M3-Introduction

SPECTACLE LENSES are the most common method of correcting refractive errors and
enabling people to see well.
Contact lenses and refractive surgery are other options.
Refractive errors include myopia or near-sightedness, and hyperopia or far-sightedness.
Myopia and hyperopia are corrected with spherical lenses of minus (for myopia) or plus (for
hyperopia) power respectively.
Astigmatism is a non-spherical refractive error and can exist along with myopia or hyperopia.
Astigmatism is corrected with a sphero-cylindrical lens.
Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism, by themselves, require correction by single vision lens.
While multifocal lenses are most comply prescribed for presbyopia, an age-related
condition in which people lose the ability to change the focus of their eye to see clearly
within arms’ length.

M3-LESSON 1 LENS ORIENTATION

“OD” and “OS” - These are actually Latin abbreviations for the terms “Oculus Dextrus”, and
“Oculus Sinister”, meaning right eye, and left eye respectively.
If you don’t see “OD/OS” your prescription will most likely include the letters “OU,” which is
another Latin abbreviation for the term “Oculus Uterque”, meaning both eyes.

Fig. 1. An illustration of the lens orientation where the right lens is referred to as OD, the left
OS, and for both lens of the eyes OU.
M3-Lesson 2 Lens Focus

A single vision lens is essentially a lens that holds one prescription. This type of lens is used for
prescriptions for people who are nearsighted, farsighted, have astigmatism, or have a
combination of refractive errors.
In many cases, they are used by people who need the same amount of power to see far
away and close up. However, there are single vision glasses prescribed for a specific
purpose.
Bifocal lenses have been around since the late 18th century and were created when
Benjamin Franklin cut two lenses in half and glued them together.
The two sections of the lens are usually separated by a visible line. With only two zones of
vision, bifocal lenses do not account for the intermediate zone of vision.

Fig. 1. The different kinds of bifocal lenses include flat top, kryptok, no line, and executive
bifocal lenses.

Trifocal lenses offer correction for near and far vision, but also enable a person to see clearly
at an intermediate level.
Trifocals help correct the intermediate zone by featuring a second small lens segment
directly above the area used to correct near vision. Just like bifocal lenses, trifocal lenses also
contain visible lines on the lenses.
Without any visible lines on the lens, progressive lenses offer a smooth transition from
distance through intermediate vision to near vision.
Progressive lenses also offer vision correction for all of the in-between vision zones. So
instead of just having two or three different viewing zones, progressive lenses offer vision
correction that progression in power from the bottom to the top of the lens.
This progression of correction eases eye strain by providing the most natural vision correction

Fig. 2. (From L to R) An illustration comparing the focus of lens of a single vision lens from a
bifocal lens and a progressive lens.

M3-LESSON 3 LENS SURFACE AND FOCAL POWER

There are three types of lens.

First are spherical lenses which have the same power in all meridians, producing a point
focus.

However, prescriptions that incorporate a correction for astigmatism require a lens with
different powers that vary from meridian to meridian which is called cylinder lenses.

Instead of creating a focal point, like a spherical lens, a spherocylindrical lens will create a
focal line from an object point at the secondary focal length of the power meridian.

This is a result of the fact that refraction only occurs through the power meridian.

Spherocylinder lenses can produce both a sphere power and a cylinder power.
Fig. 1. Upon performing rotation test on lenses of unknown power, cylinder lenses
demonstrate scissor movement while sphere lenses have no scissor movement.

The last lens type is referred to as aspheric lenses. The surface of these that departs from
being perfectly spherical.
Aspheric surfaces are rotationally-symmetrical surfaces that gradually vary in surface power
from the center towards the edge, in a radial fashion.
There are THREE FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF LENSES AND FOCAL POWER:
Plus, positive, or convex lenses produce a positive (+) focal power, and add convergence
to incident rays of light.
 High power plus lenses will provide more magnification of up to 20-30% which can
cause false orientation/depth /projection.
 Pincushion distortion and contracture of the visual field due to higher magnification in
the lens periphery.
 There will be restricted peripheral visual field due to small lens size, the roving ring
scotoma, and the unrefracted area outside the field of view as for aphakic spectacle
lenses
Minus, negative, or concave lenses produce a negative (-) focal power, and divergence to
incident rays of light.
 High minus lenses on the other hand has a noticeable edge thickness that would
result to myopic rings.
 Minification could be observed as well as barrell distortion.
Fig. 1. Difference between images produced by minus lens and plus lens.
Minus lens produces a minified image whereas plus lens produces a magnified image.

There are certain physical and optical characteristics that are shared by all lenses with plus
power; similarly, there are equal, yet opposite, characteristics shared by all minus-powered
lenses.
For instance, moving a plus lens will make objects viewed through the lens appear to be
displaced in the opposite direction of the movement. This phenomenon is known as against-
the-motion movement.
A minus lens will exhibit the same type of effect, but in the opposite direction. Objects
appear to follow the movement of a minus lens; this is known as with-the-motion movement.
In addition, lenses with cylinder power will produce another effect when an object is viewed
through them while the lens is rotated.
Objects appear to rotate and/or skew as a lens with cylinder is rotated over them; this is
referred to as scissors-motion movement.

Fig. 2. Plano lenses produces no change in

image size unlike plus and minus lenses.

Plano lenses produce zero focal power (0),

and do not change the vergence of
incident rays of light.
M3-LESSON 4 LENS MATERIAL

When you choosing the material for a lens, it’s important to know how, why, and where
someone will be using it.
Optometrists used to craft lenses solely from fragile glass. Today, however, optometrist can
choose from an array of different types of ophthalmic lenses including glass (Ophthalmic
crown glass n=1.523) which is heavy, scratch resistant and;
Plastic (CR-39) lenses that have indices ranging from 1.498 to 1.660 and is lighter with a
decreased weight (1/2 that of glass), tinting is possible, impact resistant but scratches, with
lower index of refraction. All plastic lenses contain a UV inhibitor that protects against
wavelengths below 330nm.
Other plastic lenses come in the forms of polycarbonate, trivex, and high index lenses.

The shatter resistant polycarbonate (n=1.589) are lighter, thinner, and much more durable
than standard plastic materials. Polycarbonate lenses are best for stronger prescriptions
because it has the ability to correct vision without adding thickness, which may cause the
wearer's appearance to be distorted.

Trivex lens (n=1.53) are lighter, thinner, and 10 times harder than plastic. This material also
offers ample protection against harmful UV rays due to their ability to withstand heavy
impacts.

High index lenses are light, comfortable, durable, and extremely thin, and provides superior
clarity.

M3-LESSON 5 LENS COATING AND TINTS

Anti-reflective coating makes use of destructive interference between front and back
surface reflections- for only one wavelength unless multilayered - this is why it is colored.

Fig. 1. Examples of anti-reflective coatings include multicoated and blue coat lenses.
Absorptive lenses subtract wavelengths reduce the intensity (brightness) of light. The portions
of the sunlight transmitted determine the hue/color. Such lenses come in different forms
namely tinted, photochromic, and polarized lenses.
Glass and plastic lenses may come in tinted form. Glass is tinted by adding metallic salts.

Plastics are tinted via immersion in a hot dye bath. Colour is uniform and can be bleached
and re-tinted. Some tints offer additional UV protection

Photochromic lenses could be mistaken to be a form of tinting or coating placed on the lens.

However, these lenses change optical density and hue in response to ambient UV. It was first
developed during Cold War to protect in nuclear holocaust. Glass photochromic lenses are
made with silver halide crystal impregnation, which dissociates on exposure to UV or cold.

Likewise polarized lenses are too associated with tinting of the lens. Polarized lenses block
one of the two planes of vibration of an electromagnetic wave. Any vibrations which are
perpendicular to the polarization axis are blocked by the filter.

M4-INTRODUCTION

Hand neutralization is done by utilizing lenses - one of known power and when unknown
power - placed in contact with each other so that the combined power of the two lenses is
equal to zero, neutralizing each other.
Simply put, it is when an unknown lens is neutralized by a known trial lens of equal power but
yielding opposite in sign. This is performed in the absence of a lensometer and is used
qualitatively as a means for estimation in many clinical and dispensing situations.
Hand neutralization is used to measure the front vertex power of the lens.

M4-LESSON 1 HAND NEUTRALIZATION OF SPHERICAL LENSES

The process of performing hand neutralization starts with viewing a large distant cross target
through the lens, hold lens on visual axis, at arm’s distance and align lens such that the cross
target is continuous.
The examiner will then move the lens vertically, observe motion of horizontal line followed by
moving the lens in the opposite direction - horizontally - and again observe motion of
vertical line.
Fig. 1. Neutralizing a lens of unknown power
with trial lenses.

For minus lenses, neutralize with movement

with plus lenses.

And for plus lenses neutralize against

movement with minus lenses.

For a spherical lens of plus or minus, linear

motion is used to neutralize power.

A plus lens demonstrates “against motion” while minus lens demonstrates “with motion”.

If the examiner observe an “against motion,” use minus lenses to arrest the motion until
neutrality is reached.

If the examiner observe “with motion,” use plus lenses instead.

No movement indicates neutrality meaning same speed and direction of motion in both the
vertical and horizontal meridians may be observed.

If neutrality is not achieved with the addition of lenses and reversal of movement is now
observed, use the power of the last trial lens you place before reversal of movement as your
neutralizing lens.

M4-LESSON 2 HAND NEUTRALIZATION OF SPHEROCYLINDRICAL LENSES

For a spherocyndrical lens, rotational motion is observed.

Hand neutralization of a spherocylindrical lens would require skills in neutralizing a spherical
lens.
However, the examiner need to neutralize one limb of the cross target at a time. Where each
principal meridians is neutralized separately with a spherical lens.
Find the lens that achieves neutralisation along the horizontal meridian and remember that
the power of the unknown lens is the same size but opposite in sign to the neutralising lens.
Once the horizontal meridian is neutralised, you can move the lens up and down to
neutralise the vertical merdian or vice versa.

Fig. 1. An example of a cylinder lens with the two meridians plotted (photo on the left) and
identified using a protractor (photo on the right). In this example, the meridians identified are
90 degrees apart at meridian 75 and meridian 165.
The power of the unknown lens along the meridian tested is the same as the power of the
neutralising lens but opposite in sign. Convert your power cross into a spherocylindrical
formula.

CONCAVE LENSES CONVEX LENSES

PARALLAX MOTION With Parallax movement Against Parallax

movement

IMAGE DESCRIPTION Virtual, Erect and Real, Inverted and

Minified image Magnified image

THICKNESS Thinner at the center, Thicker at the center,

Thicker at the periphery Thinner at the periphery

PRISM POSITION Apex to apex position Base to base position

DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPHTHALMIC LENSES

 Plastic: Out of all the materials listed, plastic is the most economical. While plastic lenses
offer superior optics and vision correction, they are prone to scuffing and scratching.
Plastic is best-used in people with minor visual impairments.

 Polycarbonate: These lenses are lighter, thinner, and much more durable than standard
plastic materials. Polycarbonate lenses are best for stronger prescriptions because it has
the ability to correct vision without adding thickness, which may cause the wearer's
appearance to be distorted. Most importantly, polycarbonate lenses are virtually
indestructible — making them the ideal solution for active adults and children

 Trivex: Using Trivex results in ophthalmic lenses lighter, thinner, and 10 times harder than
plastic. This material also offers ample protection against harmful UV rays. Due to their
ability to withstand heavy impacts, Trivex is recommended for patients with active
lifestyles.

 High Index: This new material revolutionized the eyeglass industry. Light, comfortable,
durable, and extremely thin, high-index lenses are coming to dominate the industry. Due
to its superior clarity, most optometrists recommend high-index lenses to people with
severe visual impairments. As is to be expected, however, these lenses can cost a pretty
penny.
THE BODACIOUS CURVES OF OPHTHALMIC LENSES

 Concave: These lenses curve inward. Doctors typically prescribe these lenses to treat
nearsightedness.

 Convex: If your patient suffer from farsightedness, they'll need a convex lenses. By
capitalizing on its outward curve, these lenses help bring your immediate surroundings into
focus.

 Cylindrical: Some individuals suffer from a deformation of the cornea, better known as
astigmatism, and a cylindrical shaped lens will help compensate for this condition.

The Different Focal Options for Modern Lenses

Before Benjamin Franklin invented the bifocal, people who suffered from both near and
farsightedness had to result to a variety of kooky solutions. Today, one pair of glasses can
treat a variety of issues.

 Single Focus Lenses: For people suffering from one eye condition, a single focus lens
will do the truck.
 Bifocal Lenses: These lenses hold two different prescriptions. While the top half is best-
suited for correcting long-distance vision, the bottom will help you focus on your
nearby surroundings.
 Trifocal Lenses: For someone suffering from a variety of vision conditions, optometrists
might prescribe a trifocal lens with three separate focal points.
 Progressive Lenses: The newest of the four focalization types, these lenses offer the
benefits of multifocal lenses without the drawbacks of unattractive lines. Transitioning
between the three viewing distances is seamless in progressive lenses.

Different Types of Coatings for Ophthalmic Lenses

Like a glaze in the optometrist’s toolkit, it takes normal lenses and allows them to fulfill a
variety of different purposes. The four most common coatings for different types of
ophthalmic lenses include:

 Anti-Scratch: This durable coating makes it harder for patients to leave scuff marks on
lenses.

 UV Protective: Ultraviolet rays are notorious for wreaking havoc on unprotected eyes. This
coating serves as sunblock for the eyes.
 Photochromic: For patients sensitive to sunshine, these photochromic transitional lenses
darken or lighten based on light saturation in the area.

 Anti-Reflective: This coating prevents glare, reflections, and diminishes halos around light.

SINGLE VISION, BIFOCAL, AND PROGRESSIVE LENSES: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES?

1. WHAT ARE SINGLE VISION LENSES?

A single vision lens is essentially a lens that holds one prescription. This type of lens is used for
prescriptions for people who are nearsighted, farsighted, have astigmatism, or have a
combination of refractive errors.

In many cases, single vision glasses are used by people who need the same amount of
power to see far away and close up. However, there are single vision glasses prescribed for a
specific purpose. For example, a pair of reading glasses that are used only for reading
contains a single vision lens.

The single vision lens is ideal for most children and younger adults because they typically
don’t need to adjust their vision correction based on their distance. Your single vision glasses
prescription always includes a spherical component as the first number on your prescription
and may also include a cylinder component to correct for astigmatism.

2. WHAT ARE BIFOCAL LENSES?

If your doctor mentions presbyopia, they are talking about the age-related change to your
eye’s focusing power. While you can correct presbyopia with single vision glasses specifically
for reading, most people like to have one pair of glasses that allows them to see through two
different fields of vision.

Bifocal glasses essentially do this by combining your distance prescription and your near
prescription. In bifocal glasses, the bottom of the lens has a segment with extra power that
lets you read with ease. The bifocal has a prominent line that separates the near and
distance portion and that line is visible to others.

3. WHAT ARE PROGRESSIVE LENSES?

Progressive eyeglass lenses are also called a no-line bifocal because they have no visible
line between the segments, which makes them more aesthetically pleasing.

Moreover, progressive eyeglasses also create a smooth transition between the distance,
intermediate, and near portions of your prescription.

The intermediate portion of the lens is ideal for mid-range activities such as computer work.

Progressive eyeglasses have the option of a long or short corridor design. The corridor is
essentially the part of the lens that gives you the ability to see intermediate distances.
MOVEMENTS

1. A plus lens moves the image in the opposite direction to the lens:

 If you move the lens to the right, the image will move to the left.
 If you move the lens up, the image will move down, and vice versa.

2. A minus lens moves the image in the same direction to the lens:

 If you move the lens to the right, the image moves right.
 If you move the lens up, the image moves up, etc.

3. A sphero-cylindrical lens causes scissoring movements on rotation:

 If you rotate the lens about its optical centre the image of a cross will appear to
scissor.
 The principle meridia are determined by marking the orientation at which the cross
lines are perpendicular.
4. A lens with no power causes no movement

 Regardless of lens movement, the image remains stationary.

5. A lens with a ground prism will displace the cross image as follows:

 Base up: displaces image downwards

 Base down: displaces image upwards
 Base in: displaces image outwards
 Base out: displaces image inwards