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the incoming AM wave at
the receiver. An Envelop detector is simple and yet highly effective device that is well suited for the
demodulation of AM wave for which the % of modulation is less than 100%.An Envelop detector
produces an output signal that follows the envelop of the input wave exactly.
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Modulation index is defined as: 𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 1

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on +12 V Vcc supply.
3. Apply sinusoidal signal of 1 kHz frequency and amplitude 2 Vpp as modulating signal and carrier
signal of frequency 11 kHz and amplitude 15 Vpp.
4. Now slowly increase the amplitude of the modulating signal up to 7V and note down values V max
and Vmin.
5. Calculate the modulation index using the equation.
6. Find the value of R from fm=1/2πRC taking C=0.01µF.
7. Connect the circuit diagram for Demodulation.
8. Feed the AM wave to the demodulator circuit and observe the output.
9. Note down the frequency and amplitude of the demodulated output waveform.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
For Modulation:
For Demodulation:

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Modulation
S.No Am(volts) Vmax Vmin %m
Index ‘m’
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO 2:
FREQUENCY MODULATION USING IC 8038/2206 AND
DEMODULATION
AIM: Design and conduct a suitable experiment to generate a FM wave using IC 8038. Find the
modulation index and the bandwidth of operation (βT). To demodulate the frequency
modulated signal using FM detector.
Sl. Name of Component Specification/Range Quantity
No.
1 FM Modulator & Demodulator IC8038 & LM 565 1
2 Diode OA79 1
3 Resistors 10kΩ,, 6.8kΩ, 8.2kΩ 1
4 Capacitors 10µF,0.001µF 1
5 CRO (0-20) MHz 1
7 Regulated Power supply (0-30V),1A 1
8 Connecting probes/ wires As required
THEORY:
Frequency modulation conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous
frequency. An important concept in the understanding of FM is that of frequency deviation. The amount
of frequency deviation a signal experiences is a measure of the change in transmitter output frequency
from the rest frequency of the transmitter. The rest frequency of a transmitter is defined as the output
frequency with no modulating signal applied. For a transmitter with linear modulation characteristics,
the frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the applied modulating
signal. Thus an FM transmitter is said to have modulation sensitivity, represented by a constant, kf,
IC 8038 a waveform generator is used in F.M generation frequently. Modulated signal is given
by
s(t)= Ac cos [wct + β sinwmt]
m(t)= Am cos wmt

β=Modulation index=k f Am/Fm
Where β<0.3 it is narrow band F.M
And β>0.3 it is wide band F.M
IC is a 14 pin IC where pins 10,11,12 are used for sine wave adjust. Pin 2 gives sine wave
output the amplitude of this wave is 0.22VCC and VCC varies between ± 5v to ± 15v. This IC also
generates square wave and triangular wave. Pin 4 and 5 are used for duty cycle. An external capacitor
connected to pin 10 along with resistors connected to pin 5 and determines output frequency. Pin 8 is
used for F.M sweep input. Modulating signal is applied to pin8 sweep voltage should be within the
range 2/3 VCC < Vsweep < VCC. Where, VCC is total voltage. Sweep frequency of F.M is 10kHz. An
external capacitor connected to timing capacitor with timing resistors connected to 4 & 5 determines
the frequency of output waveforms.
PROCEDURE:
Modulation:
1. Apply ± 10v to IC 8038 and shorting pin no’s 7 and 8 observe output at 9, 3, 2 on CRO.
2. Measure sine wave amplitude and frequency at Pin 2.
3. Connect modulating signal of Vm = 5 v(p-p) and frequency of 800Hz to 1.5kHz between
pin 7 & 8, through R-C as shown.
4. Observe FM output at pin 2.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Determine maximum phase deviations following steps are carried out.
a. Shot 7 and 8, without RC connects a variable DC supply.
b. Vary DC voltage from (0-6v) and observe frequency variation at pin 2.
c. Note down DC input and output frequency on CRO.
d. Draw graph of frequency v/s input voltage.
Demodulation:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram shown in figure below
2. Check the functioning of PLL (IC 565) by giving square wave to input and observing the output.
3. Frequency of input signal is varied till input and output are locked.
4. Now modulated signal is fed as input and observe the demodulated signal (output) on CRO.
5. Draw the demodulated waveform.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODULATION
DEMODULATION
DESIGN:
1
Given frequency f = 25 kHz 𝑓= 5⁄ 𝑅 𝐶[1+(𝑅𝐵 ⁄
3 𝐴 2𝑅𝐴 −𝑅𝐵 )]𝑅𝐴
Let =RB =R, f = 0.3/ RC,
Let R = 10kΩ, C = 0.001µF

WAVEFORMS:
Modulation
TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No Am(Volts) Tmax(sec) fmin(kHz) Δf(kHz) β BW
RESULT: The modulation index and waveforms are verified.

EXPERIMENT NO 3:
PULSE SAMPLING, FLAT TOP SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION
AIM: (a) To conduct an experiment to generate pulse sampling and to demodulate the same.
Sl. No. Particulars Range Quantity

1. Transistor SL100 -- 01
2. Resistor 3.3 kΩ, 5.2 kΩ, 30 kΩ 1 each
3. Capacitor 0.1µF 1
4. Function Generator 1MHz 1
5. Connecting wires As required
THEORY:
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message

information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse
modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to
the sample value of the message signal.
In PAM the amplitude of the pulses are varied in accordance with the modulating signal
m(t). PAM is achieved simply by multiplying the carrier signal c(t) with the input m (t) signal.
The form of pulse Amplitude modulation shown in the circuit diagram is referred to as
natural PAM because the tops of the pulses follow the shape of the modulating signal. The
samples are taken at regular interval of time. If enough samples are taken, a reasonable
approximation of the signal being sampled can be reconstructed at the receiving end.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DESIGN:
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the components/Equipment’s for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Apply the square wave carrier signal of 2V peak to peak amplitude of frequency
10 kHz.
4. Apply sine wave modulating signal of frequency f m = 100 Hz with 5V peak to peak amplitude
5. Observe the PAM waveform.
6. Observe the demodulated signal at the output of the low pass filter and note fo and Vo.
7. Repeat the above steps for fc = 2fm and fc<2fm.

TABULAR COLUMN: Vc(p-p)= ______V Vm(p-p)= _______V
Vo of Vo of
Sl. Sampling
fc (Hz) fm (Hz) demodulated demodulated
No. methods
signal in Volt signal in Hz
1 Under Sampling
fc<2fm
2 Nquist Rate
fc=2fm
3 Over Sampling
fc>2fm
EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
RESULT: Pulse samples are produced and the demodulation is observed.

AIM: (b) To design a circuit for generating flat top samples and to verify Sampling theorem.
Sl.
Particulars Range Quantity
No.
1 IC-4016/4051 1
2 Transistor SL100 -- 1
3 Resistor 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ , 22 kΩ 1 each
4 Capacitor 0.1µF 2
6 Connecting wires 1 set
THEORY:
Flat top sampling is like natural sampling. In this sampling techniques, the top of the samples
remains constant and is equal to the instantaneous value of the message signal x(t) at the start of
sampling process. Sample and hold circuit is used in this type of sampling. Theoretically, the sampled
signal can be obtained by convolution of rectangular pulse p(t) with ideally sampled signal say y δ(t)
Nyquist Rate: It is the minimum sampling rate at which signal can be converted into samples and can
be recovered back without distortion.
Nyquist rate fN = 2fm (Hz)
Nyquist interval = 1/fN = 1/2 fm (seconds).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DESIGN:
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.

3. Apply the square wave carrier signal of 8V peak to peak amplitude of frequency 10 kHz.
4. Apply sine wave modulating signal of frequency fm = 100 Hz with 1.2 V peak to peak
amplitude and 0.6 dc shift.
5. Observe the output waveform.

6. Observe the demodulated signal at the output of the low pass filter and note fo and Vo.
7. Repeat the above steps for fc = 2fm and fc<2fm.
8. Connect the sampled output as a input to the demodulator input and reconstruct the original
message signal.
TABULAR COLUMN: Vc(p-p)= V Vm(p-p)= V
Vo of Vo of
Sl. Sampling fc fm
demodulated demodulated
No. methods (Hz) (Hz)
signal in Volt signal in Hz
Under Sampling
1
fc<2fm
Nquist Rate
2 fc=2fm
Over Sampling
3 fc>2fm
EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
RESULT: Flat top samples are generated and Sampling theorem is verified.

EXPERIMENT NO 4:
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING OF TWO BAND LIMITED
SIGNALS
AIM: To study the TDM of two Bands Limited PAM signals.
Sl.No Components Range Quantity
1 Transistor SL-100,SK-100 2
2 Op-amp IC-741 1
3 Resistors 1 𝑘Ω 1 𝑘Ω = 9
4 Variable power supply (0 − 30𝑉 ) 1
5 DSO - 1
6 Function Generator - 2
7 Connecting wires - 1 set
Theory:
TDM is a technique used for transmitting several message signals over a communication
channel by dividing the time frame into slots, one slot for each message signal. This is a digital
technique in which the circuit is highly modular in nature and provides reliable and efficient operation.
There is no cross talk in TDM due to circuit non-lineraties since the pulses are completely isolated. But
it also has its disadvantages, which include timing jitter and synchronization is required. In pulse-
amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a periodic train of pulses is varied in pro-portion to a message
signal. TDM provides an effective method for sharing a communication channel.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Modulation Circuit:
Demodulation Circuit:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Provide message signals m1(t) and m2(t) and carrier signal c(t) using a signal generator
(keep 𝑓𝑐 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚 ).
3. Observe the PAM signals at transistor collector terminals as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Rig up the demodulator circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for Demultiplexer.
5. Observe the Demultiplexer output in the CRO.
6. Plot the relevant waveform.
Waveform:

EXPERIMENT NO 5a:
FSK GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM: To design an FSK system to transmit digital data using a suitable carrier and to demodulate the
signal using a suitable circuit .
2 Op-amp IC-741 2
3 Resistors 1 𝑘Ω, 10 𝑘Ω 1 𝑘Ω Pot, 10 𝑘Ω Pot 1 𝑘Ω = 2

10 𝑘Ω = 5
4 Capacitors 0.1µ𝐹 2
5 Diode IN4007 1
7 DSO - 1
Theory:
FSK is one of the digital modulation techniques. Here the frequency of the carrier is switched
between two values. A sinusoidal of amplitude 'A' and frequency 𝑓𝐶1 is used to represent a binary '1'
and frequency 𝑓𝐶2 is used to represent binary '0'.
The FSK modulator use frequencies 𝑓𝐶1 and 𝑓𝐶2 as high and low frequencies respectively. The
inverter is placed before lower modulator hence at any time only one modulator is active. The band
pass filter is used for bandwidth limiting. Since the amplitude of FSK is constant, the noise as a
minimum effect on FSK. It is used in a low speed modem having a bitrate around 1200 bps the
detection of FSK is relatively simple. However, FSK needs more bandwidth, FSK uses two different
frequencies with sufficient difference between them. Hence bandwidth required for FSK is more.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Modulation Circuit:
DETECTION:

DESIGN:
Modulation:
Assume
𝐼𝐶𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝐴, ℎ𝑓𝑒(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 30, 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2 𝑉 , 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 𝑉
𝐼𝐶 5𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = = = 0.166 𝑚𝐴
ℎ𝑓𝑒 30
(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) (5 − 0.2)

𝑅𝐶1 = 𝑅𝐶2 = = = 0.96𝑘Ω = 1 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐶 5𝑚𝐴
(𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑉𝐸 ) (10 − 0.7 − 7.2)

𝑅𝐵 = = = 10 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐵 0.166𝑚
Demodulation:
Envelope Detector
1 1
< 𝑅𝐶 <
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑚
𝑓𝑚 = 200 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑐 = 10 𝐾𝐻𝑧
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Provide Message signal m(t) (Square Wave) and Carrier signals C1(t) and C2(t) (Sinusoid Wave)
using a signal generator.
3. Observe the FSK signal and note down the waveform.
4. Connect the detection circuit as shown and supply the FSK signal.
5. Observe the intermediate ASK signal and vary Vref carefully, finally observe the detected signal.
6. Plot the relevant waveforms.
CALCULATIONS:
Frequency Deviation, 𝛿𝑓 = (𝑓2 − 𝑓1 )
𝛿𝑓
Modulation Index, β=
𝑓𝑚

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO 5a:
PSK GENERATION AND DETECTION
AIM: To design & demonstrate a BPSK system to transmit digital data using a suitable carrier and to
demodulate signal using a suitable circuit.
2 Op-amp IC-741 3
3 Resistors 1 𝑘Ω, 4.7 𝑘Ω, 10 𝑘Ω, 10kΩ pot 1 𝑘Ω = 2

10 𝑘Ω = 7
4 Capacitor 0.1µ𝐹 1
5 Diode IN4007 1
7 DSO - 1
Theory:
Phase shift keying is basically is a technique in which the phase of the carrier is changed in accordance
with the amplitude of the modulating signal. Here modulating signal is a binary signal that varies
between ‘0’ and ‘1’. The carrier has to be modulated in phase for either of the two conditions. ie., for
binary ‘1’ it should be 1800 out of phase with the previous phase and carrier should be 00 phase for
binary ‘0’ with respect to the previous phase.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Modulation Circuit:
Demodulation Circuit:

DESIGN :
Modulation:
Assume
𝐼𝐶𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝐴, ℎ𝑓𝑒(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 30, 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2 𝑉 , 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7 𝑉
𝐼𝐶 5𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = = = 0.166 𝑚𝐴
ℎ𝑓𝑒 30
(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) (5 − 0.2)
𝑅𝐶1 = 𝑅𝐶2 = = = 0.96𝑘Ω = 1 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐶 5𝑚𝐴
(𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 − 𝑉𝐸 ) (10 − 0.7 − 7.2)

𝑅𝐵 = = = 10 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐵 0.166𝑚
Demodulation:
𝑅 𝑅
1. Inverting Amplifer: 𝐶1 ′(𝑡) = − (𝑅𝑓 ) 𝐶1 (𝑡) Let Gain=1 So 𝑅𝑓 =say(10 kΩ)
1 1
𝑅 𝑅
2. Adder: 𝑉𝑡 = − (𝑅𝑓 ) [𝐹𝑆𝐾 + 𝐶1 ′(𝑡)] Let Gain=1 So 𝑅𝑓 =say(10 kΩ)
1 1
Envelope Detector
1 1
< 𝑅𝐶 <
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 2𝜋𝑓𝑚
1
𝑓𝑚 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Let C=0.1µf,
1
𝑅= = 4.7𝑘Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝐶
PROCEDURE:

2. Provide message signal m(t) and carrier signal c(t) using a signal generator
3. Observe the BPSK signal and note down the readings.
4. Connect the detection circuit as shown and supply the BPSK signal and c(t)
5. Observe the intermediate ASK signal vary potentiometer carefully, and finally observe the
detected signal.
6. Plot the relevant waveforms.

WAVEFORMS:
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT N0 6:
MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY, GUIDE WAVELENGTH, POWER, VSWR AND

ATTENUATION IN MICROWAVE TEST BENCH
AIM: Conduct an experiment to find Frequency, Guide Wavelength, Power, VSWR and Attenuation
in Microwave Test Bench.
Experimental Setup:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROWAVE TEST BENCH
REFLEX
KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY CRO / VSWR
Meter
REFLEX FREQUENCY SLOTTED

ISOLATOR
KLYSTRON METER LINE
CARRAIGE DETECTOR
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the cooling fan to blow air across the tube.

2. Keep the Klystron Beam voltage to 200V.
3. Arrange the microwave experimental set up as shown in the figure above.
4. Switch on the power supply. Slowly increase repeller voltage until you observe a square
waveform on DSO.
5. Let slotted line carriage be in minimum position.
6. Now move the slotted line carriage in order to obtain maximum voltage (Square wave) on DSO.
7. Vary the frequency meter till a dip is obtained in the output voltage. Measure the frequency𝑓𝑜 at
that point and rotate back the frequency meter.

TO FIND GUIDE WAVELENGTH (λg) and OPERATING FREQUENCY (fo):-
8. Locate maxima on the DSO. This is also called a node.

9. Move the slotted line carriage to any node or antinode and note down the first reading as 𝑑1.
10. Move the slotted line carriage to the immediate next node or antinode and note down the 2nd
reading 𝑑2.
11. Guide wavelength ( λ𝑔 )is twice the difference of 𝑑1and 𝑑2 i.e. λ𝑔 = 2(𝑑2 − 𝑑1)
TO FIND VSWR:-
Using DSO
12. Measure maximum voltage Vmax and minimum voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 on DSO and calculate VSWR .
Using VSWR Meter

13. Locate any Maxima Vmax using the slotted line carriage.
14. Disconnect Probe from DSO and connect it to VSWR meter.
15. Move the slotted line section in any direction until the pointer shows sudden kick back from the
value on VSWR scale of VSWR meter.
16. The VSWR meter reading at the kick back point gives the VSWR value.
TO FIND ATTENUATION AND POWER:-
17. Locate any Maxima using slotted line carriage Vmax.

18. Disconnect Probe from DSO and connect it to VSWR meter.
19. Keeps the attenuator knob reading at or above 10 µm and measure the max power in VSWR
meter.
20. Vary the attenuator Knob in steps of 2um till we get the deflection in VSWR Meter and note
down the value in dB. This gives the attenuation.
RESULT:
FORMULA USED:
1. Frequency using frequency meter
𝑓𝑜 = ____________Hz
2. Measurement of Guide Wavelength ( λ𝑔 ) and operating frequency (𝑓𝑜 )

𝑑1 = __________cm.
𝑑2 = __________cm.
λ𝑔 = 2(𝑑2 − 𝑑1) = ____________ cm.

Now, λ𝑐 = 2𝑎 where a= Broad wall dimension of wave guide = 2.3 𝑐𝑚
λ𝑐 = _____________𝑐𝑚
1 1 1
Hence = λ2 + λ2
λ2𝑜 𝑔 𝑐
(λ𝑔 λ𝑐 )
λ0 =
√λ𝑔2 + λ2𝑐
λ0 = __________𝑐𝑚.
So,
𝐶
𝑓𝑜 = = _________GHz
λ0
3. (i) VSWR using DSO

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =____________
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Vmin
Demodulated output @ dip
Vmax
(ii) Using VSWR Meter, 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = ____________
4. Measurement of Power and Attenuation characteristics.
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 = ____________________𝑑𝐵
Micrometer Reading Attenuation in (𝑑𝐵)

EXPERIMENT NO 7:
MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN OF MICROSTRIP DIPOLE AND YAGI

ANTENNA
AIM: To measure the Directivity and Gain of an Antenna: (Dipole antenna, Yagi antenna)
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP :
MICROWAVE SOURCE
( 2.2 GHz – 3GHz)

VSWR METER
3 dB
ATTENUATOR
DETECTOR ACTIVE
FILTER
attenuator
INITIAL SETTINGS OF MICROWAVE SOURCE :
1. POWER KNOB: OFF

2. RF POWER LEVEL: MINIMUM POSITION
INITIAL SETTINGS OF VSWR METER :

1. RANGE : NORMAL / 30dB
2. VARIABLE GAIN : MAXIMUM
NOTE: ALL VSWR READINGS ARE READ AS (-VE ) VALUES.

Procedure:
1. Assemble the microwave set up as shown in the circuit diagram above.
2. Switch on the microwave source. Set the Frequency to 2.3 𝐺𝐻𝑍. Vary the RF power level knob
and observe the variation of power on VSWR meter.
3. Connect Transmitter antenna and Receiver antenna and measure the resonant frequency of antenna
using DSO and note down the value.
(2∗𝐷2 )
4. Keep the distance between antennas, atleast 𝑆 = [D-Maximum dimension of antenna].
λ𝑜
5. Align both antennas (E Plane/H Plane) in such a way that maximum power is obtained at 0 degrees.
6. Rotate the antenna clockwise in steps of 10 degrees and note power reading from VSWR meter for
each degree.
7. Plot radiation pattern on radiation graph and find 𝜃𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝐻 .
8. Then calculate gain and directivity.

TABULAR COLUMN:
ANGLE RELATIVE POWER

NORMALIZED POWER
( DEGREES ) ( VSWR READINGS )
0
10
20
30
40
50
360
CALCULATION :
(32400)
(I) 𝐷 = (𝜃
𝐸 ∗ 𝜃𝐻 )
(II ) Directivity[𝐷] = 10 log(𝐷 ) 𝑑𝐵
4𝜋𝑆 𝑃
( III ) Gain, 𝐺 = λ𝑜
√ 𝑃𝑅
𝑇
𝑃𝑅 =Received Power at 00
𝑃𝑅 =Transmitted Power without antennas at the resonant frequency.
(IV) Gain [𝐺 ] = 10 log(𝐺 ) 𝑑𝐵
RESULT :
(A) Directivity of the given antenna is
(B) The gain of the given antenna is

EXPERIMENT No-8:
DETERMINATION OF
a) COUPLING AND ISOLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROSTRIP DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER
b) RESONANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO STRIP RING RESONATOR AND
COMPUTATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSANT OF SUBSTRATE
c) POWER DIVISION AND ISOLATION OF MICROSTRIP POWER DIVIDER
a) Aim: Determination of coupling, isolation, directivity and insertion loss characteristics of a

micro strip line directional coupler.(a) Parallel Coupler (b) Branch line Coupler
IMAGE:
(a) Parallel Coupler
(b) Branch line Coupler
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:
MICROWAVE VSWR
SOURCE
METER
( 2.2 GHz – 3GHz)
3 dB
ATTENUATOR DETECTOR
P Q

A] INITIAL SETTINGS OF MICROWAVE SOURCE :

2. RF POWER : ON
B ] INITIAL SETTINGS OF VSWR METER :
3. RANGE : NORMAL / 30𝑑𝐵

4. VARIABLE GAIN: MAXIMUM
Procedure:
2. Connect P and Q directly using connectors.
3. Switch on the microwave source. Set the Frequency to 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧. Vary the RF power level knob
4. Vary RF power level knob till VSWR reading is −45𝑑𝐵𝑚. This is direct reading.
5. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down power level
in VSWR meter for each frequency.
6. Tabulate above readings as P1 ( direct reading ).
7. Disconnect P and Q and connect micro strip directional coupler in between P & Q.
8. P is connected to PORT 1. (Input )

Q is connected to PORT 2. ( output )
PORT 3 & PORT 4 are matched using 50Ω loads.
9. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down power level
10. Tabulate above readings as P2. ( Port 2 values).
11. Repeat step 8, 9 and 10 by connecting Q to 3, 4 tabulating values as P3 and P4.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Coupling Directivity Insertion

Frequency VSWR Readings Isolation
Factor Isolation - Loss
( GHz) Coupling
[P1] [P2] [P3] [P4] [C]= [P1] –[P3] [I] = [P1] – [P4] [D] = [P3] – [P4] [P1] – [P2]
Result:
a) The coupling factor is
b) Isolation is found out to be

c) Directivity is found out to be
d) Insertion Loss is found out to be

b). AIM: Measurement of resonance characteristics and dielectric constant of a substrate using a
micro strip ring resonator.
IMAGE :
MICROSTRIP RING RESONATOR
Experimental set up :
MICROWAVE
SOURCE VSWR
( 2.2 GHz – 3GHz) METER
3 dB
ATTENUATOR DETECTOR
P Q

Procedure:
1. POWER KNOB: OFF

2. RF POWER : MINIMUM
3. RANGE : NORMAL /30dB

3. Switch on the microwave source. Set the Frequency to 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧. Vary the RF power level knob
4. Vary RF power level knob till VSWR reading is −45𝑑𝐵𝑚. This is direct reading.
5. Now disconnect P and Q. Connect P to one port of RING RESONATOR and Q to DETECTOR.
6. A sudden drop in VSWR reading (Power level) is observed.
7. Now select lowest range −60 𝑑𝐵𝑚 range in VSWR meter.
8. Vary the frequency from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and observe increase power level in VSWR meter.
9. At particular frequency power level reachesa maximum value and starts to decrease.
10. The frequency at which maximum power is obtained is termed as RESONANT

FREQUENCY(𝑓𝑜 ).
11. Now tabulate the power level values for each frequency from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 2.8 𝐺𝐻𝑧.

TABULAR COLUMN:
SL No Frequency Power
(GHz) dB
Calculation of Dielectric constant:
I] Resonant Frequency 𝑓𝑜 =_______________GHz

II] To find Effective dielectric constant of the substrate (𝜖𝑒𝑓𝑓 ):
GIVEN :
ℎ = 0.76𝑚𝑚 [𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒] 𝑤=
1.84𝑚𝑚 [𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟]
𝜖𝑟 = 3.2 [𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]
Therefore Effective dielectric constant is

𝜖𝑟 +1 𝜖𝑟 −1 1
𝜖𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + ∗( )
2 2 12ℎ
√1+
𝑤
Result : For given microstrip ring resonator [i] 𝑓𝑜 =
[ii] 𝜖𝑟 =

c). AIM: Measurement of power division and isolation characteristics of a micro strip 3 𝑑𝐵 power
divider.
IMAGE :
MICROSTRIP 3 dB POWER DIVIDER
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:
MICROWAVE
SOURCE
( 2.2 GHz – 3GHz) VSWR
METER
3 dB
DETECTOR
ATTENUATOR
P Q

2. RF POWER : ON
3. RANGE : NORMAL / 30 𝑑𝐵

Procedure:
3. Switch on the microwave source. Set the Frequency to 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 Vary the RF power level knob
and observe the variation of power on VSWR meter
4. Vary RF power level knob till VSWR reading is −45 𝑑𝐵𝑚. This is direct reading
5. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down Power level
6. Tabulate above readings as P1 ( direct reading ).
7. Disconnect P and Q and connect micro strip power divider in between P & Q
I. POWER DIVISION:
1. P is connected to PORT 1. (Input)

Q is connected to PORT 2. (output )
PORT 3 is matched using a 50Ω load.
2. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down Power level
3. Tabulate above readings as P2. ( Port 2 values).
4. Disconnect P and Q and connect micro strip POWER DIVIDER in between it.
Q is connected to PORT 3. (Output)
PORT 2 is matched using 50Ω loads.
6. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down power level.
in VSWR meter for each frequency. [keep range of a VSWR METER in 40 𝑑𝐵].
7. Tabulate above readings as P3. (Port 3 values)
.

TABULAR COLUMN:
POWER DIVISION
POWER DIVISION B/W PORT 1 & PORT
FREQUENCY VSWR READINGS 3
B/W PORT 1 & PORT 2
( GHz)
[P1] [P2] [P3] [PD]= [P1] –[P2] [PD] = [P1] – [P3]
II: ISOLATION PROPERTY :
1. Disconnect P and Q and connect micro strip POWER DIVIDER in between it.

Q is connected to PORT 3. (Output)
PORT 1 is matched using 50Ω loads.
3. Vary the frequency in terms of 0.1𝐺𝐻𝑧 from 2.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 to 2.7 𝐺𝐻𝑧 and note down power level in
VSWR meter for each frequency. [ keep range of VSWR METER in 50 dB]
4. Tabulate above readings as P3. ( Port 3 values )

TABULAR COLUMN:
FREQUENCY VSWR READINGS ISOLATION
( GHz) [P2] [P3] [I] = [P2] – [P3]
NOTE : P2 VALUES ARE SAME VALUES AS P1 (Direct readings)
Result:
A] The Power division is
B] Isolation is found out to be

PART B

EXPERIMENT NO 1
SIMULATE NRZ, RZ, HALF-SINUSOID AND RAISED COSINE PULSES AND GENERATE
EYE DIAGRAM FOR BINARY POLAR SIGNALING.
a) Binary Polar NRZ
h=[1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0];
n=1;
l=length(h);
h(l+1)=1;
while n<=length(h)-1;
t=n-1:0.001:n;
if h(n) == 0
if h(n+1)==0
y=-(t<n)-(t==n);
else
y=-(t<n)+(t==n);
end
d=plot(t,y);grid on;
title('Line code POLAR NRZ');
set(d,'LineWidth',2.5);
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
disp('zero');
else
if h(n+1)==0
y=(t<n)-1*(t==n);
else
y=(t<n)+1*(t==n);
end
title('Line code POLAR NRZ');
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
disp('one');
end
n=n+1;
%pause;
end

WAVEFORM
b) Binary Polar RZ
h=[1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0];
n=1;
l=length(h);
h(l+1)=1;
while n<=length(h)-1;
t=n-1:0.001:n;
if h(n) == 0
if h(n+1)==0
y=-(t<n-0.5)-(t==n);
else
y=-(t<n-0.5)+(t==n);
end
title('Line code BIPOLAR RZ');
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
disp('zero');
else
if h(n+1)==0

%y=(t>n-1)-2*(t==n);
y=(t<n-0.5)-1*(t==n);
else
%y=(t>n-1)+(t==n-1);
y=(t<n-0.5)+1*(t==n);
end
%y=(t>n-1)+(t==n-1);
title('Line code BIPOLAR RZ');
hold on;
axis([0 length(h)-1 -1.5 1.5]);
disp('one');
end
n=n+1;
%pause;
end
WAVEFORM

c) Half Sinusoid
Close all;
clc;
t = 0:0.2:2;
f=.5; % Input Signal Frequency
x=sin(2*pi*f*t); % Generate Sine Wave
x(x>0) = 0;
figure;
plot(t,x);
axis([xlim -1 1])
title(‘Half Sinusoid’);
WAVEFORM

d) Raised Cosine Pulse
clc;
clear all;
close all;
over = 16; % oversampling factor
subplot(2,1,1)
rolloff=.2;
pulse = rcosine(1,over,'sqrt',rolloff); %basic raised-cosine pulseshape
plot(pulse)
title('raised cosine Pulse rolloff=0.2');
rolloff2=0.5;
pulse1 = rcosine(1,over,'sqrt',rolloff2);
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(pulse1);
title('raised cosine Pulse rolloff=0.5');
WAVEFORM

e) Eye Diagram
%Eye Diagram
h=[1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0];
fs=10;
fd=1;
a=length(h);
delay=5;
r=0.5;
rcv=rcosflt(h,fd,fs,'fir/normal',r,delay);
f=fs/fd;
eyediagram(rcv,f);
WAVEFORM

EXPERIMENT NO 2
PROGRAM TO SIMULATE PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

SYSTEM
clc;
close all;
clear all;
f=2;
fs=20*f;
t=0:1/fs:1;
a=2;
x=a*sin(2*pi*f*t);
x1=x+a;
q_op=round(x1);
enco=DE2BI(q_op, 'left-msb');
deco=BI2DE(enco,'left-msb');
deco_a=deco-a;
xr=deco_a;
plot(t,x,'r-',t,xr,'k+-');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
legend('Original Signal','Reconstructed Signal');
WAVEFORM

EXPERIMENT NO 3
Computations of the Probability of bit error for coherent binary ASK, FSK and
PSK for an AWGN Channel and Compare them with their Performance curves.
close all; clear all; clc;
% Initial Data
num_bit=100;%number of bit
data=round(rand(1,num_bit));%random bit generation (1 or 0)
SNRdB=0:10; % SNR in dB
SNR=10.^(SNRdB/10);
% Loop
for(k=1:length(SNRdB))%BER (error/bit) calculation for different SNR%
y=awgn(complex(data),SNRdB(k));
error_bask=0; error_bpsk=0; error_bfsk=0;
R=0;
M=[];
for(c=1:1:num_bit)
% BASK
if (y(c)>.5&&data(c)==0)||(y(c)<.5&&data(c)==1)%Decision logic acording to BASK
error_bask=error_bask+1;
M=[M ~data(c)];
else
M=[M data(c)];
end
% BFSK
Z(c)=real(y(c))-imag(y(c));
if ((Z(c)>0 && data(c)==0)||(Z(c)<0 && data(c)==1))%Decision logic acording to
BFSK
error_bfsk = error_bfsk+1;
M=[M ~data(c)];
else
M=[M data(c)];
end
% BPSK
if ((y(c)> 0 &&data(c)==0)||(y(c)< 0 &&data(c)==1))%Decision logic acording to
BPSK
error_bpsk=error_bpsk+1;
M=[M ~data(c)];
else
M=[M data(c)];
end
end
% Error Calculation
m_bask(k)=error_bask/num_bit; %Calculate error/bit
m_bfsk(k)=error_bfsk/num_bit; %Calculate error/bit
m_bpsk(k)=error_bpsk/num_bit; %Calculate error/bit
end
%Plots

%(BASK)
semilogy(SNRdB,m_bask,'--r','linewidth',2.5);
grid on
hold on
BER_th=(1/2)*erfc(.5*sqrt(SNR));
semilogy(SNRdB,BER_th,'r','linewidth',2.5),grid on,hold on;
title(' curve for Bit Error Rate verses SNR');
xlabel(' SNR(dB)');
ylabel('BER');
%(BFSK)
semilogy(SNRdB,m_bfsk,'-*b','linewidth',2.5);
grid on
BER_th=(1/2)*erfc(sqrt(SNR/2));
semilogy(SNRdB,BER_th,'b','linewidth',2.5),grid on,hold on;
xlabel(' SNR(dB)');
ylabel('BER');
%(BPSK)
semilogy(SNRdB,m_bpsk,'--g','linewidth',2.5);
grid on
BER_th=(1/2)*erfc(sqrt(SNR));
semilogy(SNRdB,BER_th,'g','linewidth',2.5),grid on,hold on;
xlabel(' SNR(dB)');
ylabel('BER');
legend('BASK Theoretical','BASK Calculated', 'BFSK Theoretical','BFSK Calculated',

'BPSK Theoretical','BPSK Calculated', 'Location','SouthWest')
Output Waveform

EXPERIMENT NO 4a
PROGRAM TO SIMULATE TEST THE PERFORMANCE OF A BINARY

DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING SYSTEM BY SIMULATING THE
NON-COHERENT DETECTION OF BINARY DPSK.
clc;
clear;
close all;
x=[1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 ];
disp('input bits');
disp(x);
x1(1)=bitxor(1,x(1));
for i=2:8
x1(i)=bitxor(x1(i-1),x(i));
end
x1=[1,x1];
% disp('coded bits');
% disp(x1(2:9));
t = linspace(0,.9,900);
y = sin(2*pi*50*t);
signal=zeros(1,length(t));
for i=1:length(x1)
if x1(i)==1
signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)=1;
y1(1,i*100-99:i*100)=signal(1,i*100-99:i*100).*y(1,i*100-99:i*100);
else
signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)=-1;
y1(1,i*100-99:i*100)=signal(1,i*100-99:i*100).*y(1,i*100-99:i*100);
end
end
subplot(311);plot(t,signal),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('coded input signal')
subplot(312);plot(t,y),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('carrier');
subplot(313);plot(t(1:900),y1),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('DPSK modulated wave');
% Demodulation of DPSK
for i=1:9
z1(i,:)=y1(100*(i-1)+1:100*i);
end
q1(1)=1;
for i=2:9
q1(i)=sum(z1(i,:).*z1(1,:));
if(q1(i)>0)
q(i-1)=1;
else
q(i-1)=0;
end
end
% disp('recovered bits');
% disp(q);
d1(1)=bitxor(1,q(1));
for i=2:8
d1(i)=bitxor(q(i-1),q(i));
end
disp('decoded data');
disp(d1);

WAVEFORM

EXPERIMENT NO 4b
PROGRAM TO SIMULATE QPSK TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
clc;
clear all;
close all;
Tb=1;
t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;
fc=1;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t)
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;
t2=Tb;
for i=1:2:(N-1)
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2];
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
odd_sig(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
if m(i+1)>0.5
m(i+1)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i+1)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
even_sig(i,:)=c2.*m_s;

qpsk=odd_sig+even_sig;
subplot(3,2,4);
plot(t,qpsk(i,:));
title('QPSK Signal');
xlabel('t------->');
ylabel('s(t)');
grid on;
hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+0.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+0.01);
end
hold off;
subplot(3,2,1);
stem(m);
title('Binary Data bits');
xlabel('n------>');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,2);
plot(t,c1);
title('Carrier Signal-1');
xlabel('t------->');
ylabel('c1(t)');
grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);
plot(t,c2);
title('Carrier Signal-2');
xlabel('t------->');
ylabel('c2(t)');
grid on;
t1=0;
t2=Tb;
for i=1:N-1
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]

x1=sum(c1.*qpsk(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*qpsk(i,:));
if (x1>0 & x2>0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=1;
elseif (x1>0 & x2<0)
demod(i)=1;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0 & x2<0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=0;
elseif (x1<0 & x2>0)
demod(i)=0;
demod(i+1)=1;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+0.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+0.01);
end
subplot(3,2,5);
stem(demod);
title('QPSK Demodulated Bits');
xlabel('n------->');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
WAVEFORM

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VISVESWARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

K. S. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Communication Lab Manual

Manu D K Associate Professor

7. Obtain the Radiation Pattern and Measurement of directivity and gain of

2. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation System. 49

To enhance precise measurement and observe waveform with better

 Introduction to design and verification of the concepts of modern digital

 Introduction to the fundaments of microwave communication and challenges.

 Understand the design, application and practical implementation of various Digital

 Understand the challenges in the practical implementation of Microwave

 Understand the various elements involved in the Physical Layer of modern

b) To perform demodulation of amplitude Modulated wave.

Sl. Name of Component Specification/Range Quantity

3 Resistors 56 kΩ, 5.6 kΩ, 560 kΩ, 1 each

4 Capacitors 100µF,10µF,0.01µF 1 each

5 CRO (0-20) MHz 1

6 Function Generator 1MHz 2

7 Regulated Power supply (0-30V),1A 1

8 Connecting probes/ wires As required

𝑺(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 [𝟏 + 𝑲𝒂 𝒎(𝒕)] 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

where, Ka is called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 1

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 2

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 3

3 Resistors 10kΩ,, 6.8kΩ, 8.2kΩ 1

5 CRO (0-20) MHz 1

6 Function Generator 1MHz 2

7 Regulated Power supply (0-30V),1A 1

8 Connecting probes/ wires As required

s(t)= Ac cos [wct + β sinwmt]

m(t)= Am cos wmt

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 4

β=Modulation index=k f Am/Fm

Where β<0.3 it is narrow band F.M

And β>0.3 it is wide band F.M

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 5

Let =RB =R, f = 0.3/ RC,

Let R = 10kΩ, C = 0.001µF

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 6

S.No Am(Volts) Tmax(sec) fmin(kHz) Δf(kHz) β BW

RESULT: The modulation index and waveforms are verified.

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 7

Sl. No. Particulars Range Quantity

Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 8

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 9

TABULAR COLUMN: Vc(p-p)= ______V Vm(p-p)= _______V

RESULT: Pulse samples are produced and the demodulation is observed.

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 10

3 Resistor 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ , 22 kΩ 1 each

5 Function Generator 1MHz 1

6 Connecting wires 1 set

Nyquist rate fN = 2fm (Hz)

Nyquist interval = 1/fN = 1/2 fm (seconds).

Dept. of ECE, KSSEM Page 11

1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.

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TABULAR COLUMN: Vc(p-p)= V Vm(p-p)= _V