UNIT - I www.rejinpaul.

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Environmental aspects of electric energy conversion: impacts of renewable energy
generation on environment (cost-GHG Emission) - Qualitative study of different
renewable energy resources: Solar, wind, ocean, Biomass, Fuel cell, Hydrogen energy
systems and hybrid renewable energy systems.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY CONVERSION:IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

GENERATION ON ENVIRONMENT(COST – GHG EMISSION)

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Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
CLEAN ENERGY INITIATIVE:
• GOAL: 70% clean energy by 2030
– Transformation
– 40% renewables, 30% efficiencies

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– State & US DOE sign, Jan 2008
• Security: 90+% dependent on fossil fuel
We depend on Middle East peace

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–
• Economy: $5-7 B to buy fossil fuel
• Environment: GHG & Clean Air Act 6
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A Different View of GHG:
• Materials management 46%
– Provision of Non-food Goods 35%
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– Provision of Food Goods 11%
• Land management 16%
– Local Passenger Transport 11%
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– Greenspace development 5%
– Land sink -11%
• Other 37%
– Building energy use 29%
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– Inter-city passenger transport 9%

Opportunities for Action:
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• Greenhouse gases include:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
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•
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

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• Other synthetic gases
• GHGs options across facility operations: transportation, energy-operations, energy-
built environment, waste, food service
Transportation:
• Burning gasoline and diesel fuels produces CO2, CH4, and N2O
• Transportation produces 28% of U.S. GHG emissions (fastest growing sector)

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• Health care facilities rely heavily on transportation systems
• GHG reduction has ancillary health benefits
• Reduce fleet emissions
• Help commuters reduce emissions

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• Choose suppliers with fuel efficiency/alternate fuel standards
• Prefer local suppliers

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• Purchase for energy efficient shipping
Energy – Operations:
• Burning fossil fuels to heat, cool, and power buildings produces CO2, CH4,N2O and
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SF6
• Energy conservation and efficiency help facilities lower GHG emissions, reduce
other pollutants and save money
• Make building operations more energy efficient
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• Install on-site renewable energy or CHP
• Purchase energy efficient products
• Reduce “standby” energy use
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• Buy green power

Energy – The Built Environment:
• Green building and smart landscape design reduce emissions
• Proper site location lessens auto dependence
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• Environmentally preferable material purchasing reduces GHGs

• Incorporate green building principles
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• Consider transportation impacts of facility site selection

• Use native vegetation and plant trees
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• Use local and regional building materials

• Offset emissions from construction
• Purchase only Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)-certified lumber products

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Food Service:
• Livestock production produces 18% of global GHG emissions
• The U.S. food system relies heavily on fossil fuel inputs
• Food is the 2nd largest part of the health care waste stream
• Hospitals have important green purchasing power

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• Reduce the amount of meat protein on menus
• Buy local and seasonal food
• Procure organic food when possible
• Prevent waste in food services
• Compost food waste

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• Eliminate bottled water
Tools: Measuring GHGs:

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• Calculating GHG emissions reduced via hospital program costs can help make the
business case for climate action
• The Energy Impact Calculator (EIC):
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• Calculates GHGs and other pollutants produced from facility energy use
• Quantifies health impacts, and costs of these impacts

THE COST OF GREENHOUSE GAS MITIGATION:

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The Problem:
• Increasing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions may cause considerable global and
regional climate change leading to significant economic, environmental, and
ecological costs over the next century.
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• Global Warming Potentials (over 100 y):

– CO2 1
– CH4 23
– N2O 296
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World GHG Emissions by Sectors:

Sector CO2 Emissions (GtC) Share growth rate† rate trend

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Buildings 1.73 31% +1.8% decelerating

Transport 1.22 22% +2.5% steady
Industry 2.34 43% +1.5% decelerating
Agriculture 0.22 4%‡ +3.1% decelerating
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Total Emissions 5.5 100% +1.8% decelerating

(Total energy emissions accounted for 5.5 GtC emissions in 1995).
§ Energy usage only, does not include other emissions such as cement production, landfill
emissions, and land-use changes such as forest management, etc.
† Average annual growth rate from 1971-1995

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‡ The agriculture sector accounts for 20% of CO2 equivalents because of methane
emissions.

Worldwide Energy Trends:

• The average annual growth rate of global energy consumption was 2.4% from 1971-
1990, but dropped to 1.3% from 1990-1998.
• The average annual growth rate of global energy-related CO2 emissions dropped
from 2.1% to 1.4% in the same periods.

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• Why?
– Improved energy efficiencies
– Increased fuel switching to less carbon-intensive sources
– Adoption of renewable energy sources

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– Dramatic decrease in countries with economies in transition (EIT) as a result
of economic changes
– Why aren’t emissions dropping then?

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– Countervailing trends of population growth, economic growth, increased
energy usage per capita, and development of the Third World.
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Costing Methodologies:
• Top-down approach
– Uses integrated macro-economic models to estimate the cost of GHG
reduction activities.
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– Good for examining the effectiveness of overall mitigation policies.
– Bottom-up approach
– Estimates the cost of GHG reduction from a given technology or mitigation
activity.
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– Must compare to some baseline emissions from current or expected

technology portfolio.
What is the ‘cost’ anyway?
• Direct (levelized) costs of delivered energy includes:
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– Capital costs (plant infrastructure)

– Cost of capital (depends on interest rates)
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– Operation costs (personnel, etc.)

– Maintenance costs
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– Fuel costs (mining, drilling, transport)

– Transmission costs
– Indirect costs

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– Waste disposal
– Environment
– Climate
– Opportunity cost of land use
– Distortion to the economy

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• Opportunity cost of capital, export of capital for import of energy
• Competition for resources (physical and personnel)
• Effect on economic stability – energy security
– Equality on local, regional, and global scales

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Cost of GHG reductions:
• Compare a current energy production method or portfolio to an alternative one
• Compute difference in GHG emissions

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• Compute difference in direct and indirect costs
• Arrive at cost of GHG avoidance
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• Proper analysis includes direct and indirect costs, and macroeconomic effects
Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases:
• Energy Efficiency
• Low or no carbon energy production
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• Sequestration

Lifecycle Emissions:
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g/kWh CO2 Japan Sweden India

coal 975 980 1094
1170 (peak,
gas thermal 608 478
reserve)
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gas combined 519 450 412

cycle
solar 53 50 25
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photovoltaic
wind 29 5.5 14
nuclear 22 6 10
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hydro 11 3 5

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Estimated total costs of various forms of electricity production:

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The human cost of energy production:
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Current Electrical Trends:

• To a good approximation, all additional electrical capacity over the next 5 years will
be natural gas fired turbines.
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• Natural gas-fired turbines are roughly twice as efficient as existing coal-fired power
plants and emit roughly half as much Cost per unit energy produced

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10 kg C…
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Natural Gas
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Conclusions: Best Strategies:
 The most cost effective short-term (2-20 y) strategies for avoiding emissions due to
electricity production are:

– Substitute natural gas for coal

– Substitute nuclear for coal

– Substitute wind for coal

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– Substitute hydro for coal

 For the longer term (20-100 y), the following methods of electricity production may
become cost effective as fossil fuel costs increase:

– More wind, nuclear, and hydro

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– Biomass and energy cropping

– Coal fired electricity, hydrogen production with sequestration

– Solar

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 Technology wildcards that probably aren’t likely, but could radically alter the mix:

– Artificial photosynthesis
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– Nuclear fusion

– Other?

SOLAR ENERGY:
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Brief history of solar energy (or) Importance of solar energy:

Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction
that take place deep in the Sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The energy from these reactions
flow out from the sun and escape into space.
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The Ultimate Renewable Resource:

What is Solar Energy?

 Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in the sun.
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 Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio
waves).
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GRID CONNECTED SOLAR PV SYSTEM:

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Advantages and Disadvantages:

 Advantages

 All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the thermonuclear reactions

remain behind on the sun, while only pure radiant energy reaches the Earth.

 Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30 days of sunshine

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striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of the total of all the planet’s fossil
fuels, both used and unused!
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 Disadvantages

 Sun does not shine consistently.

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 Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate it into an

amount and form that we can use, such as heat and electricity.

 Addressed by approaching the problem through: 1) collection, 2) conversion, 3)

storage.

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How much solar energy?

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The surface receives about 47% of the total solar energy that reaches the Earth. Only this amount is usable.

Putting Solar Energy to Use: Heating Water:

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 Two methods of heating water: passive (no moving parts) and active (pumps).

 In both, a flat-plate collector is used to absorb the sun’s energy to heat the water.

 The water circulates throughout the closed system due to convection currents.

 Tanks of hot water are used as storage.

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Heating Water: Active System:

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Active System uses antifreeze so that the liquid does not freeze if outside temp. drops below freezing.

Heating Water—Last Thoughts:


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Efficiency of solar heating system is always less than 100% because:

 % transmitted depends on angle of incidence,

 Number of glass sheets (single glass sheet transmits 90-95%), and

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 Composition of the glass

 Solar water heating saves approx. 1000 megawatts of energy a yr, equivalent to eliminating the
emissions from two medium sized coal burning power plants.
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 By using solar water heating over gas water heater, a family will save 1200 pounds of pollution each
year.

 Market for flat plate collectors grew in 1980s because of increasing fossil fuels prices and federal tax
credits. But by 1985, when these credits were removed and fossil fuel prices were low, the demand
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for flat plate collectors shrunk quickly.

 While solar water heating is relatively low in the US, in other parts of the world such as Cyprus
(90%) and Israel (65%), it proves to be the predominate form of water heating.
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Heating Living Spaces:

 A passively heated home uses about 60-75% of the solar energy that hits its walls and windows.
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 The Center for Renewable Resources estimates that in almost any climate, a well-designed passive
solar home can reduce energy bills by 75% with an added construction cost of only 5-10%.

 About 25% of energy is used for water and space heating.

 Major factor discouraging solar heating is low energy prices.

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Solar-Thermal Electricity:
Power Towers
 General idea is to collect the light from many reflectors spread over a large area at one central point
to achieve high temperature.

 Example is the 10-MW solar power plant in Barstow, CA.

 1900 heliostats, each 20 ft by 20 ft

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 a central 295 ft tower

 An energy storage system allows it to generate 7 MW of electric power without sunlight.

 Capital cost is greater than coal fired power plant, despite the no cost for fuel, ash disposal, and stack
emissions.

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 Capital costs are expected to decline as more and more power towers are built with greater
technological advances.

 One way to reduce cost is to use the waste steam from the turbine for space heating or other

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industrial processes.

Direct Conversion into Electricity:

 Photovoltaic cells are capable of directly converting sunlight into electricity.
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 A simple wafer of silicon with wires attached to the layers. Current is produced based on types of
silicon (n- and p-types) used for the layers. Each cell=0.5 volts.

 Battery needed as storage

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 No moving partsdo no wear out, but because they are exposed to the weather, their lifespan is
about 20 years.

Solar Panels in Use:

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 Because of their current costs, only rural and other customers far away from power lines use solar
panels because it is more cost effective than extending power lines.

 Note that utility companies are already purchasing, installing, and maintaining PV-home systems
(Idaho Power Co.).
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 Largest solar plant in US, sponsored by the DOE, served the Sacramento area, producing 2195 MWh
of electric energy, making it cost competitive with fossil fuel plants.
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Efficiency and Disadvantages:
 Efficiency is far lass than the 77% of solar spectrum with usable wavelengths.

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 43% of photon energy is used to warm the crystal.

 Efficiency drops as temperature increases (from 24% at 0°C to 14% at 100°C.)

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 Light is reflected off the front face and internal electrical resistance are other factors.

 Overall, the efficiency is about 10-14%.

 Cost of electricity from coal-burning plants is anywhere b/w 8-20 cents/kWh, while photovoltaic
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power generation is anywhere b/w $0.50-1/kWh.

 Does not reflect the true costs of burning coal and its emissions to the nonpolluting method of the
latter.

 Underlying problem is weighing efficiency against cost.

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 Crystalline silicon-more efficient, more expensive to manufacture

 Amorphous silicon-half as efficient, less expensive to produce.

Final Thought:
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 Argument that sun provides power only during the day is countered by the fact that 70% of energy
demand is during daytime hours. At night, traditional methods can be used to generate the
electricity.
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 Goal is to decrease our dependence on fossil fuels.

 Currently, 75% of our electrical power is generated by coal-burning and nuclear power plants.
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 Mitigates the effects of acid rain, carbon dioxide, and other impacts of burning coal and counters
risks associated with nuclear energy.

 pollution free, indefinitely sustainable.

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WIND POWER:
Wind energy:

Winds are caused because of two factors.

1. The absorption of solar energy on the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere.
2. The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the Sun.

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A wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into Mechanical energy that can be either used
directly to run the Machine or to run the generator to produce electricity.

WIND POWER - What is it?

 All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power), ultimately comes from the sun

 The earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (per hour) from the sun

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 About one or 2 percent of this energy is converted to wind energy (which is about 50-100 times more
than the energy converted to biomass by all plants on earth

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 Differential heating of the earth’s surface and atmosphere induces vertical and horizontal air
currents that are affected by the earth’s rotation and contours of the land  WIND. e.g.: Land Sea
Breeze Cycle


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Winds are influenced by the ground surface at altitudes up to 100 meters.

Wind is slowed by the surface roughness and obstacles.

 When dealing with wind energy, we are concerned with surface winds.
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 A wind turbine obtains its power input by converting the force of the wind into a torque (turning
force) acting on the rotor blades.

 The amount of energy which the wind transfers to the rotor depends on the density of the air, the
rotor area, and the wind speed.
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 The kinetic energy of a moving body is proportional to its mass (or weight). The kinetic energy in the
wind thus depends on the density of the air, i.e. its mass per unit of volume.
In other words, the "heavier" the air, the more energy is received by the turbine.
at 15° Celsius air weighs about 1.225 kg per cubic meter, but the density decreases slightly with
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increasing humidity.

 A typical 600 kW wind turbine has a rotor diameter of 43-44 meters, i.e. a rotor area of some 1,500
square meters.
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 The rotor area determines how much energy a wind turbine is able to harvest from the wind.

 Since the rotor area increases with the square of the rotor diameter, a turbine which is twice as large
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will receive 22 = 2 x 2 = four times as much energy.

 To be considered a good location for wind energy, an area needs to have average annual wind speeds
of at least 12 miles per hour.

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WINDMILL DESIGN:
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 A Windmill captures wind energy and then uses a generator to convert it to electrical energy.

 The design of a windmill is an integral part of how efficient it will be.

 When designing a windmill, one must decide on the size of the turbine, and the size of the generator.

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WIND TURBINES:
LARGE TURBINES:
• Able to deliver electricity at lower cost than smaller turbines, because foundation costs, planning
costs, etc. are independent of size.

• Well-suited for offshore wind plants.

 In areas where it is difficult to find sites, one large turbine on a tall tower uses the

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wind extremely efficiently

SMALL TURBINES:
 Local electrical grids may not be able to handle the large electrical output from a large turbine, so
smaller turbines may be more suitable.

 High costs for foundations for large turbines may not be economical in some areas.

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 Landscape considerations

Wind Turbines: Number of Blades

Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is the stability of the

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turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least three blades) can be considered to
be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic properties of the machine.
 A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine with a stiff
structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost blade bends backwards,
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because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the lowermost blade passes into the wind shade
in front of the tower.

Wind Turbine Generators:

• Wind power generators convert wind energy (mechanical energy) to electrical energy.
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• The generator is attached at one end to the wind turbine, which provides the mechanical energy.

• At the other end, the generator is connected to the electrical grid.

• The generator needs to have a cooling system to make sure there is no overheating.
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SMALL GENERATORS:
 Require less force to turn than larger ones, but give much lower power output.

 Less efficient
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i.e.. If you fit a large wind turbine rotor with a small generator it will be producing electricity during
many hours of the year, but it will capture only a small part of the energy content of the wind at high
wind speeds.
LARGE GENERATORS:
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 Very efficient at high wind speeds, but unable to turn at low wind speeds.

i.e.. If the generator has larger coils, and/or a stronger internal magnet, it will require more force
(mechanical) to start in motion.
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OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

o A windmill built so that it too severely interrupts the airflow through its cross section will reduce the
effective wind velocity at its location and divert much of the airflow around itself, thus not extracting
the maximum power from the wind.

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o At the other extreme, a windmill that intercepts a small fraction of the wind passing through its cross
section will reduce the wind’s velocity by only a small amount, thus extracting only a small fraction
of the power from the wind traversing the windmill disk.
o Modern Windmills can attain an efficiency of about 60 % of the theoretical maximum

POWER OF WIND:
P/m^2 = 6.1 x 10^-4 v^3
The power in wind is proportional to the cubic wind speed ( v^3 ).

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WHY?
~ Kinetic energy of an air mass is proportional to v^2
~ Amount of air mass moving past a given point is proportional to wind velocity (v)

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COST OF WIND TURBINE:
 A typical 600 kW turbine costs about $450,000.
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 Installation costs are typically $125,000.

 Therefore, the total costs will be about $575,000.

 The average price for large, modern wind farms is around $1,000 per kilowatt electrical power
installed.
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 Modern wind turbines are designed to work for some 120,000 hours of operation throughout their
design lifetime of 20 years. ( 13.7 years non-stop)

Maintenance costs are about 1.5-2.0 percent of the original cost, per year.
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Advantages of Wind Power

• The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to produce electricity throughout the day.
(Faster during the day)
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• Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies, although the most rapid variations
will to some extent be compensated for by the inertia of the wind turbine rotor.
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• Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that generates no pollution and has little
environmental impact. Up to 95 percent of land used for wind farms can also be used for other
profitable activities including ranching, farming and forestry.

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• The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest in renewable energy sources should
ensure that wind power will become a viable energy source in the United States and worldwide.

Wind Power and the Environment:

 Wind Turbines and the Landscape

- Large turbines don’t turn as fast  attract less attention

- City dwellers “dwell” on the attention attracted by windmills
 Sound from Wind Turbines

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- Increasing tip speed  less sound
- The closest neighbor is usually 300 m  experiences almost no noise
 Birds often collide with high voltage overhead lines, masts, poles, and windows of buildings. They
are also killed by cars in traffic. However, birds are seldom bothered by wind turbines.

 The only known site with bird collision problems is located in the Altamont Pass in California.

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 Danish Ministry of the Environment study revealed that power lines are a much greater danger to
birds than the wind turbines.

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 Some birds even nest on cages on Wind Towers.

OCEANIC ENERGY:

What is tidal power?

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Tide is periodic rise and fall of the water level of
the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of seawater by the moon. These
tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power.

When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide and when the level is below the
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mean level, it is called ebb tide. A dam is constructed in such a away that a basin gets separated from the sea
and a difference in the water level is obtained between the basin and sea. The constructed basin is filled
during high tide and emptied during low tide passing through sluices and turbine respectively. The Potential
energy of the water stored in the basin is used to drive the turbine which in turn generates electricity as it is
directly coupled to an alternator.
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Though the idea of utilizing tides for human service relates to eleventh century when tidal mills were
used in England but the use of tidal power for electric power generation is hardly a decade old as the world’s
first Rance tidal power plant of 240 MW capacity in France was commissioned by
President be Gaulle in 1965 who described it a magnificent achievement in the human life.

Tidal power has been a dream for engineers for many years and it remained dream because of large
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capital cost involved in its development. But after the inauguration of Rance Tidal Project, a new chapter in
the history
is now opened.
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Factors affecting the suitability of the site for tidal power plant:

The feasibility and economic vulnerability of a tidal power depends upon the following
factors.

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1. The power produced by a tidal plant depends mainly on the range of tide and the cubature of the
generation. The cubature of the tidal flow not only depends on the tidal range but on the width of
estuary mouth.
2. The minimum average tide range required for economical power production is more.
3. The site should be such that with a minimum cost of barrage it should be possible to create
maximum storage volume. In addition to this, the site selected should be well protected from
waves action.
4. The site should not create interruption to the shipping traffic running Through the estuary other

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wise the cost of the plant will increase as locks are to be provided.
5. Silt index of the water of the estuary should be as small as possible to avoid the siltation troubles.
The siltation leads to reduction of the range of tides and reduces the power potential of the plant.
6. The fresh water prism that falls into the reservoir of the tidal plant (due to the surface flows in the
streams having out fall in the estuary) eats away the valuable storage created for storing the tidal prism.
Therefore, the ratio of fresh water prism to tidal water prism becomes an important index in determining the
economic feasibility of a tidal scheme. The effective and cheaper will be the power production with

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decreasing the ratio mentioned above.

Classification of tidal Power Plants:

The tidal power plants are generally classified on the basis of the number of basins used for the

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power generation. They are further subdivided as one-way or two-way system as per the cycle of operation
for power generation.

The classification is represented with the help of a line diagram as given below
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Working of Different Tidal Power Plants:

Single basin-One-way cycle :

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This is the simplest form of tidal power plant. In this system, a basin is allowed to get filled during flood tide
and during the ebb tide. The water flows from the basin to the sea passing through the turbine and generates
power. The power is available for a short duration during ebb tide.

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Fig 1. Single basin Tidal Power Plant

Fig1 .shows a single tide basin before the construction of dam and Fig.2 shows the diagrammatic

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representation of a dam at the mouth of the basin and power generation during the falling tide.

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Single-basin two-way cycle :
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In this arrangement power is generated both during flood tide as well as ebb tide also. The power
generation is also intermittent but generation period is increased compared with one-way cycle. However
the peak power obtained is less than the one-way cycle. The arrangement of the basin and the power cycle is
shown in Fig .3.
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Fig 3
The main difficulty with this arrangement, the same turbine must be used as Prime mover as ebb and tide
flows pass through the turbine in opposite directions. Variable pitch turbine and dual rotation generator are
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used for such schemes.

Single-basin two-way cycle with pump storage :

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The Rance tidal power plant in France uses this type of arrangement. In this system, power is generated
both during flood and ebb tides. Complex machines capable of generation Power and Pumping the water in
either directions are used. A part of the energy produced is used for introducing the difference in the water
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levels between the basin and the sea at any time of the
tide and this is done by pumping water into the basin up or down. The period of power production with this
system is much longer than the other two described earlier. The cycle of operation is shown in Fig 5.4.

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Fig 4
Double basin type :

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In this arrangement, the turbine is set up between the two basins as shown in Fig 5.5. one basin is
intermittently filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently drained by the ebb tide. Therefore a small
capacity but continuous power is made available with this system as shown in Fig5.5. The main disadvantage
of this system is that 50% of the Potential energy is sacrificed in introducing the variation in the water levels
of the two basins.

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Fig 5.5

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Double basin with Pumping :
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In this case, off peak power from the base load plant in a interconnected transmission system is used either
to pump the water up the high basin. Net energy gain is possible with such a system if the pumping head is
lower than the basin-to-basin turbine generating head.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Tidal Power Plants:

Advantages:
1. Exploitation of tidal energy will in no case make demand for large area of
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valuable land because they are on bays.

2. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
3. It is much superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain
which always fluctuates year to year. Therefore, there is certainty of
power supply a the tide cycle is very definite.
4. As in every form of water power, this will also not produce any unhealthy
waste like gases, ash, atomic refuse which entails heavy removal costs.
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5. Tidal Power is superior to conventional hydro power as the hydro plants are know for their large
seasonal and yearly fluctuations in the output of
energy because they are entirely dependent upon the nature’s cycle of
rainfall, which is not the case with tidal as monthly certain power is
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assured. The tides are totally independent on nature’s cycle of rainfall.

6. Another notable advantage of tidal power is that it has a unique capacity to
meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in combinatiion with thermal or hydroelectric
system.
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7. It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers, in

addition to the possibility of fish forming in the tidal basins.

Disadvantages :

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1. These Power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.
2. As the sites are available on the bay which will be always far away from the load centers. The power
generated must be transported to long
distances. This increases the transportation cost.
3. The supply of power is not continuous as it depends upon the timing of tides. Therefore some
arrangements (double basin or double basin with pump storage) must be made to supply the continuous
power. This also further increases the capital cost of the plant.
4. The capital cost of the plant (Rs.5000/kw) is considerably large compared with conventional-power plants
(hydro, thermal)

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5. Sedimentation and siltration of the basins are some of the added problems with tidal power plants.
6. The navigation is obstructed.
7. It is interesting to note that the output of power from tidal power plant varies with lunar cycle, because the
moon largely influences the tidal rhythm, where as our daily power requirement is directly related to solar
cycle.

In addition to all the above mentioned (imitations of tidal power, the

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utilization of tidal energy on small scale has not yet proved economical.

Components of Tidal Power plants

There are three main Components of a tidal Power plant. i.e,
(i) The Power house

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(ii) The dam or barrage
(iii) Sluice-ways from the basins to the sea and vice versa.

The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipment’s are the main equipments of a power
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house. The function of dam to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or between one basin and the
other in case of multiple basins.

The sluice ways are used either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin during the low tide,
as per operational requirement. These are gate controlled devices.
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It is generally convenient to have the power house as well as the sluice-ways in alignment with the dam.

The design cycle may also provide for pumping between the basin and the sea in either direction. If
reversible pump turbines are provided, the pumping operation can be taken over at any time by the same
machine. The modern tubular turbines are so versatile that they can be used either as turbines or as pumps
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in either direction of flow. In addition, the tubular passages can also be used as sluice-ways by locking the
machine in to a standstill. As compared to conventional plants, this, however, imposes a great number of
operations in tidal power plants. For instance, the periodic opening and closing of the sluice-way of a tidal
plant are about 730 times in a year.

Dam (Barrage):
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Dam and barrage are synonymous terms. Barrage has been suggested as a more accurate term for tidal
power scheme, because it has only to with stand heads a fraction of the structure’s height, and stability
problems are far more modest. However, the literature does not always make the distinction, even though
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heads are small with tidal power cutoffs.

Tidal power barrages have to resist waves whose shock can be severe and where pressure changes sides
continuously. The barrage needs to provide channels for the turbines in reinforced concrete. To build these
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channels a temporary coffer dam in necessary, but it is now possible to built them on land, float them to the
site, and sink them into place.

Tidal barrages require sites where there is a sufficiently high tidal range to give a good head of water – the
minimum useful range is around three meters. The best sites are bays and estuaries, but water, can also be
impounded behind bounded reservoir built between two points on the same shore line.

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The location of the barrage is important, because the energy available is related to the size of trapped basin
and to the square of the tidal range. The nearer it is built to the mouth of bay, the larger the basin, but the
smaller the tidal range. A balance must also be struck between increased out put and increased material
requirements and construction costs.

Gates and Locks:

Tidal power basins have to be filled and emptied. Gates are opened regularly and frequently but heads very
in height and on the side where they occur, which is not the case with conventional river projects. The gates

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must be opened and closed rapidly and this operation should use a minimum of power. Leakage, is tolerable
for gates and barrages. Since we are dealing with seawater, corrosion problems are actuate, they have been
very successfully solved by the catholic protection and where not possible by paint. Gate structures can be
floated as modular units into place.

Though, in existing plants, vertical lift gates have been used. The technology is about ready to substitute a
series of flap gates that operates by water pressure. Flap gates are gates that are positioned so as to allow

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water in to the holding basin and require no mechanical means of operation. The flap gates allow only in the
direction of the sea to basin. Hence, the basin
level rises well above to sea level as ebb flow area is far less than flood flow area.
:

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Power house:
Because small heads only are available, large size turbines are needed; hence, the power house is also a
large structure. Both the French and Soviet operating plants use the bulb type of turbine of the propeller
type, with revisable blades, bulbs have horizontal shafts coupled to a single generator. The cost per installed
kilowatt drops with turbine size, and perhaps
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larger turbines might be installed in a future major tidal power plant.
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Fig 5.6 Schematic Lay out of Tidal Power House

FUEL CELLS :
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Working of Fuel Cell

The fuel cell represents one of the successful ways by passing the heacycle and converting the chemical
energy of fuels directly into electricity. It may be defined as an electrochemical device for the continuous
conversion othe portion of the free energy change in a chemical reaction to electricalenergy. It is

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distinguished from a battery in that it operates with continuousreplenishment of the fuel and oxidant at
active electrode areas and does not
require recharging.

The arrangement of fuel cell components in shown in fig

The working of the fuel cell is explained here with reference to the Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell using
aqueous electrolyte. The fuelcell consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte Hydrogen fuel is fed into
the anodeside of the cell. Positive H ions move from the anode-side and enter the electrolyte through porous

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cell walls. The anode is left with a negativecharge. Air is fed into the cathode side. O 2 ions enter the
electrolyte leaving the cathode side with a positive charge. Excess anode electrons flow to the
cathode creating a current flow H2 and O ions combine in the electrolyte to
from water which leaves the cell as steam.

The reaction taking place at the electrodes are given below

(1) Hydrogen electrode (anode)

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2H2 4H

4H + 4OH 4H2O + 4e
(2) Oxygen electrode (cathode)

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O2 20

2 O + 2H2O+ 4e 4 OH

(3) Overall cell reaction

2H2+ O2 2H2 O
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Fig .Fuel Cell

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The above reactions indicate H2 molecules break up into H Atoms at the anode and they combine with OH ion
to form water and free electron at anode. The formed free electrons travel to the cathode through the
external circuit as shown in fig. At the cathode, O2 molecules break up into two O2 atoms and these atoms
combine with the four electrons arriving by the external circuit and two molecules of water (out of 4
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molecules produced at
the anode to from 4OH oins. The OH ions migrate towards the anode and are consumed there. The
electrolyte remains invariant. It is prime requirement that the composition of electrolyte should not change
as the cell operates. The major difficulty experienced in the design of fuel cell is to obtain sufficient fuel-
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electrode-electrolyte reaction sites in a given volume. There are many other types of cells as ion exchange
membrane cell, direct and indirect oxidation fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells and many others.

ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS:

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1) The fuel cell converts its fuel directly to electric power. Pollutant levels range from 1/10 to1/50,000 of
those produced by a fossil fuel power plant as there it no combustion
2) No cooling water is needed so it can be located at any desired place.
3) As it does not make noise. It can be readily accepted in residential areas.
4) The fuel cell takes little time to go into operation.
5) It would be an ideal reserve power source with in large conventional power plants to handle peak or
emergency loads.
6) There is no efficiency penalty for part load operation. Efficiency remains constant from 100% to 25 % of
rated load.

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7) There is no maximum or minimum size for a fuel cell power plant. Individual fuel cells are joined to from
stacks. The stacks are joined to form power modules. The number of modules can be tailored to power
plant requirements.
8) The land requirement is considerably less compared with conventional power plants.
9) Possibly the greatest advantage of the fuel cell is its high operating efficiency. Present-day fuel cell
efficiency is 38% and it is expected to reach to 60% before the end of this century.
10) Fuel cell power plants may further cut generation costs by eliminating or reducing line losses. Fuel cell

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power plant in rural areas or highly congested residential areas would eliminate the need for long lines to
bring in power from remote generating stations.
11) A wide variety of fuels can be used with the fuel cell. Although presently limited to using substances that
produce pure H rich gas, the cell may one day be able to operate on fuels derived from low grade shale oils or
highly sulfur coals.

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12) The maintenance charges are low as there are no moving parts and outages are also less.
13) Fuel cells have an overload capacity of 50 to 100% for a short duration.
14) The weight and volume of the fuel cell is considerably low compared to other energy sources.
15) In H2-O cell, the reaction product is water which is portable.
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FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY:

What is a Fuel Cell?

 A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity,
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with water and heat as its by-product.
Why is Fuel Cell Technology Important?
 Since conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an electrochemical process, not combustion
 It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient process- two to three times more efficient than fuel burning
How does a Fuel Cell work?
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 It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does it require recharging
 As long as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will produce both energy and heat
 A Fuel Cell consists of two catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte
 One electrode is an anode and the other is a cathode
 The process begins when Hydrogen molecules enter the anode
 The catalyst coating separates hydrogen’s negatively charged electrons from the positively charged
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protons
 The electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, but not the electrons
 Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which creates electrical current
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 Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel cell stack
 The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or to provide stationary power to a building

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Major Types of Fuel Cells:
 In general all fuel cells have the same basic configuration - an electrolyte and two electrodes
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 Different types of fuel cells are classified by the kind of electrolyte used
 The type of electrolyte used determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place and the
temperature range of operation

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PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE (PEM):

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 This is the leading cell type for passenger car application

 Uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
 Operates at a relatively low temperature, about 175 degrees
 Has a high power density, can vary its output quickly and is suited for applications where
quick startup is required making it popular for automobiles
 Sensitive to fuel impurities

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DIRECT METHANOL (A SUBSET OF PEM):

 Expected efficiencies of 40% plus low operating temperatures between 120-190 degrees
 Also uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte
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 Different from PEM because the anode catalyst is able to draw hydrogen from methanol
without a reformer
 Used more for small portable power applications, possibly cell phones and laptops
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PHOSPHORIC ACID:

 This is the most commercially developed fuel cell

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 It generates electricity at more than 40% efficiency

 Nearly 85% of the steam produced can be used for cogeneration
 Uses liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operates at about 450 degrees F
 One main advantage is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel
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MOLTEN CARBONATE:
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 Promises high fuel-to-electricity efficiency and the ability to utilize coal based fuels
 Uses an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture
 Require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode
 Operates at extremely high temperatures 1200 degrees
 Primarily targeted for use as electric utility applications
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 Have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas,
marine diesel and simulated coal gasification products
 Because of the extreme high temperatures, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at
the anode and cathode which helps reduces cost
 Disadvantage is durability
 The high temperature required and the corrosive electrolyte accelerate breakdown and
corrosion inside the fuel cell
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ALKALINE:

 Used mainly by military and space programs
 Can reach 70% power generating efficiency, but considered to costly for transportation
applications
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 Used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide electricity and drinking water
 Uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and operates at 75 -160
degrees
 Can use a variety of non-precious metals as catalyst at the anode and cathode
 Requires pure hydrogen and oxygen because it is very susceptible to carbon contamination
 Purification process of the hydrogen and oxygen is costly
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 Susceptibility to poisoning affects cell’s lifetime which also affects the cost
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Regenerative Fuel Cells:

 Currently researched by NASA
 This type of fuel cell involves a closed loop form of power generation

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 Uses solar energy to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen
 Hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell generating electricity, heat and water
 The water byproduct is then recirculated back to the solar-powered electrolyser beginning
the process again
 Fuel Cells require highly purified hydrogen as a fuel
 Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce hydrogen economically
from a variety of resources in environmentally friendly ways
 Hydrogen is a secondary energy resource, meaning it must be made from another fuel

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 Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of energy resources including:
 Fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal
 Nuclear energy
 Renewable resources, such as solar,water, wind and biomass
 The biggest challenge regarding hydrogen production is the cost
 Reducing the cost of hydrogen production so as to compete in the transportation sector with
conventional fuels on a per-mile basis is a significant hurdle to Fuel Cell’s success in the commercial
marketplace

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How can Fuel Cell technology be used?
Transportation

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
 Stationary Power Stations
 Telecommunications
 Micro Power

 Transportation
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 All major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car
 Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be commercialized by 2010
 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North and South America, Europe, Asia and
Australia
 Trains, planes, boats, scooters, forklifts and even bicycles are utilizing fuel cell technology as
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 Stationary Power Stations
 Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world in hospitals, nursing
homes, hotels, office buildings, schools and utility power plants
 Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental
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power and backup assurance or as a grid-independent generator for locations that are
inaccessible by power lines
 Telecommunications
 Due to computers, the Internet and sophisticated communication networks there is a need
for an incredibly reliable power source
 Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliable
 Micro Power
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 Consumer electronics could gain drastically longer battery power with Fuel Cell technology
 Cell phones can be powered for 30 days without recharging
 Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without recharging
What are the benefits of Fuel Cell technology?
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 Physical Security
 Reliability
 Efficiency
 Environmental Benefits
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 Battery Replacement/Alternative
 Military Applications

 Physical Security

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 Both central station power generation and long distance, high voltage power grids can be
terrorist targets in an attempt to cripple our energy infrastructure
 Fuel Cells allow the country to discontinue reliance on these potential targets
 Reliability
 U.S. businesses lose $29 Billion a year from computer failures due to power outages
 More reliable power from fuel cells would prevent loss of dollars for U.S. Businesses
 Properly configured fuel cells would result in less than one minute of down time in a six year
period
 Efficiency

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 Because no fuel is burned to make energy, fuel cells are fundamentally more efficient than
combustion systems
 Additionally when the heat comes off of the fuel cell system it can be captured for beneficial
purposes
 This is called Cogeneration
 Environmental Benefits
 Fuels cells can reduce air pollution today and offer the possibility of eliminating pollution in

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the future
 Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Power Generation
 A fuel cell power plant may create less than one ounce of pollution per 1,000 kilowatt-hours
of electricity produced
 Conventional combustion generating systems produce 25 pounds of pollutants for the same

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electricity
 Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Vehicles
 Fuel Cell Vehicles with hydrogen stored on-board produce ZERO POLLUTION in the
conventional sense pa
 The only byproducts of these Fuel Cell vehicles are water and heat
 Battery replacement/alternative
 Fuel Cell replacements for batteries would offer much longer operating life in a packaged of
lighter or equal weight
 Additionally, Fuel Cell replacements would have an environmental advantage over batteries,
since certain kinds of batteries require special disposal treatment
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 Military Applications
 Fuel Cell technology in the military can help save lives because it reduces telltale heat and
noise in combat
 Handheld battlefield computers can be powered for 10 times longer with Fuel Cell power
meaning soldiers could rely on their computers in the field for longer periods of time
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Challenges to Fuel Cell Technology:

 Cost
 The cost of fuel cells must be reduced to compete with conventional technologies
 Conventional internal combustion engines cost $25-$35/kW; a fuel cell system would need
to cost $30/kW to be competitive
 Durability and Reliability
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 Durability of fuel cell systems have not yet been adequately established
 The durability standard for automobiles is approximately 150,000 miles and the ability to
function under normal vehicle operating conditions
 For stationary systems 40,000 hours of reliable operation in a temperature range of -35
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degree Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius will be required for market acceptance

 System Size
 The size and weight of current fuel cell systems must be reduced to attain market
acceptance, especially with automobiles
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BIOMASS:

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 A renewable energy source, is biological material derived from living, or recently
living organisms, such as wood, waste, (hydrogen) gas, and alcohol fuels.
 Biomass is commonly plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce heat. In this
sense, living biomass can also be included, as plants can also generate electricity while still alive.
 The most conventional way on how biomass is used however, still relies on direct incineration.
 Forest residues for example (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood
chips and garbage are often used for this.
 However, biomass also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers or

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chemicals.
 Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic
materials such as fossil fuels which have been transformed by geological processes into substances
such as coal or petroleum.
How Does Biomass Work?
 Biomass works with different processes depending on which form of biomass is wanted and being
used. However, the underlying principle is always the same.

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 Plants store the sun's energy and bind carbon dioxide. By releasing the stored energy, also the carbon
dioxide stored inside the plant is being released and put into our atmosphere.
 Because we will continue to make waste and plant trees, the carbon cycle will continue and thus
biomass can be considered renewable energy.
 The most common method of biomass energy is simply burning the biomass, like e.g. wood or coal,

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which produces energy for heating, cooking or grilling.
 Burning a wood stove and cooking on a campfire are common examples of biomass energy in action.
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BIOMASS SOURCES:
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BIOMASS RESOURCES:
1. Biomass in its traditional solid mass(wood and agriculture residual). To burn the biomass directly
and get the energy.
2. Biomass in non-traditional form (converted into liquid fuels). Biomass converted into methanol and
ethanol to be used as liquid fuels in engines.
3. To ferment the biomass anaerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called BIOMASS.
FEATURES
1. Bio Energy
2. Energy Plantations

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HOW WILL GENERATE ELECTRICITY?

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TYPES OF BIOMASS:
1. Fuel biomass
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By some processes and procedures, biomass products like fuel gas, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels
etc. are obtained, which are given here

a. Biomass from plants or animal origin are directly burnt for cooking and other purposes.
Municipal and sewage wastes, industrial wastes and agricultural wastes are converted to energy
which can meet the demand for energy in rural sector.
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b. Paddy straw and rice husk can be profitably converted to fuel gas by thermal decomposition
(Combustion)

C.Ethanol, which is used as a liquid fuel can be produced from carbohydrates by alcoholic
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fermentation.

d. When wood and agricultural residues are heated in the absence of air (pyrolysis), charcoal is the
resultant product which can be used as a fuel more advantageously than wood.
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e. By the process of gasification, gas is evolved which can be used as a fuel for engines.

f. Biogas, which is popular in rural areas is produced by anaerobic fermentation from farm wastes.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BIOGAS PLANTS:
1. Continuous and batch type
2. The dome and the drum types
a) Floating gas holder plant
b) Fixed dome digester
3. Different variations in the drum type
BIO FUELS:
The energy stored in dry biomass like wood and straw is most easily released by direct combustion- although
dry materials can also be converted into and gaseous fuels by a variety of techniques. Eg., sewage sludge,

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vegetable matter can be dried and burnt.
SOLIDS
Three solid bio fuels – wood, straw, refuse are being burnt on an increasing scale in many
countries to provide useful heat.
LIQUIDS
Alcohols and vegetable oil are now replacing petrol and diesel as transport fuels in several
countries and this process is likely to accelerate as oil prices rise.

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Eg., Methanol, Ethanol, Alcohols, Vegetable Oils.

GASES
The production of biogas from dung and agricultural wastes is now extensive in some

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developing countries. Eg., biogas, Methane, Fuel gas.
The Heat Content Of Various Fuels

Form
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Fuel Heat Content

Gas Hydrogen 12
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Liquid Fuel gas 5-20
Solid Biogas 20-25
Methane 38
Methanol 21
Ethanol 27
Crude Oil 44
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Refuse 9
Straw 16
Wood 12-15
Char 20
Coal 22-32
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ENERGY PLANTATION:
 It’s the method of tapping maximum solar energy by growing plants.
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 Energy farms are ideal solar collectors requiring virtually no maintenance, its economical and non
polluting. It uses an established technology and it stores energy.
 Photosynthesis occurring in naturally, stores more than ten times much energy annually, in plant
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farm than is consumed by all mankind. But very little of this energy is tapped.
ENERGY CROPS:
Energy crops, also called "power crops," could be grown on farms in potentially very large quantities, just like
food crops.
 TREES - In addition to growing very fast, some trees will grow back after being cut off close to the
ground, a feature called "coppicing.“

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 GRASSE - Thin-stemmed perennial grasses used to blanket the prairies of the United States before
the settlers replaced them with corn and beans.
 OTHER CROPS - A third type of grass includes annuals commonly grown for food, such as corn and
sorghum.
 OIL PLANTS - Plants such as soybeans and sunflowers produce oil, which can be used to make fuels
BIOMASS CONVERSION:
The choice of process is determined by a number of factor, Namely
 The location of the resources and its physical condition,
 The economics of competing processes,

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 The availability of a suitable market for the product.
FORMS OF CONVERSION
1) Direct combustion – such as wood waste and bagasse
2) Thermo chemical conversion – It takes two forms., namely Gasification and Liquefaction.

Gasification takes place by heating the biomass with limited oxygen to produce low heating
value gas or by reacting it with steam and oxygen at high pressure and temperature to produce

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medium heating value gas.
Liquefaction by converting it to methanol or ethanol or it may be converted to high heating value
gas
3) Bio chemical conversion – It takes two forms, Namely Anaerobic Digestion and

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Fermentation.

Anaerobic digestion involves the microbial digestion of bio mass. The process take place at
low temperature and requires a moisture content of at least 80%. It generate a gas consisting mostly
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of CO2 and CH4 with minimum impurities such as hydrogen sulfide.
Fermentation is the breakdown of complex molecules in organic compound under the influence
of a ferment such as yeast, bacteria, enzymes, etc., It’s a well established and widely used technology
for the conversion of grains and sugar crops into ethanol.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
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 The most important chemical reaction on the earth is the reaction of sunlight an green plants.
 Radiant energy of sun is absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll in the plant and is stored within
the plant in the form of chemical bond energy.
 Photosynthesis in the plants is an example of biological conversion of solar energy into sugars and
starches which are energy rich compounds.
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 So if plant fast growing trees having high photo-synthesis efficiency we can harvest and burn them to
produce steam in a similar manner as in thermal power stations ultimates to produce the electric
power.
 Such an “energy plantation ” would be a renewable resource and an economic means of harnessing
solar energy.
6CO2 + 12H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6H2O +6O2
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STEPS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
1. Splitting of H2O molecule into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll and sunlight. This phase

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of reaction is called the light reaction. In this phase of reaction, light absorbed by chlorophyll causes
photolysis of water. O2 escapes and H2 is transformed into some unknown compounds. Thus solar
energy is converted into potential chemical energy.
2. In the second phase, hydrogen is transferred from this unknown compound to CO2 to form starch or
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sugar. Formation of starch or sugar is dark reaction not requiring sunlight.

CONDITIONS FOR PHOTOSYNSIS:

1. LIGHT
One of the important inputs for biomass production is the intensity of solar radiation only a
part of this energy(40-45%), The range of light is called Photo synthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
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2. CO2 CONCENTRATION
a) Animal Respiration,
b) Combustion Of Fuel,
c) The major source is the decay of organic matter by bacteria,
d) Ocean also is an important store of CO2.
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3. TEMPERATURE
Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range which can be tolerated by proteins.
Although photo chemical part is not affected by temperature, but biochemical part, controlled by
enzymes, is highly sensitive to temperature.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS:
Electricity,
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
 Steam,
 Co-generation,
 Heat for product drying,
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 Also, with developing advancements in engineering technology

ADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS:
 Biomass is a renewable source.
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 The energy storage is an built feature of it.

 Biomass is great for the economy. Many jobs are created throughout the various steps of the biomass
conversion in the biomass industry.
 This number could be multiplied if biomass energy would replace the amount of time, effort and
money spent every year on importing and exporting oil, gas and other fossil fuels.

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 Biomass preserves agricultural land and when applied in agriculture captures the potent methane
gas before it can be harmful to our environment.
 To use biomass is to use our own waste and convert it into energy. Instead of dumping waste into
landfills, it can be used as an alternative to fossil fuel for energy production
 Reducing air and water pollution, increasing soil quality and reducing erosion, and improving
wildlife habitat.

DISADVANTAGES OF BIOMASS:
 One of the concerns surrounding biomass energy is its contribution to global warming.

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 It’s dispersed and land-intensive source.
 It’s often low energy density.
 Capacity is determined by availability of biomass and not suitable for varying loads.
 Not feasible to set up at all locations.
 For those looking to produce energy, the cost is still higher than that of other sources of energy.
While there have been efforts to reduce the costs, biomass energy is still considered to be an
expensive source of energy.

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 By getting back to nature with biomass energy, we could be cleaning up our communities, putting
money back into the economy and reducing our greenhouse gases for generations to come.

HYDROGEN ENERGY SYSTEMS:

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Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) are becoming popular for remote area power
generation applications due to advances in renewable energy technologies and subsequent rise in
prices of petroleum products. A hybrid energy system usually consists of two or more renewable
energy sources used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in
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energy supply.
Like electricity, hydrogen can be produced from many sources, including fossil fuels, renewable
resources, and nuclear energy. Hydrogen and electricity can be converted from one to the other using
electrolyzes (electricity to hydrogen) and fuel cells (hydrogen to electricity).
Hydrogen is an effective energy-storage medium, particularly for distributed generation.
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Implementation of hydrogen energy systems could play a major role in addressing climate
challenges and national security issues through 2030 and beyond. Today, hydrogen is produced
primarily from natural gas using widely known commercial thermal processes. In the future, it could be
produced directly from renewable resources. In the meantime, we can adapt current technologies to produce
hydrogen with significantly reduced CO2 emissions, through carbon capture and sequestration processes,
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and by using renewable and nuclear electricity to produce hydrogen with no production-side CO2 emissions.

Using hydrogen in combustion devices or fuel cells results in few, if any, harmful emissions. The
vision for a hydrogen economy is based on a clean and simple cycle: separate water into hydrogen and
oxygen using renewable energy such as solar. Use the hydrogen to power a fuel cell, where hydrogen and
oxygen (from air) recombine to produce electrical energy, heat, and water to complete the cycle. This process
produces no particulates, no carbon dioxide, and no pollution. In the next 20-30 years, hydrogen systems
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used for stationary and vehicular applications could solve many of our energy and environmental security
concerns. Hydrogen is likely to be affordable, safe, domestically produced, and used in all sectors of the
economy and in all regions of the country.
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SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND REPRESENTATIVE TECHNOLOGIES:

• A hydrogen system is comprised of production, storage and distribution, and use. Technologies are in
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various stages of development across the system. Hydrogen made via electrolysis from excess nuclear or
renewable energy can be used as a sustainable transportation fuel or stored to meet peak-power demand. It
also can be used as a feedstock in chemical processes.

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• Hydrogen produced by decarburizations of fossil fuels followed by sequestration of the carbon can enable
the continued use of fossil fuels in a clean manner during the transition to the ultimate carbon-free hydrogen
energy system.

• For hydrogen to become an important energy carrier – as electricity is now – an infrastructure must be
developed. Although the ultimate transition to a hydrogen economy requires significant infrastructure
investments, it is possible to develop the components of a hydrogen energy system in parallel with
infrastructure. As hydrogen applications become more cost effective and ubiquitous, the infrastructure will
also evolve. Beginning with fleets of buses and delivery vans, the transportation infrastructure will evolve to

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include sufficient refueling islands to enable consumers to consider hydrogen vehicles as attractive and
convenient. The development of distributed power systems will begin with natural gas-reformer systems and
evolve to provide hydrogen from a variety of resources (for all services), including hydrogen-to-fuel vehicles,
reliable/affordable power, lighting, heating, cooling, and other services for buildings and homes.

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Technology Status/Applications:
1. Today, hydrogen is primarily used as a chemical feedstock in the petrochemical, food, electronics,
and metallurgical processing industries. Hydrogen is receiving new capital investments for transportation
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and power-generation applications.

2. Nearly half of the worldwide production of hydrogen is via large-scale steam reforming of natural
gas, a relatively low-carbon fuel/feedstock. In the United States, almost all of the hydrogen used as a chemical
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(i.e., for petroleum refining and upgrading, and ammonia production) is produced from natural gas. Today,
we safely use about 90 billion m3 (3.2 trillion ft3) of hydrogen yearly. Although comparatively little hydrogen
is currently used as fuel or as an energy carrier, there are emerging trends that will drive the future
consumption of hydrogen.
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2. The long-term goal of the DOE Hydrogen, Fuel Cell & Infrastructure Technologies (HFC&IT) Program
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is to make a transition to a hydrogen-based energy system in which hydrogen will join electricity as a
major energy carrier. Furthermore, much of the hydrogen will be derived from domestically plentiful
resources, making the hydrogen economy an important foundation for sustainable development and
energy security.

3. Requirements in California – especially the Los Angeles basin – are propelling the development of
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zeroemission vehicles, which in turn, provide incentives for the growth of fuel cell cars, trucks, and
buses. Several bus fleets are currently incorporating hydrogen and fuel cell technologies into their
fleets. Major car manufacturers are developing fuel cell vehicles in response to concerns about
greenhouse gas and other emissions, and in response to policy drivers, especially for higher
efficiencies and reduced oil consumption.
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4. Integrating the components of a hydrogen system in a variety of applications enables the continued
development of infrastructure that is needed as we move from concept to reality. The development
of the components of an integrated hydrogen system has begun:
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5. Production: Hydrogen production from conventional fossil-fuel feedstocks is commercial, and results
in significant CO2 emissions. Large-scale CO2 sequestration options have not been proven and
require R&D. Current commercial electrolyzers are 70%-80% efficient, but the cost of hydrogen is
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strongly dependent on the cost of the electricity used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Production processes using wastes and biomass are under development, with a number of
engineering scale-up projects underway. Longerterm, direct hydrogen production processes
(photoconversion) are largely in the research stage, with significant progress being made toward
development of cost-effective, efficient, clean systems.

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6. Storage and Distribution: Liquid and compressed gas tanks are available and have been
demonstrated in a small number of bus and automobile demonstration projects. Lightweight, fiber-
wrapped tanks have been developed and tested for higher-pressure hydrogen storage. Experimental
metal hydride tanks have been used in automobile demonstrations. Alternative solid-state storage
systems using alanates and carbon nanotubes are under development. Current commercial practices
for the distribution and delivery of hydrogen – including truck, rail, and barge delivery of liquid or
compressed gas – will provide the most cost-effective hydrogen until demand increases and
additional infrastructure is developed.

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7. Use: Small demonstrations by domestic and foreign auto and bus companies have been undertaken.
Smallscale power systems using fuel cells are being beta-tested. Small fuel cells for battery
replacement applications have been developed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS AND STRUCTURE OF THE PLANTS:

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General description of the plants:

The three plants here considered use a hydrogen energy system (HS) to store the RES. The system is
composed by a variable number of electrolyzers (disposed in parallel), a system used to dry the produced

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hydrogen, a pressurized gas storage tank, a PEMFC, a battery pack and some auxiliaries.The hydrogen is
produced by the electrolyzers when the electricity supplied by the RES is higher than the requests of the user.
The hydrogen stored is then utilized in a PEMFC
when the primary source of energy is not su&cient to supply the electricity needs of the user. The battery
pack as well is utilized for short-term energy supply. In this way, the plants are designed to cover the whole
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electricity requests in a complete year of operation.
The system model is shown in Fig. It is identical for the three plants; the only di!erence is in the
primary RES and the device which converts it into electricity.
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RES inputs of the energy systems:

The solar irradiance input of the SHES plant (see Fig.) is based on the test reference year
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(TRY) of the European Community , which can be applied (with a negligible

approximation) to the speci%c location because the data refer to the very close city of Torino.
The solar irradiance has been evaluated at an angle of 30◦(optimum value of
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PV inclination maximizing the electricity production in acomplete year).The hydraulic source

(see Fig. 4) is based on the evaluation of the rainfall, of the snowmelt and of the hydrologic
behavior of the basin. The data have been supplied by the Statistical O&ce of the Regione
Piemonte (Italy). The hydrograph represents the water $ow input of the MHHES. Concerning the
wind speed source (see Fig.), the data for the construction of the wind time series diagram

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have been supplied by the Statistical O&ce of the Regione Piemonte (Italy). This represents the
input of the WHES plant.

HYBRID SYSTEMS :

 Hybrid power systems combine two or more energy conversion devices, or two or
more fuels for the same device, that when integrated, overcome limitations inherent
in either.

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 Hybrid systems can address limitations in terms of fuel flexibility, efficiency,
reliability, emissions and / or economics.

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Hybrid System Value Propositions:

Value Proposit
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 High Efficiency
 High Reliability
 Low Emissions
 Acceptable Cost
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Value Proposition – Higher Efficiency:
Incorporating heat, power, and highly-efficient devices (fuel cells, advanced materials,
cooling systems, etc.) can increase overall efficiency and conserve energy for a hybrid system
when compared with individual technologies.
Value Proposition – Enhanced Reliability:
Achieving higher reliability can be accomplished with redundant technologies and/or
energy storage. Some hybrid systems typically include both, which can simultaneously improve

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the quality and availability of power.
Value Proposition – Lower Emissions:
Hybrid systems can be designed to maximize the use of renewables, resulting in a system
with lower emissions than traditional fossil-fueled technologies.
Value Proposition - Acceptable Cost:
Hybrid systems can be designed to achieve desired attributes at the lowest acceptable
cost, which is the key to market acceptance.

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Pieces of the Puzzle:
Fossi Fossil Fuel Engines

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–IC Engine
– Stirling Engine
– Rankine Engine Cycle
–Brayton Turbine pa
– Microturbine
Renewables
– PV, Concentrating PV
–Solar Hot Water
– Concentrating Solar Power
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• Trough
•Dish
–Wind
– Geothermal
–Hydro
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Fuel Cells
–Solid Oxide
–PEM
– Phosphoric Acid
– Molten Carbonate
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– Microturbine
Storage
– Lead acid batteries
– Flow batteries
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– Reversible fuel cells

– Ultra-capacitors
–SMES
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– Flywheels
– Thermal
–Caes

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Applications:
• Village Power
• Commercial Power Parks
• Industrial Power Quality
• Integrated Building Efficiency (CHP+) [Zero Net Energy Buildings]
• Remote (Off-Grid) Powerh
• Distribution (Grid) Support
• Water Resource Management

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• Green Power
• Brownfields (to Brightfields)
• Power Price Stabilization

–Wind
–

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–
– Concentrating Solar Power
• Trough

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•Dish
–Wind
– Geothermal
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REFERENCE THEORY FUNDAMENTALS-PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND ANALYSIS: IG,
PMSG, SCIG AND DFIG

Review of reference theory fundamentals -principle of operation and analysis:

• IG - INDUCTION GENERATOR
• PMSG - PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUSGENERATOR

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 SCIG - SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR
 DFIG - DOUBLY FED INDUCTION
TYPES OF GENERATOR OPTIONS FOR VARIABLESPEED WIND TURBINES USING
POWERELECTRONICS:
Power electronics may be applied to four types of generators to facilitate variable speed
operation:

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• Synchronous generators.
• Permanent magnet synchronous generators.

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• Squirrel-cage induction generators.
• Wound rotor induction generators.
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TREE DIAGRAM
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

GRID CONNECTED STAND ALONE

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PERMANENT WOUND PERMANENT WOUND
MAGNET FIELD MAGNET FIELD

BRUSH LESS

SLIPRINGS / BRUSHES

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INDUCTION GENERATORS:
Induction Generators (IG) are used for

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 Low and medium power generation
 They have certain inherent advantages over conventional alternators
a) Low unit cost
b) Less maintenance
c) Rugged and brushless rotor
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d) Asynchronous operation
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
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• An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that

uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor in generator mode, giving negative slip. In most cases, a
regular AC asynchronous motor is used as a generator, without any internal modifications.

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INDUCTION GENERATOR OPERATION:
Figure shows the speed torque characteristics of an induction motor operating from
a constant frequency power source. Most readers are familiar with this characteristic of the
induction motor operation. The operation of the induction motor occurs in a stable manner
in the region of the speed torque curve indicated in Figure 5. The torque output as well as
the power delivered by the motor varies as the motor speed changes. At synchronous
speed no power is delivered at all. The difference between the synchronous speed and the
operating speed is called the slip. The output torque and power vary linearly with the slip.

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If the induction motor is driven to a speed higher than the synchronous speed, the
speed torque curve reverses as shown in Figure 6. In the stable region of this curve, electric
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power is generated utilizing the mechanical input power from the prime mover. Once again
the generated power is a function of the slip, and varies with the slip itself.
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In the generator mode, if the slip is controlled in accordance with the load
requirements, the induction generator will deliver the necessary power. It must be
remembered that the synchronous speed is a function of the electrical frequency applied to
the generator terminals. On the other hand, the operating shaft speed is determined by the
prime mover. Therefore to generate power, the electrical frequency must be adjusted as
the changes in the load and the prime mover speed occur.
In addition to the requirement stated above, the excitation current must be
provided to the generator stator windings for induction into the rotor. The magnitude of
the excitation current will determine the voltage at the bus. Thus the excitation current

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must be regulated at specific levels to obtain a constant bus voltage. The controller for the
induction generator has the dual function as follows:
i) Adjust the electrical frequency to produce the slip corresponding to the load
requirement.
ii) Adjust the magnitude of the excitation current to provide the desirable bus
voltage.
Figure 7 depicts the region of generator mode operation for a typical induction

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generator.
A number of torque speed characteristic curves in the stable region of operation are
shown to explain the operation. As an example, consider the situation when the prime
mover is at the nominal or 100% speed. The electrical frequency must be adjusted to cater

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for load changes from 0 to 100% of the load. If a vertical line is drawn along the speed of
100%, it can be observed that the electrical frequency must be changed from 100% at no
load to about 95% at full load if the prime mover speed is held at 100%
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BENEFITS OF INDUCTION GENERATOR TECHNOLOGY:

Induction generator has several benefits to offer for the micro, mini power systems under
consideration. These benefits relate to the generator design as follows:
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i) Cost of Materials: Use of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets means lower
cost of materials for the induction generator. Rare earth permanent magnets are
substantially more expensive than the electrical steel used in electromagnets. They also
must be contained using additional supporting rings.
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ii) Cost of Labor: PM’s require special machining operations and must be retained on the
rotor structure by installation of the containment structure. Handling of permanent
magnets that are pre-charged is generally difficult in production shops. These
requirements increase the cost of labor for the PM generator.

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iii) Generator Power Quality: The PM generator produces raw ac power with unregulated
voltage. Depending upon the changes in load and speed, the voltage variation can be wide.
This is all the more true for generators exceeding about 75 kW power rating. On the other
hand with SR generator, the output waveforms are non-sinusoidal and peaky as shown in
Figure 8. These waveforms must be filtered in order to get reasonably constant voltage
output.

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The induction generator produces ac voltage that is reasonably sinusoidal as shown in the
example from an actual test in Figure 9. This voltage can be rectified easily to produce a
constant dc voltage. Additionally, the ac voltage can be stepped up or down using a
transformer to provide multiple levels of voltages if required.
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iv) Fault Conditions: When an internal failure occurs in a PM generator, the failed
windingwill continue to draw energy until the generator is stopped. For high-speed
generators,this may mean a long enough duration during which further damage to
electrical and mechanical components would occur. It could also mean a safety hazard for
the individuals working in the vicinity. The induction generator on the other hand is safely
shut down by de-excitation within a few milliseconds, preventing the hazardous situations.
Excitation:

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• Induction generators are not, in general, self-exciting, meaning they require an
electrical supply, at least initially, to produce the rotating magnetic flux (although in
practice an induction generator will often self start due to residual magnetism.) The
electrical supply can be supplied from the electrical grid or, once it starts producing
power, from the generator itself. The rotating magnetic flux from the stator induces
currents in the rotor, which also produces a magnetic field. If the rotor turns slower
than the rate of the rotating flux, the machine acts like an induction motor. If the

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rotor is turned faster, it acts like a generator, producing power at the synchronous
frequency
Equivalent Circuit of Induction Generator:

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ACTIVE POWER:
• Active power delivered to the line is proportional to slip above the synchronous
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speed. Full rated power of the generator is reached at very small slip values (motor
dependent, typically 3%). At synchronous speed of 1800 rpm, generator will
produce no power. When the driving speed is increased to 1860 rpm, full output
power is produced. If the prime mover is unable to produce enough power to fully
drive the generator, speed will remain somewhere between 1800 and 1860 rpm
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range .

CAPACITANCE REQUIRED:
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• Capacitor bank must supply reactive power to the motor when used in stand-alone
mode. Reactive power supplied should be equal or greater than the reactive power
that machine normally draws when operating as a motor. Terminal voltage will
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increase with capacitance, but is limited by iron saturation

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TYPICAL CONNECTION WHEN USED AS A STANDALONE GENERATO

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GRID AND STANDALONE CONNECTIONS:
• In induction generators the magnetizing flux is established by a capacitor bank
connected to the machine in case of stand alone system and in case of grid
connection it draws magnetizing current from the grid.

•
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For a grid connected system, frequency and voltage at the machine will be dictated
by the electric grid, since it is very small compared to the whole system .

• For stand-alone systems, frequency and voltage are complex function of machine
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parameters, capacitance used for excitation, and load value and type .

USE OF INDUCTION GENERATORS:

• Induction generators are often used in wind turbines and some micro hydro
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installations due to their ability to produce useful power at varying rotor speeds.
Induction generators are mechanically and electrically simpler than other generator
types. They are also more rugged, requiring no brushes or commutators.

• Induction generators are particularly suitable and usually used for wind generating
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stations as in this case speed is always a variable factor, and the generator is easy on
the gearbox .
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Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator:

 Synchronous Generators are the primary source of all electrical energy and
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commonly used to convert the mechanical power output of steam turbines, gas
turbines, reciprocating engines, hydro turbines and wind turbines into electrical
power for the grid. They are known as synchronous generators because they

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operate at synchronous speed. The speed of the rotor always matches supply
frequency.

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator is regarded as the primary source of

electrical energy which is used commonly to convert mechanical output power of
gas turbines, steam turbines, hydro turbines, wind turbines and reciprocating
engines into electrical power for various purposes. Commonly these generators are

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referred to as synchronous generators as they function at a synchronous speed,
which equals the speed of rotor matches with the supply frequency.

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator is a type of Synchronous Generator

which its excitation field is a permanent magnet instead of a coil.

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 The synchronous generator is excited by permanent magnet system with high
energy or current carrying field windings. Due to relatively higher number of poles,
the permanent magnet construction would enable reduction in back iron and stator

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yoke. The development of low speed and innovative synchronous generators
especially with permanent magnet excitation has received attention from numerous
individuals around the world.
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The rapid development of high-energy PMs with a rather linear demagnetization

curve led to wide spread use of PM synchronous motors for variable speed drives . As
electric machines are reversible by principle, the generator regime is available, and, for
direct-driven wind generators in the hundreds of kilowatt or MW range, such solutions are
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being proposed. Super-high-speed gas-turbine-driven PM synchronous generators in the

100 kW range at 60 to 80 krpm are also introduced. Finally, PM synchronous generators
are being considered as starter

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There are two main types of rotors for PM synchronous generators:

• With rotor surface PMs— non salient pole rotor (SPM)

• With interior PMs— salient pole rotor (IPM)

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators:

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The permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) has several significant
advantageous properties. The construction is simple and does not required external
magnetization, which is important especially in stand-alone wind power applications and
also in remote areas where the grid cannot easily supplythe reactive power required to
magnetize the induction generator.
Similar to the previous externally supplied field current synchronous generator, the
most common type of power conversion uses a bridge rectifier (controlled/uncontrolled), a

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DC
link, and inverter as shown in Fig. 27.65 [78–80].Figure 27.66 shows a wind energy system
where a PMSG is connected to a three-phase rectifier followed by a boost converter. In this

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case, the boost converter controls the electromagnet torque and the supply side converter
regulates the
DC link voltage as well as controlling the input power factor. One drawback of this
configuration is the use of diode rectifier that increases the current amplitude and
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distortion of the PMSG.
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FIGURE 27.65 Grid-connected PMSG wind energy system throughDC/AC converter.

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FIGURE 27.66 Grid-connected PMSG wind energy system throughDC/AC converter

with a boost chopper.
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As a result, this configuration have been considered for small size wind energy
conversion systems (smaller than 50 kW).The advantage of the system in Fig. 27.65 with
regarding to the system showed in Fig. 27.66 is, it allows the generator to operate near its
optimal working point in order to minimize the losses in the generator and power
electronic circuit. However, the performance is dependent on the good knowledge of the
generator parameter that varies with temperature and frequency. The main drawbacks, in
the use of PMSG, are the cost of permanent magnet that increase the price of machine,

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demagnetization of the permanent magnet material, and it is not possible to control the
power factor of the machine
To extract maximum power at unity power factor from a PMSG and feed this power
(also at unity power factor) to the grid, the use of back-to-back connected PWM voltage
source converters are proposed [81]. Moreover, to reduce the overall cost, reduced switch
PWM voltage source converters (four switch) instead of conventional (six switch)
converters for variable speed drive systems can be used. It is shown that by using both

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rectifier and inverter current control and flux based control, it is possible to obtain unity
power factor operation both at the WTG and the grid. Other mechanisms can also be
included to maximize power extraction from the VSWT (i.e. MPPT techniques) or sensor-

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fewer approaches to further reduce cost and increase reliability and performance of the
systems.

ADVANTAGES (PMSG): pa
 They are relatively secure and stable during their operation and don’t require any
external power supply, to excite their set-up.

 The synchronous generators don’t use slip rings as in case of other traditional
generators, hence they are maintenance free and simple.
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 These generators offer high efficiency and power coefficient.

 The synchronous generators are preferred to asynchronous generators especially

for their high capacities, as asynchronous ones would consume enormous reactive
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power and thus they are suitable for smaller capacities.

SCIG-SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION GENERATOR:

 Three phase squirrel cage induction motors can also be used as generators.
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 For this to work the motor must either be connected to a grid supply or an
arrangement of capacitors.
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 If the motor is run as a self exciting induction generator the capacitors can either be
connected in a delta or c2c arrangement.

 The c2c method is for producing a single phase output and the delta method is for a
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three phase output.

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 For the motor to work as a generator instead of a motor the rotor must be spun just
faster than its nameplate speed, this will cause the motor to generate power after
building up its residual magnetism.

Possible architecture for systems using conventional induction generators which

have a solid squirrel-cage rotor have many similarities to those with synchronous
generators. The main difference is that the induction generator is not inherently self-

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exciting and it needs a source of reactive power. This could be done by a generator side
self-commutated converter operating in the rectifier mode. A significant advantage of this
configuration is the low cost and low maintenance requirements of induction generators.
Another advantage of using the self commutated double converter is that it can be on the
ground, completely separate from the wind machine. If there is a problem in the converter,
it could be switched out of the circuit for repair and the wind machine could continue to
run at constant speed. The main disadvantage with this configuration is that, as with the

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synchronous generator, the power conversion system would have to take the full power
generated and could be relatively costly compared to some other configurations. There
would also be additional complexities associated with the supply of reactive power to the

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generator.
The stator of a three-phase induction machine is similar to that of a three-phase
synchronous machine. The rotor is either a squirrel-cage or wound rotor. The machine
with the squirrel cage rotor is simpler in construction and more robust than the machine
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with a wound rotor in which the three-phase rotor winding is brought outside the rotor
through slip rings. The rotor is cylindrical and is constructed from steel laminations. It is
also possible to use a solid rotor instead of a laminated rotor. However, a solid rotor leads
to higher losses as compared with a laminated rotor. The losses in a solid rotor can be
reduced by cutting slots in the rotor surface, filling the stator slot openings with magnetic
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wedges to reduce the field ripple, and placing a copper cage on the rotor. The squirrel-cage
induction generators are widely used with the fixed-speed wind turbines.
An induction machine requires a source that can provide the leading reactive power
to magnetize the airgap. This means that a three-phase induction generator cannot supply
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power to a load through a three-phase diode bridge. Capacitor supply of the reactive
energy is impractical because of the wide operating speed range. In the most general case
(in which both motoring and generating operation can be achieved) a three-phase active
bridge can be used. If only generating operation is desired, the power to the load can be
supplied through a three-phase diode bridge and the reactive power can be obtained from
asmall three-phase active bridge provided for this purpose. This design requires a large
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number of devices and complex control.

The Squirrel Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) is a very popular machine due toits
mechanical simplicity and robust construction. The stator winding is con-nected to the
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load/excitation source, and is insulated. The rotor is provided with an uninsulated winding,
which is very resistant to the effects of possible dirtingress, and vibration. Maintenance is
generally restricted to bearing lubrication only. A major problem is the necessity of
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obtaining the excitation current from the stator terminals.

Applying a self-excited start, followed by a fully ex-cited synchronization, while
generation is ensured, may alleviate voltage dips during start-up. Shaft torques produced
under fault conditions, are sometimes very high.

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Methods of control include full power frequency inverter, fixed capacitor, thyristor
and static VAR controller.

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Diagram showing an uncontrolled, grid connected, Squirrel Cage Induction Generator, as a

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Wind turbine Generator
At power frequencies, the SCIG is inherently stable, but when connected to a weak
grid with an unbalanced, three-phase load, overheating and torque pulsations may occur in

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the SCIG.
DOUBLE FED INDUCTION GENERATOR:
 DFIG is an abbreviation for Double Fed Induction Generator, a generating principle
widely used in WIND TURBINES.
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 It is based on an induction generator with a multiphase wound rotor and a
multiphase slip ring assembly with brushes for access to the rotor windings

SPECIAL FEATURES:
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 The wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine is the only electric machine that
operates with rated torque to twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of
excitation (i.e., 7200 rpm @ 60 Hz and one pole-pair versus 3600 rpm for singly-fed
electric machines).
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 Higher speed with a given frequency of excitation gives lower cost, higher efficiency,
and higher power density.
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• Pmech = 0.5*p * Cp*A*v^3 pa
where
p- air density,
A- area of the turbine blade,

V-wind velocity.
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Cp- power coefficient(depends on tip speed ratio(lambda)
lamda = (R*omega)/V
• Pmech = Pstator + Protor

• Protor = -SPstator (Pr is positive for negative slip i.e speed greater than
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synchronous speed)

The mechanical efficiency in a wind turbine is dependent of the power coefficient.

The power coefficient of a rotating wind turbine is given by the pitch angle and the tip
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speed ratio. Adjustable speed will improve the system efficiency since the turbine speed
can be adjusted as a function of wind speed to maximize output power. To develop
adjustable speed one possible solution is a doubly fed induction generator. A dynamic
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model is needed. The construction of a dynamic model of a doubly fed induction generator
is similar to a wound rotor induction machine. It is necessary to consider several factors
when designing the control system in a wind turbine. These factors are electric system
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stability, power quality, mechanical stresses in the shaft system, wind turbine blade
transients, vortex tower interaction and the converter currents. The torque transmitted in
the shaft varies with different speed of control. The proportional plus integral controller
has two parameters, the proportional gain constant and the integral time constant.

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A large proportional constant gives large gain and a small integral time constant
gives fast control. Simulations show that fast control of the electric torque gives oscillations
in the torque that transmits through the shaft when a change in torque at the turbine
occurs. If there are mechanical reasons to avoid oscillations in the torque transmitted
through the shaft, a control with large time constant will help avoiding the oscillations that
take place. Torque pulsation from the mechanical system may take place. In simulations it
can be seen that the torque transmitted in the shaft system will contain these pulsations.

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The pulsations will be damped with a large proportional gain constant in the speed
controller. A large gain constant in the speed controller makes the electromagnetic torque
to vary more and it starts tracking the torque pulsations from the turbine. When the
electromagnetic torque has pulsations the power will contain the same pulsations. When
choosing the gain constant in the speed controller a choice between pulsations in the
torque transmitted in the shaft or pulsations in the power from the generator must be
done. To avoid unnecessary oscillations, the gain at the resonance frequency in the shaft

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system should be small.

In a wind power generating system, it is required that the generator tracks a

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prescribed torque-speed profile. Variable speed operation is introduced to gain high
efficiency in the generating system. Otherwise the generating system cannot capture the
largest possible energy available from the wind and the blades of the wind turbine will
subject to torsional stress and windage friction. The mechanical efficiency in a wind turbine
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is dependent of the power coefficient. The power coefficient of the rotating wind turbine is
given by [1] the Cp(λ,θ) curve, where λ is the tip speed ratio and θ is the pitch angle.
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When converters in the rotor circuit provide the doubly fed induction generator the
opportunity to realize adjustable speed, the maximal mechanical efficiency can be obtained
and operation at the maximum power output can be realized over a wide power range.
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To construct a variable speed constant frequency system, an induction generator is

considered attractive due to its flexible rotor speed characteristic with respect to the
constant stator frequency. One solution to expand the speed range and reduce the slip
power losses simultaneously is to doubly excite the stator and rotor windings. The power
converters in the rotor circuit regenerate the majority of the slip power.

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A dynamic model of the doubly fed induction machine is needed to develop
decoupled control of torque and reactive power. The model consists of a multi-mass model
to represent the shaft system, a wound induction machine model, rotor- and grid side
converters and a grid model. The dynamic model vector control uses the Park
Transformation. In systems PWM converters are introduced in the rotor circuit. Here the
converters are simulated as current sources.
Advantages of DFIG:

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• Low cost

• High efficiency

• High power density

• Variable speed operation

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 UNIT - III www.rejinpaul.com
Solar: Block diagram of solar photo voltaic system -Principle of operation: line
commutated converters (inversion-mode) - Boost and buck-boost converters-
selection of inverter, battery sizing, array sizing Wind: Three phase AC voltage
controllers- AC-DC-AC converters: uncontrolled rectifiers, PWM Inverters, Grid
Interactive Inverters-matrix converters.

SOLAR:

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System Components

o Solar Cells
o Arrays
o Mounting Structures
o Combiner Box

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o Inverters

PV modules are mounted on mounting racks and are attached to a structure or may be

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mounted on a pole. A number of modules assembled together is called an array. Individual
modules produce electric current and voltage that depends upon the specific module. The
electric output wires of the modules are wired together in a combiner box in order to get the
voltage and current required by the inverter. The array output can be disconnected by a DC
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disconnect switch. In order for the system to be disconnected from the grid by utility workers,
a utility accessible AC disconnect switch is installed on the inverter output. The inverter may
have two connections to the breaker panel.

PV Cell:
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The basic photovoltaic device that is the building block for PV modules
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Connect Cells To Make Modules:

 One silicon solar cell produces 0.5 volt.
 36 cells connected together have enough voltage to charge 12 volt batteries and run
pumps and motors.
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 72-cell modules are the new standard for grid- connected systems having a nominal
voltage of 24-Volts and operating at about 30 Volts.
 Module is the basic building block of systems Can connect modules together to get any
power configuration
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PV Module:
A group of PV cells connected in series and/or parallel and encapsulated in an
environmentally protective laminate .
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PV Panel:
A structural group of modules that is the basic building block of a PV array.
PV Array:
A group of panels that comprises the complete direct current PV generating unit.

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Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels, and array

PV Performance Parameters:

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− Open-circuit voltage (Voc )

− Short-circuit current (Isc )
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− Maximum power voltage (Vmp )

− Maximum power current (Imp )
− Maximum power (Pmp )
Current Varies With Irradiance:
Solar Module Performance at Different Irradiances
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Voltage Varies With Temperature:

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Solar Module Performance at Different Cell Temperatures

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GENERAL INFORMATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS :

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Photovoltaic systems are designed to perform the following functions:
• Convert solar energy to direct current electrical energy
• Regulate the electrical energy output

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• Feed the electrical energy into an external load circuit to perform work, or
• Store the electrical energy in a battery subsystem for later use.
Photovoltaic systems are designed for many applications varying in size and complexity. Some
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are isolated from ac power lines. Remote systems include navigational aids along coastlines;
beacons on mountain peaks, remote homes, and isolated villages in developing countries. Some
photovoltaic systems have ac power or fossil fuel generators as a source of auxiliary electric
power. Systems are designed for water pumping stations, for supplying power to TV and
communication equipment, village power, auxiliary power for heating and cooling private
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homes and industrial applications.
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS :
A block diagram of a typical system is shown in Figure 2-1 to identify the components
and their functions. The key components are the solar panel, the voltage regulator, the storage
battery, the dc-ac inverter (or dc to dc converter), and the load.
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Solar panels are an orderly arrangement of solid state photovoltaic cells in series and
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parallel strings which convert incident solar energy into direct unregulated current. Panel
electrical performance is normally described by its characteristics delivered under maximum
sunlight:
• Peak power
• Voltage at peak power
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• Current at peak power
• Short circuit current
• Open circuit voltage
Incident sunlight, or insolation, varies during the day, with elevation, and with
geographical location. Panel output therefore also varies and must be regulated by the charge
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controller to control the charging of the battery subsystem. Excessive overcharging of a battery
is a major cause of short battery life.
The dc-ac inverter changes dc power from the solar panel or the battery to ac power to
perform work in ac loads (motors, transmitters, lights, etc. ). A dc-dc converter can be used if
the load is designed for dc power. 2-4 At night and during continuing overcast days, the energy
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stored in the battery subsystem can be depleted. When the battery voltage drops below a
predetermined value, the auxiliary dc power supply cuts in to carry the load and recharges the
battery. In the simplest stand-alone system, the only components which may appear to be
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needed are the solar module, the battery and the dc load. The battery is sized to accept the
highest power output from the solar panel without overcharge damage. In most cases,
however, insolation is not that predictable, and the array output varies over such a wide range
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that charge regulators are needed and recommended to control charging current. A low voltage
disconnect is also recommended to protect the battery from deep discharge. The battery
stores excess energy generated by the solar array during bright days of high insolation and
discharges this stored energy back into the load at night or on overcast days. For a continuous

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power output capability, the battery is a very essential component. Batteries can be selected to
give a higher peak output than the solar array to provide:
• High peak energy for starting motors or engines
• For opening and closing circuit breakers
• For steady power output for long periods of time 2-5
In addition, the battery can repeat these functions through many charge-discharge
cycles within a wide temperature range during its long life. Correct battery selection and sizing

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is most important to the success of the solar photovoltaic system.
OPERATION OF A PV CELL:
Solar electric systems convert sunlight to “DC” or direct current electricity—the same
type of electricity that is produced by every-day batteries where electrons flow in one direction.
Solar cells, generally consisting of 2 layers of silicon (semi-conductor material) and a separation
layer, are wired together and assembled into panels or modules. When the cells are exposed to

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sunlight, photons from the sun interact with electrons in the upper silicon layer, basically
knocking them loose from their associated atoms. The loose electrons are attracted to atoms in
the lower layer of silicon and travel through the wire to get there. This movement of electrons
from one side of the cell to the other through the wire is electrical current. The term

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“photovoltaic” (or PV for short) is nicely descriptive of this process.

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When a solar panel is manufactured, the PV cells are wired together in “series”.
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The output voltage of the panel depends on the number of cells in the series. Common nominal
output voltages are 12, 18, and 24 volts DC. Theoutput wattage is dependent on the efficiency of
the cells and the size or area of each cell in the panel. The larger and more efficient the cells, the
greater the wattage will be per square foot. Panels made using more efficient cells tend to be
more expensive.
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When the installer assembles a PV system, an exact number of panels are wired in series
strings to achieve thetarget voltage required by the inverter or other load. Then groups of panel
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strings are often wired together in “parallel” in order to increase the wattage of the system. Once
all these components are in place, the sun provides the energy and the system simply
manufactures electricity!
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Types of PV Systems:

 grid-connected or net-metered systems or grid-tie (battery free)

 Grid-tie with battery backup

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 remote or standalone solar photovoltaic (spv) or Off-Grid system
 PV DIRECT

Grid-Connected Or Net-Metered Systems Or Grid-Tie (Battery Free):

The simplest and most cost effective PV design for most sites is the "Grid-Tie"
(sometimes referred to as intertied or utility-interactive) system. This system does not provide

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backup power during a power outage (even if the sun is shining) but for sites with reliable grid
power, this is usually the logical system choice.

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Block diagram of PV system without battery backup
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There are no batteries to store excess power generated--the electric utility
essentially stores it for you through a system called "net-metering." DC (direct current) generated
by the PV panels is converted into AC (alternating current) power by the inverter (exactly the
same high quality AC current delivered to your site by the utility-provided power grid). Output
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from the inverter is connected to your existing distribution panel (breaker panel) which feeds the
rest of your site. While the system is generating electricity, power needs are provided by the PV
system (up to its capacity), reducing or eliminating the power you would have drawn from the
utility grid at that time. During periods when your grid-tie system is generating even more
energy than your site requires, any excess is fed back into the grid for others to use and the
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electric utility company "buys" it from you at the retail rate. They provide credits to your
account for all the power that is pushed back into the grid through the meter. And your meter
will literally run backwards! When your site needs to draw more energy than it is producing (say,
during cloudy conditions or at night), electricity is provided by the power grid in the normal
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manner and is first paid for by your accumulated credits.

GRID-TIE WITH BATTERY BACKUP:
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The Grid-Tie with Battery Backup system can also push excess electricity
produced to the electric utility grid but has the added feature of batteries in order to power
some selected backup loads when the grid is down. With this benefit comes
increased complexity, cost and maintenance requirements.

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Block diagram of PV system with battery backup
The "Grid-Tie With Battery Backup" PV system incorporates one or more special AC
circuits which are not directly connected to the electric grid like the rest of the building, but are
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always powered through the inverter and/or charge controller. These circuits may power a
refrigerator, selected lights, computers or servers... any devices the owner deems essential. The
"dual function" inverter can supply the utility grid with any excess power produced by the
system like the "grid-tie" inverter, plus the inverter works with the PV modules and battery
bank (through the charge controller) to provide AC power to the backup circuits when the grid
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is down. The charge controller manages the battery voltage, keeping them fully charged when
the grid is live, and preventing them from being depleted when the system is drawing power
from them.
Standalone Solar Photovoltaic (Spv) System or Off-Grid :
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A Standalone SPV system is the one which is not connected to the power grid.
Standalone PV systems usually have a provision for energy storage. This system has battery
support to supply the load requirements during the night hours or even when sunshine is not
adequate (Cloudy conditions) during the day.
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The block diagram is the Standalone SPV system. Power is generated when sun light falls
on the SPV module. This power is given to the MPPT or Charge controller block. The function of

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this block is to control the variation in the output of the SPV module and make it suitable for
use at the output according to the supply required by a load. There are two types of the loads:
AC and DC. DC components are directly connected to the MPPT or Charge controller block,
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where as the AC appliances are connected through the Battery and inverter.
In this way, a Standalone system is connected depending upon whether only AC load is
present or both AC and DC load are present.

Standalone SPV System Design:

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The simplest example of standalone SPV system is "the DC load directly connected to the
SPV module without any control circuitry or any other component". An example of this is a DC
water Pump connected directly to the SPV module as shown in While designing the SPV system
there are 3 main constraints that we have to take care of are:
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 Load Requirement ( AC and DC Load Nos of hours of operation)

 Battery Capacity
 SPV Module wattage

PV DIRECT:
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PV Direct systems are usually very simple systems where the photovoltaic panel is

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connected directly to a motor or pump which matches the voltage and amperage output of
the panel. When the sun shines and the PV panel produces electricity, the device runs--when the
sun is not available, the device stops. This system is often used for livestock where a well-pump
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lifts water out of the ground to a watering trough in remote locations. Other applications include
solar powered attic fans, irrigation systems and small day-time garden waterfalls or fountains.
Differences Between PV and Conventional Electrical Systems:
• PV systems have dc circuits that require special design and equipment.
• PV systems can have multiple energy sources, and special disconnects are required to isolate
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components.
• Energy flows in PV systems may be bi-directional.
• Utility-Interactive PV systems require an interface with the ac utility-grid and special
considerations must be adopted. (utility must be involved-hence utility training)
INVERTERS:
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Inverter circuit classified based on commutation circuitry:

a. Line commutated inverters.
b. Load commutated inverters.
c. Self commutated inverters.
d. Forced commutated inverters.
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTERS:

:
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:

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BUCK CONVERTER:
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A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. Its design is similar to the step-
up boost converter, and like the boost converter it is a switched-mode power supply that uses
two switches (a transistor and a diode), an inductor and a capacitor.
The simplest way to reduce the voltage of a DC supply is to use a linear regulator (such
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as a 7805), but linear regulators waste energy as they operate by dissipating excess power as
heat. Buck converters, on the other hand, can be remarkably efficient (95% or higher for
integrated circuits), making them useful for tasks such as converting the 12–24 V typical battery
voltage in a laptop down to the few volts needed by the processor.
Operating principle:
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The operation of the buck converter is fairly simple, with an inductor and two switches
(usually a transistor and a diode) that control the inductor. It alternates between connecting
the inductor to source voltage to store energy in the inductor and discharging the inductor into
the load.
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Fig. 3: Naming conventions of the components, voltages and current of the buck converter.
Continuous mode
A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (IL) never
falls to zero during the commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is described by
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the chronogram in figure 4:

 When the switch pictured above is closed (On-state, top of figure 2), the voltage across the
inductor is VL = Vi − Vo. The current through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is
reverse-biased by the voltage source V, no current flows through it;
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 When the switch is opened (off state, bottom of figure 2), the diode is forward biased. The
voltage across the inductor is VL = − Vo(neglecting diode drop). Current IL decreases.
The energy stored in inductor L is
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Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during On-time (as IL increases)
and then decreases during the Off-state. L is used to transfer energy from the input to the output
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of the converter.
The rate of change of IL can be calculated from:
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With VL equal to Vi − Vo during the On-state and to − Vo during the Off-state. Therefore, the
increase in current during the On-state is given by:

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Identically, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

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If we assume that the converter operates in steady state, the energy stored in each component at
the end of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle. That means that
the current IL is the same at t=0 and at t=T (see figure 4).
So we can write from the above equations:

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It is worth noting that the above integrations can be done graphically: In figure 4, is
proportional to the area of the yellow surface, and to the area of the orange surface, as

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these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red) curve. As these surfaces are simple
rectangles, their areas can be found easily: for the yellow rectangle
and − Votoff for the orange one. For steady state operation, these areas must be equal.
As can be seen on figure 4,
a value between 0 and 1. This yields:
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and . D is a scalar called the duty cycle with
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From this equation, it can be seen that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly with the
duty cycle for a given input voltage. As the duty cycle D is equal to the ratio between tOnand the
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period T, it cannot be more than 1. Therefore, . This is why this converter is referred to
as step-down converter.
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So, for example, stepping 12 V down to 3 V (output voltage equal to a fourth of the input
voltage) would require a duty cycle of 25%, in our theoretically ideal circuit.
Discontinuous mode:
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in
a time lower than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor
falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that
the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see figure 5). This

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has, however, some effect on the previous equations.

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We still consider that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the
inductor is the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle (in the case of discontinuous
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mode, it is zero). This means that the average value of the inductor voltage (VL) is zero; i.e., that
the area of the yellow and orange rectangles in figure 5 are the same. This yields:

So the value of δ is:

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The output current delivered to the load (Io) is constant, as we consider that the output capacitor
is large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals during a commutation cycle.
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This implies that the current flowing through the capacitor has a zero average value. Therefore,
we have :
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Where is the average value of the inductor current. As can be seen in figure 5, the inductor
current waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the average value of IL can be sorted out
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geometrically as follow:

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The inductor current is zero at the beginning and rises during ton up to ILmax. That means that
ILmax is equal to:

Substituting the value of ILmax in the previous equation leads to:

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And substituting δ by the expression given above yields:

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This expression can be rewritten as:
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It can be seen that the output voltage of a buck converter operating in discontinuous mode is
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much more complicated than its counterpart of the continuous mode. Furthermore, the output
voltage is now a function not only of the input voltage (Vi) and the duty cycle D, but also of the
inductor value (L), the commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).
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BOOST CONVERTER:
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage
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greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply

(SMPS)containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least
one energy storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
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with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage
ripple.
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The basic schematic of a boost converter. The switch is typically a MOSFET,IGBT,
or BJT.
Operating principle:
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a

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resistor); when being discharged it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The
voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of change of current, and
not to the original charging voltage, thus allowing different input and output voltages.

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The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 2):
 in the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an increase in the
inductor current;
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 in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring
the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
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 The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 2. So it is
not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are
relaxed compared to a buck converter.
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Continuous mode:
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (IL)
never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter

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operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal
converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behaviour) operating in steady conditions.
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear across
the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a time
period (t) by the formula:

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At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the
switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we

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consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain
constant, the evolution of IL is:

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Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
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As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy
stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
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So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle. This
means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:
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Substituting and by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

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Which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be:

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From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the
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input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to
infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-
up converter.

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Discontinuous mode:
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a
time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor
falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is

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that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms
in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It
can be calculated as follows: pa
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value
(at t = DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δT:

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Using the two previous equations, δ is:

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The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the
diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current
can be written as:
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Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

w

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

w

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is
much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not

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only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, the switching
frequency, and the output current.

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BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER: pa
Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce an
output voltage much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage. Both of them can
produce a wide range of output voltage from that maximum output voltage to almost zero.
The inverting topology – The output voltage is of the opposite polarity as the input
A buck (step-down) converter followed by a boost (step-up) converter – The output
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voltage is of the same polarity as the input, and can be lower or higher than the input. Such a
non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single inductor that is used as both the buck
inductor and the boost inductor.
THE INVERTING TOPOLOGY:
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The basic schematic of a buck–boost converter.

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The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage
magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is a switched-
mode power supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck converter.
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The output voltage is adjustable based on theduty cycle of the switching transistor. One possible
drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a terminal at ground; this complicates
the driving circuitry. Also, the polarity of the output voltage is opposite the input voltage.
Neither drawback is of any consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if,

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for example, the supply is a battery) as the supply and diode polarity can simply be reversed. The
switch can be on either the ground side or the supply side.
Operating principle:
The basic principle of the buck–boost converter is fairly simple (see figure 2):
 While in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the
inductor (L). This results in accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor

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supplies energy to the output load.
 while in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor,
so energy is transferred from L to C and R.
Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the buck–boost converter are
mainly:

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 polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;the output voltage can
vary continuously from 0 to (for an ideal converter).
 The output voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter are respectively 0

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to and to .

pa
Fig. 1: Schematic of a buck–boost converter
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pa
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Continuous Mode:
If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation cycle, the
converter is said to operate in continuous mode. The current and voltage waveforms in an ideal
converter can be seen in Figure 3.
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Fig 3: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in

continuous mode

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From to , the converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of
change in the inductor current (IL) is therefore given by

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

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D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which
the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the

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load. If we assume zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage
to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

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Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:
pa
As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of
energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of
a commutation cycle. As the energy in an inductor is given by:
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it is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same as the
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value of IL at the beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during the on and
the off states must be zero:

Substituting and by their expressions yields:

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This can be written as:

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This in return yields that:

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From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output voltage is
always negative (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value increases with
D, theoretically up to minus infinity as D approaches 1. Apart from the polarity, this converter is
either step-up (as a boost converter) or step-down (as a buck converter). This is why it is
referred to as a buck–boost converter.
Discontinuous Mode:

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In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current
through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle
described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation
cycle (see waveforms in figure 4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the
output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:

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pa
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Fig 4: Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in

discontinuous mode.
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As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value
(at ) is
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During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δ.T:

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Using the two previous equations, δ is:

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The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4,
the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output
current can be written as:

Replacing and δ by their respective expressions yields:

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Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

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Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output

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voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage
and the output current.
Limit between continuous and discontinuous modes
pa
As told at the beginning of this section, the converter operates in discontinuous mode
when low current is drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels.
The limit between discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when the inductor current
falls to zero exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. with the notations of figure 4, this
corresponds to
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Fig 5: Evolution of the normalized output voltage with the normalized output current in
a buck–boost converter.

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In this case, the output current (output current at the limit between continuous
and discontinuous modes) is given by:

Replacing by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section yields:

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As is the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes of
operations, it satisfies the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the expression of the
output voltage in continuous mode, the previous expression can be written as:

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SELECTION OF INVERTER: pa
Inverter Backup Some facts
“My Inverter is not giving sufficient backup”. This is the most common complaint raised against
the home inverter system. We expect maximum backup time from the inverter system with a
tubular battery, but unfortunately we get half or less backup time than we expect. What is the
reason for that? Before blaming the inverter, let us see what is happening.
The back bone of the Inverter system is the battery. We use a high current tubular battery
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to give a maintenance free performance. The charge in the battery is used to convert DC to AC
by the inverter. Measure of charge is Coulomb and each electron carries 1.602 e- 19 coulomb
charge. As a rule, when 1 amps current passes through a conductor in 1 second, it uses 1
coulomb charge
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So charge Q = It
If 1 amps current flows through the conductor in 1 hour, 3600 coulomb charge will be utilized.
The amount of charge in the battery is represented in Amps hour (Ah). That is Amps times
Hour. It is the amount of charge present in the battery. But Amps hours cannot be used to
measure the charge level, since the voltage changes during discharge. So the measure of charge
is Watts Hours. Watt hour can be calculated by multiplying the nominal voltage with the battery
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capacity in Amps hours.

E = C x Vg. where C is the capacity of the battery in Ah and Vg is the discharge rate.
Charge requirement of the load
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The following equation tells you, how much battery charge is required for your load.
First find out the capacity of the battery. If ‘X amps’ current is drawn by the load in ‘t hours’,
then the capacity of the battery
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C = Xt
Suppose the load is drawing 120 mA current in 24 hours, then the capacity of the battery should
be
C = 0.12A x 24 = 2.88 Ah

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It is not a good practice to discharge the battery completely till the load shut off. Stop running
the load, if the battery charge reduces to 20%.
Battery capacity
If the load takes 120 mA current in 1 hour, maximum capacity of the battery should be 0.12A x
24 = 2.88 Ah. Best method to keep the charge / discharge cycles perfect is to stop discharging
the battery till it maintains 20% charge. Hence to retain 20% charge, the capacity of the battery
should be

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C / 0.8
If the battery requires 2.88 Ah in one hour, then to keep 20% charge in it, the capacity of the
battery should be
2.88Ah / 0.8 = 3.6Ah.
Discharge Rate
Lead acid batteries have few Amps hour if the discharge rate is fast. Generally, the lead acid
battery is rated for 20 hours discharge rate provided the discharge rate is slow. At high

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discharge rate, the capacity of the battery drops steeply. Suppose the battery is 10 Ah and its
discharge rate is 1C. One hour discharge of the battery at the rate of 1C (10 Amps in 1 hour), the
capacity reduces to 5 Ah in one hour. So the following tips will guide you to keep a steady
discharge rate of the battery.

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Suppose you want to run a load at 20 Amps for 1hour. Then the capacity of the battery should
be
C = It = 20A x 1 Hour = 20Ah. pa
Keep discharge rate to maximum 80%. Then the battery capacity should be
20Ah / 0.8 = 25 Ah
So a 25 Ah battery can give 20 Amps current for 1 hour to run the load
But it is better to drain the battery to 50% only then,
25 Ah / 0.5 = 50 Ah.
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Hence as a rule of thumb, it is better to use a 50Ah battery to run the load at 20 Amps per Hour
to keep 50% charge in the battery.
Suppose the load is not drawing 20 Amps continuously in 1 hour. During the first second, it
draws 20 Amps and then 100 mA during the remaining period. So the average current drawn by
the load is
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20A x 1/ 3600 + 0.1 / 3600 = 0.1044 A

3600 is the total seconds in 1 hour.
In short, if the load is not drawing the charge in a steady manner, the capacity of the battery will
be increased.
How to calculate the charge?
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It is difficult to measure the current drawing by the load at different times. The easy way is to
consider the power rating (Watts) of the load. Suppose the power rating of the load is 250 watts
and is drawing current from the inverter system for 5 hours.
Then, its Watts hour is Watts x Hour = 250 x 5 = 1250 Watts hour.
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Consider the efficiency of the inverter as 85 %( no inverter is 100% efficient).

So 1250 / 0.85 = 1470 watts hour
So the load has 1470 watts hour instead of 1250 watts hour.
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Then calculate the capacity of the battery

As you know, Watt is Amps x Volt
So if the Watt hour is divided by Voltage of the battery, you will get the Amps hour
Watt hour / Volt = Amps hour
1470 / 12 = 122.5 Ah

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Thus to run 1470 watts load, minimum capacity of the battery should be 125Ah to run the load
for 5 hours. As already stated, it is better to use a 150 Ah battery to keep discharge cycle 50%.
How to select an Inverter
Total load to be connected = 500 watts
Power factor = 0.8 (all inverters have a power factor between 0.6 to 0.8)
Inverter VA = 500 / 0.8 = 625 VA
So select 800 VA inverter to run 500 Watts load

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How to select the battery
Backup time = Watt / Battery voltage x Hours
500 / 12 x 3Hr = 125 Ah
12 volt tubular battery has a terminal voltage of 14.8 volts in fully charged condition. Usually the
inverter has cutoff facility to protect battery from deep discharge. Most of the inverters are set
for 80 % (Retaining charge) cutoff voltage. That is after 20% discharge, inverter will shut off.
Inverter cutoff voltage = 14.8 x 0.8 = 11.84 volts

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Watt hour = watt x hour = 500 watts x 3 hours = 1500 watt hours
Ah of battery = watt hour / volt = 1500 / 11 = 126 Ah.
In short, an 800 VA inverter with 126 Ah battery can power 500 watts load for 3 hours.
Load calculation chart

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Appliance Watts (VA) Hours of Backup Total
W x 1.5 for AC Average watts

Calculation
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Wattage of the appliance = Volt x Ampere = ……………. Watts
Inverter loss = Watts x 1.5 = …………….. AC Watts
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Total AC load in watts = ………………
Total watts / day (watts x hour) = ………………
Battery selection chart
Inverter Battery Battery Ah Backup Appliances
Rating voltage time
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VA
150-200 12 150 3Hr 1 Fan+1 Tube
250 12 150 3Hr 1 Fan+2 Tubes / TV
300-350 12 150 3Hr 2 Fans+2 Tubes/TV
400-450 24 150 3Hr 2Fans+4tubes or 2 Fans+2Tubes+TV
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800 24 150 3Hr 4 Fans+4Tubes or 2 Fans+4Tubes+TV

Criteria for Inverter Selection:

The purpose of this document is to provide a checklist when considering selecting a Solar PV
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Inverter.
AC Voltage: In the US, we can face a multitude of AC operating voltages as well as single or
three-phase systems;
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 120/240- single phase is used in residential applications. Inverters would

connect to 240VAC in this application.
 240- three-phase is used for power loads in commercial and industrial buildings.
This is a delta configuration. Across any one (of 3 transformers) there’s 240V.

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On one side (only) of the delta. There is a center-tapped transformer which is
connected to neutral. Thus providing 2x 120VAC for outlets.
 208Y/120-V three-phase four wire distribution is commonly used in commercial
buildings with limited electrical loads. 120V is available between a pole and
ground, while 208V is available between any two poles.
 480- Three phase delta is commonly used in commercial and industrial

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buildings with substantial motor loads.
 480Y/277- is used to supply commercial and industrial buildings. Between any
two poles there’s 480V, and between any pole and neutral there’s 277V. The
277V is used for ballasted lighting. Local step-down transformers are typically
inserted to provide 208Y/120-V power for lighting, appliances and outlets.

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DC Voltage: For inverters we have the following parameters when considering DC voltages;
 The Maximum Power Point Transfer (MPPT or MPP) voltage range. This is the
voltage range where the inverter employs its software algorithm to adjust its DC

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input impedance to that of the solar system. A solar PV string should be sized
such that the inverter can normally operate within this range.
 Maximum DC voltage; a solar PV string with no load (Vo) must under no
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circumstance ever exceed an inverters maximum DV voltage. When considering
this factor, one must assume the lowest possible solar PV panel temperature
while exposed to bright sunlight. This usually happens on a winter day with
cumulus clouds. Here in Los Altos California, it is safe to assume a T(min) of -10C.
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 Minimum DC voltage; for tracking systems, the minimum DC voltage at which
the inverter remains on-line is particularly critical to concentrated solar PV
tracker performance. During cloud cover, a solar PV string’s DC voltage can drop
to a very low level. At some point, the inverter will decide to all-together stop
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production, and proceed with shutdown. Upon cloud clearing, a shut-down

inverter, must now go through a start-up procedure during which it must
monitor the AC voltage and frequency for a given time interval before going on-
line.
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Peak Power vs Typical or Average

An inverter needs to supply two needs - Peak, or surge power, and the typical or usual power.
w

 Surge is the maximum power that the inverter can supply, usually for only a short time - a few
seconds up to 15 minutes or so. Some appliances, particularly those with electric motors, need
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a much higher startup surge than they do when running. Pumps are the most common example
- another common one is refrigerators (compressors).
 Typical is what the inverter has to supply on a steady basis. This is the continuous rating.
This is usually much lower than the surge. For example, this would be what a refrigerator pulls
after the first few seconds it takes for the motor to start up, or what it takes to run the

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microwave - or what all loads combined will total up to. (see our note about appliance power
and/or name tag ratings at the end of this section).
 Average power would usually be much less than typical or surge, and is not usually a factor in
choosing an inverter. If you run a pump for 20 minutes and a small TV for 20 minutes during a
one hour period, the average might be only 300 watts, even though the pump requires 2000.
Average power is only useful in estimating battery capacity needed. Inverters must be sized
for the maximum peak load, and for the typical continuous load.

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SELECTION OF BATTERY SIZING:
The basic data necessary for sizing a battery are: the requisite operating time, the power
or discharge current to be supplied and the permissible voltage range, particularly the end-
point voltage. Other data, such as ambient temperature, frequency of mains failure and specific
load cycles influence sizing.
Battery selection is based on the manufacturer’s literature, the appropriate type

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beingchosen in relation to current, capacity, discharge time and voltage range.

Battery Selection

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The selection of the physical battery (cells) is dependant on several factors:

 Type of battery (sealed, vented, lead acid, NiCad, etc.)

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 expected life of the battery
 usage of the batter (number of charge/discharge cycles)
 dimensions and weight of the battery
 construction materials
 connectors and terminals

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ambient environment and conditions
 maintenance requirements
 seismic characteristics
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Calculation of Battery Size

Number of Cells and Cell Voltage - the number of cells is estimated based on the maximum
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battery voltage and float charge voltage:

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The minimum battery voltage is the minimum system voltage (including voltage drops across
cables). Given the minimum cell voltage the minimum cell voltage is given by:
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Temperature Correction - at temperature decreases the capacity of a cell decreases (and vise
verse as the temperature increases). Manufacturers quote cell capacity at a given temperature
and appropriate correction factors should be used for other temperatures.

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Aging Factor - battery performance is relatively stable through out its life, dropping of rapidly
towards the end. To ensure the battery can meet the design requirements throughout its life the
standard suggestions the initial capacity should be 125% of the design capacity.

Design Margin - to cater for unexpected circumstances (increased loads, poor maintenance,
recent discharge, etc.) it is common to allow a design margin of 10% to 15%.

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pa
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Sizing Methodology - the required capacity of the cell FS is given by:
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Where S can be any integer from 1 to Ndepending on the section being calculated and FS is
expressed in watt-hours or ampere-hours depending on which Ct is used.
The required uncorrected cell size F, is then given by:
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where:


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F - is the uncorrected (temperature, aging and design margin) cell size

 S - is the section of duty cycle being studied (containing all previous sections)
 N - is the number of periods in the duty cycle
 P - is the period being analyzed
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 AP - the amperes required for period P

 t - the time in minutes from the beginning of period P through the end of Section S
 Ct - is the capacity rating factor (for a given cell type, at the t minute discharge rate, at
25 °C, to a definite minimum cell voltage
 FS - is the capacity required by each section

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Battery sizing calculations formulas:
With parallel operation, the number of cells in any battery is calculated from
themaximum trickel-charge voltage and the maximum permitted continuous demandvoltage:

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where;
n = Number of cells
Vmax = Maximum permitted continuous demand voltageV
cmax = Maximum charge voltage per cell

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where;
Vcmin = Minimum voltage of individual cell
Vmin = Minimum permitted continuous demand voltage
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Δvmax = Largest possible voltage drop between battery terminals
and consume.
The battery rating is selected by reference to the capacity Curve or Performance
DataTables of the chosen cell type such that the voltage according to the current/timedischarge
data does not fall below the minimum value Vmin while power is beingdrawn.
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Static or dynamic loading must at no time during the discharge period allow thebattery
voltage to drop below the minimum value demanded by the consumers Vmin:
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To derive maximum performance benefit from a UPS battery it is important to pay

attention to the sizing details and selection of battery type. Equally important are the installation
practices employed. An attempt is made here to provide some insight into these aspects.
There are two steps to calculate the battery Ah capacities for UPS application or single
load duty requirements.
 Load current (Idc)
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 Ah capacity calculation

Load current (Idc)

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 IDC = KVA rating x Load Power factor x 1000

 End cell Voltage/Avg. Discharge Voltage x Number of cells x Inverter efficiency

Note: Load current can also be calculated if the rating is given in watts as below:
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IDC = Watts/system DC voltage

Ah capacity calculation
Ah = IDC x K-factor x Design margin x T- factor x Aging factor

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 K-factor: Depending upon the End Cell Voltage & Back-up duration, the k-factor
shall be selected to arrive at the required capacity at standard rate of Discharge and
these factors are manufacturer dependent.
 T-factor: Necessary Temperature correction factor needs to be considered for
temperatures below 27°C to support the duty cycle requirements even at low
temperature operation. You may also refer the manufacturer published data for this
purpose.

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 Aging factor: In line with IEEE recommended practice of sizing Lead storage
batteries, it is recommended that a battery be replaced when its actual capacity drops
to 80% of its rated capacity. Therefore the battery’s rated capacity should be at least
1.25 times the load expected at the end of its service life. This factor of 1.25 is known
as aging factor or life factor (L).

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 Design Margin: It is prudent to provide a capacity margin to allow for unforeseen
additions to the DC system and less than optimum operating conditions of the battery
due to improper maintenance, recent discharge, temperature variations or

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combination these factors. A method of providing this design margin is to add 10% to
the cell size determined by calculations.we can choose the nearest highest capacity
available from the range based on the calculated Ah capacity in the above steps.

BATTERY SIZING CALCULATOR:

pa
Battery sizing is really a pretty simple straight forward process and is crucial to get right
for an Stand Alone Off-Grid Battery systems. In the past I have used a default KISS approach
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(Keep It Simple Stupid) to make things really easy. The formula for the KISS method is:
 (Daily Watt Hour Usage x 5) / Battery Voltage

This works in most applications in moderate climates where winters are fairly mild, and
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uses a default 2.5 consecutive Cloudy Days to the 50 % Depth of Discharge threshold cutoff
point. So as an example let’s use 1 Kwh or 1000 watt hours per day with a 12 volt battery and we
get:
 (1000 wh x 5 days) / 12 volts = 416.66 Amp Hours

So we would round this number to say 420 up to 450 AH and then go select batteries to do
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the job. Simple enough and is a very valid method to the design process.
OK so let’s say you want more or less than 2.5 days autonomy (cloudy weather days) and
live in a cold climate. What follows is a simplified IEEE method system designers will use:
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1. Determine how many Watt Hours you need in a single 24 hour day. WH =
___________.
2. Determine the maximum number of consecutive cloudy days. The range is from 1
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to 5. Caution here choosing a low number less than 2 does not give you ability to
get through a cloudy spell and you will likely need a generator and a conventional
battery charger in addition to a solar charger. Recommend minimum is 2.5 days or
a range of 2.5 to 5 days. Days = __________.

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3. Multiply Line 1 by Line 2. WH = ______________.
4. Determine maximum amount of Depth of Discharge in a percentage. This
determines a safety factor to extend battery life up to the maximum limits and
leaves some emergency power. 50% is usually the default choice. You can go less
like 40%, but going lower than 50% makes things very expensive. DoD % =
___________.

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5. Divide line 3 by line 4 WH = ___________.
6. From the Table below find the correction factor multiplier for your area winter
ambient temperature that the batteries will be exposed too. Correction Factor =
____________.
7. Multiply line 5 by line 6 WH = ____________.

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8. Now to find the battery AMP HOUR capacity needed Divide line 7 by the system
Battery Voltage. AH = __________________

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General Guidelines for battery sizing:
 Calculate the load in Watts-hours per 24-Hr Day (Wh/d) as accurate as possible.
 Include system losses due to efficiencies of power conditioning (inverter, DC/DC
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converters).
 Include the appropriate factors: Temperature, autonomy, design margin, and depth of
discharge (DOD).
 Consider shallow daily DOD (max 20% recommended) and occasional deeper DOD (max
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80%) during cloudy days.
 Use the correct battery rating (100-Hr), or a battery rating that approximates the actual
autonomy hours for the system load.
 Select highest battery capacities per unit to reduce the number of battery strings in
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parallel for better charge balance. The recommended maximum number of strings in
parallel is 6.

Sizing for lead acid batteries:

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Battery manufacturers provide various types of information for sizing batteries. All
battery sizing calculations have assumed a standard room temperature of 77° (25°C). Batteries
which will be operated at higher or lower temperatures continuously should be calculated
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specifically for that temperature. Your UPS or battery supplier can assist you with these
calculations. Generally, this information is supplied in one of three ways:
1. Kilowatts per cell
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2. Kilowatts per bank

3. Ampere per cell
Normally information supplied for lead acid batteries designed for short discharge times
(5-120 minutes) is in the form of kilowatts per cell tabulated for various back-up times.

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Therefore, it is important to first calculate the total kilowatts required to operate the particular
UPS at a given load (usually assuming full load)
Equation 1

KVA = KVA of the load

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PF = Power factor of load
EFF = Efficiency of the UPS at the given load
No. Cells = Number of cells required. The number of cells required will be
specified by the UPS manufactured.
AL = Any additional loads on the battery expressed in kilowatts.
ARRAY SIZING:

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The Cell, the Module and the Array:

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Solar Array Sizing:
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The size of the solar array is determined by the daily energy requirement and the solar
resource or insolation available to the system. The greater the energy requirement the larger
the solar array needs to be and the greater the insolation the smaller the solar array.
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Insolation:
Insolation is a measure of the amount of solar energy falling on an area. The usual
measure is kWh/m2/day. That is kilowatt-hours (thousands of Wh) per square metre per day.
Insolation data may be obtained from a variety of different sources such as
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meteorological agencies. An insolation map generated by NASA’s web site is well worth
subscribing to this service.
Efficiency:
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Having determined a insolation map for design insolation the efficiency of the battery
charging process must be considered. There are two factors to take into account; power point
efficiency and charge cycle efficiency.
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power point efficiency:

As shown in figure 19, the peak power output of a solar panel is produced at the ‘knee’
of the output curve. In this example this is at 20 Volts, where the current is 3.5 Amps.
Therefore the peak power output is:

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20 x 3.5 = 70 Watts
However the battery charging voltage is likely to be between 13 and 14 Volts. From the graph

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we can see that at 14 Volts the current is approximately 3.75 Amps. This gives a power output
of:14 x 3.75 = 52.5 Watts
Hence the efficiency is:52.5 / 70 = 0.75 or 75%

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Charge cycle efficiency:
The charge cycle efficiency is a measure of the proportion of the energy used to charge
a battery which is returned when the battery is discharged. The actual efficiency of a particular
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battery may be obtained from the manufacturer, however an approximation will suffice. For
this purpose assume an efficiency of 0.95 or 95%.
Sizing calculation:
All the variables necessary to size the solar array are now known. Enter the values into
the spreadsheet as shown in figure 20, or proceed as follows:
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The sizing calculation is:

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S = (E / i) / (epv x ebat)
Where:
S = Array size in peak Watts or Wp
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E = Daily energy requirement in Wh/day from section 5.4.1

i = Insolation in kWh/m2/day
epv = Power point efficiency
ebat = Charge cycle efficiency

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It can be seen that the result of this calculation is not dependent on the system voltage, as it
refers to the power output of the solar array rather than the current or voltage.
Figure 20 gives the result of this calculation for the example holiday home system

Solar Array Sizing Work form:

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This type worksheet helps figure the total number of solar modules required for your
system.

Size Your Array

1. Enter your daily amp-hour requirement
(From theLoad Sizing Worksheet, line 4) AH/Day____

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2. Enter the sun-hours per day for your area.
Refer to chart. H/Day_____

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3. Divide line 1 by line 2. This is the total
amperage required from your solar array. __________

module you have selected.

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4. Enter the peak amperage of the solar
Peak A____

5. Divide line 3 by line 4. This is the number

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of solar modules needed in parallel. __________

6. Select the required modules in series from

the following chart. __________
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Number of Modules in
Battery Bank Voltage
Series
12V 1
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24V 2
48V 4
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7. Multiply line 5 by line 6 to find the total

number of modules needed in your array. Total_______
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8. Enter the nominal power rating (in watts) of

the module you have chosen. W_________

9. Multiply line 7 by line 8. This is the

nominal power output of your system. W_________

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Calculating Energy Output of a PV Array
• Determine total A-hrs/day and increase by 20% for battery losses then divide by “1 sun
hours” to get total Amps needed for array

• Then divide your Amps by the Peak Amps produced by your solar module

– You can determine peak amperage if you divide the module's wattage by the peak

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power point voltage

• Determine the number of modules in each series string needed to supply necessary DC
battery Voltage

• Then multiply the number (for A and for V) together to get the amount of power you

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need

– P=IV [W]=[A]x[V]

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THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:
1) PHASE – CONTROLLED 3-PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS
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2) FULLY CONTROLLED 3-Ф ,3-WIRE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
a) STAR CONNECTED LOAD WITH ISOLATED NEUTRAL
i. Mode-I also known as Mode – 2/3 0 ° ≤α ≤ 60°
ii. Mode-II also known as Mode – 2/2 60 ° ≤α ≤ 90°
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iii. Mode-III also known as Mode – 0/2 90 ° ≤α ≤ 150°
 Star connected R – Load,
 Star Connected Pure L-Load,
 RL Load.
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b) Delta Connected R – Load

PHASE – CONTROLLED 3-PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:

Several possible circuit configurations for 3-phase, phase-controlled ac regulators with
star or delta-connected loads.
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fig.a

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 The configurations in Fig. 1a and b can be realized by three 1-phase ac regulators
operating independently of each other and they are easy to analyze.

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 In Fig. 1a, the SCR’s are to be rated to carry line currents and withstand phase
voltages,whereas
 In Fig. 1b they should be capable of carrying phase currents and withstand the line
voltages.
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 Also, in Fig. 1b the line currents are free from triplen harmonics while these are present
in the closed delta.
 The power factor in Fig. 1b is slightly higher.
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 The firing angle control range for both these circuits is 0 to 180 for R-load.
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 The circuits in Fig. 16.11c and d are 3-phase 3-wire circuits and are difficult to
analyze.
 In both these circuits, at least two SCRs—one in each phase—must be gated
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simultaneously to get the controller started by establishing a current path between the
supply lines.
 This necessitates 2 firing pulses spaced at 60° apart per cycle for firing each SCR.
 The operation modes are defined by the number of SCRs conducting in these modes.

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 The firing control range is 0° to 150°.
 The triplen harmonics are absent in both these configurations.

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 Another configuration is shown in Fig. 16.11e when the controllers are delta connected

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and the load is connected between the supply and the converter.
 Here, current can flow between 2 lines even if 1 SCR is conducting, so each SCR requires
1 firing pulse per cycle. pa
 The voltage and current ratings of SCR’s are nearly the same as those of the circuit in
Fig. 6.11b.
 It is also possible to reduce the number of devices to three SCR’s in delta as shown in
Fig. 16.11f connecting one source terminal directly to 1 load circuit terminal.
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 Each SCR is provided with gate pulses in each cycle
spaced 120° apart.
 In both Figs. 16.11e and f each end of each phase must be accessible.
 The number of devices in Fig. 16.11f is fewer but their current ratings must be higher.
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 As in the case of the 1-phase phase-controlled voltage regulator, the total regulator cost
can be reduced by replacing 6 SCR’s by 3 SCR’s and 3 diodes, resulting in 3-phase half-

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wave controlled unidirectional ac regulators as shown in Fig. 16.11g and h for star- and
delta-connected loads.

 The main drawback of these circuits is the large harmonic content in the output
voltage, particularly the second harmonic because of the asymmetry.

 However, the dc components are absent in the line.

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 The maximum firing angle in the half-wave controlled regulator is 210°

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FULLY CONTROLLED 3-PHASE , 3 –WIRE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER:
• STAR CONNECTED LOAD WITH ISOLATED NEUTRAL
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When none or two SCRs conduct

Two SCRs, one in each phase, always conduct.

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When none or two SCRs conduct.

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FOR DELTA CONNECTED LOAD:
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APPLICATION OF AC VC:
 SOFT STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTORS
 CONTROLS RMS VALUE OF V or I IN LIGHTING CONTROL.
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 DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL HEATING

 SPEED COTROL OF FANS,PUMPS, HOISTS.
 TEMPERATURE CONTROL,

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 CAPACITOR SWITCHING IN VAR COMPENSATION.

CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:

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UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS:
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PWM INVERTER:
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Pulse Width Modulation or PWM technology is used in Inverters to give a steady
output voltage of 230 or 110 V AC irrespective of the load. The Inverters based on the PWM
technology are more superior to the conventional inverters. The use of MOSFETsin the output
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stage and the PWM technology makes these inverters ideal for all types of loads. In addition to
the pulse width modulation, the PWM Inverters have additional circuits for protection and
voltage control.
The quality of the output wave form (230 / 110 volt AC) from the inverter determines its
efficiency. The quality of the inverter output wave form is expressed using Fourier analysis
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data to calculate the ‘Total Harmonic Distortion’ (THD). THD is the square root of the sum of
the squares of the harmonic voltage divided by the fundamental voltage.

THD = √ V2 2 + V3 2 + V4 2…………. Vn 2 / V1
Based on the output waveforms, there are three types of Inverters. These are
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 Sine wave,
 Modified Sine wave or Quasi sine wave and
 Square wave inverters.
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Sine wave
Alternating current has continuously varying voltage, which swings from positive to
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negative. This has an advantage in power transmission over long distance. Power from
the Grid is carefully regulated to get a pure sine wave and also the sine wave radiate the least
amount of radio power during long distance transmission. But it is expensive to generate sine
wave in an inverter. Its quality is excellent and almost all electrical and electronic appliances
work well in sine wave inverter.

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Sine Wave

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The sine wave is the AC waveform we get from the domestic lines and from the generator. The
major advantage of sine wave inverter is that all of the house hold appliances are designed to
operate in sine wave AC. Another advantage is that the sine wave is a form of soft temporal rise

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voltage and it lacks harmonic oscillations which can cause unwanted counter forces on engines,
interference on radio equipments and surge current on condensers.

Modified Sine wave or Quasi Sine wave

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Modified sine wave is designed to simulate a sine wave since the generation of sine wave is
expensive. This waveform consists of a Flat Plateau of positive voltage, dropping abruptly to
zero for a short period, then dropping again to a flat plateau of negative voltage. It then go back
to zero again and returning to positive. This short pause at zero volts gives more power to 50 Hz
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fundamental frequency of AC than the simple square wave.
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Inverters providing modified sine wave can adequately power most house hold appliances. It is
more economical but may present certain problems with appliances like microwave ovens, laser
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printers, digital clocks and some music systems. 99% of appliances run happily in modified sine
wave. Instruments using SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) in the power supply section behave
badly with modified sine wave. The SCR will consider the sharp corners of the sine wave as
trashes and shut off the instrument. Many of the Laser printers behave like this and fail to work

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in inverters and UPS providing modified sine wave power. Most variable speed fans buzz when
used in modified sine wave inverters.

Square wave

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This is the simplest form of output wave available in the cheapest form of inverters. They
can run simple appliances without problems but not much else.Square wave voltage can be easily
generated using a simple oscillator. With the help of a transformer, the generated square wave
voltage can be transformed into a value of 230 volt AC or higher.

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Advantage of Pulse Width Modulation pa
In a standard Inverter without the PWM technology, the output voltage changes according
to the power consumption of the load. The PWM technology corrects the output
voltage according to the value of the load by changing the Width of theswitching frequency in
the oscillator section. As a result of this, the AC voltage from the Inverter changes depending on
the width of the switching pulse. To achieve this effect, the PWM Inverter has a PWM
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controller IC which takes a part of output through a feedback loop. The PWM controller in the
Inverter will makes corrections in the pulse width of the switching pulse based on the feedback
voltage. This will cancel the changes in the output voltage and the Inverter will give a steady
output voltage irrespective of the load characteristics.
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How it Works?

To design an Inverter, many power circuit topologies and voltage control methods are
used. The most important aspect of the Inverter technology is the output waveform. To filter the

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waveform (Square wave, quasi sine wave or Sine wave) capacitors and inductors are used. Low
pass filters, are used to reduce the harmonic components. Resonant filter can be used if the
Inverter has a fixed output frequency. If the inverter has adjustable output frequency, the filter
must be tuned to a level above the maximum fundamental frequency. Feedback rectifiers are
used to bleed the peak inductive load current when the switch turns off.

As per the Fourier analysis, a square wave contains odd harmonics like third, fifth,

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seventh etc only if it is anti-symmetrical about 180 degree point. If the waveform has steps of
certain width and heights, the additional harmonics will be cancelled. If aZero voltage step is
introduced between the positive and negative parts of the square wave, the harmonics that are

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divisible by three can be eliminated. The width of the pulse should be 1/3 of the period for each
positive and negative steps and 1/6 of the period for each of the Zero voltage steps. This leaves
on the fifth, seventh, eleventh, thirteenth harmonics etc.
The Pulse Width Modulation technology is meant for changing the characteristics of the
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square wave. The switching pulses are Modulating, and regulating before supplied to the load.
When the Inverter requires no voltage control, fixed pulse width can be used.

Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM) Technology:

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In Multiple Pulse width technology, waveforms that contain a number of narrow
pulses are used. The frequency of these narrow pulses is called Switching or Carrier frequency.
The MPWM technology is used in Inverters driving variable frequency motor control systems.
This allows wide range of output voltages and frequency adjustments. More over the MPWM
technology overall improves the quality of the waveform.
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To design an Inverter, many power circuit topologies and voltage control methods are
used. The most important aspect of the Inverter technology is the output waveform. To filter the
waveform (Square wave, quasi sine wave or Sine wave) capacitors and inductors are used. Low
pass filters, are used to reduce the harmonic components. Resonant filter can be used if the
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Inverter has a fixed output frequency. If the inverter has adjustable output frequency, the filter
must be tuned to a level above the maximum fundamental frequency. Feedback rectifiers are
used to bleed the peak inductive load current when the switch turns off.
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As per the Fourier analysis, a square wave contains odd harmonics like third, fifth,
seventh etc only if it is anti-symmetrical about 180 degree point. If the waveform has steps of
certain width and heights, the additional harmonics will be cancelled. If a Zero voltage step is
introduced between the positive and negative parts of the square wave, the harmonics that are
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divisible by three can be eliminated. The width of the pulse should be 1/3 of the period for each
positive and negative steps and 1/6 of the period for each of the Zero voltage steps. This leaves
on the fifth, seventh, eleventh, thirteenth harmonics etc.

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The Pulse Width Modulation technology is meant for changing the characteristics of
the square wave. The switching pulses are Modulating, and regulating before supplied to the
load. When the Inverter requires no voltage control, fixed pulse width can be used.

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In order to increase the efficiency of the PWM inverter, the electronic circuit is highly
sophisticated with battery charge sensor, AC mains sensor, Soft start facility, output control etc.
The PWM controller circuit uses PWM IC KA 3225 or LM 494 .These ICs have internal
circuits for the entire operation of the pulse width modulation. The Oscillator circuit to generate
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the switching frequency is also incorporated in the IC. Output driver section uses Transistors or
Driver IC to drive the output according to the switching frequency. Output section uses an array
of Switching MOSFETs to drive the primary of the stepping transformer. Output voltage is
available in the secondary of the stepping transformer.
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PWM Inverter Characteristics:

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In order to increase the efficiency of the PWM inverter, the electronic circuit is highly
sophisticated with battery charge sensor, AC mains sensor, Soft start facility, output control etc.
The PWM controller circuit uses PWM IC KA 3225 or LM 494 .These ICs have internal
circuits for the entire operation of the pulse width modulation. The Oscillator circuit to generate
the switching frequency is also incorporated in the IC. Output driver section uses Transistors or
Driver IC to drive the output according to the switching frequency. Output section uses an array
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of Switching MOSFETs to drive the primary of the stepping transformer. Output voltage is
available in the secondary of the stepping transformer.
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PWM control:
In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled ac

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output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components. This is
the most popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as PWM
control. pa
The advantages of PWM control is
a. The output voltage can be obtained without any additional components.
b. Lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage
control. As the higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering requirements are
minimized.
Disadvantages of PWM control is SCRs are expensive as they must possess low turn-on and
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turn-off times.

GRID CONNECTED INVERTERS:

Photovoltaic Grid-Interactive System:
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Introduction:
Photovoltaic Grid-Interactive systems use the light available from the sun to generate
electricity and feed this into the main electricity grid. These systems differ from a 'Stand Alone'
or 'Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) system in that there are no batteries to store the energy
produced. The houses are connected to the 240V electricity mains and use the same appliances
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as found in other houses. If at a particular moment in time more power is being produced than
is required in the house, the extra power is sent back onto the grid to be used by neighbouring
households. At night or when there is insufficient power being produced to supply the
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households needs, electricity is drawn from the grid in the same manner other households do.
How they work?
The main components in a system are the Photovoltaic (PV) panels, Grid Interactive
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inverter(s), and the meter that records the amount of power produced.

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PV Panels: The PV panels convert the light reaching them into DC power. The amount of power
they produce is roughly proportional to the intensity and the angle of the light reaching them.

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They are therefore positioned to take maximum advantage of available sunlight within siting
constraints. Maximum power is obtained when the panels are able to 'track' the sun's movements
during the day and the various seasons. However, these tracking mechanisms tend to add a fair
bit to the cost of the system, so a lot of people either have fixed panels or compromise by
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incorporating some limited manual adjustments, which take into account the different 'elevations'
of the sun at various times of the year. The best elevations vary with the latitude of your location.
In the Southern Hemisphere, these panels should face as close to True North as possible.
Grid-Interactive Inverter: The Inverter takes the DC power produced by the panels, converts it
to AC, and feeds it back into the main electricity grid. Some systems may have a number of
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smaller Inverters connected in parallel.
Meter: The Meter records the amount of power produced by the system. Note that in some
installations, a single meter is used - It goes backwards when power is being generated, and
forwards when power is being consumed. There are several different metering configurations
available, each with their pros and cons. Ultimately, it's up to the local electricity authority as to
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which configuration they'll approve. The above diagram represents my configuration of separate
generating and consuming meters.
 A grid-tie inverter, or a (GTI) is a special type of Inverter (electrical) that is used
in a renewable energy power system to convert direct current into alternating
current and feed it into the utility grid.
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 The technical name for a grid-tie inverter is "grid-interactive inverter". They may
also be called synchronous inverters.
 Grid-interactive inverters typically cannot be used in standalone applications
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where utility power is not available

Basic Grid Connected Solar Options

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If you want to reduce your reliance on grid supplied electricity, the first step would be to
save energy using a solar hot water system and energy efficient light bulbs.
If you want to do more than that, you have several options:

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1. Grid feed only
2. Grid interactive inverters with battery bank
3. Off-grid system with grid backup (not feeding)
All three systems require specific inverters.

Grid Feed Systems:

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A plain grid feed system takes all the electricity you produce through an inverter to the
grid. Grid feed inverters do not use a battery bank and therefore they do not give you any power
back up in the event of a grid power failure.

The power you produce is either measured with a Net meter or a Gross meter. Gross meters
count everything you produce, regardless of your consumption, whereas Net meters deduct your
household's consumption first.

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While grid feeding does in no way reduce your reliance on the electricity grid it sure reduces the
amount of money you pay to your energy provider. As solar panels are getting better and cheaper
(and they come with a 25-year warranty), grid feeding is a lot more feasible today than it was 10

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years ago. Check out Australia's current rebates & incentives.

pa
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Grid Interactive Systems with Battery Bank:
Grid interactive inverters perform the same function as grid feed inverters, however they
allow power to flow 'both ways'. They also incorporate a battery bank and have an automatic
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built in charger. This type of system gives you back up power in the event that the grid fails or
goes out of tolerance in terms of its voltage and frequency

Grid as Backup:
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The last main option is to obtain a solar system (panels, battery, regulator and inverter)
and transfer some or all of your loads to this system.

This is probably the most useful and cost effective solution unless you are likely to
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produce (sell) more power than you use. This option means that a few of your important loads
can keep running in the event of a power failure. It is a 'simpler' system than grid connected and
you won't need the consent of the power utility. You could manually top up your battery with a
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small charger connected to the grid if you get prolonged cloudy weather.

Grid-tie inverter:

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A grid-tie inverter (GTI) is a special type of inverter that converts direct current(DC)
electricity into alternating current(AC) electricity and feeds it into an existing electrical grid. GTIs
are often used to convert direct current produced by many renewable energy sources, such
assolar panels or small wind turbines, into the alternating current used to power homes and
businesses. The technical name for a grid-tie inverter is "grid-interactive inverter". They may
also be called synchronous inverters. Grid-interactive inverters typically cannot be used in
standalone applications where utility power is not available.

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TYPICAL OPERATION:
Inverters take DC power and invert it to AC power so it can be fed into the electric utility
company grid. The grid tie inverter must synchronize its frequency with that of the grid (e.g. 50
or 60 Hz) using a local oscillator and limit the voltage to no higher than the grid voltage. A high-
quality modern GTI has a fixed unity power factor, which means its output voltage and current
are perfectly lined up, and its phase angle is within 1 degree of the AC power grid. The inverter

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has an on-board computer which will sense the current AC grid waveform, and output a voltage
to correspond with the grid.
Grid-tie inverters are also designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if the utility grid

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goes down. This is an NEC requirement that ensures that in the event of a blackout, the grid tie
inverter will shut down to prevent the energy it produces from harming any line workers who are
sent to fix the power grid.
Properly configured, a grid tie inverter enables a home owner to use an alternative power
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generation system like solar or wind power without extensive rewiring and without batteries. If
the alternative power being produced is inadequate, the deficit will be sourced from the
electricity grid.
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Batteryless Grid-Tie Electric Power Systems:

It is a photovoltaic (PV) system interacting with the utility, and can be with
or without batteries, that utilizes relatively new breed of inverters that can actually sell any
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excess power produced by your solar array back to the utility grid. If you are concerned at
all about your utility rates going up and would like to do something to reduce your monthly
electric bill, then a grid-tie solar system may be just the thing for you. These systems are easy
to install and since some do not have batteries for back-up, the lack of batteries in these
systems means no messy maintenance or replacements to worry about. The solar modules can
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be mounted on your roof or out in the yard where they sit quietly generating power from the
sun that you can either use directly or sell back to the utility company.
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Solar Grid-Interactive System:

A recent development in renewable energy technology is 'grid-interactive'or two way
grid interconnection. These systems use sophisticated control equipment so that when your
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renewable energy system produces more power than you need, the excess power is fed back into
the grid i.e. power is exported to the grid. When your system doesn't produce or have enough
power, then you draw power from the grid. Some electricity retailers offer 'net billing'
arrangements, so that they buy the electricity you produce at the same price as they sell their
electricity to you. The renewable electricity is produced as Direct Current (DC). The DC

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electricity from the panels passes through a grid-interactive inverter, which converts the DC
electricity into Alternating Current (AC), which is the type of electricity supplied by the grid

This AC electricity is then used by any appliances operating in the house. If more
electricity is produced than the house needs then the excess will be fed into the main electricity
grid. Conversely, when the renewable system is not generating enough electricity to power the
house, the house will draw power from the grid. Grid interactive systems eliminate the need for a
battery backup for when the sun doesn't shine (if it’s a solar system) or the wind doesn't blow (if

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it’s a wind turbine). In effect, the grid serves as your battery. This means that maintenance costs
for your system will be less. It should be noted that without battery storage, a grid connected
system will shut down when there is no power on the grid.
A common feature of utility interactive inverters is an algorithm that seeks to maximize
the energy extracted from the renewable resource. In solar PV, this is generally referred to as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). Wind turbines also seek to maximize energy capture,

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but this is typically accomplished by forcing the turbine to operate at maximum aerodynamic
efficiency. Conceptually, this is a form of MPPT, but it involves more than the utility interactive
inverter.

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Grid-connected power inverters convert the power from your solar panels into electricity
suitable for use in the home or office, when it is connected to the power grid.
Here, a battery bank is not needed to store any excess generated power, as that can be delivered
directly into the power grid for someone else to use, giving you a credit. At times of insufficient
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solar power (e.g. night time), extra power that's needed may be drawn back from the power grid.
Wind power Pure sine grid interactive inverters:
The inverters allow a wide input voltage range with energy-saving, low-speed power
mode to allow for smooth operation at minimal turbine revolutions, and other features
designed to meet specific needs of the wind power market. For instance, soft grid technology
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allows the inverter to produce power during wind gusts that would otherwise cause over
voltage on the grid. This is useful in rural locations during light local loading conditions and
maximizes profits for the operator, while preventing annoying system resets.
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What is MPPT?
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MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers
used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The
voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called ‘maximum power point’ (or
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peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature andsolar
cell temperature.

A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that

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optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility grid.
To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output from solar panels (and a few wind
generators) down to the lower voltage needed to charge batteries.

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(These are sometimes called "power point trackers" for short - not to be confused with
PANEL trackers, which are a solar panel mount that follows, or tracks, the sun).

How MPPT works?

The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV

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module by making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to
say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best
power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get
maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected
directly to the battery.

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MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
 Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold
temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from them.
 When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the

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battery if the state of charge in the battery is lowers.

So what do you mean by "optimize"? pa

Solar cells are neat things. Unfortunately, they are not very smart. Neither are batteries - in
fact batteries are downright stupid. Most PV panels are built to put out a nominal 12 volts. The
catch is "nominal". In actual fact, almost all "12 volt" solar panels are designed to put out from
16 to 18 volts. The problem is that a nominal 12 volt battery is pretty close to an actual 12
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volts - 10.5 to 12.7 volts, depending on state of charge. Under charge, most batteries want
from around 13.2 to 14.4 volts to fully charge - quite a bit different than what most panels are
designed to put out.

OK, so now we have this neat 130 watt solar panel. Catch #1 is that it is rated at 130 watts at a
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particular voltage and current. The Kyocera KC-130 is rated at 7.39 amps at 17.6 volts. (7.39
amps times 17.6 volts = 130 watts).

What is maximum power point tracking?

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There is some confusion about the term "tracking":

Panel tracking - this is where the panels are on a mount that follows the sun. The most
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common are the Zomeworks and Wattsun. These optimize output by following the sun across
the sky for maximum sunlight. These typically give you about a 15% increase in winter and up
to a 35% increase in summer.
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This is just the opposite of the seasonal variation for MPPT controllers. Since panel
temperatures are much lower in winter, they put out more power. And winter is usually when
you need the most power from your solar panels due to shorter days.

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Maximum Power Point Tracking is electronic tracking - usually digital. The charge controller
looks at the output of the panels, and compares it to the battery voltage. It then figures out
what is the best power that the panel can put out to charge the battery. It takes this and
converts it to best voltage to get maximum AMPS into the battery. (Remember, it is Amps into
the battery that counts). Most modern MPPT's are around 93-97% efficient in the conversion.
You typically get a 20 to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actual gain can
vary widely depending weather, temperature, battery state of charge, and other factors.

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Grid tie systems are becoming more popular as the price of solar drops and electric rates go
up. There are several brands of grid-tie only (that is, no battery) inverters available. All of
these have built in MPPT. Efficiency is around 94% to 97% for the MPPT conversion on
those.

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How Maximum Power Point Tracking works

Here is where the optimization, or maximum power point tracking comes in. Assume your
battery is low, at 12 volts. A MPPT takes that 17.6 volts at 7.4 amps and converts it down, so

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that what the battery gets is now 10.8 amps at 12 volts. Now you still have almost 130 watts,
and everyone is happy.
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Ideally, for 100% power conversion you would get around 11.3 amps at 11.5 volts, but you
have to feed the battery a higher voltage to force the amps in. And this is a simplified
explanation - in actual fact the output of the MPPT charge controller might vary continually to
adjust for getting the maximum amps into the battery.
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On the left is a screen shot from the Maui Solar Software "PV-
Design Pro" computer program (click on picture for full size image). If you look at the green
line, you will see that it has a sharp peak at the upper right - that represents the maximum
power point. What an MPPT controller does is "look" for that exact point, then does the
voltage/current conversion to change it to exactly what the battery needs. In real life, that peak
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moves around continuously with changes in light conditions and weather.

A MPPT tracks the maximum power point, which is going to be different from the STC
(Standard Test Conditions) rating under almost all situations. Under very cold conditions a
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120 watt panel is actually capable of putting over 130+ watts because the power output goes
up as panel temperature goes down - but if you don't have some way of tracking that power
point, you are going to lose it. On the other hand under very hot conditions, the power drops -
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you lose power as the temperature goes up. That is why you get less gain in summer.

MPPT's are most effective under these conditions:

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Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra power is needed the most.

 Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT you are
losing most of that. Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun hours are low
and you need the power to recharge batteries the most.
 Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a MPPT
puts into them - another time when the extra power is needed the most. You can have both of

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these conditions at the same time.
 Long wire runs - If you are charging a 12 volt battery, and your panels are 100 feet away, the
voltage drop and power loss can be considerable unless you use very large wire. That can be
very expensive. But if you have four 12 volt panels wired in series for 48 volts, the power loss
is much less, and the controller will convert that high voltage to 12 volts at the battery. That
also means that if you have a high voltage panel setup feeding the controller, you can use much
smaller wire.

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Ok, so now back to the original question - What is a MPPT?

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How a Maximum Power Point Tracker Works:

The Power point tracker is a high frequency DC to DC converter. They take the DC input from
the solar panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a different DC
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voltage and current to exactly match the panels to the batteries. MPPT's operate at very high
audio frequencies, usually in the 20-80 kHz range. The advantage of high frequency circuits is
that they can be designed with very high efficiency transformers and small components. The
design of high frequency circuits can be very tricky because the problems with portions of the
circuit "broadcasting" just like a radio transmitter and causing radio and TV interference.
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Noise isolation and suppression becomes very important.

There are a few non-digital (that is, linear) MPPT's charge controls around. These are much
easier and cheaper to build and design than the digital ones. They do improve efficiency
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somewhat, but overall the efficiency can vary a lot - and we have seen a few lose their
n"tracking point" and actually get worse. That can happen occasionally if a cloud passed over
the panel - the linear circuit searches for the next best point, but then gets too far out on the
deep end to find it again when the sun comes out. Thankfully, not many of these around any
more.
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The power point tracker (and all DC to DC converters) operates by taking the DC input
current, changing it to AC, running through a transformer (usually a toroid, a doughnut
looking transformer), and then rectifying it back to DC, followed by the output regulator. In
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most DC to DC converters, this is strictly an electronic process - no real smarts are involved
except for some regulation of the output voltage. Charge controllers for solar panels need a lot
more smarts as light and temperature conditions vary continuously all day long, and battery
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voltage changes.

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Smart power trackers

All recent models of digital MPPT controllers available are microprocessor controlled. They
know when to adjust the output that it is being sent to the battery, and they actually shut down
for a few microseconds and "look" at the solar panel and battery and make any needed
adjustments. Although not really new (the Australian company AERL had some as early as
1985), it has been only recently that electronic microprocessors have become cheap enough to

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be cost effective in smaller systems (less than 1 KW of panel). MPPT charge controls are now
manufactured by several companies, such as Outback Power, Xantrex XW-SCC, Blue Sky
Energy, Apollo Solar, Midnite Solar, Morningstar and a few others.

MATRIX CONVERTERS (or) PWM CYCLOCONVERTER:

 The main disadvantage of the structures treated in FREQUENCY CHANGER is that they

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generate large unwanted low-order input current and output voltage harmonics that are
difficult to filter out, particularly for low-output voltage conditions.
 This problem has largely been solved with the introduction of an imaginative PWM

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voltage-control scheme, which is the basis of newly designated converter called the
Matrix Converter (also known as PWM Cycloconverter), which operates as a
Generalized Solid-State Transformer.
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The matrix converter (MC) is a development of the FCC based on bi-directional fully
controlled switches, incorporating PWM voltage control, as mentioned earlier. With the initial
progress made by Venturini , it has received considerable attention in recent years as it provides
a good alternative to the double-sided PWM voltage source rectifier– inverters having the
advantages of being a single stage converter with only nine switches for three-phase to three-
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phase conversion and inherent bi-directional power flow, sinusoidal input/output waveforms with
moderate switching frequency, possibility of a compact design due to the absence of dc link
reactive components, and controllable input power factor independent of the output load current.
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The main disadvantages of the matrix converters developed so far are the
inherentrestriction of the voltage transfer ratio (0.866), a more complex control, commutation
and protection strategy, and above all the non-availability of a fully controlled bi-directional high
frequency switch integrated in a silicon chip (triac, though bilateral, cannot be fully controlled).

The power circuit diagram of the most practical threephase to three-phase (3f–3f) matrix
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converter is shown in Fig. 18.31a which uses nine bi-directional switches so arranged that any of
the three input phases can be connected to any output phase as shown in the switching matrix
symbol in Fig. 18.31b. Thus, the voltage at any input terminal may be made to appear at any
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output terminal or terminals while the current in any phase of the load may be drawn from any
phase or phases of the input supply. For the switches, the inverse-parallel combination of
reverse-blocking selfcontrolled devices like power MOSFETs or IGBTs or transistor embedded
diode bridge as shown have been used so far. New perspective configuration of the bi-directional
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switch is to use two RB-IGBTs with reverse blocking capability in anti-parallel, eliminating the
diodes reducing the conducting losses in theconverter significantly. The circuit is called a matrix
converter as it provides exactly one switch for each of the possible connections between the

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FIGURE 18.31 (a) 3f-3f Matrix converter (forced commutated cycloconverter) circuit with input
filter and (b)
switching matrix symbol for converter in (a).
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input and the output. The switches should be controlled in such a way that, at any time, one and
only one of the three switches connected to an output phase must be closed to prevent “short
circuiting” of the supply lines or interrupting the load current flow in an inductive load. With
these constraints, it can be visualized that out of the possible 512 (= 2 9 ) states of the converter,
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only 27 switch combinations are allowed as given in Table 18.1 which includes the resulting
output line voltages and input phase currents. These combinations are divided into three groups.
Group-I consists of six combinations when each output phase is connected to a different input
phase. In Group-II, there are three subgroups each having six combinations with two output
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phases short-circuited (connected to the same input phase). Group-III includes three
combinations with all output phases short-circuited.
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With a given set of input three-phase voltages, any desired set of three-phase output
voltages can be synthesized by

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adopting a suitable switching strategy. However, it has been shown that regardless of the
switching strategy, there are physical limits on the achievable output voltage with these
converters as the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage cannot be greater than the minimum
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voltage difference between two phases of the input. To have complete control of the synthesized
output voltage, the envelope of the three-phase reference or target voltages must be fully
contained within the continuous envelope of the three-phase input voltages. Initial strategy with
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the output frequency voltages as references reported the limit as 0.5 of the input as shown in Fig.
18.32a. This can be increased to 0.866 by adding a third harmonic voltage of input frequency
(Vi/4) cos 3ωt to all target output voltages and subtracting from them a third harmonic voltage of
output frequency (Vo/6) · cos 3ωt as shown in Fig. 18.32b [21, 22]. However, this process
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involves considerable amount of additional computations in synthesizingthe output voltages. The

other alternative is to use the space vector modulation (SVM) strategy as used in PWM inverters
without adding third harmonic components but it also yields the maximum voltage transfer ratio
as 0.866.

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An ac input LC filter is used to eliminate the switching ripples generated in the converter
and the load is assumed to be sufficiently inductive to maintain continuity of the output currents.

Operation and Control of the Matrix Converter:

The converter in Fig. 18.31 connects any input phase (A, B, and C) to any output phase
(a, b, and c) at any instant. When connected, the voltages van, vbn, vct the output terminals

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are related to the input voltages Vao,,V Bo,V Co

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where SAa through SCc are the switching variables

The control methods adopted so far for the matrix converter are quite complex and are
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subjects of continuing research. Out of several methods proposed for independent control of the
output voltages and input currents, two methods are of wide use and will be briefly reviewed
here:

(i) The Venturini method based on a mathematical approach of transfer function analysis and
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(ii) The Space Vector Modulation (SVM) approach (as has been standardized now in the case
of PWM control of the dc link inverter).

Venturini Method: Given a set of three-phase input voltages with constant amplitude Vi and
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frequency f= ωi/2∏, this method calculates a switching function involving the duty cycles of
each of the nine bi-directional switches and generate the three-phase output voltages by
sequential piecewise sampling of the input waveforms. These output voltages follow a
predetermined set of reference or target voltage waveforms and with a three-phase load
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connected, a set of input currents Ii and angular frequency ωi should be in phase for unity IDF or
at a specific angle for controlled IDF.
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A transfer function approach is employed to achieve the above mentioned features by relating
the input and output voltages and the output and input currents as

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SVM Method: The space vector modulation is a well documented inverter PWM control

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technique which yields high voltage gain and less harmonic distortion compared to the other
modulation techniques. Here, the three-phase input currents and output voltages are represented
as space vectors and SVM is simultaneously applied to the output voltage and input current

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space vectors, while the matrix converter is modeled as a rectifying and inverting stage by the
indirect modulation method (Fig. 18.33). Applications of SVM algorithm to control of matrix
converters have appeared extensively in the literature and shown to have inherent capability to
achieve full control of the instantaneous output voltage vector and the instantaneous current
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displacement angle even under supply voltage disturbances. The algorithm is based on the
concept that the MC output line voltages for each switching combination can be represented as a
voltage space vector defined by
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FIGURE 18.33 Indirect modulation model of a matrix converter: (a) VSR–VSI conversion; (b)
output voltage
switching vector hexagon; and (c) input current switching vector hexagon.

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Out of the three groups in Table 18.1, only the switching combinations of Group-II and
Group-III are employed for the SVM method. Group-II consists of switching state voltage
vectors having constant angular positions and are called active or stationary vectors. Each sub-
group of Group-II determines the position of the resulting output voltage space vector and the six
state space voltage vectors form a six-sextant hexagon used to synthesize the desired output

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voltage vector. Group-III comprises the zero vectors positioned at the center of the output
voltage hexagon and these are suitably combined with the active vectors for the output voltage
synthesis.

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Stand alone operation of fixed and variable speed wind energy conversion systems
and solar system- Grid connection Issues -Grid integrated PMSG, SCIG Based WECS,
grid Integrated solar system.

WIND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM:

INTRODUCTION:
The major components of a typical wind energy conversion system include a wind

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turbine, generator, inter connection apparatus and control systems. Wind turbines can be
classified into the vertical axis type and the horizontal axis type. Most modern wind turbines use
a horizontal axis configuration with two or three blades, operating either down-wind or up-wind.
A wind turbine can be designed for a constant speed or variable speed operation.

Variable speed wind turbines can produce 8% to 15% more energy output as compared to

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their constant speed counterparts, however, they necessitate power electronic converters to
provide a fixed frequency and fixed voltage power to their loads. Most turbine manufacturers
have opted for reduction gears between the low speed turbine rotor and the high speed three-
phase generators. Direct drive configuration, where a generator is coupled to the rotor of a

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wind turbine directly, offers high reliability, low maintenance, and possibly low cost for certain
turbines.

Several manufacturers have opted for the direct drive configuration in the recent turbine
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designs. At the present time and in the near future, generators for wind turbines will be
synchronous generators, permanent magnet synchronous generators, and induction generators,
including the squirrel cage type and wound rotor type.

For small to medium power wind turbines, permanentmagnet generators and squirrel cage
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induction generators are often used because of their reliability and cost advantages. Induction
generators, permanent magnetsynchronous generators and wound field synchronous generators
are currently used in various high power wind turbines. Interconnection apparatuses are devices
to achieve power control, soft start and interconnection functions. Veryoften power electronic
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converters are used as such devices.

Most modern turbine inverters are forced commutated PWM inverters to provide a fixed
voltage and fixed frequency output with a high power quality. Both voltagesource voltage
controlled inverters and voltage source current controlled inverters have been applied in wind
turbines. For certain high power wind turbines, effective power control can be achieved with
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double PWM (pulse width modulation) converters which provide a bi-directionalpower flow
between the turbine generator and the utility grid.
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There are number of ways to classifying the WECs. Following are the main types of
classifications of WECs:
 According to size of Electrical Power Output .
1) Small size (up to 2kW)
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2) Medium Size (2-100 kW)

3) Large Size (100 kW and up)

 According to type of electrical power output

There are mainly following three classes of generators:

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1) D.C. generators
2) Synchronous generators
3) Induction generators
 According to Rotational Speed of Aeroturbines:
Several kinds of generator technologies have been developed and they are:
1) fixed speed system
2) Fully Variable Speed System

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3) Limited Variable-speed systems
 According to the orientation of turbines:
1) Horizontal Axis wind turbines (HAWT)
2) Vertical Axis wind turbines (VAWT)

COMPONENTS OF WIND ELECTRIC SYSTEM:

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STANDALONE OPERATION OF FIXED SPEED SYSTEM:

Fixed speed systems are the simplest and most widely used arrangement. They operate at
constant (or nearly constant) speed [also called constant speed constant frequency (CSCF) mode
of operation]. This implies that regardless of the prime mover speed, the angular speed of the
rotor is fixed and determined by the frequency of supply grid and gear ratio This arrangement, in
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general, has simple and reliable construction of the electrical part while the mechanical parts are
subject to higher stresses and additional safety factors need to be incorporated in the mechanical
design. This arrangement can use induction generator (IG) and the wound rotor synchronous
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generator (SG) as the electric machine. But the squirrel cage induction generator has been the
prevalent choice. The reasons for this popularity are mainly due to its simplicity, high efficiency
and low maintenance requirements. To compensate for the reactive power consumption of the
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induction generator, a capacitor bank (normally stepwise controlled) is inserted in,parallel with
the generator in order to obtain about unitypower factor.
Further, to reduce the mechanical stress and to reduce the interaction between supply grid
and turbine during connection and start-up of the turbine, a soft starter is used. The main
advantage of this system is that it is a simple

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and reliable arrangement. However, capacitors need to be cutin or cutoff regularly to maintain
power factor. This random switching gives rise to undesirable transients in the
line currents and voltages. The fluctuations in prime mover speed are converted to torque
pulsations, which cause mechanical stress. This causes breakdown of drive train and
gear box. The power generated from this arrangement is sensitive to fluctuations in prime mover
speed. To avoid this pitch control of rotor blades is required.

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The Fixed Speed Induction Generators (FSIG) wind turbine is a simple squirrel cage
induction generator, which can be directly coupled to the electricity supply network.
The frequency of the network determines the rotationalspeed of the stator’s magnetic field, while
the generator’s rotor speed changes as its electrical output changes. However, because of the well
known steep torque- Slip characteristic of the induction machine, the operating range of the
generator is very limited. The wind turbine is therefore effectively fixed speed. FSIGs do not
have the capability of independent control of active and reactive power, which is their main

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disadvantage. Their greatadvantage is their simple and robust construction, which leads to lower
capital cost. In contrast to other generatotopologies, FSIGs offer no inherent means of torque
oscillation damping which places greater burden and cost on their gearbox. The wind energy
system and power quality aspects are discussed in detail in the literature .

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The Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Wind Turbines is a wound rotor induction
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generator whose rotois fed via slip rings by a frequency converter. The stator is directly coupled
to the electrical power supply network. As a result of the use of the frequency converter, the
network frequency is decoupled from the mechanical speed of the machine and variable speed
operation is possible, permittingmaximum absorption of wind power. Since power ratings
are a function of slip, DFIGs operate over a range of speeds between about 0.75 and 1.25 pu of
synchronous frequencywhich requires converter power ratings of approximately25%. A great
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advantage of the DFIG wind turbine is that ihas the capability to independently control active
andreactive power. Moreover, the mechanical stresses on a DFIG wind turbine are reduced in
comparison to a FSIG.
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Due to the decoupling between mechanical speed and electrical frequency that results
from DFIG operation, the rotor can act as an energy storage system, absorbing torque
pulsations caused by wind gusts . Other advantages of the DFIG include reduced flicker and
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acoustic noise incomparison to FSIGs. The main disadvantages of DFIG wind turbines in
comparison to FSIGs are their increased capital cost and the need for periodic slip ring
maintenance.

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 This wind power system operates at a constant rotor speed regardless of the wind speed
variations.
 The rotor speed is controlled according to the grid frequency.
 The electrical machine equipped with such wind turbines is SCIG.
 Sometimes a PMSG can be used.
 Fixed-speed WECSs have advantage of being simple, robust, and reliable with a low-cost
generator and easy control.
 However, such wind power systems also have drawbacks due to limited control when

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wind speed changes continuously.

STANDALONE OPERATION OF FULLY VARIABLE SPEED SYSTEM:

With the increase in the size of turbine, the inherent problems of the constant speed
systems become more and more pronounced, especially in areas with relatively weak grids. To
overcome these problems, the trend in modern generator technology is toward variable-speed

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concepts. A variable-speed system keeps the generator torque constant and it is the generator
speed which changes. Variations in the incoming power are absorbed by rotor speed changes.
The variable-speed system therefore incorporates a generator control system that can
operate with variable speed. In this arrangement the variable-voltage variable frequency (VVVF)

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power generated by the machine is converter to fixed-frequency fixed voltage power by the use
of back to back power converters. The arrangement can have either induction generator or
synchronous generator as the electric machine. The machine side converter supplies the lagging
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excitation to the machine while the line side converter maintains unity power factor at grid
interface and also regulates the dc link voltage constant. The synchronous machine offers the
least possible configuration for a variable-speed sys- tem. It can operate without gear box, with a
good multi-pole design. This is an important objective since gear box is a component that has a
tendency to fail. The advantages of this scheme are that mechanical oscillations in the drive train
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are absent as it is in fixed speed systems.
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The torque is under control if Direct Torque Control or Field Oriented Control techniques
are used. Thisdoes not allow the generator to be overloaded. Gear box is not required with a
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multi-pole synchronous machine. However, converters have to manage entire generated power.
Therefore they have to be rated equal to machine rating. Inverter output filters and EMI output
filters are rated for 1 p.u ( with respect to output power) making filter
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design difficult and expensive. Converter efficiency plays an important factor in total system
efficiency over the entire operating range. It cannot be operated above synchronous
speed with full torque.

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STANDALONE OPERATION OF LIMITED VARIABLE-SPEED SYSTEMS :
Compared to the squirrel-cage induction generator, the main difference that the doubly-
fed induction generator configuration provides is the access to the rotor windings, thereby giving
the possibility of impressing the rotor voltage. With this arrangement, power can be extracted
from or fed to the rotor circuit and the generator can be magnetized from either the stator circuit
or the rotor circuit. Basically two methods of speed control can be applied to the induction
generator, namely rotor resistance control and back to back converter control. The effective

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scheme for limited variable speed system is back to back converter used doubly-fed
configuration. Fig. 4 shows this topology, the stator is directly connected to the grid, while the
rotor is connected via slip rings to the converter. The gear ratio is set so that the nominal speed of
the induction generator corresponds to the middle value of the rotor-speed range of the turbine.
This is done to minimize the size of the inverter, which will vary with rotor-speed range. A step
up transformer is required between the line side converter and utility, to match the voltage ratio
between the stator and rotor in the machine. This [38] configuration with two converters offers

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many advantages. The main features of this configuration are listed below:

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1) Reduced converter cost, as they have to be rated for slip power only (typically about
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0.25 pu).
2) Converter on the rotor side enables both positive and negative slip power control
through control of rotor current in phase magnitude and frequency. This allows both sub
synchronous and super-synchronous operation.
3) DC link capacitor acts as a source of reactive power, which in a way can control power
factor on the stator side.
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4) Line side converter has ability to work as active filter, apart from maintaining unity
power factor operation and regulating dc bus voltage.
5) Reduced cost and weight of inverter filter and EMI filters (to about 0.25pu of total
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system power). Inverter harmonics represent a fraction of total system harmonics.

6) System efficiency is better, due to reduced losses in the converters.

Important developments in the technology of doubly-fed system occurred in last two

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decades. With the advances in power electronic devices and digital signal processors, it is now
feasible to implement complex algorithms such as field oriented control etc easily. This had
lead to new technologies or grid connected generators using doubly-fed configuration.

STAND-ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC / SOLAR SYSTEMS:

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Stand alone or autonomous systems are not connected to the grid. Some stand alone
systems known as PV-hybrid systems or island system, may also have another source of power,
wind turbine, bio-fuel or diesel generator, etc.
A stand alone system varies in size and type, but 20Wp - 1KWp are quite common. The
stand alone system is also known as an off grid system.
Off-Grid systems (standalone) use a photovoltaic system to supply electricity to a

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consumer unit directly or via a battery, independently of other energy sources. These systems
are suitable for small devices and equipment not close to an electricity supply (e.g. street
lighting, water pumps, radio and signal equipment).
A standalone system does not have a connection to the electricity "mains" (aka "grid").
Standalone systems vary widely in size and application from wristwatches or calculators to
remote buildings or spacecraft. If the load is to be supplied independently of solar insolation, the
generated power is stored and buffered with a battery. In non-portable applications where weight

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is not an issue, such as in buildings, lead acid batteries are most commonly used for their low
cost.
A charge controller may be incorporated in the system to:
a) avoid battery damage by excessive charging or discharging and,

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b) optimizing the production of the cells or modules by maximum power point
tracking(MPPT).[citation needed]
However, in simple PV systems where the PV module voltage is matched to the battery
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voltage, the use of MPPT electronics is generally considered unnecessary, since the battery
voltage is stable enough to provide near-maximum power collection from the PV module. In
small devices (e.g. calculators, parking meters) only direct current (DC) is consumed. In larger
systems (e.g. buildings, remote water pumps) AC is usually required. To convert the DC from
the modules or batteries into AC, an inverter is used.
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Stand-alone photovoltaic systems are usually a utility power substitute. They generally
include solar charging modules, storage batteries, and controls/regulator as shown in Fig. 26.18.
Ground or roof mounted systems will require a mounting structure, and if 120/240 volt ac power
is desired, a dc to ac inverter will also be required. They are especially used in remote places that
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are not connected to the electrical main utility grid. In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries
are used for energy storage. A charge controller is then used to control the whole system and
prevent the battery from overcharging and overdischarging. Photovoltaic modules charge the
battery during the day and supplies power to the load as needed.
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Batteries:
Batteries are often used in PV systems for storing energy produced by the PV array
during day time and supplying it to electrical loads as needed (during night time or cloudy
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weather). Moreover, batteries are also needed in the tracker systems to keep the operation at
MPP in order to provide electrical loads with stable voltages. Nearly, most of the batteries used
in PV systems are deep cycle lead-acid [27]. These batteries have thicker lead plates that make
them tolerate deep discharges. The thicker the lead plates, the longer the life span. The heavier
the battery for a given group size, the thicker the plates and the better the battery will tolerate
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deep discharges.
All deep cycle batteries are rated in ampere-hour where Ampere-hour (AH) capacity is a
quantity of the amount of usable energy it can store at nominal voltage. For example an ampere-
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hour is one ampere for one hour or 10 A for one-tenth of an hour and so forth [29]. A good
charge rate is approximately 10% of the total capacity of the battery per hour (i.e. 200 ampere-
hour battery charged at 20A). This will reduce electrolyte loss and damage to the plates [28]. A
PV system may have to be sized to store a sufficient amount of power in the batteries to meet
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power demand during several days of cloudy weather. This is known as “days of autonomy”.

Charge Controller:
The charge controller regulates the flow of electricity from the PV modules to the battery
and the load. The controller keeps the battery fully charged without overcharging it. When the

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load is drawing power, the controller allows charge to flow from the modules into the battery, the
load, or both. When the controller senses that the battery is fully charged, it stops the flow of
charge from the modules. Many controllers will also sense when loads have taken too much
electricity from batteries and will stop the flow until sufficient charge is restored to the batteries.
This last feature can greatly extend the battery’s lifetime. However, controllers in stand-alone
photovoltaic system are more complex devices that depend on battery state-of-charge, which in
turn depends on many factors and is difficult to measure. The controller must be sized

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to handle the maximum current produced.
Several characteristics should be considered before selecting a controller:
• Adjustable Setpoints.
 High voltage disconnect.
 Low voltage disconnect.
• Temperature compensation.
• Low voltage warning.

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• Reverse current protection.
The controller should ensure that no current flows from the battery to the array at night.
Factors Affecting Output:
PV systems produce power in proportion to the intensity of sunlight striking the solar

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array surface. Thus there are some factors that affect the overall output of the PV system.

 Temperature: pa
Output power of a PV system reduces as the module temperature increases. For
Crystalline modules, a typical temperature reduction factor recommended by CEC
is 89% in the middle of spring or a fall day, under full light conditions.
 Dirt and Dust:
Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface,blocking some of the
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sunlight and reducing output. A typical annual dust reduction factor to use is 93%.
J. P. Thornton showed that sand and dust can cause erosion of the PV surface
which affects the system’s running performance by decreasing the output power
to more than 10% [30].
 DC–AC Conversion:
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Since the power from the PV array is converted back to ac as shown previously,
some power is being lost in the conversion process, in addition to losses in the
wiring. Common inverters used have peak efficiencies of about 88–90%. Thus a
100 Watts module under well controlled conditions is actually a 95 Watts module
under normal condition.
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This power is then reduced due to the factors listed to:

Effect of Temperature: 95 × 0.89 = 85 Watts
Effect of Dirt and Dust: 85 × 0.93 = 79 Watts
Effect of Conversion: 79 × 0.90 = 71 Watts
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The two main stand-alone PV applications are:

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1) Battery charging.
2) Solar water pumping.
PROBLEMS RELATED WITH GRID CONNECTIONS:

1) Poor grid stability

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2) Low-frequency operation
3) Impact of low power factor
4) Power flow
5) Short circuit
6) Power Quality

High penetration of intermittent wind power (greater than 20 percent of generation meeting

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load) and may affect the network in the following ways and has to be studied in detail:

A. Poor grid stability

For economic exploitation of wind energy, a reliable grid is as important as

availability of strong winds. The loss generation for want of stable grid can be 10% to
20% and this deficiency may perhaps be the main reasons for actual energy output of

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WEGs compared to the predicted output in known windy areas with adequate wind data.

B. Low-frequency operation

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Low frequency operation affects the output of WEGs in two ways. Many WEGs
do not get cut-in, when tfrequency is less than 48 Hz (for standard frequency of Hz)
through wind conditions are favorable, with consequent loss in output [22].This
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deficiency apart, the outputWEGs at low frequency operation is considerably reduced,
due to reduced speed of the rotor. The loss in output coulbe about 5 to 10% on the
account of low frequency operation.

C. Impact of low power factor

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WEGs fitted with induction generators need reactive power for magnetizing.
Normally in conventional energy systems, generators apart from supplying active power
will be supplying a reactive power. But in case of WEGs fitted with induction generators,
instead of supplying reactive power to the grid, they absorb reactive power from grid,
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which undoubtedly is a strain on the grid. Suitable reactive power compensation may be
required to reduce the reactive power burden on the grid.
D. Power flow

It is to be ensured that the interconnecting transmission or distribution lines will

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not be over-loaded. This type of analysis is needed to ensure that the introduction of
additional generation will not overload the lines and other electrical equipment. Both
active and reactive power requirements should be investigated.
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E. Short circuit

It is required to determine the impact of additional generation sources to the short

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circuit current ratings of existing electrical equipment on the network.

F. Power Quality

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Fluctuations in the wind power may have direct impact on the quality of power supply.
As a result, large voltage fluctuations may result in voltage variations outside the
regulation limits, as well as violations on flicker and other power quality standards.

Types of Generator Options for Variable Speed Wind Turbines Using Power Electronics:

Power electronics may be applied to four types of generators to facilitate variable speed

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operation:
• Synchronous generators.
• Permanent magnet synchronous generators.
• Squirrel-cage induction generators.
• Wound rotor induction generators.

GRID INTEGRATED PMSG BASED WECS:

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Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators:

The permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) has several significant

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advantageous properties. The construction is simple and does not required external
magnetization, which is important especially in stand-alone wind power applications and also
in remote areas where the grid cannot easily supply the reactive power required to magnetize
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the induction generator. Similar to the previous externally supplied field current synchronous
generator, the most common type of power conversion uses a bridge rectifier
(controlled/uncontrolled), a DC link, and inverter as shown in Fig. 27.65. Figure 27.66 shows a
wind energy system where a PMSG is connected to a three-phase rectifier followed by a boost
converter. In this case, the boost converter controls the electromagnet torque and the supply
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side converter regulates the DC link voltage as well as controlling the input power factor. One
drawback of this configuration is the use of diode rectifier that increases the current amplitude
and distortion of the PMSG. As a result, this configuration have been considered for small size
wind energy conversion systems (smaller than 50 kW).
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Grid-connected PMSG wind energy system through

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FIGURE 27.65
DC/AC converter.
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FIGURE 27.66 Grid-connected
PMSG wind energy system through
DC/AC converter with a boost chopper.

The advantage of the system in Fig. 27.65 with regardant to the system showed in
Fig.27.66 is, it allows the generator to operate near its optimal working point in order to
minimize the losses in the generator and power electronic circuit. However, the performance is

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dependent on the good knowledge of the generator parameter that varies with temperature and
frequency. The main drawbacks, in the use of PMSG, are the cost of permanent magnet that
increase the price of machine, demagnetization of the permanent magnet material, and it is not

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possible to control the power factor of the machine.
To extract maximum power at unity power factor from a PMSG and feed this power (also
at unity power factor) to the grid, the use of back-to-back connected PWM voltage source
converters are proposed. Moreover, to reduce the overall cost, reduced switch PWM voltage
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source converters (four switch) instead of conventional (six switch) converters for variable
speed drive systems can be used. It is shown that by using both rectifier and inverter current
control or flux based control, it is possible to obtain unity power factor operation both at the
WTG and the grid. Other mechanisms can also be included to maximize power extraction from
the VSWT (i.e. MPPT techniques) or sensor-less approaches to further reduce cost and
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increase reliability and performance of the systems.

GRID INTEGRATED SCIG BASED WECS

Squirrel-cage Induction Generator:

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Possible architecture for systems using conventional induction generators which have a
solid squirrel-cage rotor has many similarities to those with synchronous generators. The main
difference is that the induction generator is not inherently self-exciting and it needs a source of
reactive power. This could be done by a generator side self-commutated converter operating in
the rectifier mode. A significant advantage of this configuration is the low cost and low
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maintenance requirements of induction generators. Another advantage of using the self

commutated double converter is that it can be on the ground, completely separate from the wind
machine. If there is a problem in the converter, it could be switched out of the circuit for repair
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and the wind machine could continue to run at constant speed. The main disadvantage with this
configuration is that, as with the synchronous generator, the power conversion system would
have to take the full power generated and could be relatively costly compared to some other
configurations. There would also be additional complexities associated with the supply of
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reactive power to the generator.

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In this set up the stator of the squirrel cage induction generator will be connected to the
grid by the means of back to back connected power electronic converter bridges. Since the power
converter has to convert all the stator power, the converter size depends on the stator power
rating.

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ADVANTAGE:
 Ability to make the best use of available wind power.
 It eliminates the need for a capacitor bank.

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DISADVANTAGE:
 Cost of power converter is high.

GRID INTEGRATED SOLAR SYSTEM: pa

Grid-connected photovoltaic systems are designed to operate in parallel with the electric
utility grid as shown. There are two general types of electrical designs for PV power systems:
 Systems that interact with the utility power grid as shown in Fig. 26.15a and have no
battery backup capability, and
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 Systems that interact and include battery backup as well, as shown in Fig. 26.15b.
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FIGURE 26.15 Grid-connected PV system: (a) without battery back-up and (b) with battery storage.
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The latter type of system incorporates energy storage in the form of a battery to keep
“critical load” circuits operating during utility outage. When an outage occurs, the unit
disconnects from the utility and powers specific circuits of the load. If the outage occurs in
daylight, the PV array is able to assist the load in supplying the loads.
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The major component in both systems is the dc–ac inverter or also called the power
conditioning system (PCS). Figure 26.16 shows the block diagram of such connection.
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The inverter, used to convert photovoltaic dc energy to ac energy, is the key to the
successful operation of the system, but it is also the most complex hardware. The most important

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inverter characteristics requirement are: operate over a wide range of voltages and currents,
regulate output voltage and frequency, in addition to providing ac power with good power
quality.

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The grid-connected system can be classified as:
1) Rooftop application of grid-connected PV system.
2) Utility scale large system.
pa
For small household PV applications, a roof mounted PV array can be the best option.
Solar cells provide an environmentally clean way of producing electricity, and rooftops have
always been the ideal place to put them. With a PV array on the rooftop, the solar generated
power can supply residential load. The rooftop PV systems can help in reducing the peak
summer load to the benefit of utility companies by feeding the household lighting, cooling, and
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other domestic loads. The battery storage can further improve the reliability of the system at the
time of low insolation level, nighttime, or cloudy days. But the battery storage has some inherent
problems like maintenance and higher cost.
For roof-integrated applications, the solar arrays can be either mounted on the roof or
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directly integrated into the roof. If the roof integration does not allow for an air channel behind
the PV modules for ventilation purpose, then it can increase the cell temperature during the
operation consequently leading to some energy losses. The disadvantage with the rooftop
application is that the PV array orientation is dictated by the roof. In case, when the roof
orientation differs from the optimal orientation required for the cells, then efficiency of the
entire system would be suboptimal.
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Utility interest in PV has centered on the large gridconnected PV systems. In Germany,

USA, Spain, and in several other parts of the world, some large PV scale plants have been
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installed. The utilities are more inclined with large scale, centralized power supply. The PV
systems can be centralized or distributed systems.

Grid-connected PV systems must observe the islanding situation, when the utility supply
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fails. In case of islanding, the PV generators should be disconnected from mains. PV generators
can continue to meet only the local load, if the PV output matches the load. If the grid is re-
connected during islanding, transient overcurrents can flow through the PV system inverters

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and the protective equipments like circuit breakers may be damaged. The islanding control can
be achieved through inverters or via the distribution network. Inverter controls can be designed
on the basis of detection of grid voltage, measurement of impedance, frequency variation, or
increase in harmonics. Protection shall be designed for the islanding, short circuits, over/under-
voltages/currents, grounding, and lightening, etc.

The importance of the power generated by the PV system depends upon the time of the

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day specially when the utility is experiencing the peak load. The PV plants are well suited to
summer peaking but it depends upon the climatic condition of the site. PV systems being
investigated for use as peaking stations would be competitive for load management. The PV
users can defer their load by adopting load management to get the maximum benefit out of the
grid-connected PV plants and feeding more power into the grid at the time of peak load.

The assigned capacity credit is based on the statistical probability with which the grid can

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meet peak demand. The capacity factor during the peaks is very similar to that of conventional
plants and similar capacity credit can be given for the PV generation except at the times when
the PV plants are generating very less power unless adequate storage is provided. With the
installation of PV plants, the need of extra transmission lines, transformers can be delayed or

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avoided. The distributed PV plants can also contribute in providing reactive power support to the
grid and reduce burden on VAR compensators.
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Inverters for Grid-connected Applications:

Power conditioner is the key link between the PV array and mains in the grid-connected
PV system. It acts as an interface that converts DC current produced by the solar cells into utility
grade AC current. The PV system behavior relies heavily on the power-conditioning unit. The
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inverters shall produce good quality sine-wave output. The inverter must follow the frequency
and voltage of the grid and the inverter has to extract maximum power from the solar cells with
the help of MPPT and the inverter input stage varies the input voltage until the MPP on the I–V
curve is found. The inverter shall monitor all the phases of the grid. The inverter output shall be
controlled in terms of voltage and frequency variation. A typical grid-connected inverter may use
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a PWM scheme and operates in the range of 2–20 kHz.

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Need for Hybrid Systems- Range and type of Hybrid systems- Case studies of Wind-PV
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).

1. NEED FOR HYBRID SYSTEM

 Hybrid Solutions are powered by sun and wind, just in order to guarantee that the

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power is enough to be charged in the solar battery every day,
 If some day there is sunlight but without the wind energy, the solar panel charge the
battery.

 The other way round, if some day there is wind energy but without the sunlight, the
wind turbine can charge the power to the battery.

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 When someday both wind & solar energy is enough, both can charge the battery.

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 When the night is coming, the wind turbine is also can continue to work for supply
the power to the system, so we sure the system will be popular in the coming future.

 We have standard hybrid systems available to

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Hybrid systems makes ideal for stand-alone operation.

 Electronic controllers manage the multiple power sources and monitor the status of the
batteries.
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 If the reserve runs low, the controller automatically starts the generator to supply power
and charge the battery.

2. TYPES AND RANGE OF HYBRID SYSTEM:

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The combination of RES, such as PV arrays or wind turbines, with engine-driven

generators and battery storage, is widely recognized as a viable alternative to conventional
remote area power supplies (RAPS). These systems are generally classified as hybrid energy
systems (HES). They are used increasingly for electrification in remote areas where the cost of
grid extension is prohibitive and the price for fuel increases drastically with the remoteness of
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the location. For many applications, the combination of renewable and conventional energy
sources compares favourably with fossil fuel-based RAPS systems, both in regard to their cost
and technical performance. Because these systems employ two or more different sources of
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energy, they enjoy a very high degree of reliability as compared to single-source systems such as
a stand-alone diesel generator or a stand-alone PV or wind system. Applications of hybrid energy
systems range from small power supplies for remote households, providing electricity for
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lighting and other essential electrical appliances, to village electrification for remote
communities has been reported. Hybrid energy systems generate AC electricity by combining
RES such as PV array with an inverter, which can operate alternately or in parallel with a
conventional engine driven generator.
They can be classified according to their configuration as:

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• Series hybrid energy systems.
• Switched hybrid energy systems.
• Parallel hybrid energy systems.
The parallel hybrid systems can be further divided to DC or AC coupling. An overview of the
three most common system topologies is presented by Bower. In the following comparison of
typical PV-diesel system configurations are described.

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2.1. Series Configuration:

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Fig 1: Series Hybrid Energy System
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In the conventional series hybrid systems shown in Fig.1, all power generators feed DC
power into a battery. Each component has therefore to be equipped with an individual charge
controller and in the case of a diesel generator with a rectifier. To ensure reliable operation of
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series hybrid energy systems both the diesel generator and the inverter have to be sized to meet
peak loads. This results in a typical system operation where a large fraction of the generated
energy is passed through battery bank, therefore resulting in increased cycling of the battery
bank and reduced system efficiency. AC power delivered to the load is converted from DC to
regulated AC by an inverter or a motor generator unit.
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The power generated by the diesel generator is first rectified and subsequently converted
back to AC before being supplied to the load, which incurs significant conversion losses. The
actual load demand determines the amount of electrical power delivered by the PV array, wind
generator, the battery bank, or the diesel generator. The solar and wind charger prevents
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overcharging of the battery bank from the PV generator when the PV power exceeds the load
demand and the batteries are fully charged. It may include MPPT to improve the utilization of
the available PV energy, although the energy gain is marginal for a well-sized system. The
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system can be operated in manual or automatic mode, with the addition of appropriate battery
voltage sensing and start/stop control of the engine-driven generator.

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Advantages:
• The engine-driven generator can be sized to be optimally loaded while supplying the load and
charging the battery bank, until a battery SOC of 70–80% is reached.
• No switching of AC power between the different energy sources is required, which simplifies
the electrical output interface.
• The power supplied to the load is not interrupted when the diesel generator is started.
• The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified square wave, or square-wave depending on the

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application.
Disadvantages:
• The inverter cannot operate in parallel with the engine driven generator, therefore the inverter
must be sized to supply the peak load of the system.
• The battery bank is cycled frequently, which shortens its lifetime.
• The cycling profile requires a large battery bank to limit the depth-of-discharge (DOD).
• The overall system efficiency is low, since the diesel cannot supply power directly to the load.

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• Inverter failure results in complete loss of power to the load, unless the load can be supplied
directly from the diesel generator for emergency purposes.

2.2. Switched Configuration:

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Fig 2: Switched PV-diesel hybrid system

Despite its operational limitations, the switched configuration remains one of the most
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common installations in some developing countries. It allows operation with either the engine-
driven generator or the inverter as the AC source, yet no parallel operation of the main
generation sources is possible. The diesel generator and the RES can charge the battery bank.
The main advantage compared with the series system is that the load can be supplied directly by
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the engine-driven generator, which results in a higher overall conversion efficiency.

Typically, the diesel generator power will exceed the load demand, with excess energy
being used to recharge the battery bank. During periods of low electricity demand the diesel
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generator is switched off and the load is supplied from the PV array together with stored energy.
Switched hybrid energy systems can be operated in manual mode, although the increased
complexity of the system makes it highly desirable to include an automatic controller, which can
be implemented with the addition of appropriate battery voltage sensing and start/stop control of
the engine-driven generator (Fig. 2).

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Advantages:
• The inverter can generate a sine-wave, modified squarewave, or square-wave, depending on the
particular application.
• The diesel generator can supply the load directly, therefore improving the system efficiency
and reducing the fuel consumption.
Disadvantages:
• Power to the load is interrupted momentarily when the AC power sources are transferred.
• The engine-driven alternator and inverter are typically designed to supply the peak load, which

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reduces their efficiency at part load operation.

2.3 Parallel Configuration:

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Fig 3: Parallel PV-diesel hybrid energy system: a) DC decoupling and b) AC coupling

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The parallel hybrid system can be further classified as DC and AC couplings as shown in
Fig.3. In both schemes, a bi-directional inverter is used to link between the battery and an AC
source (typically the output of a diesel generator). The bi-directional inverter can charge the
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battery bank (rectifier operation) when excess energy is available from the diesel generator or by
the renewable sources, as well as act as a DC–AC converter (inverter operation). The bi-
directional inverter may also provide “peak shaving” as part of a control strategy when the diesel
engine is overloaded. In Fig.3a, the renewable energy sources (RES) such as photovoltaic and

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wind are coupled on the DC side. DC integration of RES results in “custom” system solutions for
individual supply cases requiring high costs for engineering, hardware, repair, and maintenance.
Furthermore, power system expandability for covering needs of growing energy and
power demand is also difficult. A better approach would be to integrate the RES on the AC side
rather than on the DC side as shown in Fig.3b. Parallel hybrid energy systems are characterized
by two significant improvements over the series and switched system configuration.
The inverter plus the diesel generator capacity rather than their individual component

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ratings limit the maximum load that can be supplied. Typically, this will lead to a doubling of the
system capacity. The capability to synchronize the inverter with the diesel generator allows
greater flexibility to optimize the operation of the system. Future systems should be sized with a
reduced peak capacity of the diesel generator, which results in a higher fraction of directly used
energy and hence higher system efficiencies.
By using the same power electronic devices for both inverter and rectifier operation, the
number of system components is minimized. Additionally, wiring and system installation costs

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are reduced through the integration of all power-conditioning devices in one central power unit.
This highly integrated system concept has advantages over a more modular approach to system
design, but it may prevent convenient system upgrades when the load demand increases. The
parallel configuration offers a number of potential advantages over other system configurations.

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These objectives can only be met if the interactive operation of the individual components is
controlled by an “intelligent” hybrid energy management system.
Although today’s generation of parallel systems include system controllers of varying
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complexity and sophistication, they do not optimize the performance of the complete system.
Typically, both the diesel generator and the inverter are sized to supply anticipated peak loads.
As a result most parallel hybrid energy systems do not utilize their capability of parallel,
synchronized operation of multiple power sources.
Advantages:
• The system load can be met in an optimal way.
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• Diesel generator efficiency can be maximized.
• Diesel generator maintenance can be minimized.
• A reduction in the rated capacities of the diesel generator, battery bank, inverter, and renewable
resources is feasible, while also meeting the peak loads.
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Disadvantages:
• Automatic control is essential for the reliable operation of the system.
• The inverter has to be a true sine-wave inverter with the ability to synchronize with a secondary
AC source.
• System operation is less transparent to the untrained user of the system.
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3. CASE STUDIES OF WIND-PV:
3.1 Introduction:

• Annual simulation program about conversion of power to a hybrid system.

• Estimation is done on a large store and a building.
• Time duration of 24 hours in typical 1-Day for 12 months.
• Analysis is done based on 3E

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• Energy saving
• Environment
• Economic efficiency

3.2 Case study based on

• The study is carried out on the bases of
1. Input of meteorology data

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2. Assuming a building
3. Setting of photovoltaic power generation
4. Setting of wind power generation
5. Annual simulation

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6. 3E analysis evaluation

3.3 Plant Details:

• Solar panel is details pa .

• Azimuth angle 0
.

• Tilt angle 30
• Generation efficiency 12%
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Windmill details
• Cut in speed 3m/sec
• Cut out speed 20m/sec
• Rated speed 8m/sec
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The following graph shows the rated power generated using PV-WIND power
May for spring
August for summer
November for autumn
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February for winter

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The output rate of generated electric power for rated power:

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•
•
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From graph it is found that for winter PV generation is about 55% and for other season it is 40%
Wind power generation can be done 24 hours and the output rate is about 30% normally and for other
season it is 10%
• The following graph shows the full load equivalent hour (i.e., 24 hours on a typical day)
Full load equivalent hour:
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3.4. PV-Wind power in a house:
• First annual energy generation is amounted to
 520KW for solar on an average
 120-150KW for wind on an average
• This is equal to the annual electric power demand by annual full load equivalent hour.
2

• Solar panel area is 30m with correction factor of 0.75

• Windmill diameter of 4.7m and coefficients of 0.47

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Supply and demand on hybrid power generation for house:

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3.5. Environmental Aspects:

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• CO is discharge depends only on the purchased power

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• But from the graph we can find that the purchased power is considerable low after the use of the hybrid
system
• The CO discharge is found zero (0) when
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 PV generation is about 2.73kw
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 Wind generation is about 2.60kw

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3.6. PV-Wind power in a large store:

• Installed capacity energy generation is
 100KW for solar on an average
 100KW for wind on an average
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• This is equal to the annual electric power demand by annual full load equivalent hour.
2

• Solar panel area is 1,000m

• Windmill rotor diameter of 30m

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Supply and demand on hybrid power generation for large store:

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Environmental Aspects
• The CO2 recovery period is about 20.5 years
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• Reduction of CO2 by 63.6%

• Power generated covers about 40-60% of the daytime power demand

• Power generated by PV system and wind System becomes surplus at night

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3.7. Conclusion:
• Use of Hybrid power generation system reduces the CO , SO and NO gasses emission by 60% on an
2 X X
average
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• When compared with the house and the large store the hybrid power system is more efficient in the large
store than in the house
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4. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING:
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers
used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The
voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called ‘maximum power point’ (or
peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature andsolar
cell temperature.

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A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that
optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or utility grid.
To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output from solar panels (and a few wind
generators) down to the lower voltage needed to charge batteries.

(These are sometimes called "power point trackers" for short - not to be confused with

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PANEL trackers, which are a solar panel mount that follows, or tracks, the sun).

How MPPT works?

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The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV
module by making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to
say:
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MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best
power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get
maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected
directly to the battery.
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MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
 Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and MPPT is
utilized to extract maximum power available from them.
 When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of
charge in the battery is lowers.
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What is maximum power point tracking?

There is some confusion about the term "tracking":

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Panel tracking - this is where the panels are on a mount that follows the sun. The most
common are the Zomeworks and Wattsun. These optimize output by following the sun across
the sky for maximum sunlight. These typically give you about a 15% increase in winter and up
to a 35% increase in summer.
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This is just the opposite of the seasonal variation for MPPT controllers. Since panel
temperatures are much lower in winter, they put out more power. And winter is usually when
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you need the most power from your solar panels due to shorter days.

Maximum Power Point Tracking is electronic tracking - usually digital. The charge controller
looks at the output of the panels, and compares it to the battery voltage. It then figures out
what is the best power that the panel can put out to charge the battery. It takes this and

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converts it to best voltage to get maximum AMPS into the battery. (Remember, it is Amps into
the battery that counts). Most modern MPPT's are around 93-97% efficient in the conversion.
You typically get a 20 to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actual gain can
vary widely depending weather, temperature, battery state of charge, and other factors.

Grid tie systems are becoming more popular as the price of solar drops and electric rates go
up. There are several brands of grid-tie only (that is, no battery) inverters available. All of

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these have built in MPPT. Efficiency is around 94% to 97% for the MPPT conversion on
those.

So what do you mean by "optimize"?

Solar cells are neat things. Unfortunately, they are not very smart. Neither are batteries - in

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fact batteries are downright stupid. Most PV panels are built to put out a nominal 12 volts. The
catch is "nominal". In actual fact, almost all "12 volt" solar panels are designed to put out from
16 to 18 volts. The problem is that a nominal 12 volt battery is pretty close to an actual 12
volts - 10.5 to 12.7 volts, depending on state of charge. Under charge, most batteries want

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from around 13.2 to 14.4 volts to fully charge - quite a bit different than what most panels are
designed to put out.
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OK, so now we have this neat 130 watt solar panel. Catch #1 is that it is rated at 130 watts at a
particular voltage and current. The Kyocera KC-130 is rated at 7.39 amps at 17.6 volts. (7.39
amps times 17.6 volts = 130 watts).

How Maximum Power Point Tracking works

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Here is where the optimization, or maximum power point tracking comes in. Assume your
battery is low, at 12 volts. A MPPT takes that 17.6 volts at 7.4 amps and converts it down, so
that what the battery gets is now 10.8 amps at 12 volts. Now you still have almost 130 watts,
and everyone is happy.
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Ideally, for 100% power conversion you would get around 11.3 amps at 11.5 volts, but you
have to feed the battery a higher voltage to force the amps in. And this is a simplified
explanation - in actual fact the output of the MPPT charge controller might vary continually to
adjust for getting the maximum amps into the battery.
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On the left is a screen shot from the Maui Solar Software "PV-Design Pro" computer
program (click on picture for full size image). If you look at the green line, you will see that it
has a sharp peak at the upper right - that represents the maximum power point. What an MPPT
controller does is "look" for that exact point, then does the voltage/current conversion to

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change it to exactly what the battery needs. In real life, that peak moves around continuously
with changes in light conditions and weather.

A MPPT tracks the maximum power point, which is going to be different from the STC
(Standard Test Conditions) rating under almost all situations. Under very cold conditions a
120 watt panel is actually capable of putting over 130+ watts because the power output goes
up as panel temperature goes down - but if you don't have some way of tracking that power

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point, you are going to lose it. On the other hand under very hot conditions, the power drops -
you lose power as the temperature goes up. That is why you get less gain in summer.

MPPT's are most effective under these conditions:

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Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days - when the extra power is needed the most.

 Cold weather - solar panels work better at cold temperatures, but without a MPPT you are

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losing most of that. Cold weather is most likely in winter - the time when sun hours are low
and you need the power to recharge batteries the most.
 Low battery charge - the lower the state of charge in your battery, the more current a MPPT
puts into them - another time when the extra power is needed the most. You can have both of


these conditions at the same time.
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Long wire runs - If you are charging a 12 volt battery, and your panels are 100 feet away, the
voltage drop and power loss can be considerable unless you use very large wire. That can be
very expensive. But if you have four 12 volt panels wired in series for 48 volts, the power loss
is much less, and the controller will convert that high voltage to 12 volts at the battery. That
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also means that if you have a high voltage panel setup feeding the controller, you can use much
smaller wire.

Ok, so now back to the original question - What is a MPPT?

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How a Maximum Power Point Tracker Works:

The Power point tracker is a high frequency DC to DC converter. They take the DC input from
the solar panels, change it to high frequency AC, and convert it back down to a different DC
voltage and current to exactly match the panels to the batteries. MPPT's operate at very high
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audio frequencies, usually in the 20-80 kHz range. The advantage of high frequency circuits is
that they can be designed with very high efficiency transformers and small components. The
design of high frequency circuits can be very tricky because the problems with portions of the
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circuit "broadcasting" just like a radio transmitter and causing radio and TV interference.
Noise isolation and suppression becomes very important.
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There are a few non-digital (that is, linear) MPPT's charge controls around. These are much
easier and cheaper to build and design than the digital ones. They do improve efficiency
somewhat, but overall the efficiency can vary a lot - and we have seen a few lose their
n"tracking point" and actually get worse. That can happen occasionally if a cloud passed over
the panel - the linear circuit searches for the next best point, but then gets too far out on the

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deep end to find it again when the sun comes out. Thankfully, not many of these around any
more.

The power point tracker (and all DC to DC converters) operates by taking the DC input
current, changing it to AC, running through a transformer (usually a toroid, a doughnut
looking transformer), and then rectifying it back to DC, followed by the output regulator. In
most DC to DC converters, this is strictly an electronic process - no real smarts are involved

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except for some regulation of the output voltage. Charge controllers for solar panels need a lot
more smarts as light and temperature conditions vary continuously all day long, and battery
voltage changes.

Smart power trackers

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All recent models of digital MPPT controllers available are microprocessor controlled. They
know when to adjust the output that it is being sent to the battery, and they actually shut down
for a few microseconds and "look" at the solar panel and battery and make any needed
adjustments. Although not really new (the Australian company AERL had some as early as

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1985), it has been only recently that electronic microprocessors have become cheap enough to
be cost effective in smaller systems (less than 1 KW of panel). MPPT charge controls are now
manufactured by several companies, such as Outback Power, Xantrex XW-SCC, Blue Sky
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Energy, Apollo Solar, Midnite Solar, Morningstar and a few others.

The MPPT maximizes the energy that can be transferred from the array to an electrical
system. Its main function is to adjust the panel output voltage to a value at which the panel
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supplies the maximum energy to the load. Most current designs consist of three basic
components: a switch-mode dc–dc converter, a control, and tracking section.
4.1. Design of the converter:

4.1.1 Switch-mode Converter

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The switch-mode converter is the core of the entire supply. It allows energy at one
potential to be drawn, stored as magnetic energy in an inductor, and then released at a different
potential. By setting up the switch-mode section in various different topologies, either high-to-
low (Buck converter) or low-to-high (Boost converter), voltage converters can then be built. The
main goal is to provide a fixed input voltage and/or current, such that the array is held at the
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maximum power point, while allowing the output to match the battery.

4.1.2. Controller
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The controller should keep testing if the PV system is operating at the PV maximum
power point. It should force the system to track this MPP. Continuous measuring of the voltage
and current from the PV array, and then performing either voltage or power feedback control is
the method used.
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4.1.2.1 Voltage Feedback Control

The control variable here is the PV array terminal voltage. The controller forces the PV
array to operate at its MPP by changing the array terminal voltage. It neglects, however, the
variation in the temperature and insolation level.

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4.1.2.2 Power Feedback Control
The control variable here is the power delivered to the load. To achieve maximum power
the quantity dp/dv is forced to zero. This control scheme is not affected by the characteristics of
the PV array, yet it maximizes power to the load and not power from the PV array. Fast shadows
cause trackers to lose the MPP momentarily, and the time lost in seeking it again, because the
point has moved away quickly and then moved back to the original position, equating to the

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energy lost while the array is off power point. On the other hand, if lighting conditions do
change, the tracker needs to respond within a short amount of time to the change to avoid energy
loss. Thus the controller should be capable of adjusting and keeping the PV at its MPPT.
Several algorithms were proposed to accomplish MPPT controller. Published MPPT
methods include:
(1) Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,
(2) Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and

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(3) Constant Reference Voltage/Current.
MPPT Controller Algorithm:

Perturb and Observe (PAO):

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Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method, also known as perturbation method is a type
of MPPT algorithm. The concept behind the “perturb and observe” method is to modify the
operating voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until you obtain maximum power from it.
It is often referred to as hill climbing method, because they depend on the fact that on the left
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side of the MPP, the curve is rising (dP/dV > 0) while on the right side of the MPP the curve is
falling (dP/dV < 0). Perturb and observe is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its
ease of implementation. Perturb and observe method may result in top-level efficiency, provided
that a proper predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted.
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Algorithm:
The voltage to a cell is increased initially. If the output power increases, the voltage is
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continually increased till the output power starts decreasing. Once the output power starts
decreasing, the voltage to the cell is decreased till maximum power is reached. This process is
continued till the MPP is attained. This results in an oscillation of the output power around the
MPP.
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Drawback:
 One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that under steady state operation, the
output power oscillates around the maximum power point.
 This algorithm can track wrongly under rapidly varying irradiation conditions.

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Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT):
Incremental conductance (INC) method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method
utilizes the incremental conductance (dI/dV) of the photovoltaic array to compute the sign of the
change in power with respect to voltage (dP/dV). INC method provides rapid MPP tracking even
in rapidly changing irradiation conditions with higher accuracy than the Perturb and observe
method.
Algorithm:

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The power-voltage curve's slope is null at the MPP, negative to the right of the MPP and
positive to the left of the MPP. INC computes the maximum power point by comparison of the
incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV) to the instantaneous conductance (I/V). When the incremental
conductance is zero, the output voltage is ascertained to be the MPP voltage and fixed at this
voltage until the MPP encounters a change due to the change in irradiation conditions. Then the
process above is repeated until a new maximum power point is reached.

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Advantage:
 This technique has an advantage over the perturb and observe method because it can stop and determine
when the Maximum Power Point is reached without having to oscillate around this value.
 It can perform Maximum Power Point Tracking under rapidly varying irradiation conditions with higher

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accuracy than the perturb and observe method.
Drawback:
 It can produce oscillations and can perform erratically under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.
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 The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling frequency resulting from the
higher complexity of the algorithm compared to the P&O method.
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CONSTANT REFERENCE VOLTAGE/CURRENT:

Constant voltage method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method makes use of the fact
that the ratio of maximum power point voltage and the open circuit voltage is 0.76. It is the
simplest MPPT control method.
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Algorithm:
The operating point of the PV array is kept near the MPP by regulating the array voltage
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and matching it to a fixed reference voltage Vref. The Vref value is set equal to the maximum
power point voltage of the characteristic PV module or to another calculated best fixed voltage.
One of the approximations of this method is that, variations encountered by individual panels
need not be considered as the constant reference voltage can be considered as the maximum
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power point voltage. The data for this method varies with geographical location and has to be
processed differently for different geographical locations. The CV method does not require any
input. It is important to observe that when the PV panel is in low insolation conditions, the CV
technique is more effective than either the P&O method or the IC method (analyzed below) .
Drawback:

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 The current from the photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily to measure the
open circuit voltage and then afterwards set to 76% of the measured voltage.
 Energy is wasted during the time time the current is set to zero.
 The approximation setting the voltage to 76% of the measured voltage is not accurate.

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