INDEX

Sr. No. Topics Page

No.
Acknowledgements 04
Abstract: 05
Objective:
Chapter: 1 Introduction: 06
1.1 Introduction 06
1.2 What is power factor 07
Chapter: 2 Block diagram & Circuit diagram 08
2.1 Block diagram 08
2.2 Circuit diagram 09
2.3 Working 10
Chapter: 3 List of component 11
3.1 list of component 11
Chapter: 4 Capacitors 12
4.1 Types of Capacitors 12
4.1.1 Dielectric Capacitor 13
4.1.2 Variable Capacitor 14
4.1.3 Film Capacitor 15
4.1.4 Metallised Foil Capacitor 16
4.1.5 Ceramic Capacitor 17
4.1.6 Electrolytic Capacitor 18
4.1.7 Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor 19
4.1.8 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitor 21
Chapter: 5 Advantages & Disadvantages 22

5.1 Advantages 22
5.2 Disadvantages 22
Chapter: 6 Applications 24
6.1 Application 24
Chapter: 7 Conclusion 25
Chapter: 8 References 26
 ACKNOWLEDMENT

We would like to express our special thanks and gratitude to our Project
Guide Mr. S.V.PATEL &Mr. D.P. PATEL as well as Head of Department Mr.
V.C. JAGANI who gave us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on
the Automatic Isolator, which also helped us in doing a lot of research and we
came to know about so many new things and we are really thankful to them.
Secondly, we would also like to thank our family members and friends who helped
us a lot in finishing this project within the limited time.

We are developing this project not only for marks but also to increase our
knowledge.
 ABSTRACT

In Recent Years, the power quality of the ac system has become great
concern due to the rapidly increased numbers of electronic equipment, power
electronics and high voltage power system. most of the commercial and industrial
installation in the country has large electrical loads which are severally in nature
causing lagging power factor which gives heavy penalties to consumer by
electricity board. This situation taken care by PFC. Power factor correction is the
capacity of absorbing the reactive power produced by a load .

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate and Measure complex power ,observe lagging power
factor, and correct lagging power factor by adding capacitor bank.
 CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present scenario of technological revolution it has been observed

that the power is very precious the industrialization is primarily increasing the
inductive loading, the inductive loads affect the power factor so the power system
losses its efficiency. There are certain organization developing products and
carrying R&D work on this field to improve all compensate the power factor. In
the present trend the designs are also moving forwards the miniature architecture;
this Can be achieved in a product by using programmable device. Whenever we are
thinking about any programmable devices then the embedded technology comes
into for front. The embedded is now a day very much popular and most the product
are developed with Microcontroller based embedded technology. The advantages
of using the microcontroller is the reduction of the cost and also the use of extra
hardware such as the use of timer, RAM and ROM can be avoided. This
technology is very fast so controlling of multiple parameters is possible; also the
parameters are field programmable by the user.

The electrical engineering and its applications are the oldest streams
of Engineering. Though these systems are quite reliable and cheaper; it has certain
disadvantages. The electro mechanical protection relays are too bulky and needs
regular maintenance. The multifunctional is out of questions. Recently, the
technical revolution made embedded technology cheaper, so that it can be applied
to all the fields. The pioneer manufactures of power system and protection system
such as SIMENS, LARSON & TURBO, and CULTER HAMPER etc.
manufacturing power factor improvement devices on embedded technology.

The Automatic power factor correction device is a very useful device

for improving efficient transmission of active power. If the consumer connect
inductive load, then the power factor lags, when the power factor goes below
0.979 lag then the electric supply company charge penalty to the consumer. So it
is essential to maintain the power factor below with in a limit. Automatic power
factor correction device reads the power factor from line voltage and line current,
calculating the compensation requirement switch on different capacitor banks.
1.2 What is power factor?
 Power factor definition: power factor is the ratio between the KW
and the KVA drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the
actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a
measure of how effectively the current is being converted into
useful work output and more particularly is a good indicator of
current supply.
 All current flow causes losses both in the supply and distribution
system. A load with a power factor of , say, 0.8, result in much and
a higher bill for the consumer. A comparatively small improvement
in power factor can bring about a significant reduction in losses
since losses are proportional to the square of the current.
 When the power factor less than one the ‘missing’ power is known
as reactive power which unfortunately is necessary to provide a
magnetizing filed required by motors and other inductive loads to
perform their desired functions. Reactive power can also be
interpreted as wattles, magnetizing or wasted power and it
represent an extra burden on the electricity supply system and on
the consumer’s bill.
 A poor power factor is usually the result of a significant phase
difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals, or
it can be due to a high harmonic content or a distorted current
waveform.
 A poor power factor is generally the result of an inductive load
such as an induction motor, a power transformer, and ballets in
luminary, a welding set or an induction furnace. A distorted current
waveform can be the result of a rectifier, an inverter ,a variable
speed drive, a switched mode power supply , discharge lighting or
other electronic loads.
A poor power factor due to inductive loads can be improved by the
addition by the addition of power factor correction equipment, but
a poor power factor due to distorted current waveform requires a
change in equipment Design or the addition of harmonic filters.
 CHAPTER:2
BLOCK DIAGRAM & CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM CONNECTION
FOR C.T. & P.T.

2.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR APFC USING

ARDIUNO
2.3 WORKING
 Connect the circuit as shown in figure. ensure that the switches S1,S2 and
S3 are open .
 Switch on the three phase supply. Keep an eye on the ammeter needle and
gradually increase the output voltage till they voltmeter 230 volt.
 Note down all the meter readings. Reduce the applied voltage to the load
to zero, since no external is applied to the shaft of the motor, the power
factor very poor.
 Hence one of the watt meters will read negatives. Otherwise verify the
circuit and watt meters
 There are three delta connected capacitor bank each of 10 micro faraday
power phase.
 These banks can be connected across the load by closing S 1 , S2 & S3 .
 Connect the first capacitors bank across the load by closing S 1.
 Gradually increase the output voltage of the variac to 230 V.
 Note all the meter readings. Reduce the voltage to zero.
 Close S2 and S3 in steps and for each case repeat above step.
 Please ensure that the applied voltage to the load is zero before closing
switches.
 Open S1, S2 and S3.
 Determine the source power factor for all the cases.
 CHAPTER:3
LIST OF THE COMPONENETS
3.1 List of the Component:

SR NAME OF COMPONENTS REQUIRED

NO. QUANTIY
1 Capacitor 9
2 Ammeter (0-10A) 1
3 Voltmeter(0-250V) 1
4 Wattmeter(0-300W) 2
5 Induction Motor 1
6 Switch 3
 CHAPTER: 4

CAPACITORS
4.1 TYPES OF CAPACITOR:

There is a large variety of different types of capacitor available in the

market place and each one has its own set of characteristics and applications

The types of capacitors available range from very small delicate trimming
capacitors using in oscillator or radio circuits, up to large power metal-can type
capacitors used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits.

The comparisons between the the different types of capacitor is generally

made with regards to the dielectric used between the plates. Like resistors, there
are also variable types of capacitors which allow us to vary their capacitance value
for use in radio or “frequency tuning” type circuits.

Commercial types of capacitors are made from metallic foil interlaced with
thin sheets of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material.
Some capacitors look like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates are rolled up
into a cylinder to form a small package with the insulating dielectric material
sandwiched in between them.

Small capacitors are often constructed from ceramic materials and then
dipped into an epoxy resin to seal them. Either way, capacitors play an important
part in electronic circuits so here are a few of the more “common” types of
capacitor available.
4.1.1 Dielectric Capacitor:

Fig.1

Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were a

continuous variation of capacitance is required for tuning transmitters,
receivers and transistor radios. Variable dielectric capacitors are multi-plate
air-spaced types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of
movable plates (the rotor vanes) which move in between the fixed plates.

The position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates
determines the overall capacitance value. The capacitance is generally at maximum
when the two sets of plates are fully meshed together. High voltage type tuning
capacitors have relatively large spacings or air-gaps between

the plates with breakdown voltages reaching many thousands of volts.

4.1.2 Variable Capacitor Symbol :

Fig.2

As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable

capacitors are also available called Trimmers. These are generally small
devices that can be adjusted or “pre-set” to a particular capacitance value
with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very small
capacitance’s of 500pF or less and are non-polarized.
4.1.3 Film Capacitor Type :

Fig.3

Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of

capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the
difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester
(Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, Metalized paper,
Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as
small as 5pF to as large as 100Uf depending upon the actual type of
capacitor and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment
of shapes and case styles which include:

Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) – where the capacitor is wrapped in a
tight plastic tape and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal them.

Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) – where the capacitor is

encased in a moulded plastic shell which is then filled with epoxy.

Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round) – where the

capacitor is encased in a metal tube or can and again sealed with epoxy.

Film Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as

their dielectrics are sometimes called “Plastic capacitors”. The construction
of plastic film capacitors is similar to that for paper film capacitors but use a
plastic film instead of paper. The main advantage of plastic film capacitors
compared to impregnated-paper types is that they operate well under
conditions of high temperature, have smaller tolerances, a very long service
 life and high reliability. Examples of film capacitors are the rectangular
metalised film and cylindrical film & foil types as shown below.

4.1.4 Metalised Foil Capacitor:

Fig.4

Metalized foil capacitors have the conductive film metalised sprayed

directly onto each side of the dielectric which gives the capacitor self-
healing properties and can therefore use much thinner dielectric films. This
allows for higher capacitance values and smaller case sizes for a given
capacitance. Film and foil capacitors are generally used for higher power
and more precise applications.
4.1.5 Ceramic Capacitor:

Fig.5

They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against

temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as
they are also non-polarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging
from a few microfarads to one or two microfarads, ( μF ) but their voltage
ratings are generally quite low.

Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed

onto their body to identify their capacitance value in Pico-farads. Generally
the first two digits indicate the capacitors value and the third digit indicates
the number of zero’s to be added. For example, a ceramic disc capacitor
with the markings 103 would indicate 10 and 3 zero’s in Pico-farads which
is equivalent to 10,000 pF or 10nF.

Likewise, the digits 104 would indicate 10 and 4 zero’s in Pico-farads

which is equivalent to 100,000 pF or 100nF and so on. So on the image of
the ceramic capacitor above the numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zero’s in
Pico-farads which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or 150nF or 0.15μF. Letter
codes are sometimes used to indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%,
K = 10% or M = 20% etc.
4.1.6 Electrolytic Capacitor:

Fig.6

The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarized, that is

the DC voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct
polarity, i.e. positive to the positive terminal and negative to the negative
terminal as an incorrect polarization will break down the insulating oxide
layer and permanent damage may result.

All polarized electrolytic capacitors have their polarity clearly marked

with a negative sign to indicate the negative terminal and this polarity must
be followed.

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply

circuits due to their large capacitance’s and small size to help reduce the
ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling applications. One main
disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low voltage rating
and due to the polarization of electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that
they must not be used on AC supplies. Electrolytic generally come in two
basic forms; Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic
Capacitors.
4.1.7 Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors:

Fig.7

There are basically two types of Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor,

the plain foil type and the etched foil type. The thickness of the aluminum
oxide film and high breakdown voltage give these capacitors very high
capacitance values for their size.

The foil plates of the capacitor are anodized with a DC current. This
anodizing process sets up the polarity of the plate material and determines
which side of the plate is positive and which side is negative.

The etched foil type differs from the plain foil type in that the
aluminum oxide on the anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched
to increase its surface area and permittivity. This gives a smaller sized
capacitor than a plain foil type of equivalent value but has the disadvantage
of not being able to withstand high DC currents compared to the plain type.
Also their tolerance range is quite large at up to 20%. Typical values of
capacitance for an aluminum electrolytic capacitor range from 1uF up to
47,000uF.

Etched foil electrolytic are best used in coupling, DC blocking and

by-pass circuits while plain foil types are better suited as smoothing
capacitors in power supplies. But aluminum electrolytic are “polarized”
devices so reversing the applied voltage on the leads will cause the
insulating layer within the capacitor to become destroyed along with the
capacitor. However, the electrolyte used within the capacitor helps heal a
damaged plate if the damage is small.

Since the electrolyte has the properties to self-heal a damaged plate, it

also has the ability to re-anodize the foil plate. As the anodizing process can
be reversed, the electrolyte has the ability to remove the oxide coating from
the foil as would happen if the capacitor was connected with a reverse
polarity. Since the electrolyte has the ability to conduct electricity, if the
aluminum oxide layer was removed or destroyed, the capacitor would allow
current to pass from one plate to the other destroying the capacitor, “so be
aware”.
4.1.8 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors:

Fig.8

Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Beads, are available

in both wet (foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types with the dry or solid
tantalum being the most common. Solid tantalum capacitors use manganese
dioxide as their second terminal and are physically smaller than the
equivalent aluminum capacitors.

The dielectric properties of tantalum oxide is also much better than

those of aluminum oxide giving a lower leakage currents and better
capacitance stability which makes them suitable for use in blocking, by-
passing, decoupling, filtering and timing applications.

Also, Tantalum Capacitors although polarized, can tolerate being

connected to a reverse voltage much more easily than the aluminum types
but are rated at much lower working voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are
usually used in circuits where the AC voltage is small compared to the DC
voltage.

However, some tantalum capacitor types contain two capacitors in-

one, connected negative-to-negative to form a “non-polarized” capacitor for
use in low voltage AC circuits as a non-polarized device. Generally, the
positive lead is identified on the capacitor body by a polarity mark, with the
 body of a tantalum bead capacitor being an oval geometrical shape. Typical
values of capacitance range from 47nF to 470uF

4.1.9 ARDIUNO
Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project and user community
that designs and manufactures single-board microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for
building digital devices. Its products are licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public
License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public License (GPL), permitting the manufacture of
Arduino boards and software distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available
commercially in preassembled form or as do-it-yourself (DIY) kits.
Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards or breadboards (shields) and other circuits. The boards feature
serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models,
which are also used for loading programs from personal computers. The microcontrollers
can be programmed using C and C++ programming languages. In addition to using

traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development

environment (IDE) based on the Processing language project.

Fig.9
The Arduino project started in 2005 as a program for students at the Interaction Design
Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and
professionals to create devices that interact with their environment
using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner
hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors.
The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders of the
project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was the margrave of
the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.
 CHAPTER: 5
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
5.1 ADVANTAGES

1. Increase in efficiency of system and devices

2. Low voltage drop
3. Reduction in size of a conductor and cable which reduces cost of the copper
4. An increase in available power
5. Line losses (Copper losses) I2R is reduced
6. Appropriate size of Electrical machines (Transformer, Generators etc)
7. Eliminate the penalty of low power factor from the electric supply company
8. Low KWh (Kilo Watt Per hour)
9. Saving in the power bill
10. Better usage of power system, lines and generators etc
11. Saving in energy as well as rating and the cost of the electrical device and
equipment is reduced

5.2 Disadvantages :

The power factor plays an importance role in a.c. circuits since power
consumed depends upon this factor.

It clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load
inversely proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the
load current in vice-versa. A power factor less than unity results in the following
disadvantages:
(1)Large KVA rating of the equipment:
The electrical machinery (e.g alternators, transformer switchgear) is
always rated*KVA
Now. It is clear that KVA rating of the equipment is inversely
proportional to power factor. the smaller the power factor, the large is the
KVA rating therefore, at the low power factor, the KVA rating of the
equipment has to be made more, making the equipment large and expensive
(2) Grater Conductor size:
To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at constant voltage,
the conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor. This
necessitates large conductor size. For example, take the case of a single
phase A.C. motor having an input of KW on full load, the terminal voltage
being V. At unity p. f., the input full load current would be
10,000/250=0.8p.f; the KVA input would be 10/0.8=12.5and the current
input 12,500/250=50A. If the motor is worked at a low power factor of 0.8,
the cross-sectional area of the supply cables and motor conductors would
have to be based upon a current of 50A instead of 40A which would be
required at unity power factor.
(3) Large copper losses:
The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all
the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.
(4) Poor voltage regulation:
The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater voltage
drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and distribution. These
results in the decreased voltage available at the supply end, thus impairing
the performance limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is required.
5) Reduced handling capacity of system:

The lagging power factor reduces the handling capacity of all the
elements of the system. It is because the reactive components of currents
prevent the full utilisation of installed capacity.

The above discussion leads to the conclusion that low power factor is
an objectionable feature in the system.
 CHAPTER:6
APPLICATION
6.1 APPLICATION:

1. Fluctuating loads such as

2. Steel Rolling mills

3. Chemical industry

4. Cement plant

5. Sugar plant

6. Textile

7. Hospital/Hotels

8. Building Segment
 CHAPTER: 8
CONCLUSION & REFERENCE
 CONCLUSION

By observing all aspect of the power factor it is clear that power

factor is the most significant part for the utility company as well as the
consumer. Utility company rid of from losses while the consumer free from
low power factor penalty charges. By installing suitably sized power
capacitor into the circuit the power factor is improved and the value
becomes nearer to 1 thus minimising line losses and improving the
efficiency of a plant.

 REFERENCE

(1) Principle Of Power System V.K.MAHETA

(2) hatt//:www.electrosome.com