2AQA A Level History (Syllabus Code 7042)

Breadth Study1A: The Age of the Crusades, c1071-1204

Breadth Study:
This topic requires the study of an extended period of time through which
students are expected to understand and explain the process of change over
time. Key things to consider from the start:
1. The nature of causes and consequences, of change and continuity and
of similarity and differences over time.
2. The links between perspectives and interpretations and also the
change in perspectives over time.
3. The role played by individuals, groups, ideas or ideology.

The Crusades context:

This option allows students to study in breadth issues of change, continuity,
cause and consequence relating to the age of the crusades and the states of
Outremer. Throughout, students should consider the following six questions:
1. What were the motives of the crusaders and the counter-crusaders?
2. What problems faced the states in Outremer and how successfully were these problems addressed?
3. How important were faith and ideas for Christians and Muslims?
4. What was the impact of the crusades on the Muslim Near East?
5. How did the Byzantine Empire, Outremer and Latin West change and what influenced relations between
them?
6. How important was the role of key individual and groups and how were they affected by developments?

The Exam:
Assessment Objectives
AO1 Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and evaluate
the key features related to the period studied, making substantiated (supported) judgements and
exploring concepts, as relevant, of course, consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference
and significance.
AO3 Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects of the
past have been interpreted.

 Exam taken at the end of Upper Sixth (linear format)

 Written exam: 2 hours 30 minutes (80 marks / 40% of qualification)
 Taken alongside two other modules: Depth Study (The Making of Modern Britain, 1951-2007, worth 40%);
and the Non-Examined Assessment (worth 20%). Total raw marks – 200 (80 / 80 / 40).
 Grades awarded A* - U.
 Breadth exam comes in two sections:

Section A (AO3) One compulsory question linked to historical interpretations (30 marks)
(1 hour)
Section B (AO1) Answer two essays from a choice of three questions (25 marks each) – 45 Minutes
(1 hour 30 mins) per essay.

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 Key Study Topics
Lower Sixth:
Topic 1: The origins of conflict and the First Crusade, c.1071-c.1099
 Christianity in western Europe c.1071; the role of the Church in the late 11 th century; the rising
influence of the Papacy.
 Islam c.1071: Muslim expansion and the rise of the Seljuk Turks
 The Byzantine Empire c.1071: the internal problems of the Byzantine Empire, the impact of the
defeats in the battle of Manzikert.
 Urban II: the reasons for the calling of the First Crusade; responding to the call for help from the
Byzantine Empire; the political and religious motives of the Papacy.
 The motives of the crusaders; Raymond of Toulouse and the Frankish knights; popular
movements.
 The course and impact of the First Crusade and its impact on the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine
Empire and the Latin West by 1099.
Topic 2: The foundation of new states and the Second Crusade, c.1099-1149
 Establishing the states of Outremer; Kings Baldwin I, II and Queen Melisende; expansion and
conquest; trade and pilgrimage.
 The foundation of the military orders: Templars and Hospitallers; their military, religious and
economic roles.
 Relations of the crusader states with the Byzantine Empire, the Latin West, the Muslim Near East
and indigenous peoples.
 The Islamic response to the crusader states: Islamic politics and the rise of ideas of jihad under
Zengi.
 The preaching of the Second Crusade, its course and outcome.
 The impact of the Second Crusade on the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire, the Latin
West and Outremer by 1149.
Topic 3: The Muslim counter-crusade and crusader states, 1149-1187
 The context of Islamic power in the Near East from 1149; the rise of Nur ad-Din in Syria and
Egypt and the growth of jihad.
 Outremer from 1149: political developments, military strengths and weaknesses.
 Relations between Outremer and wider Christendom, the Latin West and the Byzantine Empire.
 Internal divisions within Outremer, including the reign of Baldwin IV and his successors.
 The rise of Saladin: religion, politics and military expansion; victory at Hattin.
 The crisis of Outremer: the consequences of Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem.

Upper Sixth:
Topic 4: The Third and Fourth Crusades, 1187-1204
 Preaching and preparing for the Third Crusade: motives of Pope Gregory VIII; Henry II and
Richard I of England; Philip II of France; Frederick Barbarossa.
 The course of the Third Crusade: leadership and internal rivalries of the crusaders; the reasons for
the military outcome.
 The impact of the Third Crusade; Saladin’s power and prestige in the Muslim Near East.
 The origins of the Fourth Crusade; the papacy of Innocent III; the weakness of the Byzantine
Empire; the role of Venice.
 The course of the Fourth Crusade: military preparations; the diversion to Zara; the failure to make
any impact on Muslim power.
 The legacy of the crusades by 1204: the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire and the Latin
West.

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 1071-1204 Overview
Overview
c.1071-c.1099  During this topic we will explore a brief overview of the geography of Europe in the
11th century looking at key polities: England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Al-
Andalus and Byzantium.
 The centrality of religion to life in Western Europe will be analysed as well as its role
in disease, death, authority (secular and spiritual), the cult of saints and pilgrimage.
 We shall establish a brief chronology of the origins of the papacy and its importance
to post-Roman Western Europe whilst investigating the papal reform movement,
authority and holy war in Spain and Sicily.
 The rise of Islam and the Muslim expansion will be analysed in relation to the
Byzantine loss of Syria and Palestine; as well as the rivalry between the Abbasid and
Fatimid caliphates; and the rise of the Seljuk Turks
 We also need to consider the world according to the Byzantine Empire. This will
firstly include the internal challenges facing Emperors Michael VII, Nikephoros III
and Alexios I Komnenos. Secondly, Byzantium’s foreign policy, diplomacy and use
of the military. Key consequences of Manzikert (1071) will also be assessed.
 Following on from here, we turn our attention to the reasons for the calling of the
First Crusade: with particular focus on the councils of Piacenza and Clermont (1095)
and the motivations behind Pope Urban II’s words (and his desired response).
 The unprecedented response from Latin Christendom will then be analysed: why did
so many people go?
 The events and consequences of the First Crusade will make up the rest of this key
topic. Popular movements such as the ‘People’s Crusade’ will provide the starting
point for this followed by an in-depth analysis of the ‘Princes’ Crusade’: studies of
key crusading leaders such as Raymond of Toulouse and Bohemond of Taranto and
their roles at Constantinople, Nicaea, Dorylaeum, Antioch and Jerusalem will be key
to understanding the military and political success of the crusade.
 Finally, we must consider the impact of the success of the First Crusade: in the
Muslim Near East on Seljuk and Abbasid authority; in the Byzantine Empire with
Alexios I; and in the Latin West with its follow-up crusades.

c.1099-1149  Following the conclusion of the First Crusade we will turn our attention towards the
new leaders of the states of Outremer: Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli. We
will need to look at the key leaders in each state and the period of expansion and
conquest starting in 1100.
 Furthermore, we will consider of the role of the Italian city-states (Genoa, Pisa,
Venice) in the development and trade and pilgrimage to and within Outremer.
 A vital development during this period was the foundation and growth of the military
orders. The foundation, development and growing importance of the Templars and
Hospitallers will be key to recognising the development of holy war and the support
required by the fledgling crusader states.
 From here we must consider crusader relations with its subjects and neighbours.
Understanding relations with the Byzantine Empire is a source of constant change and
evolution during this period and the actions of Bohemond and Emperor John II will be
analysed. Furthermore, relations with the Latin West will be studied – how willing
were England, France, Sicily, the Holy Roman Empire, and the papacy to support the
new stated and why was western support critical?
 Relations with indigenous is an important element of study here as Frankish society
was an alien concept to those living in the Levant – even those who were Christian.
We must consider how the Armenians and Greeks fared in Edessa and Antioch
respectively.
 Finally, with regard to relations, we must consider the Islamic response. Who were
the Muslim powers following the crusade and what immediate reaction was there to
the fall of Jerusalem in 1099? A study of Islamic politics will be important here
however the key will be in understanding the growing concept of jihad and the
campaigns of Imad ad-Din Zengi.
 Our topic ends with the calling of, responses to, and the events of the Second Crusade
following the fall of Edessa (1144). Key similarities and differences will be of keen
interest here, as well as determining why this crusade failed to achieve what the First
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 Crusade did.
 The impact of the Second Crusade was huge (not necessarily for the right reasons)
and we must consider the consequences on the Latin West and Outremer, as well as
the impact on the Muslim Near East under Nur ad-Din, and the Byzantine Empire
under Manuel I Komnenos.

1149-1187  This period will focus predominantly on the revival of Islam and the troubles facing
the kingdom of Jerusalem following the Second Crusade.
 The failure of the Second Crusade saw the rise of Nur ad-Din first in Syria, and then
in Egypt by 1169. We will study how he was able to achieve control over the regions
and assess the ways in which he increased jihadist sentiment. The role played by
Saladin early in his political and military career will be analysed here.
 As the strength of a unified Muslim Near East grew, we must consider the political
developments and military strengths and weaknesses of the kingdom of Jerusalem
through two key reigns: Baldwin III and Amalric I.
 Furthermore, we must consider crusader relations with the Latin West (Henry II of
England, Louis VII of France and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman
Empire), alongside the fluctuating relationship with the Byzantine Empire.
 As we edge towards the decline of the kingdom of Jerusalem, we must pose the
question: was its fall in 1187 inevitable? To answer this, we must consider the reign
of Baldwin IV, the internal divisions of Outremer, and the rise of Saladin in Syria.
 Finally, Saladin’s victory at Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem (1187) will be
investigated, and the consequences for Outremer, Muslim Near East and the Latin
West considered.

1187-1204  In the final topic of study, we will consider the response of Latin Christendom to the
1187 catastrophe, starting with the preaching and motives of Pope Gregory VIII in
calling the Third Crusade in 1187. We will not only consider motivations such as loss
of prestige and religious conviction, but also the responses from England, France, the
Holy Roman Empire, Sicily and Pisa.
 We must consider fully the motives of Henry II and Richard I of England, Philip II of
France, and Frederick Barbarossa such as their religious devotion, social ties to
Outremer, and the competition for martial prowess and prestige.
 The course and key events of the Third Crusade will start at the long siege of Acre
(1189-91), consider the collapse of the Germany crusade, the conquest of Cyprus and
the battle of Arsuf (1191), securing the coast, and attempts on Jerusalem (1191-2).
 During the study of the Third Crusade we must consider the leadership of men such as
Richard I, Philip II, Guy de Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, investigating their
internal rivalries and leadership qualities.
 Was the Third Crusade a success or a failure for Latin Christendom? A full evaluation
of the outcome and contributing factors shall be analysed, and a decision will need to
be made!
 The impact of the Third Crusade will then be assessed in relation to Saladin’s power
and prestige in the Near East, the Ayyubid Empire, and the surviving Crusader States.
How did the kingdom of Cyprus aid with stabilisation and what problems were caused
by the succession in Antioch and Tripoli after Bohemond III’s death (1201)?
 We will then turn our attention to the origins of the Fourth Crusade: the role played by
Pope Innocent III, his aims and objectives, the role of Venice and the weaknesses of
the Byzantine Empire between 1176 and 1203.
 In understanding the Fourth Crusade we must consider the military preparations, the
problems at Venice, the conquest of Zara (1202), and the eventual sack of
Constantinople (1204). Why did the crusade fail to have make any impact on Muslim
power and how did al-Adil consolidate his position in Syria and Egypt by 1204?
 Finally, the legacy of the crusades will need to be considered: its impact on the
Byzantine Empire, the Muslim Near East, and the Latin West.

Part 1: ‘The Crusade States and Outremer c.1071-1149’

(Lower Sixth Form)

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 Topic 1: The Origins of Conflict and the First Crusade, c.1071-c.1099

Contents
 Christianity in western Europe c.1071; the role of the Church in the late 11 th century; the rising influence of
the Papacy.
 Islam c.1071: Muslim expansion and the rise of the Seljuk Turks
 The Byzantine Empire c.1071: the internal problems of the Byzantine Empire, the impact of the defeats in the
battle of Manzikert.
 Urban II: the reasons for the calling of the First Crusade; responding to the call for help from the Byzantine
Empire; the political and religious motives of the Papacy.
 The motives of the crusaders; Raymond of Toulouse and the Frankish knights; popular movements.
 The course and impact of the First Crusade and its impact on the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire and
the Latin West by 1099.

Checklist

Tick once Topic

complete
d
Christianity in Western Europe, c.1071-99: the role of the Church and influence of the papacy.
Islam, c.1071-99: Muslim expansion and rise of the Seljuk Turks
Problems of the Byzantine Empire, c.1071-99
Reasons for the calling of the First Crusade
Motives of the crusaders: leaders and popular movements
Course of the First Crusade and reasons for the outcome
Impact of the First Crusade: on the Byzantine Empire, Latin West and Muslim Near East

Key Chronological Overview

Date Event
1071  Battle of Manzikert – Byzantine army destroyed and Emperor Romanos IV captured.
1073  Gregory VII elected pope, he attempts to unify and cleanse the church through the Papal
Reform Movement
 Seljuk Turks capture Jerusalem and treatment of Christians worsen in the area
1074  Gregory VII proposes holy war in the Eastern Mediterranean
1075  Gregory VII bans Henry IV of Germany from interfering in church affairs starting the
Investiture Contest
1076  Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV
1081  Alexios I Komnenos becomes Byzantine Emperor, seeking to unify and strengthen the empire
1085  King Alfonso VI of Toledo defeats the Moors at Toledo in Iberia
 Death of Robert Guiscard – Norman threat to Byzantium diminishes.

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 1088  Urban II anointed as pope
1092  Death of Seljuk ruler Malik Shah splintering the Great Seljuk Empire.
1094  Urban II regains Rome through bribery, diplomacy and Norman support.
1095  Council of Piacenza (March) – Urban receives an appeal for aid from Alexios I
 Urban II begins preaching tour of France (July) – continuing until September 1096
 Council of Clermont (November) – Urban launches the First Crusade
1096  Peasants Crusade departs for Jerusalem (April)
 Peter the Hermit’s army arrives in Constantinople (July) and attack Christians in Anatolia
(Aug)
 French peasant crusaders attack Nicaea leading to battle of at Civetot
1097  Princes’ armies being to arrive in Constantinople (Nov 1196-May 1097)
 Siege of Nicaea (16 May-13 June)
 Battle of Dorylaeum (1 July) and the crusaders cross Asia Minor
 Baldwin of Boulogne diverts to aid Thoros of Edessa (Sept-Oct)
 Siege of Antioch begins (20 Oct)
1098  Tatikios departs the siege of Antioch (Feb)
 Jerusalem falls to the Fatimids, sending emissaries to the crusaders to discuss peace
 Baldwin of Boulogne becomes rule of the County of Edessa (March)
 Antioch falls to the crusaders, (3 June) only to be surrounded by Kerbogha’s forces
 Peter Bartholomew discovers the Holy Lance (14th June)
 Battle of Antioch (28 June)
 Adhemar of le Puy dies (1 August) and Hugh of Vermandois quickly departs for Europe
1099  Crusade departs Antioch – leaving Bohemond – and advances on Jerusalem
 Siege of Arqa (Feb-May)
 Crusade arrives at Jerusalem (7 June) with the first assault failing (13 June)
 Crusaders break in and capture the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa mosques (15 July)
 Massacre in Jerusalem (16 July)
 Godfrey appointed Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre (22 July)
 Battle of Ascalon (12 August) after which many crusaders return to Europe

Christianity in western Europe c.1071

 Western European culture was dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. This Church had steadily grown in
influence and power following the fall of the Roman Empire. By the eleventh century it was busy establishing
itself as the premier international organisation in the west.
 The ordinary Christian in the west interpreted the world around them via a combination of observation,
superstition, and faith. The clergy, as a literate body of men and women, were of immense importance to the
structure of society and the development of governmental administration.
The Papal Reform Movement in Europe
 The Papacy was concerned that many church rules were being flouted in society (and within the church itself)
by the 11th century and sought to implement the papal reform movement in order to rectify these sins.
Reforming popes such as Leo IX (d.1054) and Gregory VII (d.1085) were key to developing papal authority.
 The Church had previously tried (with varying degrees of success) to influence European politics. The Peace
of God movement (1100) and Truce of God (1027) was an attempt to limit all internal violence within
Christian Europe. The knightly classes had to be utilised and the development of ‘just war’ and ‘holy war’
have been seen as papal attempts to legitimise the use of violence against the none-believer. Incentives for
warriors to pursue ‘holy war’ had been offered by popes Leo IX (1153), Alexander II (1063 and 1066), and
Gregory VII (1075 and 1081). The papacy also sought to extend their influence over the Reconquista in
Iberian, offering indulgences to warriors who would contribute in the reconquest.
 Christianity itself was divided along the same lines as the Roman Empire: in the west was Roman
Catholicism, in the east, Orthodox Christianity. It has been argued that this split, the great schism (1054),
could have been healed by Urban II’s crusade, as he sought demonstrate his ability to defend all Christians,
whilst imposing his superiority over the Eastern Church.

Investiture Contest (1075)

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  However, the Papacy had a competitor for spiritual authority in Western Europe. The papacy’s reform
movement led to conflicts with European monarchs, none more so than with the German Holy Roman
Emperors. Roughly starting in 1075, the Papacy and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, fell out over primacy
and church appointments – this argument is known as the investiture contest.
 Upon Pope Urban II’s election as supreme pontiff in 1088, the papacy had lost ground in the argument with
the Henry IV and had been forced from Rome. Urban relied on Norman support in France and Italy to build a
support base against Church abuses and against the Holy Roman Emperor. Once he had regained Rome, it is
possible that he utilised these contacts when calling the First Crusade in order to demonstrate his supreme
authority over Western Christendom, and as a show of strength against the Holy Roman Emperor. It is
interesting that Emperor Alexios I Komnenos appealed to Pope Urban II in 1095, and not Henry IV.
Importance of Jerusalem and pilgrimage in the eleventh century
 Jerusalem occupied an immensely important position in the minds of medieval
Christians. It was the backdrop to the last days of Jesus Christ’s life and two locations
were considered especially important: Calvary/Golgotha, and the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre (the place of Jesus’s crucifixion and burial respectively). It is also the site of
many of Christ’s miracles.
 Jerusalem was a traditional place of pilgrimage for many Christians, established by
Empress Helena of the Byzantine Empire in the early fourth century. By the eleventh
century pilgrimage was an ingrained concept of Christian culture. Journeying here would
have brought the pilgrim closer to Christ and his saints, cleansing them of sin and
ensuring their place in Heaven. This became increasingly difficult after 1073 following
the Seljuk conquest.

Islamic expansion (c.632-1095)

 Following the death of Muhammad (632AD) Islamic forces exploded out of the Hejaz conquering: Damascus
(635; the Persian capital Ctesiphon (637); Jerusalem (638); Alexandria (646); and the Visigoth kingdom in
Iberia (by 716). Its advance was only halted at Tours in France by Charles Martel in 732.
 Islam remained deeply divided between two sects: Sunni Islam and Shi’a Islam. Sunni Muslims asserted that
caliphs should be democratically elected as the first four ‘Rightly Guided Caliphs’ had been. Shi’a Muslims
asserted that only descendants of the Prophet Muhammed could be chosen. In the Muslim Near East Sunni
Islam dominated via the Abbasid Caliphate; Shi’a Islam held a powerbase in Fatimid Egypt.
 Islamic cities were larger and more ‘civilised’ than their European counterparts – Baghdad had a population of
around 800,000 whereas the largest Christian city, Constantinople, could only boast over half this figure.
London and Paris have had a population of 20,000 each.
 Non-Muslims paid the jizya, a small tax in order to freely practice their faith. Despite this, there are examples
of intolerance: Fatimid caliph al-Hakim ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (1009).
European shock manifested itself in the expulsion of the Jews, not a crusade.
 Islamic economic activity was largely agrarian. Land was the key to wealth and power, as was the case in the
west. The Islamic world occupied a central position along the trade network known as the ‘Silk Roads’, and
had access to markets in Europe, the Indian subcontinent, and the Far East. Islam and Europeans were well
acquainted neighbours and the Mediterranean proved central to continuing diplomatic and trade relations.
Rise of the Seljuk Turks
 The Seljuks Turks emerged from the Central Asian steppe. They were recent Sunni
converts and originated from a branch of the Oghuz Turks.
 Founded as a dynasty in 1037, the Seljuks advanced into Persia, captured Baghdad (1055)
and ruled in the name of the Abbasid caliphs, annexed Armenia and Georgia (1064),
invaded the Byzantine empire (1068) decisively defeated Imperial forces at Manzikert
(1071), conquered Jerusalem (1073) and most of Eastern Anatolia, including Nicaea
(1081), and conquered Antioch (1085).
 The Great Seljuk Empire in Anatolia was governed regionally: the Altukids (Northeast Anatolia); the Shah-
Armens and Mengujekids (Eastern Anatolia); Artuqids (South-eastern Anatolia); Danishmend and Rum
Seljuks (Central and Western Anatolia).

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  The empire expanded under Malikshah (1072-92) and his vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d.1092) to border the
Byzantines in the west and China in the east. The caliph titled him “The Sultan of the East and West”.
 When Malikshah died the empire fractured amongst quarrelling family members. Kilij Arslan I expanded the
Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia and ruled as a king. Tutush I succeeded Malikshah in Syria, he in turn being
succeeded by Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus in 1094. The Danishmend founded their own
independent state in eastern Anatolia and contested territory with Kilij Arslan. Kerbogha established himself
as an independent atabeg of Mosul.
 On the eve of the First Crusade the mighty Seljuk Empire was internally fractured and focused on internecine
squabbles over local lands and power.

The Byzantine Empire c.1071-1095

 The partition of the Roman Empire in 395AD created western and eastern empires. The
Western Roman Empire deteriorated in the fifth century AD due to expanding migration
and invasions from ‘barbarians’, whilst the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of relative
peace.
 The Byzantine Empire, centred around its capital city Constantinople, continued to flourish
and, in fact, reconquered some of the lands lost in North Africa by the western empire.
Under Justinian I (d.565) the empire regained (in part) some of the power and glory associated with ancient
Rome. However, Byzantium engaged in years of destructive warfare with their Persian neighbours, allowing
for the unchecked expansion of Islam into the Levant and Syria. Further internal fraction contributed to the
decline of a once mighty empire:
Impact of the battle of Manzikert (1071)
 Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took decisive action against the Seljuk threat and met Alp Arslan’s forces
near the fort of Manzikert in Eastern Anatolia. The impact of the defeat on the empire was:

Geopolitical Economic Political

Anatolia fell quickly, including the The mass migration of Anatolian Romanos IV, once returned to
regional capital Nicaea (1081) which refugees who fled to Constantinople,
Constantinople, was unable to raise
was only 100km away from combined with forced conscription loyal troops on three occasions. He
Constantinople. Whilst the balance to serve in the army destroyed at was deposed by the Doukas family,
of power between the Seljuks and Manzikert, led to a lack of blinded and exiled, dying shortly
Byzantines hadn’t totally changed, manpower in the fields and the after. A Norman mercenary, Roussel
the ensuing Byzantine civil war reduction of imperial revenue. de Bailleul, carved out an
certainly played into Seljuk hands. Attempts to curb inflation and independent kingdom and the
economic crisis failed. Seljuks were asked to assist in
subduing him.
Later political faction and turmoil in the Byzantine Empire
Emperor Michael VII  Fought to recover his position as emperor from General Philaretos
Doukas Brachamios in 1071 who adopted the title after the death of Romanos IV.
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 (r.1071-1078)  Faced usurpation by his uncle, John Doukas after backing from Roussel
de Bailleul. John and Roussel were defeated by the Seljuk, Sultan
Suleiman.
 Fell under the control of an official, Nikephoritzes who attempted to
create a monopoly in grain, leading to high prices and discontent. A
former slave, Nestor, rebelled in 1076 but was defeated by Commander
Alexios Komnenos in 1078 and fled to the Pechenegs.
 Rioting broke out in Constantinople, prompting a coup from two imperial
commanders Nikephoros Botaneiates and Nikephoros Bryennius in 1078.
Michael abdicated (March) and became a monk.

Emperor Nikephoros III  Proclaimed emperor following a coup which was supported by Suleiman,
Botaneiates the Seljuk sultan of Rum.
(r.1078-1081)  Defeated his rival, Nikephoros Bryennius, and then a second revolt led by
Nikephoros Basilacius (1078).
 Pechenegs convinced by an aristocratic Byzantine family to invade.
 Survived attempted assassination by the Varangian Guard (1079).
 Thwarted another rebellion from led by Constantine Doukas (1079).
 Faced another rebellion led by Nikephoros Melissenos from Anatolia with
Seljuk assistance (who had practically overrun the territory).
 Faced a Norman invasion led by Robert Guiscard (1081).
 Faced a coup by John Doukas and the Komnenoi family (1081).

Alexios I Komnenos
 A Byzantine general, Alexios served with distinction for Emperor Romanos IV
against the Seljuks, and also served as a field commander under Emperors Michael
VII and Nikephoros III.
 Alexios was included in the Doukas conspiracy to depose Nikephoros III however, the
Komnenoi family hijacked the attempt and Alexios crowned himself as emperor
instead (1081). Despite this success, he had seized control of an empire in chaos with
external enemies in three directions.

1. The Normans: having consolidated his position, Alexios turned to confront the
determine campaigns of Bohemond of Taranto in the Balkans.

2. The Pechenegs: by 1083 Alexios turned his attention north to the Slavic tribe. At first unsuccessful,
Alexios was able to deal a decisive blow at Levounion Hill (1091) and wiped out the Pecheneg
threat.

3. The Seljuk Turks: Alexios negotiated with Sultan Suleiman, who agreed to protect Byzantine
holdings in Anatolia, gaining for himself riches and prestige. His successor, Kilij Arslan, refused to
negotiate and attacked Byzantine coastlines from the Aegean Sea, with success between 1090 and
1091. However, Malikshah’s death (1092) fractured the Seljuk Empire, and internecine conflict gave
Alexios breathing space in Anatolia, however he was unable to take advantage of the power vacuum.

 On the eve of the First Crusade, Constantinople imploded. The failure to make progress against the Seljuks
led to serious concerns about the emperor’s judgement and abilities. Further threats began to emerge from the
Balkans and Serbia. The situation was critical. Alexios was in need of western mercenaries to bolster his
armies once more and sent appeals to the papacy. These were heard at the council of Piacenza (March 1095).
This proceeded and may have directly influenced Urban’s call for crusade at Clermont in November.

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Why did Urban II call the First Crusade?
Towards the end of the ecclesiastical Council of Clermont (18-28 November
1095) Pope Urbans II gave a sermon which is considered the starting point of the
First Crusade. On 27 November, 1095, in a crowded field outside of Clermont,
Urban called Christendom’s knighthood to arms in defence of Eastern Christians,
the Byzantine Empire, and to do meet the threat posed by the infidel. With the
exact sermon lost, and a reliance on five accounts, historians still argue: why did
Urban call for crusade in 1095?

Historical evidence for each Counter-evidence:

factor/theme/reason:
Religious zeal

Aid the Eastern

Christians

Establish papal
authority

Combat the threat

of Islam

Aid the Byzantine

Empire

Why did people go on the First Crusade?

Following the sermon at Clermont many nobles stepped forward to participate. As many as 100,000 people later
embarked on the venture to the Holy Land. Whilst estimate vary, the Princes’ Crusade may have departed Europe with
as many as 40,000 warriors, including 5,000 cavalry. But why did people go?
Material gain / Land Hunger  Traditional view of colonialism and material opportunism especially
attributed to the Italian Normans.
 Clermont was addressed to the fighting men of Europe and (whilst not
directly addressing it) did not discount the prospect of gain.
 ‘Second-son’ theory a key motivator: French and Italian warrior classes and
aristocracies restricted by primogeniture, leaving landless ‘adventurer
knights’
 Poor socio-economic factors Western Europe a pushing factor: a land of
‘milk and honey’ offered in the East.

Religious Zeal  The crusade identified as a pilgrimage, not as a military expedition.

 The remission of sins and the pull/recovery of Jerusalem were key
motivating messages which spread across France and Italy in 1095.
Jerusalem was regarded as the centre of the world and holiest site in
Christendom.
 Religious zeal proved a powerful weapon of commitment to see through the
crusade, even at it its lowest points.

Preaching of Pope Urban II  Urban II manipulated the use of papal indulgences

 Charismatic and impassioned sermon at Clermont (1095) a decisive factor
behind such a large response from the laity
10
  Urban unified the concept of pilgrimage with ‘holy war’
 Vast preaching tour preluding and succeeding the Council of Clermont:
Count Raymond IV of Toulouse and Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy had
already committed to crusade before the famous sermon.
 Urban sent emissaries and letters to spread the message to the Italian city
states, Flanders and Normandy, and the Germanic low countries.

Freelance Recruitment  Enthusiasm for the crusade was driven in key areas by freelance recruiters
such as Peter the Hermit and other Rhineland preachers. Robert of
Normandy was reportedly persuaded by a ‘certain religious’ individual’.
 Religious houses acted as agencies and centres of recruitment or fund
raising, Cluny and Le Mans stand out.

Hysteria  Natural phenomena and unexplainable events regarded as divine signs from
heaven, convincing many to depart. For example: meteor showers and
comets respectively were sighted in April 1095 and September 1097. A red
lunar eclipse appeared in February 1096 followed by an Aurora and a
further lunar eclipse in August.
 Other leaders claimed to have visions, such as Emicho of Leiningen.

Mouuvance, familial and  Familial and feudal links are key to explaining why so many military
feudal ties personnel participated in the crusade – they were duty bound. Best
demonstrated by Godfrey of Bouillon accompanying his brothers and
cousin.
 Many women and children participated as fully fledged members of the
crusade alongside their husbands and children.

Aid the Byzantine Empire  Emperor Alexios I had called for Western aid at the Council of Piacenza,
directly impacting upon the message preached by Urban at Clermont the
same year.
 Byzantium was seen as the gateway to Europe, should it fall, Islam might
run amok.

Aid Eastern Christendom  The Holy Land had long been lost to Islam however, the rise of the Seljuk
Turks had seen a noticeably hostile policy emerge towards native and
foreign Christians. Latin Christians felt a duty to support and liberate their
Eastern brothers in Christ.

Personal Glory  Urban II was appealing at Clermont to the fighting men of Europe and
masterfully played upon the emerging concept of chivalry and martial glory.
 Western Europe had a growing culture of knight-errantry during the 11 th
century and epic poems such as the Song of Roland and the Chansons de
Gesta demonstrate the glory in slaughtering the infidel.
 Many returned to the Holy Land following the success of the First Crusade
to restore their reputation and honour (Stephen of Blois)

Leader Possible motivation for joining the crusade

Bishop Adhemar  Religious zeal: devoted to God as a papal legate representing Urban on the crusade.
of Le Puy  Preaching of Urban II: possibly approached ahead of the sermon.
(Papal Legate) How might this noble impact the crusade?

Count Raymond  Religious zeal: had probably been on pilgrimage before. As an old man, wanted to
IV of Toulouse conclude his life in the East. Sold all possessions ahead of leaving for crusade.
 Preaching of Urban II: possibly approached ahead of the sermon.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

11
Count Bohemond  Material gain: disinherited from the line of Robert Guiscard, therefore did not inherit his
of Taranto wealth. Opportunity to better himself.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Tancred  Mouvance: recruited into the retinue of Bohemond, his uncle.

d’Hauteville  Material gain: young, enterprising and gifted Norman knight. Keen to join up and
improve his lot.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Duke Robert I of  Religious zeal: chronicles mention the meeting of a preacher.

Normandy  Personal glory: wanted to restore his reputation following disputes with his father and
brother (William I and William II).
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Count Robert II  Aid Byzantium: close familial connection with Emperor Alexios I. Had probably sent
of Flanders troops to support the empire.
 Aid Eastern Christians: felt it his duty.
 Material gain: prospect that Alexios would pay for / reward his support.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Count Eustace III  Mouvance: probably dragged into either Godfrey or Robert of Normandy’s contingent.
of Boulogne
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Duke Godfrey of  Mouvance: brothers/cousin going on crusade.

Bouillon  Religious zeal: recent convert to papal support. Aimed to free Jerusalem.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Baldwin of  Mouvance: Eustace and Godfrey participating.

Boulogne  Material gain: youngest of three sons, little prospects in the West.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Baldwin of  Mouvance: second cousins with the counts of Boulogne.

Bourcq  Material gain: chance to better himself than lowly Bourcq.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Prince Hugh of  Religious zeal: asked to go by his brother, King Philip I, in recompense for
Vermandois excommunication by the papacy.
 Material gain: had an inflated opinion of himself and expected to be rewarded.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

12
 Count Stephen II  Mouvance: pushed into crusading by his wife.
of Blois  Religious zeal: a possible factor.
How might this noble impact the crusade?

Why did the People’s Crusade fail?

The first wave of the First Crusade, also known as the popular movements or ‘People’s Crusade’ came as many
different contingents and from a number of territories in France and Germany. They are famed for committing horrific
massacres whilst passing through the Rhineland, and for their unruly and ill-disciplined nature. Their eventual
destruction in Anatolia and outside of Nicaea in 1096 demonstrated a few successes, but ultimately how not to
conduct a crusade through hostile (and friendly) territory. The People’s Crusade failed for the following reasons:
 Poor leadership: leaders such as Peter the Hermit, Emicho of Leiningen and Walter Sansavoir came from
different walks of life and were not exactly what Urban II had wanted to lead a crusade. Their leadership was
de-centralised, with no real direction from papacy – this prompted national divisions to emerge during the
campaign. The traditional view of the People’s Crusade is one which was ill-disciplined and therefore poorly
led from the outset, committing heinous acts in the Rhineland, across the territory of the empire, and then
against fellow Christians at Nicomedia in Anatolia. Even Emperor Alexios recognised their nature and
quickly washed his hands of the troublesome force. The accusation is that they lacked respect for the abilities
of the Seljuks (perhaps by having no real military leaders at their head), were dismissive of Byzantine advice,
and were overly zealous and enthusiastic. Ultimately, their strategic and tactic deficiencies cost them at
Xerigrodon and Civetot.

 Poor planning: the crusade left at the wrong time (Summer1096) ahead of the harvest. The traditional view is
that the crusade was poorly stocked with long-term supplies, and that they had not established key points of
resupply along their route to Constantinople. There was a lack of purchasing power on the crusade as many of
the nobles were leaving later with the Princes’ Crusade. Diplomatic overtures had not been previously made
to the Byzantine Empire ahead of the crusade’s arrival, prompting surprise and panic from the emperor’s
forces.

 Lack of military support: whilst the traditional view of a crusade made up of civilians may not quite be
accurate, the crusade appears to have lacked the thousands of elite troops brought later by the Princes’
crusade. The Byzantine emperor advised that the crusade await the arrival of the princes (according to the
Alexiad) but pressed into enemy territory without the ability or materials required to conduct an effective
campaign.

 Lack of allied aid: the crusade ostracised support before even reaching Anatolia. The local governors of the
Byzantine Empire were attacked and fed reports back to Constantinople of a band of troublemakers, therefore
the emperor was disinclined to support them at the capital. Furthermore, the king of Hungary, Carloman, was
repeatedly troubled by German crusaders passing through, ultimately losing his support.

 Muslim skill: Islamic chronicles report that the Christians were not wearing armour at Civetot because they
had been completely taken by surprise. Kilij Arslan’s spies had previously tricked the French into advancing
on Nicaea by spreading false rumours that the Germans had taken the city. His well-laid ambush led to the
annihilation of the crusader forces.

13
The Princes’ Crusade
Perhaps eight princes and their lords, knights and retinues, alongside thousands of well-equipped foot soldiers and
poorer infantry embarked upon the First Crusade in mid-1096. The agreed to rendezvous at Constantinople at the end
of 1096 ahead of crossing into Anatolia together in 1097.

1096
The various contingents of the second wave of crusaders began to prepare for departure however, they first awaited
the harvest and the full preparation of their supplies. Around October the contingent from Lorraine departed via the
Rhineland and along the Danube, whilst those from Flanders, Normandy and Blois proceeded through central
France, into Italy, crossing into the Balkans. It is here that they likely picked up the Norman contingent led by
Bohemond and Tancred. Raymond and Adhemar faced opposition whilst passing along the Dalmatian coast, before
crossing the Balkans to Constantinople.

Alexios had arguably expected a small force of western mercenaries which would serve under Byzantine command.
He got a force which may have numbered up to 100,000 strong. This force began to arrive in December 1096,
making him nervous and distrustful – especially of the Italian Normans, who had spent much of their military carers
attacking the empire under Robert Guiscard.

1097
During the period at Constantinople the crusader leaders were entertained, supplied and (some) lavished with gifts
from Alexios. He sought and gained an oath of fealty from all but Raymond and Tancred. What was agreed has
become the source of debate, but the Alexiad identifies this oath as: becoming anthropos lizios (temporary vassals
of the Byzantine Empire during their territory); presenting no harm to the emperor of his family; and to hand back
any recaptured lands which had previously been held by the empire. In return, the crusade was ferried to Anatolia
and provided with further supplies, money, guides and a supporting force of 2,000 Greek troops under the
command of Tatikios.

After encamping at Nicomedia, the First Crusade moved on to Nicaea which fell after a six-week siege on 19 June.
The crusading leaders demonstrated a purpose of unity, excellent military capability, and repulsed attempts by Kilij
Arslan to lift the siege. However, the city surrendered to Emperor Alexios following the Byzantine blockade of
Lake Ascanius. The crusader leaders, somewhat aggrieved, were paid off with lavish Byzantine gifts.

The crusade then marched inland through the intense summer heat in two columns: a vanguard under Bohemond
and the remainder commanded by Raymond. On 1 July the vanguard was ambushed by Kilj Arslan’s forces at
Dorylaeum. Bohemond’s forces survived for five hours before Godfrey arrived. A further two hours passed before
Raymond and Adhemar’s forces could turn the tide of the battle. The crusaders limped on to Iconium through a
desolation after Kilij Arslan’s defensive scorched earth policy.

The crusade moved forward to Heraclea, defeating a small Turkish force, and holding a council in September. It is
here that the crusade split into two forces. The bulk of the force negotiated the anti-Taurus mountains through
Cilicia via Comana and Marash – Byzantine guides were vital for identifying markets for the crusaders, however,
the treacherous mountain passes through the winter cost the crusade further manpower and vital horses. The smaller
contingent under Tancred and Baldwin of Boulogne probably consisted of no more than 2000 men. Tancred
conquered Tarsus before being pushed out by Baldwin. Tancred sought support at Christian Adana, before
conquering Mamistra. Baldwin’s arrival at Mamistra presented further arguments between the two, and Baldwin
left via Marash for Edessa. Tancred re-joined the crusade at Marash. By October the crusade had arrived at Iron
Bridge, just outside of the great city of Antioch.

Baldwin meanwhile was invited to Edessa by local Armenian Christians and by the local governor, Thoros. He was
quickly adopted as his son and heir. Following Thoros’ timely death, Baldwin established the first crusader state:
the county of Edessa.

The siege of Antioch began on 20 October with largely unsuccessful assaults against the impregnable Antiochene
walls. The crusader army besieged the vast city but were unable to encircle it. Thus, by the winter, the crusader
army was wracked by starvation and disease. An attempt by Duqaq of Damascus to lift the siege was defeated by
Robert of Flanders and Bohemond on 31 December when the two forces virtually collided with one another at
Albara. Duqaq’s forces retreated to Hama whilst the crusaders, who also suffered heavy casualties, returned to
Damascus.

1098
14
In order to manage the dangerously low supplies within the crusader camp, Adhemar ordered a three-day fast.
Despite some supplies trickling their way through to the crusaders, Matthew of Edessa estimated that one in five
Franks died outside Antioch. Many began to desert in January, including Peter the Hermit who had joined the
princes at Constantinople. The arrival of spring saw the supply situation improve for the crusaders. Tatikios then
departed the siege prompting calls of cowardice from Bohemond.

In February Bohemond’s forces anticipated Ridwan of Aleppo’s attempts to lift the siege at Antioch. At the Lake
Battle near Iron Bridge on 9 February were forced to flight by Bohemond’s well timed cavalry charges. Yagi-
Siyan’s simultaneous sally out of Antioch was also unsuccessful. According to Orderic Vitalis, on 4 March an
English fleet led by Edgar Aetheling brough supplies and siege materials from the Byzantines, prompting the
construction of gegenburger forts: La Mahomerie, Tancred’s Fort, and Malregard. By May word of a 35,000-strong
force under the Mosuli atabeg Kerbogha reached the crusade, prompting a council where Bohemond declared his
plan to gain control of the city. Once promised control of Antioch, Bohemond was given access to the city via
Firuz’s tower on 3 June. By 4 June Bohemond had opened the gates, Yagi-Siyan had been killed, but the citadel
continued to hold-out.

Later that day the reconnaissance troops of Kerbogha (who had been held up by an unsuccessful siege of Edessa)
arrived outside Antioch and entrapped the beleaguered crusaders forces. However, whilst morale was at an all-time
low, Peter Bartholomew (with the suspicious support of Raymond) discovered the Holy Lance on 14 June following
a series of visions. Following a two-week delay where diplomacy between the two sides failed, the crusader forces
sallied out and defeated the forces of Kerbogha, prompting his withdrawal on 28 June.

Despite this unlikely victory, the crusade now became bogged down in political rivalry. Adhemar of Le Puy died on
1 August and Bohemond claimed control of the city and crusade. Raymond had missed the battle of Antioch
through illness, and the death of Peter Bartholomew via trial by fire had irreversibly damaged his reputation
amongst the crusaders. Whilst the two vied over control of the city and outlying towns, the crusaders grew
frustrated and restless.

1099
By January Raymond had failed to gain the support of the other leaders regarding Antioch. Raymond’s hand was
forced by the rest of the crusade and they departed for Jerusalem on 13 January, leaving Bohemond to his spoils. As
the crusade moved southward many emirs sued for peace or paid off the crusade: Shaizar, Hama, Homs. Godfrey,
Baldwin of Bourcq and Robert of Flanders besieged Jabala whilst Raymond besieged Arquad. Following rumours
of an Abbasid army from Baghdad Raymond called for aid from Godfrey, forcing the siege of Jabala to be lifted.
When no army arrived Raymond’s reputation was further dented – it looked as if his nerves had gone. By May
Robert of Normandy and Tancred had shifted their allegiances to Godfrey as the army approached Sidon, Tyre,
Acre and Caesarea.

In June the crusade arrived at Ramla, rested for three days, and held a leadership council. An assault on Egypt was
rejected and the army turned towards Jerusalem. Tancred was dispatched to Bethlehem and aided the local
Christians with liberation. The crusaders arrived at Jerusalem on 7 June. Following Genoese aid and a tactical shift
by Godfrey, the crusaders gained entry to the city on 15 July before committing an infamous slaughter of all
inhabitants. Raymond rejected the leadership
role of the new kingdom of Jerusalem,
anticipating being offered it once more and
demonstrate his humility. However, Godfrey of
Bouillon was elected Advocatus Sancti
Sepulchri (advocate of the Holy Sepulchre) thus
outmanoeuvring Raymond.

On 12 August Godfrey successfully led a

unified Frankish army (carrying the True Cross)
against the Fatimid army of al-Afdal at the
battle of Ascalon, paving the way for further
conquest and expansion in the Levant. In the
wake of the victory at Ascalon the kingdom of
Jerusalem was born alongside the county of
Edessa and the principality of Antioch.

15
Why did the Princes’ Crusade succeed?

Factor Which historical evidence supports this factor?

16
Frankish leadership

17
Frankish military skill

18
19
Muslim disunity

20
21
22
23
Religious fervour

24
Allied assistance

25
26
Impact of the First Crusade… 1082
 … on the Byzantium: Tension existed, but with an air of friendship, between the crusaders
and the empire. The issue of Antioch and Bohemond threatened to 1083 derail relations as both
remained hostile towards Constantinople’s attempts to exercise suzerainty. However,
Raymond travelled to Constantinople to spend time with Alexios and 1084 sooth his ruffled
feathers. Alexios was able to mop up after the crusade in Anatolia and secured possession of
the western and eastern coastlines. Cooperation moving forwards was a real possibility and
1085
 … on the Latin West: Pope Urban II died on 29 July 1099 never hearing of the
crusade’s success. Holy relics flooded into Europe helping to develop 1086 the cult of relics and
saints. Many crusaders returned home as conquering heroes, albeit poorer ones. Huge
crusading enthusiasm gripped the Latin West, with many follow up 1087 crusades departing in

 … on the Muslim Near East: a curious lack of response is apparent following the First
1088
Crusade. The Sunni-Shi’a split demonstrated that division within Islam was still the prevailing
concern of Baghdad and Cairo. To the Abbasids, the Levant was a marcher territory and
there appears to be a real lack of concern or urgency regarding its loss 1090 to the Franks. In
contrast, the Fatimids were upset at losing Jerusalem which had only recently acquired.
Grand Vizier al-Afdal mustered a force to march on Jerusalem, being 1091 caught out at Ascalon
in 1099 by the bold offensive strategy utilised by the Franks. Syrian voices did call for a
response however, these fell on deaf ears: Ridwan and Duqaq had both been defeated and
1092
remained divided. Ultimately, there was a failure in the Muslim world to understand precisely
The First Crusade (c.600-1099): Detailed Chronology 1093

1094

1095

1096

1097

1098

1099

1100

27
 Norman capture of Durazzo
Byzantine defeated at Ioannina by
Islamic Schism c.650 Peace of God: Peace at Liege Bohemond of Taranto
Birth of Islam and Expansion:
Norman siege at Larissa unsuccessful
635: Damascus
637: Ctesiphon
c.600 - Bohemond returns to Italy
Umayyads ousted from
638: Jerusalem 732 Damascus by Abbasids Peace of God: Peace at Cologne
640-42: Egypt Durazzo recaptured by Byz and Venetians
646: Alexandria 750 Bohemond and Guiscard defeat Venetians
698: North Africa d. Robert Guiscard – invasion of Byz. and capture Corfu
Papacy shifts support from Empire plans halted Epidemic forces Norman return to Italy
711-13: Spain
Byzantium to Charlemagne Bohemond of Taranto and Roger Borsa Henry VI invades Italy again, crowned HRE
732: Battle of Tours – Islam halted
800 fight over inheritance
Byzantine Expansion begins
through Balkans, Anatolia and Seljuks take Antioch from Byz Empire Gregory VII flees to S. Italy
Levant Peace of God: Peace at Bamberg d. Gregory VII
863 Toledo falls to Alfonso IV of Leon-Castile
Robert the Frisian, count of Flanders
Shia Fatimids create rival
went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
empire in North Africa
Pledged 500 mercenaries to aid Alexios
909
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah attacks Christians ‘Holy War’ justification Pechenegs invade Thrace
and destroys Church of Holy Sepulchre. developed by Church Italian City States campaign in Muslim
Bohemond of Taranto renews civil
Western outcry and Pope Sergius IV Africa at Mahdia. Huge amounts of loot
issues circular letter (or papal bull) – no 1009 war against step brother
for Pisans and Genoese
western response except for anti- Continued Fatimid attacks
minority violence in France and Germany Urban II consecrated pope
on Levantine Christians
Thawing of Great Schism: excomm Roger I’s power increases because
1011 rescinded by 1089 of civil war – aided by Bohemond.
d. Emperor Basil II of Byzantine Empire Viking, Magyar and Muslim Bari falls to Roger I
Pechenegs invade Thrace
Byzantium goes into decline attacks on Europe abated. Robert the Frisian, reminded of his
Widespread famine in West owing to
Arrival of Seljuk Turks in Anatolia 1025 Culture of violence remained
ergotism or ignis sacer promise by Alexios.
Truce of God by 1027 500 mercenaries arrive in East from
Peace of God: fighting forbidden on Flanders
Sundays and holy days in the West Battle of Levounion – Pecheneg threat
Slavic Pechenegs attack Byz. Empire
1040 d. Vizier Nizam al-Mulk to Byzantine Empire destroyed
Swein Godwineson’s bare-foot d. Sultan Malikshah I
from the north throughout 1050s
Pope Leo IX offers exemptions from pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Died on return Seljuk empire fractures
Kilij Arslan fighting Danishmend
punishment and sin to those 1053 journey
Kilij Arslan peace treaty with Emperor Alexios I
Civil War across Seljuk empire
fighting Normans in Sicily The Great Schism:
Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael
Cerularius excommunicate one
1054 another d. Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir
Some 2000 Franks a core element Seljuks take Baghdad Internal factionalism and civil war in Egypt
of the Byzantine army from Abbasids Pope Urban II regains Rome
Canon Law strengthened by Pope 1055 Byzantine economy struggling – pressure to
Nicholas II: 1058 Bohemond I
Pope Alexander II blesses Christian conquer new lands
disinherited by Guiscard’s Council of Piacenza
warriors in Spain – offers papal
annulled marriage to Alberada
1063 standard and indulgences Urban II’s preaching tour of France
Christian victory at Barbastro Council of Clermont – indulgences offered
Great German pilgrimage (Spain) – first papal endorsed Urban’s letters: target becomes Jerusalem
butchered by Seljuks crusading activity? Nizar’s rebellion in Egypt
1064 Plague repeatedly strikes Fatimid Egypt Walter Sansavoir departs for HL:
refused entry to Belgrade prompting
William of Normandy supposedly
Peter the Hermit preaches in Cologne: 20,000 respond Christian violence. Rioting at Semlin. Escort
offered papal banner ahead of invasion
PH moves through Germany: anti-Semitic violence
1066 Band attack Byz. Forces at the border. Storm Belgrade.
from Nis to Constantinople
Emicho leads 10,000 through Germany
3000 Frank strong element to Byz. army
Escorted to Constantinople after losing 5,000 crusaders Rhineland massacres at Speyer and Worms
Battle of Manzikert- Anatolia lost to Seljuks
PH and WS join forces – forces beaten and broken at Moson
Bari (last Byz holding in Italy) lost to Robert
Guiscard 1071 People’s Crusade: Germans take Xerigordon Folkmar and Gottschalk persecute
Seljuks massacre crusade outside Nicaea Bohemian Jews. Beten by Hungarians
Peter the Hermit flees to Constantinople Ridwan of Aleppo attacks Antioch
Seljuks take Jerusalem from Fatimids
Princes’ Crusade arrives at Constantinople
Prevention of Christian pilgrimages
Gregory VII consecrated pope
1073 Alexios I engineers oaths from some leaders Siege of Nicaea (May-June)
Gregorian Reforming Movement starts before shipping them across Bosporus Battle of Dorylaeum (July)
Princes Crusade marches through Cilicia
Gregory VII explores joint action with
Byz Empire vs Islam 1074 Tarsus and Mamistra fall to Tancred/Baldwin
Arrival at Marash and then ‘Iron Bridge’
Start of Investiture Contest Siege of Antioch begins Baldwin presses on to Edessa
Gregory VII encourages Reconquista Foraging Battle (Dec)
Dictatus Papae
and plans expedition. Knights called 1075 Henry IV and Greogry fall out over Lake Battle (Feb)
Baldwin secures control in Edessa (March)
milites sacri sent to aid and enforce
investiture of Archbishop of Milan Genoese fleets arrive with supplies Sunnis refused to offer aid to Shia defenders
papal authority – few respond Genoese block Orentes River
Henry IV excommunicated – German of Antioch
1076 uprising against his rule Taticius leaves the siege
Edgar Atheling arrives with Byz. Siege
Fall of Antioch to Bohemond (June)
Kerbogha with arrives at Antioch with 30,000
3000 Jerusalemites massacred by engines and resources for Gegenburgen
Gregory excomms Henry IV Discovery of the Holy Lance
Seljuks following Fatimid uprising forts
again and offers support to
Henry IV’s excomm lifted but Great 1077 anti-king Rudolph
Arguments over leadership of Antioch
Battle of Antioch (June)

Saxon Revolt continues Raymond continues crusade south Al-Afdal of Egypt proposes splitting Holy
Henry defeats Rudolph, calls
Al-Afdal seizes Jerusalem from Seljuks
German synod, elects anti-pope
Henry VI invades Rome
1080 Clement III Siege of Jerusalem (June)
Genoese fleet arrives with supplies
Gregory VII offers spiritual reward to Godfrey shifts assault to Herod’s gate
Nicaea lost to Seljuks – becomes capital of Sultanate of Rum
Matilda of Tuscany vs Henry VI Fall of Jerusalem and massacre (July)
Alexios I Komnenos seizes throne of Byzantine Empire in coup
Normans in S. Italy planning invasion 1081 Venetian navy purchased to defend Empire from Normans Al-Afdal sends relief force
of Byzantine Empire in Balkans Battle of Ascalon
Bribed Henry IV to attack Italian Normans (360,000 gold pieces)

28
 Topic 2: The Foundation of New States and the Second Crusade, c.1099-1149

Contents
 Establishing the states of Outremer; Kings Baldwin I, II and Queen Melisende; expansion and conquest; trade
and pilgrimage.
 The foundation of the military orders: Templars and Hospitallers; their military, religious and economic roles.
 Relations of the crusader states with the Byzantine Empire, the Latin West, the Muslim Near East and
indigenous peoples.
 The Islamic response to the crusader states: Islamic politics and the rise of ideas of jihad under Zengi.
 The preaching of the Second Crusade, its course and outcome.
 The impact of the Second Crusade on the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire, the Latin West and
Outremer by 1149.

Checklist

Tick once Topic

complete
d
Establishing the states of Outremer: leaders, expansion, trade and pilgrimage
Foundation and development of the military orders
Relations of the crusader states: with the Byzantines and the Latin West
Relations of the crusader states with the indigenous peoples
Islamic response: Islamic politics and the rise of jihad under Zengi
The calling, course and outcome of the Second Crusade
The impact of the Second Crusade on the Muslim Near East, Byzantium, Latin West and Outremer

Key Chronological Overview

Date Event
1100  Baldwin of Boulogne crowned as King Baldwin I of Jerusalem
1101  Defeat of a new wave of crusaders in Anatolia
 Capture of Caesarea
1104  Capture of Acre
 Battle of Harran
1106  Bohemond I of Antioch launches assault on the Byzantine Empire
1108  Treaty of Devol: Bohemond I pledges loyalty to the Byzantine Emperor
1109  Capture of Tripoli
1113  First appearance of the Order of Knights of the Hospital of St John
1118  Baldwin of Bourcq crowned as King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
1119  Order of the Knights of the Temple of Solomon militarises.
 Battle of the Field of Blood: death of Roger of Antioch – jihad as a concept begins to spread
1120  Council of Nablus, establishing the first written laws of the kingdom of Jerusalem
 Papal recognition of the Knights of the Hospital of St John

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 1122  Investiture Contest resolved improving relations between the pope and Holy Roman Emperor
1124  Venetian crusade and the capture of Tyre
1128  Papal recognition of the Knights of the Temple (Templars)
 Imad ad-Din Zengi of Mosul acquires Aleppo
1129  Fulk V of Anjou arrives in Jerusalem and marries Melisende
1131  King Fulk I and Queen Melisende ascend to the throne of Jerusalem
 Revolt of Hugh of Jaffa
1138  Raymond of Antioch accepts Emperor John II’s overlordship over Antioch
1142  Raymond of Antioch forced to accept Emperor Manuel I as overlord in Antioch
1143  King Fulk dies. Baldwin III becomes king of Jerusalem as a minor. Melisende acting as his
regent
1144  Fall of Edessa to Zengid forces
1145  Pope Eugenius III issues Quantum praedecessores calling the Second Crusade
 Baldwin III struggles against Melisende leading the kingdom to the verge of civil war
1146  Eugenius reissues the papal bull calling for the Second Crusade
 Bernard of Clairvaux appeals at Vézelay, with King Louis VII of France committing to the
crusade (31 March). Bernard continues a preaching tour of France, the Rhineland and
Germany.
 Zengi murdered. Nur ad-Din becomes atabeg of Aleppo, seeking to maintain jihad.
1147  Armies of Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France depart for the Holy Land (1147)
 Byzantine’s sign a truce – the treaty of Konya – with the Seljuks
 Germans under Conrad defeated at Dorylaeum (Oct)
1148  French and Germans under Louis VII defeated at Mount Cadmus (Jan)
 Crusaders steadily arrive in Antioch (March-May)
 Council of Acre (June) with Damascus chosen as the crusade’s objective
 Siege of Damascus fails
1149  Battle of Inab: death of Raymond of Antioch
 Death of Fatimid caliph, al-Hafiz, leading to three child caliphs

Establishing the states of Outremer; Kings Baldwin I, II and Queen Melisende; expansion and conquest; trade
and pilgrimage.
After the conquest of Jerusalem and the thwarting of the immediate counter attack at Ascalon, the crusaders set to the
task of establishing a series of crusader states to consolidate and build upon their achievements. Further pilgrims and
crusaders were sorely needed, and a Western European societal structure was established. The crusader states became
known as Outremer (‘beyond the sea’). The first thirty years for the fledgling states brought continual external
challenges alongside internal worries.
The county of Edessa
 First crusader state to be founded, and the first to be abandoned in 1144. Acquired by Baldwin of Boulogne in
March 1098 during the First Crusade. He may have been acting in the interests of Emperor
Alexios I, who may have granted him the title of doux (regional governor). Other interpretations
of Baldwin’s actions are of material gain and greed.
 Largely populated by Armenian Christians who farmed the ‘fertile crescent’ around the Euphrates
River or kept livestock on the high, dry plateaus. Baldwin ensured a sense of political continuity and
maintained the Armenian aristocracy.
 Edessa quickly became a vassal state of the kingdom of Jerusalem. It was very much a ‘front-line’ territory
which sought to manage and limit the growth of Muslim atabegs in Northern Syria such as Il Ghazi, Imad ad-
Din Zengi and later Nur ad-Din Zengi.
 Count Baldwin I maintained a good relationship with Edessa’s Frankish neighbours, but growing tensions
with Antioch did occasionally spill out into warfare, such as when Count Joscelin I invaded Antioch (1127.).
 The Frankish defeat at the battle of Harran (1104) halted crusader expansion and later counts were unable to
gain control over the key power bases of Aleppo or Mosul.
 Furthermore, the turbulent politics of Antioch left the count of Edessa with the responsibility of ensuring
stability. Count Joscelin I worked alongside King Baldwin II to sure up Antioch’s defences after the battle of
the Field of Blood (1119).

30
  As internal tensions mounted in Jerusalem, support soon dried up for Edessa. This led to the capture of the
city and eventual fall of the county in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi.
The principality of Antioch
 The principality was an important barrier against Byzantine influence and Seljuk invasion.
 Unlike Edessa, the princes of Antioch did not hold their titles from the king of Jerusalem,
therefore, they operated independently. However, they were limited in this freedom by the threat
posed by Aleppo, Mosul, the Seljuk states, and the threat of the Byzantine Empire.
 Made up of Franks, eastern Christians (Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox), Muslim
Arabs, Sunni Seljuks and Turkish tribes.
 The chief economic activities of the principality were predominantly agricultural but the port of St Symeon
played a vital role in encouraging and developing western trade in the region. Furthermore, the city relied on
the passing pilgrim trade, and as Antioch stood as the gateway to the Holy Land from Anatolia, it was in a
prime position.
 Bohemond I actively engaged with battling the Turks in the north, however, he was captured by the
Danishmend at the battle of Melitene (1103), with Antioch requiring the brief regency of Tancred in 1104.
 Furthermore, Bohemond refused to hand Antioch to Alexios I Komnenos. In fact, Bohemond actively
recruited and campaigned against the emperor, but was defeated in the Balkans in 1107 and was forced to sign
the humiliating treaty of Devol (1108) which handed overlordship of the principality to the Byzantines.
Bohemond had to make do with the title of doux.
 Bohemond’s death (1111) saw a series of regencies in the stead of Bohemond II who was a minor and in Italy
on the passing of his father. The city faced real pressure from Il-Ghazi and the battle of Ager Sanguinis (‘Field
of Blood’) in 1119 saw the Antiochene forces wiped out and the loss of its commander and regent, Roger of
Salerno. Baldwin II of Jerusalem held the principality together until the majority of Bohemond II in 1126.
 Bohemond II’s reign was energetic but divisive. He quarrelled with Joseclin I of Edessa, forcing the Baldwin
II to intercede, before being killed in Cilician Armenia in 1130. The kings of Jerusalem constantly involved
themselves in Antiochene affairs, with Raymond of Poitiers being married to Constance in order to provide
male leadership for the city – all the design of King Fulk I.
 Furthermore, the kingdom of Jerusalem consistently sent troops and supplies to Antioch in 1110, 1111 and
1115 to aid in the protection of their Cilician border towns, sustaining Frankish influence in the north, but
draining vital manpower.
 In 1137 and 1145 Antioch once again paid homage to the Byzantine emperors, John II Komnenos and Manuel
I Komnenos respectively. This guaranteed the principality military support against the growing Turkish threat.
The kingdom of Jerusalem
 On Godfrey’s death (18 July 1100) Baldwin I of Jerusalem inherited a fragmented collection of
territories which were hardly a kingdom: Jerusalem itself, southern Judea, the coast around Jaffa
and some Galilean territory.
 Its population was a mixed community including local Arab Muslims, eastern Christians and Jews, nomadic
Bedouins, and Druzes. The Franks added to this mix as a ruling minority supported by urban and rural settlers,
not a replacement for those originally living in the area.
 The primacy of Jerusalem developed steadily as local governors (including Edessa and Antioch) appealed to
the kings for support. Soon their authority had been well established as the Frankish power in the region.
 However, the power given by the crown to local governors would become a problem. By 1175 just ten
families controlled twenty-four of the most important lordships within the kingdom, reducing the royal
demesne and threating to overpower the crown. The king utilised all of his weapons to maintain control over
his barons, for example he confiscated the fiefs of Hugh of Le Puiset in 1132. This skilled application of
feudalism led to a the period of stable leadership within the kingdom.
 Jerusalem itself remained the key city of pilgrimage, and as such, many new religious foundations were
established and attached to churches in Jerusalem. Furthermore, Jerusalem established itself as the most
powerful of the two patriarchs (the other being Antioch). This was all but confirmed in 1111 by the pope,
Paschal II.
 The economic prosperity of the kingdom greatly depended on agriculture: the cultivation of olives, wheat and
citrus fruits. Like Antioch, Jerusalem’s port cities became a hotbed of commercial activity. Acre and Tyre
generated huge amounts of trade but relied on the permanent presence of the Italian city states. Cooperation
between the indigenous merchants and Franks was encouraged in order to generate revenue.
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The county of Tripoli
 The last state to be conquered and established was that of the county of Tripoli following the
efforts of Raymond IV of Toulouse. Raymond recruited the remnants of the failed 1101 crusade
and seized Tortosa (1103) and the Giblet (1104). Raymond besieged Tripoli but died in 1105
without seeing it fall. Tripoli itself eventually fell in 1109.
 The county relied heavily on agriculture and the industrial production of sugar cane and olive cultivation. The
two ports of Tripoli and Tortosa were heavily used by merchants from Homs and Damascus. This resulted in
thriving trans-Mediterranean mercantile activity.
 The county tried to maintain a measure of independence, despite being hemmed in between Antioch and
Jerusalem. The counts regularly ignored the king of Jerusalem, such as in 1112 when Bertrand regained
control of the county in contravention to the desires of Baldwin I. The county was technically a vassal state of
Jerusalem’s, but it was not prepared to bow down to their every wish.
 Politically, the county came to logger-heads with Antioch on more than one occasion. Raymond I allied with
Alexios I Komnenos against Antioch in 1101. In 1109 a network of inter-Christian alliances and
confraternities existed creating tension over the inheritance of Tripoli – only resolved after William-Jordan’s
death (1100).

32
Leadership in Outremer up to c1099-c1149
Kingdom of Jerusalem Principality of Antioch County of Tripoli County of Edessa

Godfrey of Bouillon Prince Bohemond I Count Raymond I Count Baldwin I

‘Advocatus Sepulchri’ (Bohemond of Taranto) (Raymond IV of Toulouse) (Baldwin of Boulogne)
d.1100 d.1111 d.1105 abdicated 1100

King Baldwin I Prince Bohemond II Count Alfonso Jordan Count Baldwin II

(Count Baldwin I of (Son of Bohemond I) (Youngest son of Raymond (Baldwin of Bourcq)
Edessa) d.1130 I) abdicated 1118
d.1118
Regents Regent Regent
King Baldwin II Tancred d’Hauteville William Jordan Tancred d’Hauteville
(-1112) (deposed1109) (1104-1108)
(Count Baldwin II of Roger of Salerno
Edessa) (d.1119) Count Bertrand I Count Joscelin I
d.1131 King Baldwin II of Jerusalem
(-1123) (Eldest son of Raymond I) (Joscelin de Courtenary)
d.1112 d.1131
Queen Melisende of
Jerusalem Princess Constance
d’Hauteville Count Pons I Count Joscelin II
(Daughter of Baldwin II)
(Daughter of Bohemond (Son of Bertrand I) (son of Joscelin I)
retired 1153
II) d.1137 d.1159
and
King Fulk I d.1163
Count Raymond II
(Count Fulk V of Anjou)
Husbands (Son of Pons I)
d.1143 Raymond of Poitiers d.1152
(d.1149)
King Baldwin III Reynald of Chatillon (m.1153)
(son of Fulk and
Melisende)
d.1163

Consolidation and expansion: achievements and setbacks of the kings of Jerusalem

Achievements Setbacks
Baldwin I  Defended Antioch when Bohemond had  Ostracised support from Norman Sicily after
been taken prisoner by Danishmend. insulting Count Roger II – outraged at the
 Ferocious military commander who treatment of his mother Adelaide in 1117
plundered Muslim caravans and derived the after an annulment of marriage with
emirs of Shaizar and Aleppo of tribute. Baldwin.
 Conquered Arsuf and Caesarea (1101);  Defeated at the second battle of Ramla
Jaffa (1102); Acre (1104); Beirut (1107) (1102) after an ill-informed attack.
and Sidon (1108). Aided the siege of  A combined Frankish army was defeated at
Tripoli (1109-10) the battle of Harran (1104) resulting in lost
 Learned from mistakes: victory at third Antiochene territory.
battle of Ramla (1105).  Unable to achieve anything in Egypt.
 Was able to unite Frankish leaders at Edessa
(1100); al-Sannabra (1113)
 Utilised western aid effectively, such as the
1101 crusade, Genoese and Norwegian
crusades.
 Ensured the kingdom became wealthy with
the conquest of coastal ports.

Baldwin II  Recognised the benefits of the Order of the  Captured by Turks (1123-4) whilst out
Temple of Solomon in 1118 and gave them riding.
lodgings, allowing them to protect the  Initially failed to recognise the value of
pilgrim ways. Sent Hugh de Paynes infantry (though he learned quickly!)
recruiting (1126) to France and England.  Perhaps allowed his enemies breathing space
Fulk V of Anjou arrived in 1129 as a result. from 1126 onwards in order to rebuild their
 Supported Pons of Tripoli in saving Antioch strength.

33
 after the Field of Blood (1119).
 Learned from errors as demonstrated by
victory at the battle of Hab (1119),
recovering some of the towns lost.
 Capture of Tyre (1124) despite Baldwin
being in captivity!
 Battle of Azaz (1125), defeating Bursuq and
Tughtegin of Damascus.
 Constructed a period of peace from 1126.

Fulk I  Rode to Antioch’s defence in 1133 and  Contributed to the 1134 crisis and the threat
1135, managing problems amongst the of civil war with Hugh of Jaffa.
nobility. Finally he engineered the marriage  Challenges in maintaining Antiochene
of Constance to Raymond of Poitiers (1136) independence against John II Komnenos.
re-establishing strong leadership.  Failed to inflict a decisive defeat on Imad
 Constructed the castles of Gibelin, Ibelin ad-Din Zengi at Montferrand (1137)
and Blachegarde (1136-7) to curb the threat
posed by Ascalon.
 Negotiated alliances with Damascus (1137
and 1139) to curb the Zengid threat.

The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Knights Templars)
 The order was a Catholic military order founded in 1119 and headquartered on Temple
Mount in Jerusalem.
 Supported by Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux via the letter ‘In Praise of the New
Knighthood’ at the Council of Troyes (1129). Recognised officially by Pope Innocent II
via the papal bull Omne datum optimum (1139).
 Initially founded by a French knight, Hugh de Paynes, in order to protect pilgrims travelling on the
dangerous roads throughout the new crusader states. King Baldwin II of Jerusalem supported the notion of a
monastic band of warriors and granted them a wing of his royal palace in Jerusalem.
 Only nine brothers are thought to have been members including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and Andre de
Montbard (all of which had few resources). Following the Council of Troyes donations and volunteers flowed
in. With the increase in resources the Templars began to assert themselves in the east. Hugh de Paynes
conducted a recruitment campaign in 1129 gathering large resources as well as the support of Count Fulk V of
Anjou, who arrived in the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1130.
 The papal bull Omne datum optimum granted the order a certain independent and exemption from local laws:
exemption from local taxation, free passage through borders, and exemption from all but the pope’s authority.
 The Templars quickly developed into an elite fighting force with a clear spiritual mission. They acted as
heavily armoured shock troops and later aided Frankish armies in achieving outstanding victories on the
battlefield. By the 1170s the military orders could field 300 elite knights as well as infantry.
 A financial infrastructure was developed to support the military missions in the Holy Land and Iberia.
Recruitment, fund raising, and the development of an international banking system which generated letters of
credit for pilgrims (1150) and the first formal use of cheques contributed to Templar coffers.
 Given their monastic status and their work, the order was gifted huge donations of houses, estates and wealth.
 The international network of monastic houses, churches and commanderies developed by the Templars acted
as a constant reminder to those in the west of the work done, and aid required, in the east: Temple Meads in
Bristol and Temple Church in London.
The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (Knights Hospitallers)
 Evidence of the Hospital in Jerusalem can be found long before the First Crusade, where
the monastery of Saint John the Baptist took in Christian pilgrims. This developed into a
monastic order following the First Crusade, being founded by Gerard Thom and
confirmed by Pope Paschal II in Pie postulation voluntatis (1113). The group continued
to care for pilgrims to Jerusalem, but steadily began to offer services such as armed escort.

34
  By 1118 the Hospitallers under Raymond de Puy had developed an armed militia from the order’s members
and offered their services to Baldwin II, much in the same vein as the Templars had.
 The order grew in international prestige and wealth by constructing a network of monastic houses across
Europe in order to facilitate its activities in the Holy Land. By 1139 they garrisoned and defended the fortress
of Bethgibelin and acquired Krak de Chevaliers in 1144. The Hospital in Jerusalem was expanded to house
1000 beds by 1169. Furthermore, the order could field up to 300 knights on the battlefield by the 1170s –
much like the Templars, they became the elite shock troops of the Frankish armies.
 Like the Templars, they Hospitallers acted as a constant reminder in the west of the activities in Outremer: St
John’s Gate in London is an example of this reminder.
How important were the military orders to the survival of the crusader states 1100-49?

Strengths Limitations
 Could start to provide a force which might resemble  Didn’t come into existence as military forces until at
a standing army for the kingdom and other the earliest 1118. It took until 1139 for the papacy to
crusader states. recognise the Templars, despite donations to the
 Increasingly, the orders were the only ones able to order before then.
administer and defend castles as costs increased.  The numbers of brothers were small for the period
 Vital for raising funds through monastic houses in the build up to the Second Crusade. Therefore
across Europe and in providing a constant castles weren’t really being garrisoned by the orders
reminder to the west of the daily challenges faced until the late 1130s at the earliest.
by those in the Levant.  The banking system was not really developed until
 Developed and provided a banking system which 1147, and therefore its impact on Outremer during
facilitated easier pilgrimages and developed a this period can be debated.
source of revenue for the order, therefore aiding the  The military impact of the military orders is limited
defence of the crusader states. on the battlefield – when present, the army always
 As a connection between east and west, the military seemed to lose! (Damascus, 1129; Montferrand,
orders facilitated a constant flow of information 1137; Hebron, 1139).
and communication.
 Vital for recruiting campaigns as the military
orders were developing as the elite military and
spiritual organisations committed to crusading.

Relations of the crusader states with the Byzantine Empire

 The relationship between the crusader states and the empire was plagued by issues of ownership stemming
back to the oath given to Alexios I Komnenos in 1097/8. The issue over Antioch was pursued vigorously by
Alexios and his successor, John II Komnenos.
 Following Bohemond I’s defeat at Dyrrhachium and the Treaty of Devol (1108)
Alexis established Byzantine overlordship in Antioch. Despite this, Frankish rulers often
ignored or paid no attention to their supposed loyalty to Constantinople.
 Between Alexios, John II and Manuel I Komnenos, the empire launched six invasions
of the northern crusader states in an attempt to assert their authority. John conquered
Tarsus, Adana and Mopsuestia (1137) to reinforce claims to suzerainty over the crusader
states – the prince of Antioch, count of Edessa and even the count of Tripoli paid
homage. John repeated his invasion once more in 1142 drawing homage from Raymond
of Antioch.
 Despite this, the Byzantines demonstrated support for the crusader states and their
shadow presented a considerable obstacle to the growth of Turkish atabegs. John launched a combined
ventures with the Franks to besiege Shaizar (1138) and agreed to hand over Shaizar, Aleppo, Homs and Hama
to the crusaders should the campaign prove successful. Manuel I launched assaults against the sultanate of
Rum up to 1146 before concluding the treaty of Iconium (Konya) ahead of the Second Crusade.
 Jerusalem was able to evade the demands of the Byzantium however, decades of lukewarm diplomatic
communications may have hindered support from Constantinople during the Second Crusade.

35
Relations of the crusader states with the Latin West
 European support remained a vital lifeline for the crusade states. Initial crusading enthusiasm continued in
the decades following the first crusade: the crusade of Dukes Welf IV of Bavaria and William IX of Aquitaine
(1101); the crusade of King Sigurd of Norway (1110); the crusade of Count Fulk V of Anjou (1119-20); the
Venetian crusade (1122-24); a second campaign led by Fulk V of Anjou (1129). Hugh de Paynes is reported
to have visited the kings of England and France in 1929 who committed huge financial resources to the
upkeep of Outremer, whilst the military orders continued to benefit from the vast donations which poured in
to both orders in the 1130s and 1140s.
 Norman Sicily was originally a strong supporter of crusader activities. The Sicilians and many of the first
crusaders shared an enterprising Norman heritage, however, assistance from the kingdom diminished after
Kind Baldwin I of Jerusalem’s marriage to Adelaide (King Roger II of Sicily’s mother). The marriage was
annulled as no heir was forthcoming, as well as the fact that his previous wife Arda was still living. Roger
offered no more assistance to the kingdom of Jerusalem and focused on his quarrels with the papacy and in
campaigning against the Byzantine Empire.
 Italian City-States were crucial links with the Latin West for Outremer. The principle sea ports of Acre, Tyre
and Tripoli provided a speedy and secure point of entry or exit to the crusader states. They grew wealthy
through mutually beneficial commercial activity championed by the Genoese, Pisans and Venetians. Not only
did the Italians contribute to the economy of Outremer, but they also provided crucial support militarily: the
Venetians provided ships at the sieges of Sidon (1110) and Tyre (1124). The Genoese had offered support in
the sieges of Jerusalem (1099), Caesarea (1101), Gibelet and Acre (1104). The Italians achieved hugely
favourable financial incentives by the crusader states for their permanent commercial presence, continued
military support and granting of loans.
Relations of the crusader states with indigenous peoples
 According to research conducted by Prawer and Jotischky Palestinian Christians lived around Jerusalem
between Jericho and the Jordan, Maronites lived around and in Tripoli, as did Muslim Druzes. Jacobites lived
in Antioch and Edessa. Armenians lived in concentrated communities across all major towns in the northern
states of Antioch and Edessa. Palestine consisted of a predominantly Sunni Muslim majority however, Shi’ite
communities lived in Galilee. Jews are recorded to have lived in coastal towns and some villages in Galilee.
 Many Frankish crusaders returned home following the conclusion of the First Crusade at Ascalon. Those who
stayed in the kingdom of Jerusalem concentrated at Jerusalem, Acre and Tyre. According to Prawer, the
Frankish presence in Outremer peaked at c250,000 inhabitants with approximately 120,000 residing in the
kingdom of Jerusalem. Frankish peasants are evidence in 235 villages out of 1,200 rural settlements.
 The basic divisions within Outremer were between Frank and non-Frank, and between Christian and Muslim.
The Franks occupied the ruling class and implemented a feudal state – one which wasn’t completely alien to
the indigenous population. The occupiers utilised native officials to impose military, legal and administrative
control.
 Few Franks could speak Arabic but dragomans (interpreters) and ru’asa (singular ra’is) (village headman) as
mediators.
 The law favoured the Franks and cases were administered locally in much the same fashion the shire and
manor courts operated in Medieval England and France. High profile cases could be heard at the cour des
bourgeouis. There is a historical debate as to the scale in which apartheid eroded over time between Frank and
non-Frank or Christian and Muslim. Various writers such as Ibn al-Qalanisi suggest that some Franks adopted
local dress, food, housing and military techniques. However, Tyreman is cautious in suggesting that Outremer
was a cultural melting pot. Inter-communal relations were shallow, separate identifies were maintained, and
other communities were considered alien.
 The native ‘ruled’ maintained a traditional deference to their new overlords.
 The royal court represented the diversity of the region. Queen Melisende was part Armenian and married a
Frenchman, Fulk of Anjou. King Baldwin I had previously been married to an Armenian (Arda) and then later
a Norman Sicilian (Adelaide). His descendants Baldwin III and Amalric I would marry Byzantine Greeks.

The Islamic response to the crusader states: Islamic politics and the rise of jihad under Zengi.
 The Muslim response to the success of the First Crusade depended on geography. The Fatimids made attempts
to regain Jerusalem but were beaten at Ascalon (1099), and Ramla on two occasions (1101, 1105). However,

36
 the reaction from Baghdad was apathetic, whilst the Seljuk warlords remained fractured and the likes of Kilij
Arslan, Ridwan, Duqaq and Kerbogha had all been beaten by the ‘invincible’ First Crusade. These warlords
(as well as local emirs) had failed because of an number of reasons:
1. Underestimation of the crusade
2. A lack of understanding of what the crusade was and its aims
3. Self-interest and internal division (including the Sunni-Shi’a schism)
4. Fear, submission and self-preservation.

 The Seljuk Turks remained a fractured network of states following the First Crusade. Individual warlords
were more interested in expanding their own power bases than in pursuing revenge against the Franks. Syrian
commanders such as Il-Ghazi pursued diplomacy with the Franks in 1121 after a period of ravaging the
county of Edessa. This allowed him to turn north and unsuccessfully invade the kingdom of Georgia. At
Mosul Imad ad-Din Zengi succeeded Kerbogha as atabeg and steadily began to unify the warlords of Syria
under his banner. Zengi and his son Nur ad-Din emerged as the greatest threats to the northern crusader states
during this period given their aims of uniting Syria under one leader, and in pursuing the emerging Sunni
concept of jihad.

 The Abbasid Caliphate had steadily began to regain some form of independence and independence
following the deaths of Malikshah and Nizam al0Mulk (1092). With the Seljuk empire fractured, as well as
the recent defeats inflicted upon them by the First Crusade, the Abbasids grew in confidence. Caliph al-
Muqtafi and his vizier Ibn Hubayra regained full military independence and defended Baghdad successfully
against the Seljuks in 1157. Whilst the caliphate did send forces to combat the crusaders, especially in the
county of Edessa, Baghdad was too focused on their own struggles against the Seljuks, and regarded the
Frankish kingdoms as a marcher territory which was currently beyond their purview.

 The Fatimid Caliphate had been on the steady decline since their peak in the 10 th Century, however, this
does not mean that they were yet a spent force. The arrival of the crusaders indirectly sealed the fate of the
Shi’a caliphate as there was a growing need for unity within Islam to combat the new threat. Vizier Al-Afdal
suffered repeated military setbacks in the early 12 th century following the loss of Jerusalem. Previous to his
troubles with the crusaders, al-Afdal had proclaimed his brother-in-law, al-Musta’li (the youngest of the
caliph’s sons), as successor in 1094. This has divided Shi’a Muslims and even created opposition with Egypt
itself. By 1130 the Shia’s of Arabia and the Indian Ocean coasts had abandoned Fatimid Egypt. Despite their
control of Ascalon, Fatimid Egypt posed little danger to the kingdom of Jerusalem after 1105 owing to
internal political turmoil.

Imad ad-Din Zengi and the rise of jihad

 Imad ad-Din Zengi was an Oghuz Turk born c1085. He rose to become atabeg of
Mosul in 1127.
 Zengi’s father had previously been governor of Aleppo under Malkshah but was
executed for treason (1094). Zengi had been raised by Kerbogha and sought to regain
control of Aleppo.
 Following Tughetin of Damascus’ death (1128) a power vacuum threatened to
weaken Syria once more. Zengi seized control of Aleppo (1128) and was formally
invested as ruler by Sultan Mahmud II. By 1130 Zengi had allied with al-Mulk Buri
of Damascus however, used this as a ruse to seize Hama from the Damascenes. He
attempted to besiege Homs but failed.
 Sultan Mahmud II’s death (1131) created a civil war for succession within the Seljuk empire. Zengi marched
unsuccessfully on Baghdad and only escaped with the aid of the governor of Tikrit, Najm al-Din Ayyub,
rewarding Ayyub with a position in the Zengid army.
 In 1134 Zengi allied with Il-Ghazi’s son, Timurtash, against the Artuqid Turks. However, his attention and
energies now turned towards gaining control of Damascus. He besieged the city and then Homs
unsuccessfully in 1135, trying once more to take Homs in 1137. Mu’in al-Din Unur of Damascus by this
point had allied with the kingdom of Jerusalem to thwart Zengid ambitions in the region.
 A force led by King Fulk of Jerusalem was defeated by Zengi at Montferrand (1137) however, he still faced
the combined threat of Antioch and the Byzantine Empire. The combined armies were turned back from
37
 Shaizar (1138) by Zengid armies successfully. Zengi finally gained control of Homs through marriage, allying
with the Damascenes once more. Despite this, Zengi besieged Damascus again in 1139 and 1140 (both
unsuccessfully) forcing Damascus into another alliance with the kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1144 Zengi began
the siege of Edessa.
 This period of continued conflict with Frankish powers helped develop the concept of Jihad (‘struggling’ or
‘striving’) in Sunni Syria. In classical Islamic law this refers to the armed struggle against the nonbeliever,
rather than personal efforts being made to conform to Allah’s will. This classical definition was also a
convenient justification for a warlord to expand their powerbase in order to attack the infidel from a position
of strength.

Supporting evidence
Zengid commitment to
jihad

Counter-evidence

Nur ad-Din Zengi and the development of jihad

 Nur ad-Din Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Imad ad-Din Zengi – shortened to his
laqab: Nur ad-Din (‘Light of the Faith’) was born 1118 as a younger son of
Imad ad-Din Zengi.
 On Zengi’s death (1146) Nur ad-Din inherited Aleppo whilst his elder brother
Saif al-Din Ghazi inherited Mosul. On his brother’s death (1149) Nur ad-
Din’s brother Qutb ad-Din Mawdud inherited Mosul, however Nur ad-Din
was granted Homs in compensation. Qutb, as a younger brother, recognised
Nur ad-Din as overlord of Mosul, once again unifying the two major cities of
the fertile cresent. From here, Nur ad-Din turned his attention towards his
father’s elusive goal: Damascus.
 Nur ad-Din responded to unrest in the county of Edessa and reconquest attempts from Count Joscelin II
following Zengi’s death. He massacred 30,000 of the local Armenian Christian population of the city,
enslaved its women and children and destroyed its fortifications to discourage further rebellion.
 From 1147 Nur ad-Din set about building alliances with his Muslim neighbours in Suria and northern Iraq. He
came to agreement with Mu’in ad-Din Unur of Damascus, marrying the governor’s daughter, Ismat ad-Din
Khatun. However, Unur remained cautious of Nur ad-Din’s true intentions and, despite successes against
rebellious Damascene vassals, Nur ad-Din turned north (1148) to attack the principality of Antioch. Unur was
keen in his dealings with Nur ad-Din not to offend the kingdom of Jerusalem.

38
Why was the Second Crusade called in 1145?
On 24 December 1144 the city of Edessa fell to Imad ad-Din Zengi after a siege which lasted a month. Zengi
collapsed a section of the wall and his forces killed all who were unable to flee to the citadel. Native Christians were
allowed to live freely, however, Latin prisoners were executed. The rest of the county of Edessa fell (despite efforts
from Count Joscelin II and the army of Jerusalem). By 1146 Prince Raymond of Antioch had already sent a delegation
to the papacy requesting immediate support from the west.

Why did people go on the Second Crusade?

Rough estimates place the number of combatants on the Second Crusade at around 35,000. Many of the same
motivations of the second major wave of crusaders are shared with those motivating the first crusaders, especially
religious zeal, the remission of sins, and the attraction of material gain. However, the Second Crusade also presents
a number of different motivating factors:
Actions of Pope Eugenius III  The issue of Quantum praedecessores (and its reissue) was a formal
instruction issued by the papacy – this never existed during the First
Crusade – as such, many dutiful Christians responded to the order.
 Eugenius, whilst under terrible political pressure in Italy, was able to
dispatch instructions to England, France, Flanders and Germany, as well as
authorising the expansion of crusading activities to the Baltic region and
Iberia. Furthermore, he tried to contact Sicily, Hungary and the Byzantines
to facilitate the expedition.
 Eugenius remained in France from March 1147 preaching and recruiting.

Preaching of Bernard of  The traditional view is that Bernard conducted the bulk of the preaching
Clairvaux tours and his legendary tour resulted in the majority of the key recruitment –
including securing Conrad III of Germany and convincing Louis VII’s
nobles.
 Bernard was a prolific letter writer and sent missives to France, England,
Flanders and Germany in order to recruit. He mobilised the knights of
Europe and chastised sin, promoting the penitential worth of the crusade.
 He presented the crusade as a once in a lifetime opportunity for salvation.

Socio-economic conditions  The kingdom of England had suffered from civil war since 1139 and many
barons were frustrated, thus taking the cross to escape the turmoil.
 The Levant was still presented as a land of opportunity by medieval
chroniclers and preachers, and this would have proved an attractive change
for those who continued to struggle in the west.

Mouuvance and feudal ties  The commitment to crusade from two of Europe’s monarchs was an
important factor. Many of the great lords sought to establish themselves in
the eyes of their lord, as well as the prospect of lesser lords achieving
reputation and acknowledgement from their feudal overlords.
 The actions of kings set an important precedent and were copied in much the
same way celebrities are today, therefore crusading became increasingly
‘trendy’ amongst the French and Germans.

Traditions of crusading  Extended families of famous crusaders considered it their duty support the
crusader states – this is especially clear of Alfonso-Jordan, count of
Toulouse, who was the son of Count Raymond of Tripoli and had been born
in France.
 Women born into crusading households encouraged the continuation of
tradition amongst their husbands and sons.
 The notions of memory and familial heritage were important motivating
factors, especially amongst the French and those of the Low Countries.

Motivational songs  The influence of Chanson de geste remained key to the development of
chivalry in western Europe, and the increase in troubadours spread their
influence beyond noble courts. Troubadours such as Marcabru cultivated the

39
 image of an ideal knight as energetic, moral, pious and aware of his
obligations to his lord and the lower classes.
 Songs reinforced the audience’s self-image, virtues of nobility, and provided
models for them to emulate – it inspired an espirit de corps.
 Songs began to develop the notion of lordship – Christ was being portrayed
as a lord during the twelfth century, and his subjects were to fulfil their
duties and obligations to him.

Aid Eastern Christendom  The recovery of the county of Edessa (lost in 1144) and the liberation of
Christians in the region was a potent motivating factor.

Personal Glory  The opportunity to emulate the legendary warriors of the First Crusade and
write oneself into history was an opportunity many could not overlook.
 Knightly chivalry had developed throughout the twelfth century and was
now firmly established within the knightly ethos and culture of western
Europe.

Leader Possible motivation for joining the crusade

King Louis VII of France  Religious zeal: desire for penitence following an interdict on France (1144)
and desire to complete a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
 Glory and reputation: to consolidate his political power in France and that of
the Capetian royal family.
 Aid Eastern Christians: Louis was genuinely affected by the loss of Edessa,
and perhaps was the first to respond to the call for crusade.
 Traditions of crusading: he was following in the footsteps of his great-uncle,
Hugh of Vermandois.
King Conrad III of Germany  Preaching of Bernard: some argue that he was badgered by Bernard and
eventually gave in.
 Religious zeal: claims have been made that Conrad had already committed
to crusade ahead of Bernard’s arrival, and that he had apologises to the pope
for his delayed departure.

The Second Crusade

The Second Crusade stands out as important given that it was the first time that two western monarchs decided to take
the cross themselves. It is distinctly possible that the Second Crusade attracted a similar number of warriors and
pilgrims as in during the First Crusade. The crusade was also to be supported by the established crusader states, and
sought to address the growing Muslim threat to the crusader states.

1145
Returning pilgrims began to spread news in Europe of the fall of Edessa in 1144. Further embassies followed these
from Antioch, Jerusalem and Armenia. Hugh, bishop of Jabala arrived in Viterbo to discuss renewed support for
Outremer with the pope. Pope Eugenius III issued the papal bull Quantum praedecessores (1 December) and
dispatched these to the monarchs and leading nobles of Western Christendom. Despite this official call to crusade,
the initial response was poor. King Louis VII of France called on his French nobles to crusade at Bourges at
Christmastide, however, he was unable to convince the assembled nobles.

1146
On 1 March the papal bull was reissued, with Eugenius authorising Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux to conduct a
preaching tour of France and the Low Countries. During his Easter court at Vézelay, Louis once again tried to
convince his leading nobles to participate in the crusade. This time he was supported by the charismatic Bernard of
Clairvaux who preached to the assembled crowd on 31 March. The response was overwhelmingly positive and the
register of noblemen who signed up to crusade reads much like a ‘Who’s Who’ of French nobility. Eugenius then
toured France to encourage others to take the cross.

Bernard of Clairvaux then passed into Germany and met King Conrad III of Germany at Speyer and his nephew,
Frederick of Swabia – both received the cross from Bernard’s own hand. Furthermore, he halted the antisemitic
preaching of a Radulf in the Rhineland, thwarting a series of massacres which mirrored those during the First
Crusade.

40
 1147
Many northern Germans were reluctant to fight nonbelievers in the Holy Land when they felt they were evident
across the river Elbe to the East. Eugenius III issued the papal bull Divina dispensatione (13 April) permitting these
warriors to conduct the Wendish Crusade against the pagan Slavs, with Anselm of Havelberg placed in overall
command as papal legate. Eugenius also expanded the scope of the crusade in Iberia. He authorised King Alfonso
VII of Leon and Castile to increased his campaigns against the Moors. In May Alfonso was supported by a fleet of
English crusaders who aided him in capturing Lisbon by 25 October – many of which then continued on to the Holy
Land.

The two kings departed for the Holy Land, travelling separate from one another. Conrad led a poorly discipled army
via the land route through Europe in May. He would not take the sea route because of his rivalry with King Roger II
of Sicily. The French also decided to take the land route on 15 June, despite distrusting the Byzantines, however,
this offended Roger II and he refused to participate in the campaign.

The Germans cross Hungary with approximately 20,000 men and briefly skirmished with Byzantine troops as they
approached Constantinople. Conrad pitched camp to the west of Constantinople on the plains of Choirobacchoi in
September however, his army was quickly devastated by flooding, losing both men and supplies. Emperor Manuel I
Komnenos and Conrad quarrelled, resulting in the battle of Constantinople. Conrad decided to depart
Constantinople for Anatolia without rendezvousing with Louis’ French contingent, leaving Manuel’s lands to be
attacked by Roger II of Sicily.

Louis followed the German route through Hungary and into Byzantine territory. Relations between the empire and
France were also poor: the French were distrustful of Manuel for signing a truce (the treaty of Iconium (Konya))
with the Sultan Mesud I of Rum. The Byzantines were suspicious of French intentions at Constantinople with such
a large armed force. Despite this, Byzantine relations were marginally better with the French than with the
Germans, and Louis was lavishly entertained at the imperial capital. Manuel refused to supply the French with
Byzantine troops, but did agree to ferry the entire crusade from Antalya in Anatolia.

Meanwhile, the Conrad’s forces marched towards Iconium, capital of the Seljuk sultanate of Rum. His divided his
army into two divisions however, both quickly ran short of supplies – he had underestimated the length of the
march through Anatolia. At the second battle of Dorylaeum (25 October) Conrad’s party was almost totally
destroyed. The second party under the command of Bishop Otto of Freising (Conrad’s half-brother) was ambushed
by Seljuks near Laodicae (16 November) with the majority of the army either killed or captured. The French met
the remnants of the German army as they passed through Anatolia, with Conrad joining Louis’s force, quickly
falling sick and retiring to Constantinople. The crusade, now commanded by Louis VII, was victorious at a small
engagement outside Ephesus (24 December) and the fended off another ambush at the Meander River.

1148
Continuing through Anatolia, the crusade suffered heavy losses at Mount Cadmus after walking into a Seljuk
ambush. However, the crusade was able to limp on to Antalya. Despite his promises, Manuel failed to provide the
fleet which had been assured Louis, and in the end only the crusade’s leaders were shipped Antioch arriving on 19
March – the rest of the army continued towards Antioch, harassed, on foot.

Louis’ arrival at Antioch was interpreted by Prince Raymond of Poitiers (Eleanor of Aquitaine’s uncle) as support
for his own objectives in Outremer however, following rumours of a ‘closeness’ between Eleanor and Raymond,
Louis quickly departed for Tripoli and then Acre with Eleanor under arrest. Otto of Freising and Conrad arrived in
Jerusalem in early April, and Louis was invited to a council held at Acre on 24 June. Here the objective of the
crusade was shifted from recovering Edessa, to King Baldwin III of Jerusalem’s preferred target, Damascus. The
regent of Damascus, Mu’in ad-Din Unur – previously a friend of the Franks – sought the help of Saif ad-Din Ghazi
I of Mosul and Nur ad-Din of Aleppo.

The crusade arrived outside Damascus on 23 July, attacking the city from an orchard which provided continuous
food to the Franks. Unur’s forces were able to push the attackers back from the walls into the orchards, leaving the
crusaders vulnerable to ambushes. On 27 July the crusaders moved the attack to the eastern side of the city – much
less heavily defended but it offered little food and water to supply the attackers. The arrival of Nur ad-Din and Saif
ad-Din denied the crusaders a chance to return to the western side of the city. After the local crusader lords raised
objections, the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city – Conrad was the first to return to Jerusalem on 28
July. Conrad pursued a new plan to attack Ascalon, however, a mutual distrust now hamstringed the crusade and the
Germans departed for Constantinople to patch up Conrad’s alliance with Manuel.

41
1149

42
 Louis remained in Jerusalem until April, where after the king and his wife took separate ships him to France. He
survived a naval attack from Greek pirates which further soured the relationship between the French and Byzantine
Empire. In Outremer King Baldwin III conceded ever recovering the county of Edessa and arranged to sell off the
remaining fortifications there. To make matters worse in the north, in June, Prince Raymond of Antioch (Poitiers)
was killed at the battle of Inab prompting the rise of Nur-ad Din and the buckling of the northern states.

Why did the Second Crusade fail?

Factor Which historical evidence supports this factor?

Poor leadership

Christian disunity

Muslim unity

Poor planning

Lack of allied assistance

The impact of the Second Crusade on…

 … the Muslim Near East: the failure of the Second Crusade massively boosted the moral of Syrian Muslims.
This firmly established the concept of jihad which had been developing under leaders such as Imad ad-Din
Zengi, but was now being championed by his son Nur ad-Din. Damascus quickly fell under his influence and,
eventually, his control, as Nur ad-Din sought to unify Syria warlords under one leader. Ultimately, the loss of
Edessa altered the delicate balance of power in Northern Syria and removed an important buffer zone
protecting the principality of Antioch.

43
  … the Byzantine Empire: the relationship, however rocky with the Germans, was rescued by Conrad’s
prolonged stay in Constantinople after the Second Crusade. He and Manuel shared a common enemy in the
Norman Sicilians, and by extension, their cousins in France. Louis’
1099 1123
relationship with Manuel never recovered. The Byzantine Empire suffered a
huge blow to its ambitions in Anatolia, Syria and Antioch. The loss of Edessa
and rise of 1100 Nur ad-Din presented a huge hurdle 1124 for the empire to overcome.

 … the Latin 1101 West: whilst the German links with 1125 the Byzantine empire were
re-forged, Louis refused to engage in Eastern affairs again. He focused his
attention on 1102 establishing his power throughout a 1126 decentralised France, and in
dealing with his troublesome Angevin neighbours. Louis returned
with his reputation intact however, he was unable to reconcile with
1103 1127
Eleanor of Aquitaine whom he divorced in 1152. Her subsequent
marriage to the future Henry II of England presented Louis with a
hugely 1104 troubling rival. Bernard of Clairvaux 1128 was deeply humiliated by
the failure of the crusade. Whilst his reputation also survived, he felt it
important to 1105 issue an apologia. The greatest 1129 impact of the Second
Crusade in the west was that there remained no immediate response to
events in 1106 Outremer for a significant period of 1130 time. No leaders were
willing to risk their reputation, money or lives any longer – crusading
enthusiasm was muted and the concept of ‘holy war’ questioned.
1107 1131
 … Outremer: doubt emerged in the Latin East over the impact
of large scale 1108 crusades and campaigns and whether 1132 they could have any positive
impact in the future. As with the situation in the west, the leaders of the
1109 crusader states looked inwards and 1133 competed politically:
Seizure of Bethlehem by Tancred
Fall of Jerusalem to the First Crusade arguments between Queen Melisende and King
Battle of Ascalon 1110 Baldwin III of Jerusalem threatened 1134 to spill out into civil war,
Godfrey elected Advocate of the Holy
Sepulchre and as such, the focus on subduing a newly optimistic Muslim
1111 world 1135 became less of a priority.
d. Urban II (19 July)
Haute Cour established in KoJ
1112 1136
The Crusader States (1100-1144): Detailed Chronology
1113 1137

1114 1138
Baldwin II POW
Bohemond I ambushed in Cilicia POW
Gesta Francorum completed Venetian crusade
d. Godfrey of Bouillon (18 July)
Bernold of Constance completes chronicle 1115 Baldwin, I, king of Jerusalem (25 Dec) 1139 Fall of Tyre
Coastline (excluding Ascalon) captured
Paschal II preaches new crusade
1101 Crusade of Welf IV and William IX Baldwin II released
Battle of Ramla Battle of Azaz
Failure of crusade in Anatolia
Tortosa captured
1116 Capture of Caesarea 1140
Ekkehard of Aura documents FC
Bohemond II arrives in Antioch
Raymond of Aguilars Bohemond II m. Alice of Jerusalem
Second Battle of Ramla
Siege of Jaffa
1117 completes chronicle 1141
of First Crusade
Conflict between Bohemond II and Joscelin I
Bohemond I released
of Edessa
Siege of Acre 1118 1142 Zengi, atabeg of Mosul – carving out large
principality in N. Iraq/Syria
Capture of Gibelet Battle of Harran (7-8 May)
Siege of Tripoli established 1119 Joscelin I and Baldwin II of 1143 Zengi acquires Aleppo
Fall of Acre Edessa POW Frankish attempt on
Damascus fails
Hugh de Paynes recruiting tour of Europe
d. Raymond I of Tripoli Templars at siege
Third Battle of Ramla 1120 Counts split: William Jordan
1144 Henry I of England grants Templars ‘gold and silver’
Bohemond I tours Europe annually
and Bertrand d. Bohemond II of Antioch Fulk of Anjou arrives with Angevins
recruiting
Alice as regent of Antioch Fulk m. Melisende
Fulcher of Chartres completes Chronicle of 1121 Ralph of Caen completes Gesta Zengi allies with Damascus
First Crusade (latest date) Tancredi (started 1112) Hama falls to Zengi, previously Damascene
Joscelin II takes over Edessa Zengi failed in siege of Homs
Balderic of Dol and Robert the Monk 1122 Bohemond I smashed by d. Baldwin II of Jerusalem
complete their histories of First Crusade Krak des Chevaliers completed
Alexios in the Balkans Fulk, king of Jerusalem
Nobles revolt in Jerusalem
Guibert of Nongent completes his Gesta of
Treaty of Devol Hugh of Le Puiset’s estates
the First Crusade (latest date)
confiscated by Jerusalem
44
Fall of Tripoli Fulk helps aid Antioch
Baldwin II of Edessa released Zengi preoccupied with Baghdad
(2000 day siege) (politics)
Tancred gives up claim to Edessa
 The Second Crusade (1147-49): Detailed Chronology

1143
French investiture dispute with Pope Innocent II – Interdict imposed
d. King Fulk I of Jerusalem upon King Louis VII of France
Queen Melisende rules Jerusalem as Baldwin III’s regent Louis VII begins war with Theobald II of Champagne
French invasion of Champagne region.
Pope Innocent II recognises terms of Treaty of Mignano with Vitry massacre (1500 burned in town by Louis VII)
Sicily after military force by Roger II
d. Innocent II Louis VII, distraught for soul, retreats from Champagne region. Agrees
Pope Celestine consecrated 1144 to accept the pope’s choice as archbishop of Bourges
Fall of Edessa to Imad ad-Din Zengi
Death of archbishop of Edessa in the city’s defence
County Growing strife between Baldwin III and Melisende of Jerusalem
Louis VII settles investiture dispute with Pope Celestine II
Quantum d. Pope Celestine II reissued by Eugenius III
praedecessores
Pope of
Bernard Lucius II consecrated
Clairvaux preaches at Vezalay, France.
Huge French take up of crusading arms with Louis VII
d. Pope Lucius II 1145 Bernard of Clairvaux starts preaching tour from Vezalay, France
Consecration of Pope Eugenius III
Hugh, bishop of Jabala arrives in Rome to plead for aid – probably brings d. Imad ad-Din Zengi – assassinated
news from Outremer of Edessa’s fall Count Joscelin II attempts to retake Edessa. Defeated by Nur ad-Din
Louis VII pledges to pilgrimage at Bourges during Christmas – Crusaders leave from England, abandoning the civil war which rages on
underwhelming response from nobility Otto ofPope Eugenius
Freising III visits arrive
and Germans FranceintoJerusalem,
encouragefollowed
crusading recruitment
soon by Conrad
Council of Acre (28 June 1148) to determine objective of the Second Crusade EnglishTripoli
fleet from Lisbon arrives in Outremer
Roger II of Sicily conquers (North Africa)
Haute
PapalCour
bull ensures
Quantum target
Fall ofemerges
praedecessores asChristian
Tortosa to Damascus
issued byforces in Iberia
Eugenius III Mu’in ad-Din Unur, governor of Damascus makesamongst
defensive preparations and
Armies assembled at Tiberias (50,000 strong) and marched on Damascus Internal division and feelings of betrayal crusaders back in Jerusalem
Conrad rejectsConrad appeals
Roger II’s offer
leads oftomaritime
troops Nur ad-Din for
butaid.
support
to Ascalon in aid
no favour of – failed siege
arrives
1146 Manuel I Komnenos. Roger withdraws support for the crusade
Unsanctioned preaching in the Rhineland leads to anti-Semitic responses
Conrad departs
Siege of for Constantinople, and then on to Germany
Damascus
Bernard of Clairvaux grants Eastern Germans permission to crusade against the Crusaders move from orchards to the plain
Louis
Nur ad-Din’s arrival fulfils pilgrimage
prompts vow before returning to France
Christian withdrawal
Wends, across the of
Battle Elbe
Inab Louis and Eleanor not on speaking terms – separate ships home
d. Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch
Bernard visits Rhineland to condemn
Nur Rudolf’s preaching.
ad-Din makes majorPreaches
gains directly to King Bernard of Clairvaux issues humiliating Apologia
Conrad III of Germany. He and hiswelcomed
Louis
Reconstruction nephew,
of ChurchFrederick
to
ofAntioch ofby
the Holy Swabia, takes
Raymond
Sepulchre ofup the cross
Poitiers
completed
Iberian heldatdiscussing
CouncilChristiansSpeyer.
conquerplans to campaign
Lleida against Aleppo.
from Almorovids Pope Eugenius unable to return to Rome due to poor popularity.
Louis refuses, choosing pilgrimage to Jerusalem
Rumours involving Eleanor and Raymond abound – Louis departs 1147 Eugenius meets Louis VII and Eleanor on their return in Italy – unable to reconcile the
two
Eugenius issues papal bull Divina dispensation
undertriggering the Wendish
Antioch with Eleanor arrest. Raymond’s aid Crusade.
lost
Anselm of Havelberg placed in overall command
Conrad’s German crusaders passed through Hungary peacefully, despite rivalry with Geza
Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine’s crusade depart from St. Denis for the Holy Land Skirmishes between Byz and 20,000 German forces at border
French arrive in Hungary and are welcomed by King Geza II Germans arrive at Constantinople and are encamp on a flood plain – suffer flood, killing men
English Crusaders arrive at Porto, Portugal and ruining supplies
King Alfonso I of Portugal conquers Lisbon from Islam with English aid
Occupation of Almeria by Christian coalition forces in Iberia: Catalans, Leonese, Castilians, Battle of Constantinople: disagreement over strategy between Conrad and Manuel
French and Genoese-Pisan navy Germans depart Constantinople for Anatolia ignoring Manuel’s advice to wait
Conrad refuses to wait and presses on towards Iconium, splitting army into two. Other group
French move peacefully through Byz territory – some violence vs. slower Germans under command of Otto of Freising marches south.
Manuel I signs peace treaty with Seljuk Sultan, Mesud I Second Battle of Doreylaeum – Conrad wounded
Louis entertained lavishly in Constantinople – French calls to ally with Roger II and attack Roger II of Sicily invades Byz territory
Manuel. French king restrains aggression, Louis crosses into Anatolia without Byz troops
End of Wendish crusade around Mecklenburg, despite no large conversions from Wends
Small French victory outside Ephesus vs Seljuks French army meets remnants of Conrad’s at Lopadion. Manuel sends emissaries
complaining about French looting. Conrad ill and returns to Constantinople
1148 Conrad’s half-brother, Bishop Otto of Freising, defeated in southern Anatolia
French arrive and pick up remnants of German army
Battle of Mount Cadmus
Fleet gathered at Antalya – Louis and officers proceed to Holy Land via sea. Rest of the
army harassed via land route into northern Syria to Antioch.
Crusader army mostly destroyed during arduous land journey

1149

45
 Part 2: ‘The Revival of Islam and the Later Crusades, 1149-1204’

Topic 3: The Muslim Counter-Crusades and Crusader States, 1149-c.1187

Contents
 The context of Islamic power in the Near East from 1149; the rise of Nur ad-Din in Syria and Egypt and the
growth of jihad.
 Outremer from 1149: political developments, military strengths and weaknesses.
 Relations between Outremer and wider Christendom, the Latin West and the Byzantine Empire.
 Internal divisions within Outremer, including the reign of Baldwin IV and his successors.
 The rise of Saladin: religion, politics and military expansion; victory at Hattin.
 The crisis of Outremer: the consequences of Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem.

Checklist

Tick once Topic

complete
d
The rise of Nur ad-Din in Syria and Egypt and the growth of jihad
Political developments in Outremer under Baldwin III
Political developments in Outremer under Amalric I
The military strengths and weaknesses of Outremer, 1149-74.
Relations of the crusader states with the Latin West and Byzantium
Internal divisions in Jerusalem during the reign of Baldwin IV and the following succession crisis
The rise of Saladin in Egypt and Syria: religion, politics and military expansion; the battle of Hattin
The fall of Jerusalem: immediate and wider consequences

Key Chronological Overview

Date Event
1149  Battle of Inab and the death of Raymond of Antioch
1151  Baldwin III demands to rule alone. He starts civil war against Melisende when refused.
1153  Baldwin III seizes Jerusalem and pensions off Melisende to Nablus.
 Franks capture Ascalon
1154  Nur ad-Din annexes Damascus
1157  Failed siege of Shaizar
1158  King Baldwin III marries Theodora, niece of Manuel Komnenos
1163  Amalric I becomes king of Jerusalem
1164  Nur ad-Din sends commander Shirkuh to Egypt to aid the vizier Shawar
1167  Amalric invades Egypt
 Shirkuh becomes vizier in Egypt
 Saladin becomes vizier following Shirkuh’s death
1168  Saladin adopts the title ‘malik’ (king)

46
 1169  Mission of Archbishop Frederick of Tyre to Henry II of England and Louis VII of France
1171  Amalric visits Constantinople
1174  Nur ad-Din dies, his lands are divided between his sons
 Amalric I dies, Baldwin IV succeeds to the throne of Jerusalem
 Saladin takes control of Damascus
1175  Battle of the Horns of Hama
1176  Battle of Myriokephalon
 Battle of Legnano
1177  Battle of Montgisard
1178  Crusaders begin construction of a fortification at Jacob’s Ford
1179  Saladin destroys castle at Jacob’s Ford
1180  Guy de Lusignan marries Sibylla of Jerusalem, thwarting the plans of the Ibelins
 Death of Manuel I Komnenos, succeeded by his son, Alexios II
1181  Pope Alexander II calls for the Latin West to support Outremer
 Reynald de Chatillon breaks the Frankish/Muslim truce in Outremer
 Saladin invades Galilee before withdrawing
1182  Andronikos I Komnenos overthrows Emperor Alexios II Komnenos and Maria of Antioch
becoming emperor. Massacre of the Latins in Constantinople (April)
1183  Saladin conquers Aleppo
 Franks levy a general tax in the kingdom of Jerusalem
 Saladin’s invasion of Galilee withdraws owing to the sensible command of Guy de Lusignan
 Guy de Lusignan stripped of regency and internally exiled. Raymond becomes regent.
1185  Baldwin V succeeds his uncle as king of Jerusalem. Raymond acts regent.
1186  Sibylla firstly, then alongside Guy de Lusignan, ascend to the throne of Jerusalem following
Baldwin V’s death.
1187  Reynald de Chatillon breaks the five-year truce prompting Saladin to invade again (Jan)
 Skirmish at the Springs of Cresson
 Battle of Hattin (4 July): Reynald, Templars and Hospitallers executed, Guy captured
 Conrad of Montferrat arrives in Tyre and fortifies the city (Aug)
 Jerusalem falls to Saladin (Oct)
 Pope Gregory VIII issues Audita tremendi calling for the Third Crusade (Nov)

The context of Islamic power in the Near East from 1149; the rise of Nur ad-Din in Syria
 Nur ad-Din’s star rose somewhat following the failure of the Second Crusade. He had direct control over
Aleppo and Homs, had pacified Edessa, and was recognised as overlord in Mosul. He had safeguarding
Damascus from crusader ambitions and inflicted a crippling defeat on the Antiochene Franks at the battle of
Inab (1149), resulting in the execution of Prince Raymond of Antioch and the near collapse of the
principality.
 The death of Unur of Damascus (1149) left a power vacuum in the city, and his successor, Mujir ad-Din,
agreed an alliance with the kingdom of Jerusalem. Nur ad-Din besieged the city unsuccessfully (1150 and
1151).
 Nur ad-Din was provoked by Mujir ad-Din following the fall of Ascalon (1153), when Zengid forces were
obstructed from travelling to Egypt across Damascene territory. After harassing supplies and creating a dire
economic and political situation in the city, Nur ad-Din overthrew Mujir and annexed Damascus (1154).
 Nur ad-Din besieged the Hospitaller fortress at Banyas (1157), capturing the grand master, and defeating the
relief army of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem. However, he fell seriously ill later that year and consequently
pursued a policy of peace with the Franks. He negotiated an alliance with Emperor Manuel I Komnenos
(1159) against the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia, much to Frankish dismay. When campaigning in Cilicia Nur ad-
Din’s forces captured Reynald of Chatillon, the new prince of Antioch (1160). He then conducted a hajj to
Mecca (1162).
 Nur ad-Din continued to cultivate his reputation as mujahedeen, personally founding 50% of all madrassas
established in Zengid Syria during his reign. He had earned his place as Zengi’s successor and the period of
illness (1157-9) had only increased his piety and commitment to jihad.
 Nur ad-Din continued to consolidate the Zengid position in Syria, defeating the Franks at Artah and at the
battle of Harim (1164) capturing Prince Bohemond III of Antioch and Count Raymond III of Tripoli in the
process. Meanwhile, he had sent forces to extend Zengid influence into Fatimid Egypt…

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Zengid influence in Egypt
 With uncontested Zengid power in Syria, Antioch under virtual Byzantine control,
and the impotency of Jerusalem to make headway in the north or east, the last great
race for resources and land started. Whilst Nur ad-Din did not want to waste his
resources defending Egypt, his trusted general Shirkuh convinced him that he had
to act in order to deny the territory to the crusaders and to King Amalric I of
Jerusalem.
 Egypt was weak following decades of political infighting and chaos. Following
Caliph al-Hafiz’s death (1149) only child-caliphs followed, resulting in increased
political factionalism and competition over the role of grand vizier. Vizier Shawar
was ousted by Dirgham (1162) leading to a crusader invasion led by Amalric.
 Although Amalric withdrew from Egypt having only secured the alliance of Dirgham and the promise of
regular tribute, Nur ad-Din allied with Shawar and dispatched Shirkuh to Egypt (1164) to help Shawar regain
the viziership. With Shirkuh in Egypt was his nephew and second-in-command, a Kurd later known as An-
Nasir Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub – better known by his laqab: Salah ad-Din (‘Righteous of the Faith’) or
in the west, Saladin.
 Phase One (1164): Dirgham was killed during Shirkuh’s invasion and Amalric was unable to mobilise in time
to support him. Shawar was reinstated as vizier, however, he immediately expelled Shirkuh’s forces and allied
with Amalric. Shirkuh’s forces were eventually besieged by Amalric at Bilbeis (1164) however, the king of
Jerusalem had to withdraw and race to the defence of Antioch following Nur ad-Din’s victory at the battle of
Harim (1164). Shirkuh departed Egypt.
 Phase Two (1166-7): Shirkuh returned to Egypt (1166) to confront the Fatimid-crusader army. After
capturing Alexandria, Shirkuh’s besieged forces agreed to depart Egypt in return for crusader withdrawal.
Amalric departed with an even more favourable treaty increasing Egyptian tribute to the kingdom of
Jerusalem.
 Phase Three (1168-9): Amalric, tempted by the Knight Hospitallers, agreed to invade Egypt once more. With
the prospect of Byzantine support, the crusaders launched a surprise attack against Bilbeis (1168). Shirkuh
returned to Egypt, fought off Amalric’s forces, and killed the devious Shawar (1169). Shirkuh died two
months later and his nephew, Saladin took over as vizier. The Byzantine-crusader alliance materialised with a
Greek fleet arriving to aid the Frank’s siege of Damietta. However, the siege was abandoned after three
months following disease and bankruptcy within the crusader ranks.

Outremer from 1149: political developments, military strengths and weaknesses

The county of Edessa
 Edessa was captured by Imad ad-Din Zengi (1144) initiating the call for the Second Crusade. The
country remained defiant and Count Joscelin II sought to reconquer the crusader states following
the uncertainty created by Zengi’s death (1146).
 Nur ad-Din moved quickly to supress revolt in the county, massacring the local population to discourage
collaboration with Count Joscelin’s forces.
 The mighty walled town of Turbessel (which had become the principal stronghold after 1144) was sold to
Manuel I Komnenos (1150) but quickly fell to Zengid forces. This marks the undisputed loss of the county.
 Count Joscelin II was captured by Nur ad-Din and publicly blinded at Aleppo (1150), dying in the dungeons
of the citadel (1159). His son, Count Joscelin III retained the title as a titular count, but the de Courtenay
family moved into the kingdom of Jerusalem to acquire new lands and political power. They managed to
gather enough land around Acre to establish the Seigneurie of Joscelin (1176). It is worth noting that
Joscelin’s sister, Agnes, was the wife of King Amalric I and mother of the future King Baldwin IV.
The principality of Antioch
 The battle of Inab (1149) was a disaster for the principality. It led to the loss of huge swathes of
territory to Nur ad-Din, as well as the death of Prince Raymond. The city was besieged by the
Zengid atabeg, creating internal division amongst the ruling elite: whether to surrender, or resist.
Princess Constance prevailed and bought off Nur ad-Din, who withdrew, maintaining the siege with a small
force. He symbolically bathed in the Mediterranean before plundering the surround country.

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  The arrival of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem resulted in a full Zengid withdrawal, but the border of the
principality had been redrawn to Nur ad-Din’s gain. In the meantime, Baldwin acted as a regent in Antioch.
 Constance married Reynald of Chatillon (1153), who may have arrived in Outremer with Louis VII’s
crusade. Reynald immediately fell out with Patriarch Aimery of Limoges, possibly torturing him before
imprisoning him.
 Reynald allied with Thoros II of Cilicia against Manuel I Komnenos in attacking Cyprus (1156). He then
joined Baldwin III in besieging Shaizar (1157) and capturing Harim (1158). He then hastily returned to
Antioch to defend against Manuel’s unexpected invasion of Cilicia. Reynald begged for mercy at Mamistra.
 With the Byzantine empire, Antioch yielded to Manuel (1158) and operated as a vassal state until the
emperor’s death (1180). They provided troops to serve in the imperial army, and benefitted from the empire’s
protection at a time when Nur ad-Din very nearly overrun the principality. Maria of Antioch married Manuel
(1161) and cemented the relationship between the two powers.
 Reynald of Chatillon’s capture (1160) and Constance’s sole rule in Antioch led to her being dethroned by
Bohemond III (1163).
 Bohemond actively looked to support his Frankish neighbours and aided Raymond III of Tripoli at the battle
of al-Buqala (1163) where they lifted a Zengid siege of Krak des Chevaliers. Furthermore, Amalric entrusted
Bohemond with the kingdom of Jerusalem (1164) before departing for Egypt. Bohemond sought to stop Nur
ad-Din at the battle of Harim (1164) however, he was defeated and captured alongside Raymond III and
Joscelin III. Nur ad-Din declined to besiege the city owing to fear of provoking Manuel Komnenos. Despite
his capture, Bohemond returned to Antioch (1165) and married Theodora Komnena (1177), a niece of
Manuel.
 The alliance with the empire died with Manuel in 1180. The coup of Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos led
to a distinctly anti-Latin sentiment (culminating in the massacre of Latins in Constantinople), and an end to
positive relations with the principality of Antioch. Saladin was freed to assault the kingdom of Jerusalem
during the 1180s, with Antioch only surviving with the aid of fleets sent by the Italian city-states.
 Following Manuel’s death, Bohemond repudiated Theodora in favour of an Antiochene, Sibylla. Patriarch
Aimery of Limoges imposed an interdict on Antioch, resulting in internal factionalism and civil conflict.
Baldwin IV’s intervention resulted in the lifting of interdict, but not the excommunication of Bohemond as he
would not take back Theodora.
 Bohemond tried to influence the politics of kingdom of Jerusalem in 1180 and may have tried to march a band
of armed men with Raymond III of Tripoli into the territory. The subsequent rise of Guy de Lusignan allied
Bohemond to the ambitions of Raymond and the Ibelin brothers in the kingdom.
 Bohemond sought peaceful terms with his Muslim neighbours. He allied with Gumushtekin of Aleppo against
Saladin (1176), securing the release of Reynald of Chatillon. Furthermore, he signed a peace treaty with Imad
ad-Din Zengi II of Aleppo (1182) and then Saladin (1183).
The county of Tripoli
 Count Raymond II of Tripoli succeed his father, Pons (d.1137), most likely as a teenager. He
was impulsive and had been previously captured by Zengi at Montferrand (1137).
 Count Raymond II had granted large parts of the county’s defensive system to the Knights
Hospitaller (1144) to guard against Zengi – this included Krak des Chevalier.
 During the Second Crusade, Raymond’s legitimacy was questioned by Alfonso-Jordan (Raymond I’s
legitimate son). Alfonso-Jordan’s unexpected death (1148) led to gossip that Raymond II was involved in his
murder. Raymond did not attend the council of Acre, nor the failed siege of Damascus (1148), however, he
was once again challenged for the county by Alfonso-Jordan’s illegitimate son, Bertrand (1149). Raymond
allied with Mu’in ad-Din Unur of Damascus and Nur ad-Din in order to imprison Bertrand and his family.
 Raymond II was assassinated by the Assassins (1152). His son and successor, Raymond III, was a minor.
Consequently, Raymond grew up in the royal court in Jerusalem, with his mother Hodierna of Jerusalem
(Queen Melisende’s sister) acting as regent of Tripoli.
 Raymond III conducted a stout defence of the county against Nur ad-Din’s ambitions in the region, as well as
engaging in offensive campaigns. A combined campaign between Tripoli, Jerusalem and Antioch captured
Harim (1158), sensibly utilising the arrival of Count Thierry of Flanders in Outremer.
 It is worth noting that the county suffered at least two major earthquakes during this period. One struck in
1157 which devastated Tripoli , Arqa and Krac des Chevalier however, there was no respite in the fighting
with Nur ad-Din. On 29 June 1170 a second, massive earthquake struck the county. Major defensive

49
 fortifications such as Chastel Blanc and (again) Krac de Chevaliers were damaged. The earthquake resulted in
a brief truce with Nur ad-Din.
 Raymond was slighted by Manuel I Komnenos over a marriage proposal (1160). The emperor rejected a
marriage with Raymond’s sister in favour of Maria of Antioch. Raymond’s hostile reaction led to
Tripolitanian pirates raiding and plundering the Byzantine coast and islands. He held an anti-Byzantine
prejudice for the rest of his life.
 Raymond fought at the battle of Harim (1164) alongside Prince Bohemond III and Count Joscelin III. All
three leaders were captured by Nur ad-Din’s forces. Amalric was forced to assume the regency of Tripoli and
appealed to western monarchs for aid. During his captivity Nur ad-Din made large gains in the county, whilst
Raymond is thought to have learned to read and acquired a high level of education. Despite Bohemond III
being released early, Raymond was only released at some point around Nur ad-Din’s death (1174) – he had to
borrow heavily from the Hospitallers in order to pay his huge ransom of perhaps 80,000 gold pieces.
 Raymond became a major lord within the kingdom of Jerusalem when Amalric gifted the principality of
Galilee to Raymond’s wife, Eschiva (1174). Raymond contended and won the regency of King Baldwin IV
in the same year, arguing that he was the closest male relative to the child king, not the seneschal, Miles of
Plancy.
 Raymond acted as regent (or bailli) of the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1174-6, 1177, and 1185-6.
The kingdom of Jerusalem
 By the middle of the twelfth century the kingdom had expanded to its greatest dimension: the
entire coastline of Syria from Beirut to Raphia. In the East its boundaries stretched to the Banyas
separating it from the emirate of Damascus.
 The county of Tripoli continued to operate under the suzerainty of the king of Jerusalem, but the internal
power of the crown continued to be checked by obstacles: the Haute Cour, vassals and rear-vassals. Even as
chief law-maker, the crown was unable to compel vassals to fulfil their feudal obligations and lords could
operate relatively independently from their fiefs. The Church in Jerusalem had also developed as a power
independent of the crown.
 Despite these challenges, the revenue of the kingdom was considerable, often more so than the majority of
European princes. The crown levied tolls upon caravans, help monopolies and retained exclusivity to minting
coins. Extraordinary taxes could also be levied, with the Church being subjected to a 2% tax in 1182. The
kingdom continued to benefit from the permanent commercial activities of Genoa, Venice and Pisa acting as
the middle man for Eurasian trade.
 Furthermore, vassals owed military service to the crown, unlimited by time (unlike in the West), receiving
fiefs in return for service. They key to stable leadership was the demonstration of war-lord like tendencies
from the king. As the principle defender of Christendom’s holiest sites, the king had to champion Christian-
kingship.
 To aid this, the king could enlist the services of natives or foreigners into the army. This was achieved by
granting a life-annuity or fief de soudee to local mercenaries. As such, the crown could raise a cosmopolitan
army of around 20,000 men in the between 1149-87.
 Baldwin III wrestled control of Jerusalem from his mother, Melisende, by 1152. He initiated civil war,
removed key government officials, and marched on Jerusalem. Melisende retired to Nablus, but acted as
regent during Baldwin’s absences in Antioch (1149-53 and 1157-63) and Tripoli (from 1152).
 Baldwin’s leadership was strong. He seized Ascalon (1153) and forced the great lords of Jerusalem to yield to
royal authority – something they had grown unaccustomed to doing. He was a capable war lord and supported
campaigns alongside Antioch at Sharizar (1157), Harim (1158), and Aleppo (1159 with Byzantine support).
 Baldwin’s marriage to Theodora Komnena (1159) and agreed the tripartite alliance between Jerusalem,
Antioch and Constantinople. Evidence suggests that Baldwin and Manuel Komnenos became genuine
friends.
 Baldwin’s unexpected death (1163) led to the uncontested succession of his brother, Amalric I, count of
Jaffa. Amalric’s succession wasn’t without controversy. His marriage to Agnes de Courtenay (1157),
daughter of Joscelin II of Edessa, was annulled on the grounds that they were too closely related. As such, the
marriage was annulled in 1163 although their children, Baldwin and Sibylla, were considered legitimate.
 Amalric I involved himself heavily in Egypt as the Fatimids were in decline, it was wealthy and fertile, and
Alexandria would be a valuable port in the eastern Mediterranean. Amalric assaulted Egypt throughout the
1160s (see above pp.36-7). He briefly held Alexandria (1167) but withdrew.

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  Closer to home, Amalric faced challenges. He wasn’t particularly popular and ostracised the nobility by
allowing his friend, Miles of Plancy to rule in his stead. However, he strengthened relations with Manuel
Komnenos by marrying Maria Komnena (1167), Manuel’s great-niece. The arrival of a daughter, Isabella,
increased tensions at court between rival claims of the children.
 Amalric made strong appeals for via Frederick of Tyre (1169), but despite Pope Alexander II issuing a papal
bull, Europe became distracted by the death of Thomas Becket (1170) and failed to send aid. Amalric’s death
(1174) led to the accession of Baldwin IV, who was only thirteen years old, and required a regent.

Leadership in Outremer, c1149-1187

Kingdom of Jerusalem Principality of Antioch County of Tripoli County of Edessa

King Baldwin III Princess Constance Count Raymond II Count Joscelin II

(son of Fulk and d’Hauteville (son of Pons I) (son of Joscelin I)
Melisende) (daughter of Bohemond II) d.1152 d.1159
d.1163 d.1163
Count Raymond III Count Joscelin III
King Amalric I Husbands (son of Raymond II) (son of Joscelin II)
(brother of Baldwin III) Raymond of Poitiers d.1187 d.c.1195
d.1149
d.1174 Reynald of Chatillon
lost claim 1163
King Baldwin IV
(son of Amalric I) Prince Bohemond III
d.1185 (son of Constance)
d.1201
King Baldwin V
(nephew of Baldwin VI)
d.1186

Queen Sibylla of
Jerusalem
(daughter of Amalric I)
d.1190
and
King Guy of Lusignan

Military strength of the kingdom of Jerusalem: achievements and setbacks

Achievements Setbacks
Baldwin III  Defeated Artuqid invasion (1152)  Failed to utilise the Second Crusade (1148)
 Seized Jerusalem from Melisende (1153)  Initiated civil war in the kingdom (1152-3)
 Capture of Ascalon (1153)  Siege of Shaizar (1156)
 Lifted the Zengid siege of Banyas (1157)  Ambushed at Jacob’s Ford (1157)
 Capture of Harim (1157)
 Defeated Nur ad-Din at Habis Jaldak (1158).
 Secured Byzantine alliance (1158-9) via
marriage
 Secured peace with Zengids (1158-62)
 Secured Jerusalem’s influence in Antioch.
Amalric I  Aggressive policy vs Egypt:  Unable to make headway in Egypt:.
1. First invasion (1163) 1. Bilbeis (1163)
2. Second invasion (1164) 2. Withdrawal (1164)
3. Third invasion (1167) 3. Indecisive battle at al-Babein (1167)
4. Fourth invasion (1168) 4. Failed siege of Cairo (1168)
 Marriage to Maria Komnena (1167)  Nur ad-Din captured Banyas (1164)
 Renewed alliance with Byzantines (1171)  Failed siege of Damietta (1169) despite Byzantine
support.
 Saladin raided Darum and Gaza (1170), and
Montreal (1171)

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 Baldwin IV  Raided as far as Damascus (1174)  Failed to support Sicilian fleet at Alexandria who
 Truce with Saladin (1175) then withdraw (1174)
 Battle of Montgisard (1177)  Raymond III of Tripoli dropped Byzantine alliance
 Aggressive castle building (Le Chastellet) at in favour of Holy Roman Empire.
Jacob’s Ford (1178)  Franks refused to support joint campaign with
 Templar-Hospitaller conflict resolved (1179) Byzantine fleet in Egypt (1177)
 Two-year truce with Saladin (1180)  Battle of Jacob’s Ford / Marj Ayyun (1179)
 Relieved siege of Beirut and recaptures fort of  Saladin destroyed La Chastellet at Jacob’s Ford
Habis Jaldak(1182) and raided up to Beirut and Tyre (1179)
 Reynald’s Red Sea raid (1183)  1182 continuous raids from Egypt and Syria –
 Defence of Galilee and relieved siege of Kerak Baldwin kept the army continuously in the field.
(1183)
Relations of the crusader states with the Byzantine Empire
 Byzantine support following the Second Crusade was far more apparent that any from Western Christendom.
Manuel I Komnenos himself had, to a certain extent, involved himself in the affairs of the crusade as they
passed through Anatolia. However, it can be suggested that he could have done more to aid the Frankish
campaign.
 Manuel was keen to establish a position as overlord of the kingdom of Jerusalem post 1149. He was able to
achieve a similar feat over the principality of Antioch following the battle of Inab (1149) and sought to
include himself in the deals of both Amalric I and Baldwin IV at regular opportunities. Byzantine chroniclers
cannot fail but praise the emperor’s support between 1174 and 1182. It is interesting that Frankish chroniclers
openly praise the role Manuel played in supporting the kingdom. A formal alliance was negotiated in 1171
with Manuel, who supplied a fleet for Amalric’s Egyptian campaign (1174). Perhaps more importantly,
Constantinople remained a giant spectre behind the kingdom of Jerusalem, from which their enemies still
cowered. This had benefitted Antioch following Inab, where Nur ad-Din never fully committed to a lengthy
siege of the city for fear of provoking Manuel.
 Against the Seljuk Turks, Byzantium had less luck. Manuel’s defeat to Sultain Kilij Arslan II at the battle of
Myriokephalon (1176) signalled the final loss of Anatolia to Seljuk control – an end to reclamation attempts
which had first started following Manzikert (1071).
 Manuel’s slight against Count Raymond III of Tripoli was never forgotten. As such, on becoming regent in
1174, Raymond dropped the 1171 alliance in favour of the Holy Roman Empire.
 Following the battle of Legnano (1176) King Baldwin IV was able to re-establish Byzantine aid for an
intended campaign into Egypt (1177). However, crucially, an anti-Latin sentiment festered in Constantinople.
On Manuel’s death (1180), the succession of Alexios II Komnenos – a minor – resulted in the regency of
Maria of Antioch. Maria’s Frankish connections made her regency unpopular in Constantinople. A coup
organised by Alexios’s cousin, Andronikos I Komnenos, resulted in the massacre of the Latin population of
the imperial capital and a distinctly hostile foreign policy shift regarding Outremer. Andronikos had declared
a truce with Saladin by 1185. The loss of Byzantine support from 1182 was continued by Andronikos’
successor, Emperor Isaac II Angelos (1185-95). Without the political and military threat of the empire, the
crusader states of Outremer were isolated and faced increased Muslim aggression.
Relations of the crusader states with the Latin West
 England: King Henry II was primarily concerned with dampening the members of the Norman Civil War, or
‘the Anarchy’ (1153-54), focusing on strengthening and expanding royal authority and Angevin territories on
the continent. The appeal of Archbishop Frederick of Tyre (1169) simply came at the wrong time. Henry, very
much the head of the Angevin family (and therefore patriarch of family branch in Jerusalem since King Fulk)
was busy managing the Becket crisis (1162-70). The archbishop of Canterbury’s tragic death did lead to
Henry promising to crusade, depositing £10,000 with the Templars, and regularly supporting Outremer’s
efforts via donations. However, Henry never departed on crusade. Since 1173 he had faced internal rebellions
from his own family, alongside the threat of Louis VII and later Philip II of France. An appeal for aid from
Outremer in 1181 was met with alarming silence as Henry once again sought to manage his troublesome
family, especially Henry the Young King and Duke Richard of Aquitaine. The prospect of such an
energetic, suspicious ruler ever leaving his kingdom was an unacceptable agreement.

 France: Louis VII played a key role in the Second Crusade, but his reputation had only just survived (unlike
his marriage). French relations with the Germans were at a low, as well as having to deal with the unchecked
rise of the house of Anjou in England. The marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II of England stripped

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 control of two-thirds of France from Louis’s hands. The appeal of Grand Master Gilbert D’Assailly (1166)
was ignored simply because Louis and Henry distrusted one another – neither would leave their lands without
the other doing likewise. Similarly, Philip II focused solely in restoring his control in France, rather than
supporting his kinsmen in Outremer. Despite Patriarch Eraclius writing repeatedly (1180-87), and his mission
in 1184 to the kings of France and England, he returned without satisfactory western support. That being said,
French aid did arrive from key individuals. Count Thierry of Flanders returned to the Holy Land in 1156
and again in 1164. His son, Philip of Flanders continued the tradition, arriving in 1177 with Peter de
Courtenay. Furthermore, the arrival of lords such as Reynald of Chatillon, William V “Longsword” of
Montferrat and Guy of Lusignan brough valuable military ability and support.

 Germany: Emperor Frederick I ‘Barbarossa’, a participant on the Second Crusade, became bogged down in
vassal disputes and campaigns in Italy. Like in many territories, crusading enthusiasm in Germany had
evaporated after the fiasco of the Second Crusade. The empire did become the principle western supporter of
the kingdom of Jerusalem in 1174 after Raymond of Tripoli preferred German support over that offered by
Constantinople. The marriage of Princess Sibylla and William of Montferrat sought to secure the King
Baldwin IV’s succession, providing the prospect of a German heir to the throne of Jerusalem. However,
German support for Outremer was irrecoverably lost following the battle of Legnano (1176), marking the
end of Frederick’s ambitions in Italy. The Peace of Venice (1177) prompted Frederick’s retreat into the
heartland of central Europe to lick his wounds, abandoning Outremer.

 Norman Sicily: Despite icy relations with the crusader states under Roger II of Sicily, King William II
reversed this diplomatic policy. 1174 a Sicilian fleet arrived at Alexandria to support King Amalric I’s
Egyptian campaign. The death of Amalric, and accession of Baldwin, saw a shift in diplomatic policy
favouring peace with Egypt. The chaotic withdrawal from Alexandria led to a total loss of Christian ambitions
in Egypt. Sicilian support for Jerusalem once again diminished given their lack of support in 1174. Instead,
Norman efforts were directly against their historic enemy – the Byzantine empire.

 Iberia: The Spanish kingdoms were busy fighting the Reconquista. Having made steady progress since the
1140s, a new Almohad threat was emerging from North Africa in the 1180s. As a crusading theatre in its own
right, Christian warriors in Iberia remained forbidden from offering aid or services to Outremer.

Internal divisions within Outremer, including the reign of Baldwin IV and his successors.
King Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (r1174-85) is one of history’s tragic figures. As the only son of King Amalric I
Baldwin was bred and educated for kingship from an early age. Whilst he had little contact with his mother, Agnes de
Courtenay, he was educated by the then chancellor of the kingdom, Archbishop William of Tyre. From an early age it
became quite clear that Baldwin was a leper. He ascended to the throne on his father’s death (1174), only achieving
his majority in 1176. Given his physical limitations Baldwin required regular regents to deputise on his behalf. To
complicate matters, Baldwin’s condition made him infertile, and political manoeuvrings to secure the throne after his
inevitable untimely death began almost as soon as he had become king. Some of the most prominent families and
nobles in the kingdom were:

Noble Profile
The Courtenay family  Agnes was the first wife of King Amalric I (1157-63). She was the mother of King
Baldwin IV and Princess Sibylla. Following the annulment of her marriage, Agnes
played no role in her children’s lives.
 Agnes was able to re-establish herself at court, accompanying the young Baldwin to
Haute Cour, even accompanying military campaigns. The dowager-queen Maria
Komnena (Amalric’s second wife) was retired to Nablus. Agnes brought Sibylla back to
court to obstruct Maria’s ambitions for Princess Isabella.
 On Baldwin IV’s majority, Agnes maintained her considerable influence at court, raising
50,000 dinars for her brother’s ransom, Joscelin III of Edessa.
 Agnes appointed Amalric de Lusignan as constable of Jerusalem (1179). In 1180 she was
also tasked with appointing the patriarch of Jerusalem: Eraclius.
 On the advice of Agnes, Baldwin IV married Guy de Lusignan to his sister, Sibylla in
1180. Sibylla’s first husband (William of Montferrat) had died in 1177 leaving her
pregnant with the future Baldwin V.
 Joscelin III’s introduction to the Haute Cour probably established the status quo
significantly. As a count, he sought to replace his lost county with lands in Jerusalem,
53
 either from the royal demesne, or at the expense of the established families.
 Joscelin was able to secure a huge amount of lands around Acre, primarily through
marriage to Agnes of Milly, establishing the Seigneurie of Joscelin (1176).
 History remembers Joscelin as greedy. His rapid rise to prominence within the kingdom
was predictably resented amongst Jerusalem’s elite.
 Joscelin seized control of Jerusalem during the succession crisis (1186) enabling Sibylla
to eventually take the throne, instead of Isabella.

Raymond III of Tripoli  Raymond, a grandson of King Baldwin II, was granted the regency of Baldwin IV (1174)
following the timely assassination of the seneschal, Miles of Plancy.
 He was granted the principality of Galilee via marriage to Eschiva II, the lady of Galilee
– he became one of the most powerful vassals in the kingdom.
 After resigning the regency on Baldwin’s majority (1176) Raymond returned to Tripoli
but remained active within the kingdom.
 It appears that Raymond was feared and respected throughout both the Christian and
Muslim leaders in the Levant, making him a threat to Courtenay influence.
 Raymond and Bohemond III of Antioch’s unexpected arrival within the kingdom ahead a
cavalry escort (1180) prompted fears of a coup. Baldwin panicked and married Guy to
Sibylla
 Raymond was denied entrance to the kingdom (1182) whilst trying to visit Tiberias. This
was probably for fear of another coup. Many historians suggest that this attempt was a
genuine coup.
 Following Baldwin V’s death (1186) Raymond withdrew to Tiberias. He was
outmanoeuvred by Joscelin III, how ensured the coronation of Sibylla, who then chose
Guy as her king. Raymond’s faction met at Nablus (1186) possibly sowing the seeds of a
civil war. This was only thwarted once Humphrey of Toron, a pretender, paid homage to
Guy.
 There is some suggestion that Raymond turned to Saladin in 1187, in a last desperate
attempt to stop Guy invading Galilee. He must have also hoped that Saladin would help
him replace Guy as king.

The Ibelin family  An old and established family of seasoned social climbers in the kingdom of Jerusalem
who were historical supporters of Raymond of Tripoli.
 Both Baldwin and Balian were present at Montgisard (1177), demonstrating strength and
unity in the face of external threat.
 Balian married Amalric I’s widow, Maria Komnena (1177), becoming the guardian to her
daughter, Princess Isabella.
 Balian later emerged as a key adviser to Guy de Lusignan, mediating the successional
dispute between Guy and Raymond in 1186.
 Baldwin became enraged following Guy’s marriage to Sibylla (1180). He refused to pay
fealty to King Guy (1186) and retired to the principality of Antioch – a huge loss given
the challenges of 1187.
 Evidence suggests that the Ibelins were purely self-interested.

Reynald of Chatillon  Reynald of Chatillon entered the kingdom of Jerusalem with Joscelin III of Edessa at
some point before September 1176. Following his release from captivity he entered the
kingdom seeking to claim a power based after losing Antioch. He was viewed with
suspicion by the Ibelin family and other established families.
 Owing to his positive relationship with Agnes, Baldwin IV’s mother, Reynald married
Stephanie of Milly, becoming the Lord of Oultrejordain (1177) – one of the wealthiest
barons in the kingdom. Reynald became regent (bailli) in 1177 following the death of
William ‘Longsword’ of Montferrat. He commanded the king’s army at the battle of
Montgisard (1177) winning a famous victory over Saladin.
 Reynald acted as a kingmaker during the succession crises (1185-6). As a close supporter
of Joscelin of Edessa, he supported the coronation of Sibylla (1186), ignoring the protests
of Raymond.
 In history Reynald is considered a war-mongering troublemaker. As the Lord of
Oultrejordain Reynald policed the desert caravan route between Egypt, the Red Sea, and
Syria. He considered himself one of the few ‘active’ crusaders, operating as a marcher
lord with speed and aggression. He launched an ambitious raid along the Red Sea,
threatening Mecca and Medina (1183). His attack on a Muslim caravan led to Saladin’s
final invasion of the kingdom of Jerusalem (1187), leading to the kingdom’s ruin.

54
 The Lusignan brothers  Guy became arguably the most divisive single issue in the kingdom of Jerusalem after
1179. A Poitevin lord who had been expelled by Duke Richard of Aquitaine.
 Guy arrived in the kingdom at the invitation of his brother the constable of Jerusalem,
Aimery. It is clear that his arrival was considered controversial. Following his marriage
he was also granted the fiefs of Ascalon and Jaffa – the symbolic fiefs of the heir to the
throne.
 The question of Guy initiated a dangerous clash between Baldwin IV’s maternal and
paternal kin. Agnes was interested in securing the continuation of her line.
 Upon this elevation, Guy became regent for Baldwin IV. He commanded the kingdom’s
army against a major Ayyubid incursion in Galilee (1183), forcing Saladin’s withdrawal
by using Fabien tactics. However, he was stripped of the regency by Baldwin and
internally exiled for failing to inflict a defeat on Saladin. He may have been the victim of
political jealousy here. It has been suggested that Baldwin was actively looking to annul
the marriage between Guy and Sibylla.
 On Baldwin’s death Guy remained in obscurity, but was chosen as king by Queen Sibylla
(1186). His accession prompted Raymond to consider civil war.

Gerard of Ridefort  Originally the Marshal of the kingdom of Jerusalem, later the Grand Master of the
Knights Templar.
 Raymond III agreed to marry an available heiress to Gerard (c1180) however, the count
reneged in favour of a marriage to a wealthy merchant for a substantial bride price.
Gerard’s grudge against Raymond is personal as a result.

Reginald of Sidon  An important noble in the kingdom of Jerusalem, rising to prominence following his
marriage to Agnes de Courtenay (1170).
 As step-father to King Baldwin IV, Reginald supported Raymond as regent rather than
Miles of Plancy (1174)
 He was present at Montgisard (1177) but not Jacob’s Ford (1179), present on Guy’s 1183
campaign in Galilee, as well as at Hattin (1187) – he escaped the melee with Joscelin and
Balian de Ibelin.
 Despite his participation at Hattin, Reginald was likely part of Raymond’s faction who
tried to unsuccessfully prevent Sibylla and Guy succeeding to the throne following the
death of Baldwin V (1186).
 Reginald went on to play an important role in the Third Crusade (1189-92)

Humphrey IV of Toron  Humphrey inherited the lordship of Toron from his grandfather. He was also the heir to
Oultrejordain, but on his marriage to Princess Isabella (1183) he renounced Toron
(1180) as Baldwin IV prevented his owning two large fiefs.
 His marriage to Isabella elevated him to a potential pretender to the throne should
anything happen to Baldwin V and Sibylla, his mother.
 Upon Guy’s accession to the throne of Jerusalem in 1186, Raymond planned to depose
Guy via Humphrey’s claim. However, following a meeting of the plotters at Nablus
(1186), Humphrey got cold feet and paid fealty to Guy.
 He joined the army seeking to relieve Tiberias and was captured by Saladin at the battle
of Hattin (1187).

The traditional view of internal factionalism during the reigns of Baldwin IV and Baldwin V is that of a two-party
split (championed by Grousset and Runciman): the Party de Courtenay and that of the Native Nobles.
‘Party of Courtenay’ ‘Native Nobles’
‘Newcomers’ to the kingdom of Jerusalem who wanted to ensure their Native barons who had established themselves within the kingdom
influence at court remained strong. Often classed as those who of Jerusalem. Worried by the ‘newcomers’ and the impact this
surrounded the king as his maternal family. Often considered to favour would have on hereditary claims. Often considered to favour a
a confrontational policy with the forces of Islam. conciliatory policy with Islam.

Agnes of Courtenay Raymond III of Tripoli

Mother of Baldwin IV and Sibylla First paternal cousin of Baldwin IV and Sibylla

Joscelin III of Edessa Baldwin of Ibelin

Agnes’ brother, Baldwin IV’s uncle Lord of Ramla

Reynald of Chatillon Balian of Ibelin

Lord of Oultrejordain Lord of Ibelin

55
 Aimery of Lusignan Humphrey of Toron
Constable of Jerusalem Lord of Toron

Guy of Lusignan Reynald of Sidon

m. Agnes de Courtenay (1179)
Gerard of Ridefort
Marshal of the Jerusalem (11790
Grand Master of the Knights Templar (1186)

However, Edbury (1993) exposed that this interpretation is far too restrictive and simplistic. It doesn’t take into
account the complex web of temporary alliances and altering relationships throughout this period:

Noble Supporting observations

Raymond  Demanded the regency in 1174, which was granted by Anges
 Under the influence of Agnes, Baldwin IV granted Raymond with the principality
of Galilee making him the most powerful vassal in Jerusalem.
 Threatened the crown (1180, 1182) with possible coups
 Almost caused civil war (1186) and possibly invited Saladin in (1187)
The Ibelins  Both Ibelins fought at Montgisard (1177) under Reynald of Chatillon.
 Balian’s marriage to Maria Komnena (1177) elevated him to guardian of the
Princess Isabel – Baldwin IV and Sibylla’s step-sister – an heiress.
 Despite Ibelin links to the Komnenoi, Raymond pursued an anti-Byzantine foreign
policy as regent.
 Balian was the mediator in a despite between Guy and Baldwin IV (1183)
Gerard of Ridefort  Hostility towards Raymond can be explained through a personal grudge over
losing a beneficial marriage after Raymond ‘sold’ her to a wealthy merchant
instead (c1180) – possible explains Gerard joining the Templars.
Joscelin and Reynald  Both were probably only out for themselves. Joscelin m. Agnes de Milly whilst
Reynald m. Stephanie de Milly securing huge tracts of land around Acre and in
Transjordan respectively. No link to party politics.
Guy of Lusignan  Guy was quite possibly brought in by Aimery to usurp Ibelin influence at court and
frustrate Baldwin de Ibelin’s plans to marry Sibylla.
 His 1180 was hugely controversial, there is no evidence this was supported by
Reynald or Gerard. Courtenay support was to be expected but only after
Raymond’s attempted coup.
 Elevation to count of Ascalon and Jaffa (1183) a natural step for any potential heir
– similar to earldom of Cornwall in England.
 Baldwin IV disinherited Guy (1183) on the advice of Agnes.

The reign of Baldwin V, Sibylla and Guy

 Guy’s ‘failure’ in 1183 prompted King Baldwin IV to strip him of the regency, disinherit him, and send him
into internal exile. Baldwin IV’s nephew, Baldwin, was crowned as a co-king of Jerusalem (in the French
fashion) as a five year old. Patriarch Eraclius, Roger des Moulins of the Hospitallers and Arnaud de Toroge of
the Templars travelled to Europe (1184) however, their calls for desperate aid were ignored. At the same time
Agnes de Courtenay died.
 King Baldwin IV succumbed to leprosy at the age of twenty-four (1185). He was succeeded by his nephew,
King Baldwin V, who was only eight. King Baldwin was carried on Balian of Ibelin’s shoulders at an official
public crown wearing. Clearly, once again, the kingdom was in need of a regent. Raymond was chosen for
this task.
 Baldwin became a political pawn in the struggle between the political factions who jockeyed for position and
influence within the Haute Cour. However, for unknown reasons, Baldwin V died just a year later (1186).
 Plans had already been made for Baldwin’s succession: a council of the kings of England, France, the Holy
Roman emperor and the pope would decide the next king of Jerusalem. In the meantime, the ‘most rightful
heir’ would act as regent.
 Despite this agreement, the nobles of Jerusalem sought to determine their own future at the council of Nablus
(1186). There are suggestions that Raymond was ready to advance the claim of Princess Isabella. Raymond
was convinced to return to Galilee by Joscelin of Edessa. In Raymond’s absence Baldwin V’s mother, Sibylla

56
 was elected as queen by the Haute Court – but only on the understanding that her marriage with Guy would
be formally annulled. At her coronation, when summoned to present a new husband, Sibylla chose Guy.
 Raymond assembled supporters at Nablus in an attempt to stage a coup, looking to place Isabella and her
husband, Humphrey of Toron, on the throne. Humphrey got cold feet and paid homage to King Guy.
Disgusted, Raymond returned to Tripoli whilst Baldwin of Ibelin left the kingdom for Antioch.
 Despite the historical arguments, it is clear that the nobility of Jerusalem remained divided, even after 1186.
Therefore the government of the kingdom was inactive and unfocused on the inevitable Ayyubid assault. In
fact, some chroniclers and historians suggest that Saladin’s 1187 invasion came at the request of Raymond of
Tripoli who feared Guy’s reprisal for his disloyalty and treachery.
The rise of Saladin: religion, politics and military expansion
 Saladin was vizier in Egypt by 1169. He knew that in establishing himself in
Egypt he may come endanger his feudal relationship with Nur ad-Din.
 Early into Saladin’s viziership, 50,000 Black African soldiers revolted in
support of Fatimid rule (March 1169). Saladin ruthlessly put the rebellion
down by August and would never again be challenged militarily in Egypt.
 At the same time he was consolidating his position by surrounding himself
with family: his brothers started arriving from July (including Turan-Shah), as
well as his father (Ayyub) at the start of 1170. Following Ayyub’s death
(1173) Turan-Shah was dispatched to conquer Yemen (1174).
 He created a new military corps, the Salhiyya, which was directly responsible to him, which aided him in
defeating a renewed Franko-Byzantine offensive in October 1169. Saladin launched a counter strike (1170).
 Saladin switched the spiritual allegiance of Egypt to the Abbasid caliph al-Mustadi following the death of
the Fatimid caliph, al-Adil (1171). This marked the end of the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. As a counter-
measure to discontent in Egypt, Saladin scrapped the mukus, an unpopular trading tax. Whether he was styling
himself as ‘sultan’ by 1171 is debatable, however, he had certainly established himself as an independent
leader.
 He and Nur ad-Din planned a joint offensive (1171) however, after taking Shaubak Saladin retreated –
possibly fearing that Nur ad-Din would strip him of Egypt if the two met. Saladin repeated this in 1173,
raising his siege of Kerak before Nur ad-Din’s arrival. He then sent extravagant gifts to an increasingly
frustrated Nur ad-Din in recompense for ignoring his overlord’s order for a full audit of Egyptian finances
(1173).
 Nur ad-Din’s death (1174) divided his holdings amongst his heirs:
Region Stronghold After Nur ad-Din’s death:
Egypt Cairo  Saladin firmly established as the lord of Egypt.
Syria Aleppo and  Nur ad-Din’s son, al-Salih inherited Aleppo. The Damascenes tried
Damascus to remain independent, forming an alliance with the kingdom of
Jerusalem.
Jazira Mosul  Nur ad-Din’s nephew, Sayf ad-Din Ghazi II, inherited Mosul and
the surrounding territories.

 Saladin was presented with a problem: to continue to wage war on the Franks from Egypt, firmly establishing
his position as a champion of jihad or; to expand into the territories held by Nur ad-Din, unifying Egypt, Syria
and the Jazira. He chose the latter.
 Phase one (1174-76): Saladin marched peacefully to Damascus. Al-Salih fled to Aleppo. The displaced son
of Nur ad-Din sponsored an unsuccessful attempt on Saladin’s life – a theme of Saladin’s reign as he survived
at least thirteen assassinations. In early 1175 Homs, Baalbek By 1175 Saladin had been accepted as ruler of
Damascus following victory of Zengid forces at the battle of the Horns of Hama (1175). He was invested as
such by Caliph al-Mustadi. Perhaps here he started using the title of sultan of Egypt and Syria. To legitimise
his rule further he married Nur ad-Din’s widow, Ismat ad-Dun Khatun, establishing himself as the step-
father of al-Salih. To bring the Assassins to heel Saladin besieged Masyaf (1176) before withdrawing.
 Phase two (1176-83): Aleppo was a tougher nut to crack than Damascus. Al-Salih was Nur ad-Din’s
legitimate heir to Aleppo, firmly supported by the Zengid forces of Mosul. Saladin steadily occupied pieces of
territory surrounding Aleppo but was fortunate with the al-Salih’s death (1181). By 1182 the sultan had come
to an agreement with the city, which formally surrendered in 1183.

57
  Phase three (1183-85): Campaigning against Mosul began following the surrender of Aleppo, using the same
strategic plan. The south and north had fallen by August 1185 but the new ruler, Izz ad-Din Mas’ud (Sayf ad-
Din’s brother) refused to be drawn into a confrontational battle. Izz ad-Din accepted a peace settlement and
Saladin’s overlordship once Saladin became seriously ill.
 This is not to say that Saladin did not focus efforts against the Frankish states of Outremer. He launched raids
and incursions into the kingdom of Jerusalem on at least five occasions (1170, 1179, 1182, 1183, 1187). He
recognised that the construction of a new crusader castle at Jacob’s Ford proved hugely threatening to his
Syrian domains. In 1179 he moved with speed to remove the threat, defeating the garrison before the arrival of
the army of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The fortification was then torn down.
 Saladin did not always have it his own way against the Franks. At Montgisard (1177) Saladin suffered a
humiliating reverse against the new king of Jerusalem, Baldwin IV. He also failed at Beirut (1182) and was
unable to entice Guy of Lusignan into a pitched battle during his invasion of Galilee (1183). In the same year
he failed to take Kerak. By 1185 a truce had been established between Saladin and the kingdom of Jerusalem
and the Byzantine Empire. This was shattered by Reynald of Chatillon’s attack on a Muslim Caravan (1186).
The Galilee campaign and battle of Hattin (1187)

May
Following provocation by Reynald of Chatillon, Saladin swore to seek vengeance and kill the troublesome Lord of
Oultrejordain once and for all. He despatched his son al-Afdal and Gokbori, the emir of Edessa, into Galilee to
raid the surrounding territory. At some point during this incursion al-Afdal negotiated a truce with Raymond III of
Tripoli, possibly in the hope that Saladin might remove Guy as king. The Masters of the Temple and Hospital
(Gerard de Ridefort and Roger des Moulins) – with roughly 130 knights and 300 infantry – engaged in a small
skirmish against Gokbori at the battle of Cresson Springs. The Frankish force was all but annihilated, costing the
kingdom valuable, elite manpower. Further to this, the kingdom lost Roger des Moulins during the battle – de
Ridefort managed to escape. Balian of Ibelin was able to slip through to Tiberias and convince Raymond to return
to Jerusalem to support Guy’s army.

June
Saladin abandoned his truce with Raymond and crossed 30,000 troops into Galilee. In response, King Guy mustered
the entire forces of the kingdom of Jerusalem (perhaps 20,000 men) and deployed to the springs at Saffuriyah. He
was probably aware of the parallels with his 1183 campaign which was a strategic victory but a political disaster.
He must have been determined to prove himself as a military commander and legitimise his rule via a divinely
ordained victory over the kingdom’s principle enemy. Despite the internal factionalism within the kingdom, it is
worth noting that all of the major barons of the kingdom (excluding Baldwin of Ibelin) responded to Guy’s muster.
Upon Guy’s arrival at Saffuriyah Saladin redeployed his forces to Kafr Sabt (26 June), 10 miles from the Christian
army. His light cavalry units blocked the wells and springs along the route to Tiberias.

Thursday 2 July
On 2 July Saladin captured the town of Tiberias however, the citadel held out. This entrapped Raymond’s wife,
Eschiva. During the course of the day several councils of war were held by the Frankish commanders. There
appears to have been disagreement amongst the leaders regarding the most appropriate plan of action. It is
interesting that Raymond favoured shadowing Saladin’s troops, rather than directly engaging them or trying to lift
the siege of his own Galilean stronghold. The Hospitallers echoed Raymond’s advice however, the loss of Roger
des Moulins reduced their political and strategic influence. Gerard de Ridefort favoured a more aggressive
approach, alongside Reynald de Chatillon. Gerard had quite possibly spent King Henry II of England’s large
donation to the Knights Templars, and would demand to see a return if he were to continue donating in the future.
The councils continued long into the night.

Friday 3 July
Guy finally took the decision to march on Tiberias to lift the siege. The army departed Saffuriyah in the early hours.
They planned to take a day to cross the arid plateau before arriving at Tiberias. The army moved in three columns
under the organisation of Aimery de Lusignan: the vanguard (under Raymond and his step-sons); the centre
(commanded by the king carrying the True Cross); and the rear (commanded by Balian of Ibelin and Joscelin III de
Courtenay).

The army passed the springs at Turan by late morning, becoming cut off by Saladin’s light cavalry. As the heat beat
down, and thirst became a terrible issue for the Franks, the Templars came under heavy attack in the rear from
Saladin’s cavalry. At midday the army halted at Maskana, probably to allow the rear to catch up. Taqi al-Din
(Saladin’s nephew) and Gokbori surrounded the army, launching waves of attacks. The Franks limped on to Lubiya,
58
 making camp for the night. The oppressively close Muslim forces and devastating dehydration was becoming a
serious concern for the Christian commanders.

Saturday 4 July
Guy’s army continued towards Tiberias. At various points in the day Saladin’s forces lit brushwood – blocking
retreat with smoke, creating confusion amongst the Franks, and choking the already seriously dehydrated
Christians. Some sources suggest that at this point six of Guy’s knights deserted, passing information on the army’s
condition to Saladin to buy their escape.

Saladin waited until the sun had fully risen before launching a full attack on the Christian forces. Whilst the exact
events are disputed, a rough narrative can be patched together. Saladin moved quickly to prevent the Franks from
settling into an effective battle formation, pressuring the Frankish infantry to retreat towards high ground on the
Horns of Hattin – neither Guy’s orders nor the pleas from the bishop of Acre could stop this. Perhaps at this point
Raymond charged Saladin’s lines, hoping to break through to the spring at the village of Hattin. The Muslim lines
parted without contact. Ernoul contests this by suggesting that only ten or twelve knights survived the charge. In
any case, Raymond’s retinue (including Balian of Ibelin, Joscelin de Courtenay, Reginald of Sidon and Raymond of
Antioch) did not return to the battle.

Meanwhile, the military orders in the rear held out heroically. They sought to re-join the rest of the army on high
ground, and fought their way through. The Franks established a rallying point atop the Horns of Hattin, erecting a
barrier of tents with Guy’s red tent at the centre. The Christians made at least two major charges against the Muslim
centre, with one nearly breaking through. However, as resistance began to falter, Taqi al-Din broke through to the
Christian camp and seized the True Cross. By the middle of the afternoon, exhausted and overwhelmed, the
Christians threw down their weapons and collapsed.

King Guy, Gerard of Ridefort, Reynald of Chatillon, William V of Montferrat, Aimery of Lusignan, Humphrey of
Toron and Hugh of Gibelet were all taken as prisoners of war. The leaders were brought before Saladin where Guy
was handed a cup of iced water. After drinking, he passed the cup to Reynald, Saladin struck the lord of
Oultrejordain with his sword, beheading him on
the ground. His head was tied to the back of a
horse and dragged to Damascus.

Saladin purchased the surviving members of the

military orders from his army for fifty dinars per
warrior. The several hundred he purchased, he then
beheaded– perhaps as many as 230 Templars were
executed. The leaders and other prisoners were
then imprisoned in Damascus. Ibn al-Athir wrote
that ‘about two years later, I passed by the site of
the battle and saw the ground covered with their
bones, visible from afar.’

Factor Why did was Saladin victorious at Hattin?

Christian mistakes

Saladin’s skill

Other factors

The crisis of Outremer: Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem.

Saladin’s forces arrived outside Jerusalem on 20 September 1187. The defence was commanded by Balian of Ibelin
who had already agreed safe passage for himself from Saladin on the proviso that he would not take up arms against

59
the sultan! His volte face was compelled by the begging of Queen Sibylla and Patriarch Eraclius. The situation in
Jerusalem was dire. Saladin’s siege only made matters worse, however, the Franks held out resiliently. At the end of
September Balian met with Saladin, threatening to destroy the Muslim holy places and slaughter all who lived within
the city walls. Saladin also agreed to the condition that those who could pay a ransom were free to leave and wouldn’t
be enslaved. On Balian’s orders the city was surrendered on 2 October 1187. The Christian cross over the Dome of the
Rock was pulled down, and the inhabitants who paid the ransom were escorted to Tyre. The Church of the Holy
Sepulchre was closed for three days, with Saladin ultimately resisting the temptation to destroy it. Saladin is held in
high regard for not committing a massacre at Jerusalem on the scale of that in 1099. However, the account of Baha ad-
Din Ibn Shaddad reveals this as a pretty fiction – it was only Balian’s bluff which forced the sultan to deal and spare
the lives of those within the city, ultimately, Saladin had always planned on revenge.

Factor Why did the kingdom of Jerusalem fall in 1187 Inevitable?

(/)
Muslim unity

Christian disunity

Lack of western aid

Lack of Byzantine
support

Strong Muslim
leadership

Poor Frankish
leadership

The impact of 1187 and the fall of Jerusalem on…

 … Outremer: the loss at Hattin left the kingdom virtually defenceless. Whilst Guy had mobilised one of the
largest Christian armies ever assembled in Outremer to face Saladin, in doing so he had drained the last pools
of Christian manpower. Saladin’s forces swept through the kingdom, conquering key towns, bypassing strong
fortifications. By mid-September Acre, Nablus, Jaffa, Toron, Sidon, Beirut and Ascalon had all fallen. Tyre
was saved by its geographical defences as well as the timely arrival of Conrad of Montferrat. Hattin preceded
a near total loss of the kingdom to Ayyubid forces – Tyre and Tripoli held out.

 … the Muslim Near East: should have hailed Saladin as their new hero, a champion of jihad and the one
warlord who had made good on his promise to regain Jerusalem. He had certainly eclipsed Imad ad-Din Zengi
and Nur ad-Din in this regard. Palestine and Transjordan fell almost completely to Ayyubid forces by the end
of the year. However, he was unable to break into Tyre or Tripoli. Furthermore, news of the collapse of the
Latin Kingdom was underwhelmingly acknowledged by the caliph in Baghdad, who feared Saladin’s
ambitions to create a pan-Islamic empire. The caliph rebuked Saladin’s aggressive expansion of influence and
his ‘lording it’ over co-religionists; even the recapture of Jerusalem was not enough in recompense. Saladin’s
northern campaign in 1188 demonstrated the sultan’s concern for unity – why should his allies remain loyal
now that Jerusalem had been conquered? This tightening of the screw not only placed pressure on the northern
emirs, but also the principality of Antioch and the remnants of the county of Tripoli.

 … the Latin West: news of the defeat at Hattin was brought to Rome by Joscius, archbishop of Tyre. He is
thought to have arrived in October and his grim tidings sent shockwaves reverberating throughout Western
Christendom. Pope Urban III is reported to have died of shock from the news. However, it is important to note
that, as of October 1187, news of the fall of Jerusalem was not yet widely known – hence the city’s absence
from Pope Gregory VIII’s papal bull, Audita tremendi. The events of 1187 resuscitated European enthusiasm

60
 for crusading, so much so that the powerful monarchs of Germany, France and England all stepped forward to
support the campaign to liberate the Holy Land.

 … the Byzantine Empire: smugly basked in the glow of Saladin’s victory. Emperor Isaac II Angelos
congratulated Saladin via a message, and requested that all churches be converted back to Orthodoxy. In a
strange twist of circumstances, with Saladin’s triumph in the East, the greatest threat to Constantinople was no
longer that of Islam. Resentment in Europe for Byzantine anti-Latin sentiment and the lack of support offered
to the crusader states, was prevalent in the West. A new crusade called by Gregory VIII posed as great a threat
as any, if not more so, than the crusades faced by Alexios I or Manuel I. On this occasion the crusaders had
scores to settle with Byzantium, and the means to do it!

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 The Crusader States (1148-87): Detailed Chronology

Failure of the siege of Damascus and Louis VII of France and

Conrad III of Germany return
the Second Crusade 1148 home in humiliation
1172 Nur ad-Din plans joint attack on Kerak –
Saladin backs out again
Battle of Inab Raymond III ransomed Nur ad-Din orders financial audit of Egypt
d. Raymond of Antioch 1149 Baldwin III sells key strongholds in by the Hospitallers 1173 which is avoided by Saladin
Baldwin III of Jerusalem diverts Edessa to Manuel I
Raymond III of Tripoli regent of BIV. Raymond
resources north to protect Antioch drops Byzantine alliance with Jerusalem
Sicilian fleet offers support at Alexandria,
1150 sent by William II of Sicily 1174
KoJ tensions: BIII and Melisende Raymond III of Tripoli appeals for support from
d. Nur ad-Din
Frederick Barbarossa (HRE) rather than
d. Amalric
Byzantine Empire
1151 Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem (11 July) 1175 Saladin victorious at Horns of Hama over
KoJ pursue peace with Egypt spurning
Aleppo and Mosul
KoJ civil war: BIII demands independent Sicilian support
coronation (rejected by Patriarch)
Haute Cour try to split kingdom between 1152 Louis VII / Eleanor divorce Saladin m. Ismat al-Din Khatun 1176 Ransom for Raynald and Joselin III paid by
Henry FitzEmpress m. Battles of Legnano and Myriokephalon Manuel I. Raynald arrived in KoJ.
BIII & M. BIII invaded south. William of Montferrat m. Sibylla of Jerusalem,
Eleanor of Aquitaine RIII resigns regency – returns to Tripoli
Jerusalem seized by BIII – M given Nablus Peace of Venice engineered by Raymond III
for life on condition of peace 1153 Raynald of Chatillon m. 1177 Raynald m. Stephanie of Milly,
BIII’s Siege of Ascalon Constance of Antioch Raynald regent of KoJ becoming Lord of Oultrejordain
(KoJ success after 8 months) Battle of Montgisard d. William of Montferrat (regent of KoJ) leaving
Pope Adrian IV organises Arrival of Philip I of Flanders in KoJ
1154 alliance with Manuel I.
1178 Sibylla pregnant
BIII & M reconciled in KoJ - offered regency, declined, left
Byzantine troops to fightat Jacob’s Ford destroyed by Saladin
Castle
Nur ad-Din takes Damascus
Sicilians in South Italy
Henry II of England crowned
1155 1179
Saladin launches assault on Transjordan
Patriarch Heraclius begins writing
appeals to kings, prelates, dukes and Bohemond III and Raymond III march army into KoJ
Thierry of Flanders returns to HL with 1156 counts of the West for aid. 1180 Guy de Lusignan m. Sibylla of Jerusalem
d. Manuel I Komnenos Guy regent of Jerusalem and count of Jaffa
armed force. KoJ Truce with Nur ad-Din
Almohad threat emerges in Iberia
Siege of Shaizar (KoJ unsuccessful) Raynald raids Byz Cyprus
Internal dispute between Thierry and 1157 Raynald forced to apologise to Manuel 1181 Pope Alexander III issues aid appeal - ignored
Raynald of Chatillon BIII ambushed at Jacob’s Ford by Nad-Din Raynald raids Saladin’s territory reaching Tabuk
Pope Adrian issues papal bull – no response Raynald seizes caravan, prompting outrage from
Saladin fails to take Mosul Saladin – BIV orders release of prisoners.
BIII (28) m. Theodora of Byz (13):
1158 BIII seizes Harim, formerly of PoAnt, RIII blocked in getting to
1182 Ayyubid victory over KoJ at Marj ‘Uyun
BIII & Manuel become friends defeating Nur ad-Din Tiberias by BIV
Saladin defeated at battle of Forbelet
Saladin launches assaults on Galilee
KoJ, PoAnt, Trip march on Aleppo. Nur ad- 1159 Guy successful with Fabián tactics 1183 Raynald raids Red Sea, threatening Mecca and
Din offers truce and release prisoners from Nur ad-Din truce with Byz and Medina
Second Crusade Seljuks – chided by caliph Saladin captures Aleppo
Prince Raynald POW in northern raids 1160 Manuel I harshly reneges on
Patriarch Heraclius leads 1184 Saladin launches assaults on Oultrejordain,
BIII becomes regent of Antioch mission to England and France, siege of Kerak
agreement to m Raymond III’s
returns without support Assembly of Nablus
sister
BIII demanding annual Egyptian tribute 1161 Guy stripped of regency.
1185 d. Baldwin IV
d. Melisende Baldwin V, king of Jerusalem (8) (20 Nov)
Raymond III regent Saladin falls seriously ill
Raymond III hires pirates to ravage
Byz coast d. William of Tyre leaving unfinished Historia
Shawar usurped as vizier 1162 1186
of Egypt by Dirgham Izz al-Din of Mosul d. Baldwin V. RIII’s regency ends
recognises Saladin as Guy, king of Jerusalem by marriage to
d. Constance of Antioch – depriving overlord Sibylla (Aug)
d. Baldwin III 1163 Raynald of claim to Antioch
1187 Raymond’s pact with Saladin? (rumour)
Amalric I, king of Jerusalem (Feb)
1st KoJ invasion of Egypt Nur ad-Din victory at al-Buqaya
Saladin launches assault on Galilee:

Banyas taken into KoJ 1164 2nd KoJ Invasion of Egypt

Thierry of Flanders returns to KoJ again,
Springs of Cresson (1 May)
Battle of Hattin (3-4 July):
Shirkuh arrives in Egypt with Saladin to accompanying Amalric I d. Raynald, Templars, Hospitallers, King Guy POW
aid Shawar Battle of Harim (Zengid victory): Bohemond III of Siege and fall of Jerusalem (Oct)
1165 Antioch, Joscelin III of Edessa and Raymond III of
Tripoli POW Almost total Ayyubid victory:
Acre (1187)
1166 Sidon (1187)
Beirut (1187)
Appeal of Gilbert D’Assailly (GM of
Hospital) to Europe ignored Shawar unable to pay Shirkuh Ascalon (1187)
Thierry of Flanders returns to Flanders Shuirkuh’s forces invade Egypt Kerak (1188)
1167 Tortosa (1188)
Shirkuh and Saladin take Alexandria Saphet (1188)
Franks offered 400,000 dinars to help Shawar Belvoir (1189)
3rd KoJ Invasion of Egypt
1168 Truce engineered where all withdraw
Montreal (1189)
Beaufort (1190)
4th KoJ invasion of Egypt – attacking Bilbeis
Shawar calls for Nur ad-Din’s aid again Byzantine-crusader siege of Damietta fails
Tyre and Tripoli remained...
Amalric marches on Cairo, withdraws after 1169 Appeal of Archbishop Frederick of Tyre
seeing Shirkuh and Saladin encamped there Henry II of England pledged to crusade and deposited £10,000
with the Templars in preparation
Shirkuh enters Cairo triumphantly
d. Shawar
1170 Saladin vizier of Egypt – consolidates position and places family in key govt.
positions. 50,000 Black Africans revolt in Egypt only to be ruthlessly put down
d. Shirkuh
Saladin launches assault on Darum, KoJ
William of Tyre starts Historia 1171 d. al-Adil, Shi’a caliph
Saladin announces the Sunni Abbasid caliph as the new
Alliance engineered between KoJ and caliph of Egypt. Saladin effective sultan of Egypt
Byzantine Empire Nur ad-Din plans joint offensive, Saladin backs out

62
 Topic 4: The Third and Fourth Crusades, 1187-1204
(Upper Sixth Form)

Contents
 Preaching and preparing for the Third Crusade: motives of Pope Gregory VIII; Henry II and Richard I of
England; Philip II of France; Frederick Barbarossa.
 The course of the Third Crusade: leadership and internal rivalries of the crusaders; the reasons for the military
outcome.
 The impact of the Third Crusade; Saladin’s power and prestige in the Muslim Near East.
 The origins of the Fourth Crusade; the papacy of Innocent III; the weakness of the Byzantine Empire; the role
of Venice.
 The course of the Fourth Crusade: military preparations; the diversion to Zara; the failure to make any impact
on Muslim power.
 The legacy of the crusades by 1204: the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire and the Latin West.

Checklist

Tick once Topic

completed
Preaching and preparing of the Third Crusade: motives of the papacy as well as lay leaders
The course of the Third Crusade: events, leadership and rivalry, outcome
The impact of the Third Crusade on Saladin’s power, the Near East, and the surviving states
The origins and motivations in calling the Fourth Crusade
The weaknesses of the Byzantine Empire, 1176-1203
The course of the Fourth Crusade: military preparations and failure
Legacy of the crusades: in Byzantium, the Muslim Near East, and the Latin West

Key Chronological Overview

Date Event
1187  Pope Gregory VIII issues Audita tremendi
 Prince Richard and King Henry II of England, King Philip II of France and Emperor Frederick
Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire agree to take the cross.
1188  Henry II implements the ‘Saladin Tithe’ across his domains
1189  Guy de Lusignan released by Saladin but refused entry to Tyre by Conrad
 Guy lays siege to Acre
 Conrad persuaded to join Guy at Acre
 German crusade departs Europe (May) narrowly avoiding a direct assault on Constantinople
1190  German crusade travels through Anatolia, harassed by Seljuk Turks. Frederick dies (June).
Frederick of Swabia continues on to Acre with a fraction of the German contingent
 Richard I of England and Philip II depart for the Holy Land (July)
1191  Richard captures Cyprus (May)
 Acre surrenders to the crusaders (July)
 Following internal divisions, Leopold and Philip II departs for Europe
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  Muslim prisoners of Acre massacred following Saladin’s stalled diplomacy
 Battle of Arsuf (September), march of Jerusalem begins (Oct)
1192  Crusaders withdraw from Jerusalem without siege (Jan)
 Guy abdicates the throne to Conrad (April) being given Cyprus in compensation.
 Conrad murdered by Assassins.
 Isabella of Jerusalem marries Henry II of Champagne, who is crowned king of Jerusalem.
 Second march on Jerusalem (June), battle of Jaffa (Aug)
 Treaty of Jaffa engineered between Richard and Saladin (Sept). Ascalon demolished
 Richard departs for England (Oct)
1193  Saladin dies (Jan)
 King Henry of Jerusalem signs a truce with al-Aziz Uthman, Egyptian sultan
 Richard captured on his rout home before being ransomed
1195  Emperor Isaac II Angelos deposed by Emperor Alexios III Angelos
1197  Arrival of the German crusade in the Holy Land, attacking Damascus, ignoring King Henry II
1198  Pope Innocent III proclaims the Fourth Crusade via Post miserabile (Aug)
1199  Fulk of Neuilly preaches at Ecry-sur-Aisne. Count Theobald of Champagne takes the cross.
1200  Crusader leaders send envoys to Venice and Genoa to secure transport to Egypt
1201  Treaty of Venice agreed.
 Theobald of Champagne dies, leadership transfers to Boniface of Montferrat
1202  Crusaders arrive at Venice and the doge takes the cross. Venetians take control of crusade.
 Siege of Zara (Nov), Innocent III excommunicates the crusade
1203  Alexios IV Angelos offers to cover debts if the crusade topples Alexios III Angelos (Jan)
 Innocent rescinds the excommunication against all non-Venetians (Feb)
 Crusaders besiege Constantinople (23 June)
 Emperor Alexios III flees Constantinople, with Byzantine officials restoring Isaac II. Alexios
IV crowned co-emperor. Latins attacked in Constantinople, Venetians start the ‘Great Fire’
(Aug)
1204  Co-emperor Isaac II died (Jan). Alexios IV overthrown and murdered by Emperor Alexios V
Doukas (Feb)
 Siege of Constantinople (April) with Alexios V Doukas flees. City sacked (13-16 April)
 Partitio regni Graeci signed establishing the Latin Empire and Byzantine successor kingdoms:
the empire of Nicaea, empire of Trebizond, and despot of Epirus.

Preaching and preparing for the Third Crusade: motives of Pope Gregory VIII; Henry II and Richard I of
England; Philip II of France; Frederick Barbarossa.
The battle of Hattin (4 July 1187) led to the annihilation of the kingdom of Jerusalem’s field army. Many of the
kingdom’s nobles languished in captivity, including the king, Guy of Lusignan. Archbishop Joscius of Tyre arrived in
Rome during October to report the defeat at Hattin to the papacy – Pope Urban III reportedly died of shock. His
successor, Pope Gregory VIII, issued the papal bull Audita tremendi calling for a new crusade. The motivation must
have initially been a military response to the defeat at Hattin. The original papal bull does not allude to the loss of
Jerusalem, probably as news of the loss of the city (2 October 1187) had not reached Europe by the time the bull was
issued. Despite this, the recapture of Jerusalem must have become a key motive once news filtered back from the
East of the catastrophe. Tyre was the only Frankish town still in crusader hands, whilst Tripoli teetered on the edge.
Antioch was being threatened by Ayyubid forces by 1188 and a military response was deemed critical. It is revealing
that for the first time, a papal bull calling a crusade named the enemy: Saladin.
Why did people go on the Third Crusade?
 As with the two previous major offensive, as well as the multitude of individual pilgrimages and military
deployments into the Holy Land, the reasons why people went on crusade are vast, complex and highly
personal. Many of the motivating factors prevalent during the recruitment of the First and Second Crusades
remain during the recruitment of the Third Crusade: religious zeal, the threat of Islam, glory and traditions
of crusading, mouvance and feudal ties, material gain, the impact of preachers and motivational songs.
 Recruiters were honing their art to become highly persuasive and had learned lessons regrading sermons,
organisation, propaganda etc. in order to recruit as many crusaders as possible. The reaction to the call for
crusade was instant, and huge. German sources report an army of 100,000 was raised, although this is more
likely to be around 15,000 (c.4,000 knights). Henry and Richard recruited around 9,000 warriors in England
but their contingent may have been inflated to anywhere between 20,000-50,000 with non-combatants and
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 sailors. The French appear to have raised around 7,000 warriors. Further contingents from Denmark, the
Italian city states, Bretons and Frisians brought the estimated total to a top end figure of 40,000 combatants.
 The Third Crusade became known as the ‘crusade of kings’. Three major monarchs of Europe participated.
King Baldwin IV had previously appealed to the kings of England, France and Germany on more than one
occasion. Their unwillingness to support Outremer then possible besmirched their chivalric honour and right
to call themselves Christian kings.

Leader Possible motivation for joining the crusade

Emperor Frederick  Crusading traditions – having accompanied King Conrad III during the
Barbarossa of the Holy Second Crusade where he had gained a positive reputation as a military
Roman Empire commander.
 Glory – following his setbacks in Italy and the humiliations of Legnano and
Peace of Milan (1176).
 Power – probably keen to demonstrate imperial prestige, especially over the
Byzantine Empire, his imperial rival. A successful crusade would also
reconcile Frederick with a number of rebel barons who took the cross.
 Religious zeal – dissatisfaction with the loss of the True Cross at Hattin.
King Philip II of France  Mutual suspicion – once the king of England committed, so did Philip.
 Crusading traditions – Philip’s father, Louis VII, had led the Second
Crusade.
 Family ties – Philip’s ancestor, Count Hugh of Vermandois, was a famous
First Crusader.
 Glory – an opportunity to demonstrate the power and energy of the Capetian
house in attempt to establishing more power at home in France.
 Religious zeal – dissatisfaction with the loss of the True Cross at Hattin.
King Henry II of England  Mutual suspicion – once the king of France committed, so did Henry.
 Family ties – the kings of Jerusalem were a cadet branch of the Angevin
House which Henry was head of.
 Religious zeal – dissatisfaction with the loss of the True Cross at Hattin.
Duke Richard of Aquitaine  Glory – a natural warrior and commander, the crusade was an opportunity to
(later King Richard I of test his abilities against the greatest of Christianity’s enemies.
England)  Feudal ties – alongside the familial link (see Henry), King Guy of Lusignan
was a Poitevin, and therefore a vassal of the duke of Aquitaine.
 Religious zeal – dissatisfaction with the loss of the True Cross at Hattin.

The course of the Third Crusade: leadership, internal rivalries of the crusaders; the military outcome.

1188
King Guy was freed by Saladin on the condition that he left Outremer and returned to Europe without raising a
weapon against him. After agreeing, Guy re-joined his queen, Sibylla and sought refuge in Tyre, the last remaining
Frankish town in the kingdom of Jerusalem. However, Conrad of Montferrat (Sibylla’s brother-in-law via her first
marriage) denied them sanctuary, claiming to be administering Tyre until the kings arrived from Europe in
accordance with Baldwin IV’s will. This forced and already humiliated Guy to set camp outside of the gates of
Tyre.

In Europe, King Henry II of England and King Philip II of France ended their conflict at Gisors (January) and both
took the cross. Henry had probably been forced into this by the actions of his eldest surviving son, Duke Richard
of Aquitaine, who had taken the cross at Tours (1187). Both monarchs imposed the ‘Saladin tithe’ in order to
finance their crusades. Frederick Barbarossa held a diet in Mainz (27 March 1188). Following a crusade sermon
Frederick took the cross, alongside his son Duke Frederick IV of Swabia, Duke Leopold V of Austria and
Landgrave Louis III of Thuringia. Frederick received envoys from Hungary, the Byzantine Empire and the
Seljuk sultanate of Rum to negotiate safe passage through their lands. He even notified Saladin of his intentions!
Furthermore, all German crusaders swore oaths of good behaviour. German representatives were then dispatched
ahead of the crusade to the territories to make preparations.

1189
By late spring 1189 two fleets had arrived in Tyre: one Sicilian, one Pisan. King Guy succeeded in recruiting both
contingents despite Conrad refusing him entry again (August). Seeking a firm base from which to counterattack,
Guy seized the initiating the siege of Acre (September) This audacious move was intended to catch Saladin’s

65
garrison by surprise and naturally ally Conrad and Guy against Saladin.

The German crusade departed on 11 May 1189, the first of the European kings to do so. They were escorted
through Hungary and hosted by King Bela III. At Belgrade Frederick wrote to Emperor Isaac II informing him of
his entry into Byzantine territory. Despite this, the Byzantine Emperor’s suspicions delayed German progress for
six months. Barbarossa occupied Philippopolis and defeated a small Byzantine force. Isaac was compelled facilitate
German progress across Thrace.

King Henry II died (6 July) and was succeeded by his son, Richard. English crusaders departed in a number of
waves, with the first wave conquering Moorish cities in Iberia during the summer before continuing on the Holy
Land. Richard continued his heavy taxation of the kingdom of England in preparation for the crusade.

Meanwhile initial assaults against the walls of Acre failed, forcing Guy to establish a siege camp and await
reinforcements. His forces were further depleted by the withdrawal of Sicilian forces owing to the death of King
William II. However, Guy’s forces were continually bolstered by the arrival of initial waves of French, Flemish,
German, Italian and Armenian troops. Nobles such as James of Avensnes, Andrew of Brienne, and Robert II of
Dreux all arrived to support the siege. Louis of Thuringia persuaded Conrad (his cousin) to also join the siege at
Acre. Saladin marshalled his forces, unsuccessfully attacking Guy’s siege camp (15 September).

Saladin redeployed to confront Guy’s camp directly. Some sources estimate that by October the crusader camp had
grown to around 30,000 troops with a Christian fleet of 100 ship blockading Acre. At the battle of Acre (4
October) Saladin’s forces were forced to flight, however, as the Christians plundered the Muslim camp Saladin
rallied his men, driving them back and slaughtering the Franks. To make matters worse, the Acre garrison sallied
out to assault the crusader camp at the same time. Some of those defending the crusader camp were redeployed to
face Saladin’s rallied forces rather than the assault from the garrison. Whilst defending the camp Gerard of
Ridefort, Grand Master of the Temple was killed, alongside Andrew of Brienne – Conrad had to be rescued by
Guy! In the end, both sides accepted the stalemate and the ‘double siege’.

As the garrison grew weaker, so the crusader force grew stronger. More Europeans arrived from the sea during the
autumn, replacing the fallen warriors and allowing Guy to fully envelop and blockade the city. Saladin, fearing the
arrival of the massive German crusade, drafted in more troops. In December an Egyptian fleet broke through the
naval blockade, establishing control over Acre’s port.

1190
In Anatolia (despite being promised safe passage) the Germans were faced with constant Turkish hit-and-run
attacks. Frederick was victorious at the battle of Philomelion (7 May) and then at the battle of Iconium (18 May),
sacking the city. Whilst crossing the Saleph River Frederick’s horse slipped, drowning the emperor (10 June).
Much of the German crusade returned home, the rest limped on to Acre under Frederick of Swabia.

In April Richard’s fleet left to rendezvous with Philip’s at Marseilles. Richard and Philip departed Vézelay (4 July)
taking different routes to their rendezvous point in Messina. Richard captured the city (4 October) to force King
Tancred of Sicily to release Joan, Richard’s sister. This, as well as Richard reengaging on a betrothal, created
tension between the Lionheart and Philip.

During the spring in Outremer, Conrad had sailed to Tyre, returning with vital supplies to sustain the crusader camp
outside Acre. Furthermore, he was able to source materials used for constructing siege engines, however, these
were lost during an assault on the city in May. Meanwhile, Saladin intensified his attacks on the crusader camp.
Discipline began to break down amongst the Christians. Fortunately, reinforcements from France arrived led by
Count Henry II of Champagne and Count Theobald V of Blois amongst others. Frederick of Swabia arrived at
the camp (October) with the remnants of the German crusade, just ahead of the first English Crusaders led by
Baldwin of Forde, archbishop of Canterbury.

At some point during this period, with food supplies and fresh water dwindling and epidemics rife, Queen Sibylla
died, along with Guy’s claim to the throne. Despite this Guy retained overall command of the Christian forces at
Acre. Conrad withdrew to Tyre (November) and was married to Princess Isabella (whose marriage to Humphrey of
Toron was annulled 24 November), securing a legitimate claim to the throne of Jerusalem. To make matters worse,
with conditions deteriorating in the crusader camp, Theobald of Blois, Stephen of Sancerre, Frederick of Swabia
and Patriarch Eraclius all succumbed to epidemics. Further attempts to breach the walls of Acre failed in December.
1191
On 6 January the crusaders were able to engineer a partial collapse of the walls, leading to them overrunning the

66
 Muslim garrisons. However, Saladin’s forces broke through the Frankish lines, replacing the exhausted garrison
with fresh defenders. In April Leopold of Austria arrived and took command of the Christian forces. This arrival
was bolstered by the arrival of Philip of France (20 April), who immediately set about building siege engines and
assaulting the walls. Each new breach in the walls led to a renewed assault from Saladin’s army, giving the
defenders breathing space to tend to repairs. The death of Count Philip I of Flanders without issue caused Philip
concern for an inheritance crisis at home.

King Richard departed Sicily on 10 April, two-weeks after Philip. Following a violent storm, Richard discovered
several ships had ran aground. Isaac Doukas Komnenos, the ruler of Cyprus had seized a large amount of Richard’s
treasure from the wrecks. Richard conquered Cyprus (May), received Guy of Lusignan and married Berengaria.
Richard’s arrival at Acre (8 June) was met with huge celebrations. He immediately contributed to the siege but was
struck down by illness. On 2 July Richard deployed two huge siege engines: God’s Own Catapult and Bad
Neighbour. The following day a sufficiently large breach was created but the assault was repelled. Reading the
writing on the wall, and with no relief forthcoming, Acre surrendered (12 July). Leopold departed the Holy Land
after a row with Richard, followed soon after by Philip (31 July), who was keen to return home to settle the
succession of Vermandois and Flanders. Richard was left in sole command of the English, French and German
forces. Keen to progress the crusade, and stalled by Saladin’s slow negotiations, Richard forced the issue by
executing 2,700 Muslim prisoners (20 August). On 22 August the crusade progressed southwards.

The crusader army was shadowed along their coastal route from Acre to Jaffa. Richard maintained discipline within
the ranks, even when provoked by Saladin’s forces. Furthermore, he had the Frankish fleet shadow the army off-
shore for support. Despite this, Ayyubid forces provoked the Hospitallers into a charge at the battle of Arsuf (7
September). Richard’s decision to order a general counterattack won the battle, scattering Saladin’s forces and
denting the sultan’s reputation of invincibility.

At Jaffa, Richard established a headquarters and opened negotiations with Saladin. In November the Christian army
advanced on Jerusalem following news that Saladin had disbanded a large part of his army. Bad weather and fear
led to the Christians withdrawing although only a mere 12 miles from the city. The Christians refortified Ascalon
and waited out the winter months.

1192
In April Conrad was elected as the new king of Jerusalem. Richard had no choice but to back Conrad and he sold
Guy Cyprus as compensation. However, before he could be crowned, Conrad was assassinated in Tyre (28 April).
His successor, Henry of Champagne (Richard’s nephew) married the pregnant Isabella.

The crusaders made local gains in the region, capturing the strategically vital border town of Darum (22 May)
following fierce fighting with the Egyptians. Buoyed by this success the army marched for a second time on
Jerusalem (June) before being forced to withdraw once more – this caused considerable consternation amongst the
ranks, and dissention amongst the leaders. Richard favoured an assault on Egypt, whilst the French counselled a
third assault on Jerusalem. The divide created two factions, neither strong enough to achieve victory over Saladin.

In July Saladin’s forces unexpectedly

seized Jaffa, but lost control of his
army who massacred the Christian
prisoners there. Richard led a seaborne
assault at the battle of Jaffa and drove
Saladin’s forces back. The attempt to
recapture Jaffa led to complete failure
for Saladin, who withdrew. Following
this defeat, Saladin felt compelled to
agree the Treaty of Jaffa (2
September), concluding hostilities and
granting Christian pilgrims access to
Jerusalem. Ascalon and its defences
weas demolished and returned to
Saladin’s control. Richard departed the
Holy Land on 9 October.

Was the Third Crusade a success or a failure for Richard?

67
 Achievements Failures
 Saved the kingdom of Jerusalem, re-securing the  Disintegration of the German crusade
coastline after the disaster 1187-88  Damaging internal Christian rivalries
 Acquisition of Cyprus – key to survival in Outremer  Unable to secure possession of the True Cross
 Captured Acre, the new capital of the kingdom  Unable to secure possession of Jerusalem
 Tyre held out  Unable to decisively destroy Saladin’s forces on the
 Arsuf – demonstrated Saladin could be beaten battlefield
 Victory at Jaffa, forcing a peace settlement  Surrendered Ascalon which was destroyed
 Secured access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims  Territorial gains not substantial
 Future crusades assured an objective and motive  Conrad’s death damaging for Richard’s reputation
 Antioch left in a safer position

Verdict:

The impact of Third Crusade on…

 … Outremer: The kingdom of Jerusalem remained, although a fraction
of its pre-1187 size, the kingdom existed as a slim coastal territory with
access to the key port cities of Tyre and Acre. As such, reinforcement
could continue to flow into Outremer to sure up the defence and
(hopeful) expansion. Whilst the truce of Jaffa had not returned
Jerusalem, Christian pilgrims were granted access to the holiest sites in
Christendom. Antiochene safety wasn’t guaranteed until later in 1192,
but Richard’s campaign had laid much of the groundwork. Looking to
the future, the recapture of Jerusalem remained a potent motivator for
later crusades. A real success for Outremer following the Third Crusade
was the acquisition of Cyprus. Whilst a source of contention with the
Byzantine Empire, the island was an invaluable forward staging post for
future crusades, and was defensible as long as the Franks maintained
naval supremacy.

 … the Muslim Near East: Saladin had ultimately failed to capitalise on the gains achieved during the
aftermath of the battle of Hattin. He had been fought to a standstill by Richard and the crusaders, and had
consistently struggled to maintain a sufficiently large army in the field. The sultan had failed to challenge the
Franks on the sea, and had yielded a thin strip of coastline to the Christians. However, he retained Jerusalem.
Following the treaty of Jaffa, Saladin’s desire to go on hajj to Mecca was thwarted by suspicion of his
intentions in Baghdad. He dispatched an envoy tasked with improving relations in September 1192. Saladin
died on 4 March 1193 exhausted by the Third Crusade. Upon his death the Ayyubid sultanate fractured,
inherited by his quarrelling sons who jostled to exercise primary power. To his admirers, Saladin was a
champion of Islam – he even impressed the Franks! However, he failed to win over his Muslim enemies. To
them the sultan had manipulated Islam to win power for himself and his family, launching a Holy War against
the Franks only when necessary, and even then ultimately failing to remove the threat they posed in the
Levant.

 … the Latin West: After becoming shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea Richard was captured by Leopold V of
Austria on suspicion of having Conrad murdered in 1192. He was sold to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry
VI, who held him in captivity until 1194, ransoming him for the colossal sum of 150,000 marks. Upon
Philip’s return to France in 1191 he had reneged on the peace agreement with Richard and attacked Angevin
lands in France. He also stoked rebellion in England and Aquitaine, facilitating Prince John’s ambitions.
Richard spent the rest of his life restoring order and managing the threat posed by Philip – a task which cost
him his life (1199). In Germany, Henry VI looked to his own troubles: rebellious barons such as Henry the
Lion, and the conquest of Sicily. Whilst initial focus after the crusade remained relatively local, Richard’s
decision not to assault Jerusalem laid the foundation for the Fourth Crusade six year later.

 … the Byzantine Empire: could not avoid the fact that it had been an opponent of the Third Crusade. Isaac
proved untrustworthy and suspicious of crusader intentions. A mutual fear of the Norman threat led to an
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 ‘understanding’ between Saladin and Andronikos in 1185, with Isaac II later confirming an alliance treaty.
The emperor actively opposed Frederick’s crusade across Byzantine territory in 1190. The effects of the
Angelo-Ayyubid alliance alarmed the Franks of Outremer, and the empire was stigmatised throughout Europe
– s so much so that Frederick Barbarossa supposedly proposed the calling of a crusade against the Byzantines
whilst delayed in Thrace. Constantinople’s prestige and self-esteem visibly reduced following the Third
Crusade, along with its naval capability – by 1195 its fleet consisted of no more than 30 galleys! Whilst the
alliance between two ancient enemies failed, it succeeded in creating Western hostility towards
Constantinople.

The papacy of Innocent III (1198-1216)

 Lorenzo de’ Conti was elected pope (1198) aged only thirty-seven. He took the name
Innocent III in reference to Innocent II (1130-43) who had previously asserted the
authority of the papacy in Europe.
 Innocent played active roles in the politics of Scandinavia, France, England, Spain, the
Holy Roman Empire and Bulgaria.
 He interpreted the 1187 disaster in Outremer as a divine punishment for the moral
lapses of Christian princes. Alongside this, he was keen to ensure the liberty of the
church from the kings of Western Europe. He meddled in the imperial elections of the
Holy Roman Empire, and achieved overlordship in England over King John I.
 He spent the majority of his reign planning a great crusade – the Fourth Crusade was his first attempt.
 As a vigorous opponent of heresy, Innocent was unafraid of spilling heretical blood. He launched the
Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) against the Cathars, decimating practising Cathars in southern France.
 On 15 November 1215 Innocent opened the Fourth Lateran Council, perhaps the most important church
council of the medieval period, issuing over seventy reforms and holding the clergy to higher standards than
the rest of society. The council also decreed a number of antisemitic measures against the Jews in Europe.

The origins of the Fourth Crusade

 The Fourth Crusade was originally called for by Innocent III via the papal bull, Post miserabile (1198). The
call for crusade was not in response to any single event (unlike the Second and Third Crusades) and was more
bureaucratic and organisational in tone.
 The stated intent of the crusade was the liberation of Jerusalem by first conquering Ayyubid Egypt.
 The pope displayed an interest leading the crusade himself, rather than relying solely on the leadership of
secular leaders. He appears to have not aimed his recruitment directly at kings, however, he certainly sought
their aid and resources. Ultimately, he wanted the nobles and knights in Western Christendom to go.
 Legates such as Peter of Capua were immediately dispatched to Catholic states. Peter was sent to England
and France to convince King John and King Philip to reconcile – he secured a five-year truce. Despite the
truce, the crusade became predominantly a French affair as enthusiasm in England and Germany was limited.
 To finance the venture the clergy were required to donate one fortieth of their income – the first direct tax on
the clergy ever imposed by a pope. King John of England also pledged to contribute a clerical tax.
Why did people go on crusade?
Innocent’s papal bull described the familiar themes of crusading rhetoric such as the dreadful plight in the Holy Land,
God’s will, the desire for vengeance, and criticism of Europe’s unwillingness to offer aid. The pope specifically
encouraged the kings of England and France to contribute, given their huge resources, family links and crusading
traditions. As a motive, Innocent offered the ever-present promise of privileges, especially the remission of sins.

Leader Possible motivation for joining the crusade

Count Theobald III of  Tradition of crusading: a grandson of King Louis VII and Eleanor of
Champagne Aquitaine, and nephew of King Philip II and King Richard I.
 Family ties: Theobald’s brother, Henry II of Champagne, was a key leader
on the Third Crusade and later king of Jerusalem (d.1197). Furthermore, his
cousin, Count Louis I of Blois, was participating.
 Glory: Theobald was a young warrior and a model of knightly chivalry,
keen to honing his martial reputation and following in the footsteps of

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 crusading heroes such as the Lionheart.
 Preaching of Fulk of Neuilly: took the cross at Écry after sermon.
Marquis Boniface I of  Family ties and crusading traditions: his father, William the Old, had fought
Montferrat in the Second Crusade and again at Hattin (1187). Furthermore, he was the
younger brother of William ‘Longsword’ of Montferrat (father of King
Baldwin V of Jerusalem) and Conrad of Montferrat, defender of Tyre and
de jure king of Jerusalem before his assassination in 1192.
 Religious zeal: widely regarded as an ideal Christian knight
 Recruitment: convinced by the crusade’s envoys returning from Venice
 Material gain: probably driven by the prospect of power in the Holy Land
and the high honours gained by his brothers in Constantinople.
Count Baldwin IX of Flanders  Religious zeal: renowned as a pious and just man.
and VI of Hainault  Family ties: Theobald of Champagne’s brother-in-law. Baldwin was
accompanied by his brothers, Henry and Eustace, plus his nephew, Thierry.
 Traditions of crusading: Baldwin’s grandfather was the famed crusader
Count Thierry of Flanders. Flanders had aided the East since pre-1095.
 Politics: ecclesiastic protection from King Philip II of France, against whom
he had allied with England and defeated in battle.
Count Louis I of Blois  Family ties: Theobald of Champagne’s cousin. His father, Count Theobald
V of Blois participated on the Third Crusade (d. at Acre 1191). Furthermore,
he was grandson of Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine, nephew of King
John (head of the house of Anjou)
 Traditions of crusading: participant on the Third Crusade. The house of
Blois had crusaded since the First Crusade.
 Preaching of Fulk of Neuilly: took the cross at Écry after sermon.
Count Hugh IV of St. Pol  Traditions of crusading: had participated with Count Philip I of Flanders
during the Third Crusade, distinguishing himself at Acre (1191)
 Mouvance: connected via marriage to Baldwin of Flanders
 Glory: a veteran crusader who was perhaps wanted to uphold his name
Count Geoffrey III of Perche  Family ties: cousin of Theobald of Champagne and Louis of Blois, brother
of Stephen of Perche
 Traditions of crusading: accompanied his father on the Third Crusade
(Rotrou IV) who died at Acre c.1191.
Stephen of Perche  Family ties: brother of Geoffrey, cousin of Theobald and Louis of Blois
 Material gain: despite acting as a steward for Perche during the Third
Crusade, Stephen did not inherit Perche as his father’s younger son.
Simon de Montford V,  Religious zeal: determined to win back the Holy Land and Jerusalem.
earl of Leicester Possibly a narrow-minded zealot. Displayed a willingness to fight heresy
later in his life. Would go on to lead the Albigensian crusade against Cathar
heretics.
Doge Enrico Dandolo  Material gain: ambitious for his own prosperity and commercial
of Venice opportunities for Venice in Dalmatia and the Balkans.
 Glory: keen to further the power and autonomy of Venice.
 Traditions of crusading: Venice had aided crusaders since the First Crusade
Alexios IV Angelos  Material gain: to restore his father as emperor in Constantinople and to
topple his uncle, Alexios III Angelos.

Byzantine relations with…

 … the Latin West: There was a large amount of misinformation in Western Europe which exaggeration
(although didn’t totally invent) the friendly relations between Constantinople and Saladin or his successors.
Claims of the corruption, weakness and effeminacy of the Greeks reflected the undoubtedly sophisticated and
often war-like Byzantine ruling elite. However, a desire for Latin-Byzantine cooperation against the infidel
was yearned for in the west, and Constantinople was portrayed as an almost mythical city – akin to Jerusalem
in the 11th century. Despite the deterioration in relations between the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires the
two did forge dynastic links in the late 12th century, although achieved little.

 … the Italian city states: During the 12th century the Byzantine Empire had appeared strong under Komnenoi
stewardship, expelling the Norman threat to the Balkans regularly. However, by the 13 th century Western
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 superiority had been established at sea, with the Mediterranean being dominated by Italian sailors and
merchants. Whilst Pisan and Genoese ferocity was often directed at one another, Venice theoretically
remained a subject of the Byzantine Empire. However, Byzantium often gave favourable trading privileges to
Pisa and Genoa to limit the power of Venetian commerce in Byzantine trade.

 … the joint kingdom of Hungary and Croatia: The kingdom long held a close (although not always
friendly) relationship Constantinople. In the first half of the 12 th century the two hug realms had been allies,
after which Hungary found itself resisting Byzantine influence and expansion. The sudden collapse of
Byzantine influence in the region during the second part of the century allowed for Hungarian breathing
space. Catholic Hungary steadily became hostile as it pursued its own agenda in the Balkans.

 … the Seljuk sultanate of Rum: There was a great deal of uncertainty as to where the frontier lay between
the empire and the sultanate. The Seljuks failed to follow up on Emperor Manuel’s massive defeat at the battle
of Myriokephalon (1176). An impression of cultural coexistence appears during this period as the Seljuk
Turkish cities went through a period of cultural, economic and military change, incorporating Turkish, Greek,
Armenian, Muslim and Christian elements. Further political tensions within the sultanate had divided the
territory amongst his sons, resulting in civil war. The most westerly Seljuk sultanate was proving less of a
threat to Byzantine borders that it had in the previous century.

The weakness of the Byzantine Empire

One must be careful when studying the Fourth Crusade when interpreting the condition of the Byzantine Empire.
Hindsight is dangerous and few people at the time realised quite how hollow a shell Byzantium had become. Even to
the casual observer Constantinople was the wealthiest and best defended city in the Western world. To its citizens it
remained the Roman Empire; to the West and Islam it was Romania – superior to all (Nicolle, 2011). However, the
empire was in a weaker position than under the Komnenoi during the mid-12 th century.

Decline /  During the 12th century the empire made a number of significant territorial gains in the Balkans, a
weakness shift in Constantinople focus away from Anatolia which remained effectively defended by
Byzantine forces. However, in Anatolia authority fragmented, with provinces being dominated
by semi-autonomous governors and families. Increased decentralisation meant that the emperor
was in constant competition with his vassals.
 Myriokephalon (1176) had proved to be another Manzikert (1071), one from which the empire
would never fully recover its former territories and power in Anatolia.
 Since the death of Manuel (1180) and the Massacre of the Latins (1182) there was an atmosphere
of complete demoralisation: vicious intrigue and corruption in the capital anarchy in the
provinces, and growing external pressure on the borders.
 By the late-12th century the empire was dangerously short of manpower (military as well as
agricultural and economic). An overreliance on western mercenaries boosted the ranks
somewhat, but the loss of Anatolia robbed the empire of its best troops.
 Recent emperors had been warriors rather than ‘peace bringers’. As such, the quality of
leadership and command within the army depended increasingly upon the personality of the
emperor. Furthermore, senior positions in the army were gifted to the heads of rival aristocratic
families, politics rather than military ability.
 The kingdom of Hungary and Croatia, Albania, Bosnia and Serbia all emerged as separate
entities. Bulgarian revolts pushed the Byzantines back to the Danube Delta. Economic rivalry
and military pressure from Venice and Hungary respectively placed great strain on the empire.
 The Orthodox Church (which impacted greatly upon Byzantine identity) was weakened by
internal disagreements and factionalism.
 Byzantine officials had routinely resettled defeated invaders or rebels within the empire. As such
Byzantine society was not unified, either religiously, culturally or linguistically. The largest
community, that of Armenians in north-western Anatolia, staunchly resisted cultural assimilation.
This manifested itself further within the army which was ‘national army’ as opposed to an
‘aristocratic army’.
 Constantinople was suffering with vicious internal quarrels and coups. A series since 1182 had
resulted in the end of the Komnenoi emperors, and the introduction of the quarrelling Angeloi.
Stability /  Despite the disasters at Manzikert and Myriokephalon, the empire had experienced a remarkable
strength revival under the Komnenoi emperors.

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  It is clear that Constantinople’s wealth was huge in 1203. Furthermore, its massive population
(c.500,000) was fed with grain from Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly – all under imperial
control.
 The empire had not been pushed out of Anatolia and were holding their own against any Seljuk
revival. They were aided by the internal fracturing of the sultanate of Rum.
 Most of the Eastern Church remained opposed to the pope’s insistent claims to be head of the
Christianity. Exchanges were fierce between Patriarch John X of Constantinople and Pope
Innocent III. There was no apparent fear of being conquered by a Catholic army.
 There is evidence to suggest that the Byzantine economy was steadily expanding during the early
13th century, suggesting that views of an economically crippled empire are wide of the mark.

Political instability and leadership in the Byzantine Empire (1085-1204)

Emperor Isaac II Angelos  Isaac succeeded Andronikos I Komnenos (d.1185), elected by the people
(r.1085-1095 of capital. He was described as having a ‘bookish’ education, reliant on
and low-born bureaucrats and foreign soldiers, and often sold high-ranking
1202-1204) positions for money rather than gifted on merit.
 He was an energetic military commander and had a love for of building.
 Owing to his policies and the challenges faced by the empire the people
resented his very high taxation. Isaac was overthrown and blinded in 1195
by his brother, Alexios.
 Restored to the throne in 1202 but increasingly incapacitated with
dementia and blindness. Relied upon his son as co-ruler after 1202.

Emperor Alexios III Angelos  Alexios III was Isaac II’s older brother, but had been a prisoner in the
(r.1095-1202) county of Tripoli upon Andronikos’ death.
 Extraordinarily, allowed Prince Alexios IV to escape to kin in the HRE.
 As a ruler he appears weak-willed, extravagant and lazy, selling senior
positions in government and the army to the highest bidder. Surrounded
himself with sycophants and had no aptitude for administration.
 Alexios enjoyed military success against Balkan rebels.
 He favoured the merchant republics of Pisa and Genoa over their great
rival, Venice.

Emperor Alexios IV Angelos  Son of Isaac II and his first wife. Prince Alexios escaped the blinding and
(r.1203-1204) deposition of his father. At some point during 1201 he escaped
Constantinople. After failing to gain support in Italy he found support in
Germany with his sister Irene, wife of Philip of Swabia.
 Influenced the Fourth Crusade to settle a dynastic score against his uncle.
 Crowned co-emperor with Isaac II at the behest of the crusaders.
Increasingly become the senior ruler given his father’s senility.
 Quickly influenced by the anti-Latin elite of Constantinople, increasingly
isolated himself. Imprisoned and murdered by Alexios Doukas.

Alexios V Doukas  Portrayed as a bloodthirsty opportunist, but probably attempted to save

‘Mourtzouphlos’ the empire from the crisis created by the Angeloi.
(r.Feb-April 1204)  Imprisoned at the start of the crusade, even when Alexios IV was
crowned, perhaps for his involvement in a coup in 1200.
 Commanded most of the fighting against the crusaders, making him
popular and facilitating the overthrow of Alexios IV. Ultimately fled.

The Republic of Venice

 Venice emerged as an immensely wealthy, and virtually autonomous republic, during the 12 th and 13th
centuries. The city state dominate Mediterranean maritime trade, and had supporting the crusades since the
first. The Pactum Warmundi (1123) established an alliance between Jerusalem and Venice in return for virtual
commercial autonomy in Outremer.

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  Theoretically part of the Byzantine Empire, Venice was independently able to elect their own duke or doge
who operated as an autonomous entity. The republic commercially benefitted from a close and ancient
association with empire (sometimes at the expense of Byzantine merchants!), but fought to preserve its
autonomous status. It is worth noting that Venice exercised a relatively democratic system of electing
leadership. Therefore, the doge did not have the autocratic power enjoyed by rulers in the west – as a republic
he was subject to the people’s will.
 Venetian trade routes ran down the Adriatic coast via a largely Italianised population which had been so since
the Roman Empire. In practical terms, Dalmatian towns promised fidelity to Venice in return for Venetian
protection while at the same time trying to remain autonomous.
 The joint kingdom of Hungary and Croatia interpreted Venetian ambitions in the region as a threat to its
political and trading interests in Dalmatia. The two port cities of Zara (modern day Zadar) and Spalato (Split)
became the focus points of a bitter rivalry between the republic and the kingdom. A Byzantine revival under
the Komnenoi pushed Hungary back during the 12 th century but Byzantine authority had since collapsed
again, leaving a vacuum of power.
 Zara successfully rebelled against Venetian rule (1183) and had placed itself under the protection of the
papacy and the kingdom of Hungary. Whilst Dalmatia separated from Hungary (1199) they still recognised
King Emeric as overlord.
 Since the 1184 Zara had threatened Venetian shipping in the Adriatic through
piracy and had allied with Pisa in order to combat Venetian maritime dominance.
Doge Enrico Dandalo led a somewhat successful attack against Zara in 1193,
regaining control over key Dalmatian islands, however, the city itself remained
elusive.
 On the eve of the Fourth Crusade, although Zara was a Christian city, it was a
rebellious one in a region which once had owed fidelity to Venice. Like many
crusaders previously, Venice perhaps sought to employ the crusade to stabilise its
realm before travelling on to the Holy Land.

The Fourth Crusade

1199
Following a sermon preached by Fulk of Neuilly at Écry-sur-Aisne, Count Theobald of Champagne and his
cousin Count Louis of Blois committed themselves to taking the cross. Many more nobles in northern France were
also inspired to join, including Count Baldwin of Flanders and a host of Flemish lords. Others leaders included
Count Geoffrey of Perche, Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester and Geoffrey of Villehardouin.

In Outremer, Jerusalem was ruled by King Aimery of Lusignan. He had agreed a five-year truce with the Ayyubid
sultan, al-Adil Sayf al-Din (‘Saphadin’ to crusaders), in 1198 following the loss of Jaffa.

1200
Early in the year the crusading leaders met at Soissons to discuss the crusade’s route and departure date. However, a
sufficient number had not yet enlisted and nothing was decided upon. Beset by disagreement, further councils
continued to thwart planning. The major challenge facing the crusade was how to travel: by land or by sea? With
the land route slow and hostile, the crusaders settled upon a maritime venture, dispatching six envoys to the likes of
Venice, Genoa and Pisa to secure transportation for the crusade. Genoa and Pisa, having been weakened by their
long struggles for maritime supremacy were in no position to offer their support. Furthermore, French crusaders
complained about grievances from Genoa during the Third Crusade. The only option was for an Adriatic departure
from Venice.

1201
Arriving during Lent, the crusader’s ambassadors were welcomed warmly by Doge Enrico Dandalo. The
exceptionally old and blind leader of the Republic of Venice was a remarkable politician and leader. Negotiations
concluded with the Treaty of Venice, which requested transportation for 4,500 horses, 4,500 knights, 9000 squires
and 20,000 foot soldiers. Dandolo agreed to supply the army with transportation for one year. In addition, the doge
offered fifty war galleys at Venice’s expense on the proviso that they received a half-share of all conquests made by
combined forces. Following negotiation, both sides agreed a total cost of 85,000 marks to be paid by the crusader’s
arrival in Venice (April 1202). The fleet was scheduled to depart on 29 June 1202 for Alexandria, Egypt.

The Venetians prepared ships to transport 33,500 men – perhaps 450 transport ships plus fifty galleys as agreed.
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Some reports suggest that the doge suspended commerce for eighteen months in order to fulfil the order. The
accumulation of resources and manpower was supremely difficult for the small republic. It was the largest
endeavour in Venetian history and the largest state project in Western Europe since the Roman Empire.

Gravely ill, Theobald died upon the envoys return (May). The loss of the count troubled the crusaders who, after
much debate, elected Marquis Boniface I of Montferrat as his replacement. Boniface attended the court of his
cousin, Philip of Swabia, king of Germany, meeting the exiled Byzantine prince Alexios IV Angelos – Alexios
planned to regain Constantinople and title but had already been rebuffed by Innocent in Rome.

1202
Just before departure from France the crusade suffered another disappointing blow with the death of Geoffrey of
Perche (April). Determining the departures and routes is difficult, but it appears that the crusade was already
running behind schedule. A massive crusading force began arriving at Venice (June) however, it quickly became
apparent that the crusade did not have sufficient numbers to match the 33,500 anticipated by the Venetians. A
number had set out for the Holy Land from Marseille, Genoa or travelled to Southern Italy before departing; others
never left. Only an estimated 11,000 men arrived in Venice. The Venetians felt poorly rewarded when the crusaders
came up 34,000 marks short of the agreed sum – Venice faced financial disaster and could not renounce the
payment.

As the summer dragged on the crusaders became desperate, lacking food, bleeding money, and deserting.
Recognising the threat posed to Venice, Dandalo proposed that if the crusaders would aid Venice in conquering the
city of Zara, then payment of the remaining 34,000 marks would be postponed. A stop at Zara, a rebellious Adriatic
city, was well within Dandalo’s rights and may have been planned from the outset. Despite an obvious split
amongst crusaders, the leaders consented. The only problem was that Zara was a Christian city, one contested with
the Christian king of Hungary who had also committed to crusade.

On the eve of the crusade’s departure Boniface travelled to Innocent. He brought news of the Zaran plan which
greatly concerned the pope. He also raised the tiresome account of Alexios IV, which was quickly dismissed again .
Innocent wrote a strong letter forbidding any crusader assault on fellow Christians, however, this failed to reach the
crusaders in time. Meanwhile, the Venetians had taken the cross and the crusade departed in early October. After
regaining a pledge of loyalty to Venice at Trieste and Muggia, the crusade arrived at Zara, besieging the city (10
November). Venetian galleys broke the harbour chain, allowing knights to disembark. A Zaran delegation offered
Dandalo the full surrender of the city (12 November). Awaiting an answer from the crusade’s leaders, the Zaran
envoys met with Simon de Montford who probably informed them of the pope’s forbidding letter. Upon their
return, the crusader leaders found the envoys gone and the surrender withdrawn. Despite a worrying level of
disunity within the army’s leadership, and the threat of papal excommunication, the crusaders decided to fulfil their
obligation to attack the city. As the crusaders began to undermine the walls, a Zaran surrender was finally accepted
on 24 November. The terms of the surrender were not honoured by the crusaders who occupied and sacked the city.

In the Levant, Sultan al-Adil succeeded in uniting the former empire of Saladin, acquiring Egypt in 1200 and
Aleppo by 1202. The Franks of Outremer were once again surrounded by one Muslim leader.

1203
News of Zara’s fall, alongside the protests of the king of Hungary, reached Innocent at the start of the year. He
condemned the crusade’s actions – excommunication had already been threatened and was therefore automatically
applied to the crusaders. A crusader delegation was dispatched from Zara to Rome. The angry pope granted
absolution to the crusaders, but not the Venetians. They remained excommunicate.

Boniface’s arrival in Zara (1 January) was quickly followed by German envoys bearing an offer from Alexios IV
Angelos. He asked that the crusade act to aid the deposition of his uncle, Alexios III Angelos. In return, Alexios
pledged Byzantine obedience to the Catholic Church. He would cover the crusade’s debt to the Venetians plus an
additional 200,000 marks, he would raise 10,000 Byzantine troops for one year, pay for the maintenance of 500
knights in the Holy Land, and provide a navy to transport the crusade to Egypt from the imperial city. The leaders
were polarised. The Germans were supported by Dandalo’s Venetians. The opposing faction, led by Simon de
Montford, stood against the proposal. Supressing correspondence and a bull of Venetian excommunication from the
pope, the Treaty of Zara was agreed by Boniface, Baldwin, Louis, Hugh and Dandalo with the Germans, pledging
to restore the exiled Byzantine prince. Dissenters left the crusade either for home or for Outremer – Simon de
Montford departed for Acre.

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The crusade departed Zara (25 April)
for Corfu, where Alexios IV joined
the army. However, short of money
and supplies, desertions continued.
Open dissention amongst the ranks
prompted Boniface to plead
unsuccessfully with the army, the
majority of which established a new
camp away from the crusade. After
begging, weeping and lengthy
discussions, the dissenters agreed
(with conditions) to re-join the
expedition to Constantinople. Alexios
was required to swear upon holy
relics that he would honour his
covenants.

The first siege of Constantinople began as the crusader fleet arrived in the Sea of Marmara (mid-June). They
utilised the harvest of the Aegean islands to bolster their dangerously low supplies and made camp on the Asiatic
shore (26 June). The lack of an expected Byzantine coup in support of Alexios IV disappointed the crusaders.
Following initial skirmishes, tentative diplomacy, and attempts to initiate a bloodless coup, the crusaders stormed
Galata Tower (5 July), gaining the north shore of the Golden Horn. The crusader fleet broke the Great Chain,
infested the imperial harbour and sank Byzantine vessels – a brilliant and momentous achievement. Crossing the
Golden Horn via the bridge at the monastery of St Kosmas and Damian, the crusaders launched a major, but
unsuccessful assault on the city (17 July). The Venetians assaulted the fortifications from the harbour setting fire to
much of the north-west of the city. Unbeknown to the besiegers. the emperor had slipped out of the city during the
night, abandoning it to its fate. The next day the Byzantine aristocracy restored Isaac II to the imperial throne and
yielded to crusader demands to crown Alexios IV co-emperor. However, Byzantium was in no position to repay the
debt owed to the crusade. The co-emperors began confiscating church treasures, increasing dislike towards the
restored leaders. As weeks passed into months, the crusader leaders found themselves unable to honour the promise
to their followers to press on to Outremer (given during the Corfu crisis). Meanwhile, men such as Alexios Doukas
were stiffening resistance within the capital against crusader demands. In pursuit of reward, Boniface, Henry of
Flanders and Hugh of St Pol accompanied Alexios IV to Thrace to pursue the fleeing Alexios III. Constantinople
rioted, killing a number of Latin residents. In retaliation a band of Westerners started the ‘Great Fire’ (19-21 Aug),
rendering some 100,000 people homeless. Blame fell on the absent Emperor Alexios IV. Despite his return and
tough measures, his popularity ebbed away. In an act of desperation, the emperor stopped all payments to the
crusaders in December.

1204
By the start of the year hostilities between the crusaders and Byzantines had once again commenced. Patience
within the city snapped. Following the death of Isaac II, Alexios Doukas, nicknamed ‘Mourtzouphlos’, deposed and
imprisoned the sole remaining emperor, being crowned Emperor Alexios V Doukas (5 Feb).

Preparing for a final confrontation, Alexios V strengthened Constantinople’s defences and had Alexios IV
murdered. The crusader and Venetian leadership decided on outright conquest of the city in March, and drew up
future plans following their victory. The second siege of Constantinople (9 April) began with combined assaults
on the Golden Horn fortifications. By 12 April the Latins were able to seize towers and break through a blocked
postern gate into the city. Reading the writing on the wall, Alexios V fled the city during the night. Another major
fire was set within the imperial city, and the city suffered a three day sack and slaughter (13-15 April).

On 16 May Count Baldwin of Flanders was crowned the first Latin Emperor of Constantinople (much to Boniface’s
surprise and anger). Byzantium lands were partition. Boniface established the kingdom of Thessaloniki. A series of
successor states were established: the Komnenoi dominated the Empire of Trebizond; the Laskarid dynasty ruled
the Empire if Nicaea; and the Despotate of Epiros was governed by the Doukas family. Venice gained a huge
proportion of the plunder, as well as a series of Aegean islands, roughly amounting to three-eighths of the former
Byzantine empire.

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Why did the Fourth Crusade fail?

Factor Which historical evidence supports this factor?

Leadership

Christian disunity

Poor planning

Venetian influence

Byzantine influence

The legacy of the crusades by 1204 on…

 … Outremer: Many crusaders sought to fulfil their crusading vows independent of crusading leadership. As
such, a number sailed directly from Southern Italy to Acre. This group are considered by historians to only be
a small proportion of the crusade, and the desertion rate appears high. Leaders such as Simon de Montford
and Stephen of Perche arrived at various times within the kingdom, but the crusader force was so small that
King Aimery of Jerusalem refused to break his truce with the Ayyubids. As such, a number of groups chose
to seek support in the county of Tripoli and the principality of Antioch and conduct relatively local raids from
there. Militarily less successful, but perhaps more honourable, the crusade’s limited successes only proved
that al-Adil’s control was of Syria was fragile.

 … the Latin West: The papacy’s response was to swiftly condemn the crusaders and their atrocities.
Innocent sought the continued reconquest of Jerusalem to build upon the successes of the Third Crusade in
the Holy Land. However, Innocent was also distracted by the bickering western princes as well as battling
heresy within Western Christendom. Crusading enthusiasm in the Holy Land waned in the west for a decade.
Egypt continued to remain the long-standing objective for future crusades in the East, but all were
unsuccessful. Many western states benefitted economically from the outcome of the Fourth Crusade (most
visually today, Venice), but a deep sense of shame for the sack of Constantinople remained difficult to shake
off. The Roman Catholic The sack of Constantinople has contributed toward the inability of the Roman
Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church to reconcile.

 … the Muslim Near East: Huge relief was felt within the Ayyubid Empire and Muslim Near East. As the
promised armada had failed to reach the Holy Land, the threat posed by the Frank diminished significantly.
Sultan al-Adil I was able to wrestle control of the Ayyubid dynasty from al-Afdal, and successfully seized
Damascus in 1201. Disloyalty proved that the sultan’s control in Syria was fragile, and the growing economic
and social crises in Egypt demanded his immediate attention in 1204. Al-Adil aroused wide criticism and
hostility from within Islam for focusing his military campaigns against his Muslim neighbours, and for
largely ignoring the Franks of Outremer. The Fourth Crusade had clearly become a sideshow to the
internecine struggle for power in Syria and Egypt, a lesser player in the politics of the region.

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 … the Byzantine Empire: Whilst Byzantium was already in a state of decline, the impact of the Fourth
Crusade on the empire was vast and far-reaching. The sack of Constantinople was a colossal barrier to the
prospect of positive relations between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. The event remains one of
the most shocking evens in the history of Christendom and the legacy of distrust and tension (perhaps
stemming from the 1054 schism) was only made worse with the sack. Furthermore, the Fourth Crusade saw
the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire into Frankish kingdoms and Byzantine successor states. It
would take until 1261 for the Empire of Nicaea to reconquer the capital city. It is interesting to note that
during the mid-13th century the Empire of Nicaea was also able to expand Byzantine borders in Anatolia,
pushing back Seljuk influence for the first time in a century. The influence of the Franks and the Latin states
had profound implications, destabilising the politics, economies and societies of the Aegean and Black Sea
regions. The stealing and looting through the region by the crusaders created a popular Byzantine hatred
towards the west. Classical art, treasures and trophies were looted from Constantinople and remain in pride of
place throughout Western European cities to this day. A permanent distrust between east and west region
lingers in the region – the Fourth Crusade, in some part, contributed to this.

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 The Third Crusade (1187-1194): Detailed Chronology

Saladin launches assault on Galilee:

1187 Springs of Cresson (1 May)
Battle of Hattin (3-4 July):
Archbishop Joscius of Tyre arrives in Rome d. Raynald of Chatillon, Templars, Hospitallers, King Guy POW
d. Pope Urban III Siege and fall of Jerusalem (Oct)
Election of Pope Gregory VIII
Conrad of Montferrat arrives at Tyre, thwarting two Ayyubid sieges
Gregory issues Audita Tremendi calling for crusade
d. Pope Gregory VIII, succeeded by Clement III
Duke Richard takes the cross Frederick Barbarossa takes
1188 Saladin unsuccessfully besieges Krak des Chevaliers the cross (March),
Duke Richard of Aquitaine implementing taxes and
allies with King Philip II of Henry and Philip take the cross, protecting the Jews
France against King Henry II ‘Saladin Tithe’ levied across England and France German envoys present ultimatum to Saladin
of England
Guy released by Saladin
Frederick received Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian and Seljuk envoys
gaining safe-conduct through lands
Frederick Barbarossa’s army departs Haguenau (April), passing through Balkans 1189
Henry II ends war against Philip and Richard
Saladin captures Montreal and Kerak
d. Henry II of England (July)
Guy and Aimery of Lusignan refused entry into Tyre by Conrad
Frederick arrives in Nis (July) arriving at Sofia (Aug), delayed by Byz forces
Guy begins the siege of Acre (August), Conrad convinced to join him
Battle of Acre (4 October) – stalemate, double siege continues
Richard crowned king of England (Sept), raising taxes and building an army
d. Gerard de Ridefort, GM Knights Templar; d. Andrew of Brienne (Acre)
Anti-Semitic attacks in London
d. King William II of Sicily – Sicilian fleet returns home
Teutonic Knights founded
1190
Anti-Semitic massacre in York (March)
Battle of Philomelion (May)
Isabella of Jerusalem m. Conrad of Montferrat
Battle of Iconium (May)
Richard and Philip depart from Vezelay (July)
d. Frederick Barbarossa (June) – German Crusade breaks down Richard and Philip arrive in Sicily (Sept)
d. Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem (Acre) Messina revolted (Oct) and is captured by Richard – looted and burned
d. Baldwin of Forde, archbishop of Canterbury (Acre) Arrival of Frederick VI of Swabia at Acre with the broken German crusade (Oct)
d. Ranulf Glanvill, Chief Justiciar of England (Acre)

d. Frederick of Swabia (20 Jan, Acre) 1191 d. Count Theobald V of Blois (20 Jan, Acre)
Arrival of Duke Leopold V of Austria at Acre Philip departs Sicily for Acre (30 March)
Philip arrives at the siege of Acre (20 May) Richard agrees truce with King Tancred of Sicily (March)
Siege engines constructed for renewed assaults Richard departs Sicily for Acre (April)
Richard arrives in Cyprus (1 May)
d. Count Rotrou IV of Perche (Acre) Richard’s troops, led by Guy of Lusignan, conquer Cyprus (1 June)
Richard arrives at Acre (8 June) Richard m. Berengaria of Navarre (12 May)
Richard starts paying troops more than Philip
Surrender of Acre (12 July) d. Alberic Clement, Marshal of France (Acre)
Richard quarrels with Leopold who d. Philip I of Flanders (Acre)
departs the crusade Philip departs crusades, leaving Richard in sole command (31 July)

Saladin demolishes Ascalon 2,700 Muslim prisoners slaughtered at Acre (Sept)

Battle of Arsuf (7 Sept)
Capture of Jaffa (Nov) d. James d’Avesnes (KIA)
First march on Jerusalem - abandoned Philip II tries to have peace oath with Richard annulled – Celestine denies

1192 Norman lords reject Philip’s claims to the Vexin

Ascalon refortified by Richard Conrad elected as de jure king of Jerusalem via marriage
d. Conrad of Montferrat, de jure king of Jerusalem (28 April)
Cyprus sold to Guy of Lusignan to compensate abdication Isabella m. Henry II of Champagne (May)
b. Maria of Jerusalem (Conrad and Isabella’s daughter)

Second march on Jerusalem – abandoned (June)

Dangerous split in the crusader leadership, Richard refuses
to lead another assault on Jerusalem
Battle of Jaffa (August)
Truce of Jaffa
Treaty of Jaffa (2 Sept) – Ascalon demolished
Richard departs Holy Land (9 Oct)
d. Kilij Arslan II, sultan of Rum – prompting Seljuk civil war

Richard shipwrecked and taken prisoner by Leopold of Austria (Dec)

Philip makes gains in Normandy after drawing Prince John into conspiracy
Enrico Dandalo elected doge of Venice (1 Jan) 1193 d. Saladin (4 March) – Ayyubid empire split amongst descendants
Richard sold to Henry VI, HRE and held at Speyer (Feb)
d. Balian of Ibelin
Philip II m. Ingeborg of Denmark
d. Robert IV de Sable, GM Knights Templar (Sept)
Pope Celestine III calls for the Northern Crusades in the Baltic
Philip attempts unsuccessfully to purchase Richard’s captivity

Richard ransomed, escorted to England by Eleanor of Aquitaine (Feb)

1194
Richard restores order in England and is re-crowned (March-May) Sicily falls to Henry VI, HRE
John defects from Philip to Richard b. Frederick II, future HRE
d. King Tancred of Sicily
Battle of Freteval (3 July), Richard defeats Philip decisively d. Duke Leopold V of Austria

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 The Fourth Crusade (1198-1205): Detailed Chronology

1198 d. Pope Celestine III, Innocent III elected pope

Issue of Post miserabile calling for the Fourth Crusade

Philip of Swabia elected king of Germany

Papal legates dispatched to Catholic states to settle dispute Frederick II crowned king of Sicily (although an infant)
and recruit the resources of kings
Preaching across Europe begins, notably by Fulk de Neuilly

1199
Peter of Capua engineers truce between England France (Jan)
d. Richard I of England (April)
John crowned king of England
Tournament at Ecry-sur-Aisne
Theobald of Champagne and Louis of Blois commit to crusade

1200
Al-Adil seizes the Jazira, Egypt and is recognised as sultan of the Ayyubid empire

Nobles of France and Flanders take up the cross, especially Baldwin of Flanders
Six envoys dispatched to Venice

Envoys to Venice possible recruit Boniface en route

1201
Crises in Yeman and Egypt weaken al-Adil’s hold
Treaty of Venice agreed with Doge Dandalo d. Prince Bohemond III of Antioch
Bohemond IV becomes prince of Antioch
d. Theobald of Champagne (May)
Boniface of Montferrat takes the cross, elected as leader of crusade Prince Alexios Angelos (IV) escapes Constantinople for Italy

Alexios IV arrives at the court of Philip of Swabia. king of Germany,

Innocent supports Otto IV against rival Philip of Swabia
meeting Boniface
1202
Al-Adil gains overlordship over Aleppo
Major earthquake shakes Egypt and Iraq causing severe damages
Innocent III reasserts right to crown Holy Roman Emperors
Crusaders start to gather in Venice with the original date
of departure (29 June )passing without action
Crusaders agree to the recover Zara, Venetians take control of the crusade,
Siege of Zara, capitulation and sack Dandalo takes the cross
Innocent III excommunicates the crusade, mass Crusade departs Venice (early October)
desertions (Nov)

1203 Alexios IV’s envoys arrive in Zara – crusaders agree treaty of Zara
Innocent lifts excommunication on crusaders, not Venetians (Feb)
Crusader army leaves Zara for Corfu Some crusaders begin to arrive in Acre, KoJ
Alexios IV joins the crusader army, leading to dissention and near collapse Owing to a truce in KoJ arguments erupt among crusaders in the Holy Land
Alexios III begins to strengthen Constantinople’s defenses
Crusaders depart Corfu, arriving before Constantinople (23 June),
Bulgarians expel Hungarian forces from their territory
establishing camp on the Asiatic shore (26 June)
Alexios III offers to supply the crusade if they leave Byzantine territory,
Galata stormed, crusaders capture Tower of Galata and break harbour chain
crusaders demand Alexios’ abdication (2 July)
Venetian fleet enters the Golden Horn (5-6 July)
Crusader siege of Constantinople’s NW corner begins (10-16 July)
Truce in KoJ voided but plague in Acre kills half the newly arrived crusader knights
Crusaders travelling to Antioch ambushed, truce re-engineered in Outremer Crusaders capture a stretch of
walls, Alexios III flees (17-18
Isaac II reinstated, Alexios IV crowned co-Emperor July)
Constantinopolitan people turn against Alexios IV (Aug-Nov)
Alexios IV travels to Thrace, Constantinopolitans riot killing Latins
Alexios IV suspends payments to the crusaders. Hostilities between crusaders and
Venetians set ‘Great Fire’ (19-21 August)
Byzantines (1 Dec)
1204
d. Isaac II (25 Jan)
Rioting in Constantinople, Alexios IV deposed by Emperor Alexios V Doukas
Crusaders refuse to abandon treaty of Zara d. Alexios IV (8 Feb) – murdered
Crusaders launch full-scale war against Alexios V in retaliation
Crusader and Venetian forces assault Constantinople but repulsed (9 April) Byzantine ambush of Henry of Flanders foragers defeated
Second assault, gaining a foothold in Constantinople (12 April)
Alexios V flees the city during the night Seljuk civil war: siege of Ankara – unable to intervene in Byzantine-crusader hostilities

Crusader army seizes Constantinople – three day sack: pillage and massacre (13 April)
Baldwin of Flanders crowned Latin Emperor of Constantinople (16 May)
Ayyubids weakened by growing Zengid threat in Mosul
Hospitallers and crusaders launch major raid reaching Hama
Byzantine empire partitioned: the Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, Kingdom of Truce agreed between Ayyubids and KoJ (Sept)
Thessalonika, Empire of Trebizond, Despotate of Epirus

1205
Thrace revolts, forcing Baldwin to march to restore order
Battle of Adriannople: Bulgarian Empire defeat Latin Empire (14 April)
Philip of Swabia becomes king of the Romans (Jan) –
Emperor Baldwin I POW; d. Louis of Blois and Stephen du Perche KIA
declared Holy Roman Emperor in 1206, reversing his
d. Enrico Dandalo, doge of Venice (May)
support for Otto IV

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 Resources List: 1A – the Age of the Crusades, c.1071-1204

Key texts for classroom and academic study

Asbridge T, The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land, (Simon and Schuster Ltd, 2012).

Barber M, The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320, (Routledge, 2004).

Konstam A, The Historical Atlas of the Crusades, (Thalamus Publishing, 2002).

Madden T, A Concise History of the Crusades, (Rowman and Littlefield, 1999).

Phillips J, Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades, (Vintage, 2010).

Riley M and Byrom J, The Crusades, (Hodder Education, 2013).

Useful books for students

Asbridge T, The First Crusade: A New History, (Free Press, 2005).

Cameron A, The Byzantines (The Peoples of Europe), (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).

Madden T, Enrico Dandalo and the Rise of Venice, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

Phillips J, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, (Pimlico, 2005).

Phillips J, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom, (Yale University Press, 2007).

Philips J, The Crusades, 1095–1204, (Routledge, 2014).

Richard J, The Crusades c1071–c1291, (Cambridge Medieval Textbooks, 1999).

Smith D, Fordham M, Kerridge R, The Age of the Crusades, c1071-1204, (Cambridge University press, 2015).

Tyreman, C, The Crusades: A Very Short Introduction, (Oxford University Press, 2005).

Reference books

Angold M, The Fourth Crusade, Routledge, 2003).

Barber M., The Crusader States, (Yale University Press, 2014).

Harriss J, Byzantium and The Crusades, (Bloomsbury Academic, 2014).

Hamilton B, The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, (Cambridge

University Press, 2005).

Ellenblum R, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories, (Cambridge University Press, 2009).

France J, Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade, (Cambridge University Press, 1996).

Frankopan P, The First Crusade: The Call from the East, (Vintage, 2013).

Hillenbrand C, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, (Edinburgh University Press, 1999).

Jotischky A, Crusading and the Crusader States, (Routledge, 2004).

Maalouf (ed.), The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, (Saqi Books, 1984).

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 Phillips J, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, (Pimlico, 2005).

Phillips J, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom, (Yale University Press, 2007).

Riley-Smith J (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, (Oxford Paperbacks, 2001).

Runicman S, A History of the Crusades: Volume 1 – The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of

Jerusalem, (Penguin, 1991).

Runciman S, A History of the Crusades: Volume 2 – The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100–1187,

(Penguin, 1990).

Runciman S, A History of the Crusades: Volume 3 – The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, (Penguin, 1990).

Smail R, Crusading Warfare, 1097–1193, (Cambridge University Press, 1994).

Tyerman C, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades, (Penguin, 2007)

Queller D, Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).

Biographies and first-hand accounts

Anna Komnena, The Alexiad, (Penguin Classics, 2009).

Fulcher of Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, 1095–1127, (W.W. Norton and Company, 1972).

Gesta Francorum, The Deeds of the Franks and Other Pilgrims to Jerusalem, (OUP, 1967).

Joinville and Villehardouin, Chronicles of the Crusades, (Penguin Classics, 2008).

William of Tyre, The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation, (Ashgate Publishing

Limited, 1998).

Visual sources and websites

The Historical Association  

The Catholic Encyclopaedia  

ORB: The online reference book for medieval studies  

Fordham University Medieval Sourcebook  

Gutenburg Project

Jstor

Radio 4 The long view  

Radio 4 In our time  

Massolit

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