Elements of aircraft structures

CO1 Determine the displacement and forces acting in the members of statically determinate truss. (Apply)

CO2 Calculate the slope and deflection of statically indeterminate beams. (Apply)

CO3 Calculate the deflection and strain energy of statically determinate structures using energy method. (Apply)

CO4 Compute the bending stress distribution of unsymmetrical section beam and crippling strength of thin plates (Apply)

CO5 Estimate the shear flow distribution and shear center in open and closed thin-walled sections. (Apply)

CO6 Carry out elementary mechanical coupon testing of materials as per the given procedure. (Imitation)

CO7 Acquire data using the available measuring devices. (Manipulation)

CO8 Perform basic mathematical calculation using the appropriate formulae and represent the results in form of graph and table (Precision)
 Topic 3: Energy Methods

•
Strain energy evaluation in structural members under axial,
shear, torsion, bending, and impact loading. Deflection of the
beam using energy method: Castigliano’s first and second
theorems; Principle of virtual work, Dummy load, Maxwell’s
reciprocal theorem.

• Lab experiment: Verification of Maxwell’s theorem and

Impact test
Strain Energy:
When an elastic material is deformed under load, work
is done by the load by the applied load against the
resisting forces induced in the material.
This work done in straining the body is stored within
the material in form of strain energy.
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
This is true only if the material is strained upto the
elastic limit.
However, if the elastic limit is exceeded, the work done
during non-elastic strain is spent on overcoming the
cohesion of particles of the material, causing them to
slide one over another, and energy expended appears
as heat in the material is strained.

Strain energy is denoted by the symbol ‘U’ and is

expressed in the units of work N-m (or) J.
Resilience:
Resilience is defined as the strain energy per unit
volume of the material.
It represents the ability of material to absorb energy
within elastic limit.
It is also called as strain energy density.
It is denoted by ‘u’.
𝑈
𝑢=
𝑉
𝑁
It has unit of 2
𝑚
Proof Resilience:
Proof resilience is defined as the maximum strain which
can be stored in the material upto the elastic limit.
It represents the ability of material to bear shock loads.
Modulus of Resilience:
Proof resilience per unit volume is called as modulus of
resilience.
Strain Energy of Axially Loaded Bars:
The deformation of body, when subjected to axial load
(tension or compression) depends upon the manner in
which the load is applied.
The applied load may be
- Gradual Load
- Sudden Load
- Impact Load
Strain Energy – Gradually Applied Load:
Consider a bar of length ‘L’ having cross-sectional area
‘A’ which is subjected to an external axial load ‘P’.

Let ‘ΔL’ be the total deformation of bar under the axial

load.
Strain Energy – Gradually Applied Load:
In order to evaluate the strain energy, we need to plot
the load-deformation diagram with deformation along
the horizontal axis and load along the vertical axis.
An increment δP1 in load
results in corresponding
incremental deformation
δΔ1.
Work done is represented
By hatched strip as P1. δΔ1.
Strain Energy – Gradually Applied Load:
The total work done ‘W’ done by the load, as P1 varies
from 0 to P and Δ1 varies from 0 to Δ is given by,
∆

𝑊 = න 𝑃1 . 𝛿∆1
0
This work done is nothing but the strain energy stored
absorbed during the loading process.
Strain Energy – Gradually Applied Load:
When the load – deformation
is within the elastic limit,
we have
1
𝑈 = 𝑊 = . 𝑃. ∆
2
1
𝑈 = . (𝜎. 𝐴). (𝜀. 𝐿)
2
1
𝑈 = . 𝜎. 𝜀. 𝑉
2
From hooke’s law, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
1 𝜎 𝜎2𝑉
𝑈 = . 𝜎. . 𝑉 =
2 𝐸 2𝐸
Strain Energy – Gradually Applied Load:
1
𝑈 = 𝑊 = . 𝑃. ∆
2
Also we know the elongation of a bar as
𝑃𝐿
∆=
𝐴𝐸
1 𝑃𝐿
𝑈 = . 𝑃.
2 𝐴𝐸

𝑃2 𝐿
𝑈=
2𝐴𝐸
w.k.t , Work done on the bar as,
1
𝑊 = . 𝑃. ∆
2
However, the resistance offered by the bar is zero when
deflection is zero and equal to R when the deflection is
Δ.
Therefore the energy stored
1 1
𝑈= . 𝑅. ∆= . 𝜎. 𝐴. ∆
2 2
Equating, Work done = Strain energy.
1 1
. 𝑃. ∆= . 𝜎. 𝐴. ∆
2 2
𝑃
Simplifying, we get 𝜎 =
𝐴
Strain Energy – Suddenly Applied Load:
When the load ‘P’ is applied suddenly, the value of load
will be constant throughout the deformation. However
the deformation increases from 0 to Δ, but this change
will happen instantaneously.
Let the external work done
of the bar is given by,
W = P.Δ
Strain Energy – Suddenly Applied Load:
However, the resistance offered by the bar is zero when
deflection is zero and equal to R when the deflection is
Δ.
Therefore the energy stored
1
𝑈= . 𝑅. ∆
2
replacing the resistance in
terms of stress,
1
𝑈= . 𝜎. 𝐴. ∆
2
Strain Energy – Suddenly Applied Load:
w.k.t.
Strain Energy = Work done.

1
. 𝜎. 𝐴. ∆= 𝑃. ∆
2
2𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
We can understand that the maximum stress setup in
the bar is equal to twice that in case of gradual applied
load.
Strain Energy – Impact Load:
Consider the case of impact load where
a load ‘P’ is dropped on a collar of
elastic body through a height ‘h’.
As the weight ‘P’, after falling through a
height h strikes the collar which is fixed at
the lower end of the bar.
A small oscillation is setup initially before
reaching the final position.
Let the final deformation after the oscillation be denoted by ‘Δ’.
Strain Energy – Impact Load:
Now the work done by the weight
on the collar is given by,

𝑊 = 𝑃(ℎ + ∆)

Using the hooke’s law,

𝜎𝐿
∆=
𝐸

𝜎𝐿
𝑊 = 𝑃(ℎ + )
𝐸
Strain Energy – Impact Load:
Let the strain energy stored in the bar is given as,
1 1 𝜎𝐿
𝑈 = . 𝑅. ∆= . 𝜎. 𝐴 .
2 2 𝐸
𝜎 2 𝐴𝐿
𝑈=
2𝐸
Equating the strain energy to work done, we get
𝜎𝐿 𝜎 2 𝐴𝐿
𝑃. ℎ + =
𝐸 2𝐸
Rearranging,
2 𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 −𝜎 − 𝑃ℎ = 0
2𝐸 𝐸
 2 𝐴𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 −𝜎 − 𝑃ℎ = 0
2𝐸 𝐸
𝐴𝐿
Divide by on both sides,
𝐸
𝜎2 𝑃 𝑃ℎ𝐸
−𝜎 − =0
2 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
Solving we get,
𝑃 𝑃 2 1 𝑃ℎ𝐸
𝜎= ± + 4.
𝐴 𝐴 2 𝐴𝐿
𝑃 2𝐴ℎ𝐸
𝜎= 1± 1+
𝐴 𝑃𝐿

This equation gives the stress developed in a bar which is subjected to

impact load.
Problem:
The maximum stress produced by a pull in a bar of
length 1m is 150 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . The area of cross-sections and
length is shown below. Calculate the strain energy
stored in the bar if E=200GPa.
Given:
Length, L =1m
Max.Stress, 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Part AB:
Length L1= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A1= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part BC:
Length L2= 50mm = 0.05m
Area A2= 100𝑚𝑚2 = 100𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part CD:
Length L3= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A3= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Young’s Modulus E = 200GPa = 200𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
In this problem, the load applied is unknown. However
the maximum stress developed is given.
We know that the maximum stress will occur in the
section where the cross-sectional area is minimum.
In our problem section BC is having minimum area and
will have the maximum stress.
The sections AB and CD are having equal areas and so
the stress will be same in both sections.
Let,
𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵𝐶 = 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷
Since the load is common for all the sections,
𝑃 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 = 𝜎2 𝐴2
𝜎2 .𝐴2
𝜎1 =
𝐴1
150 𝑥 106 𝑥100𝑥10−6
𝜎1 =
200𝑥10−6

𝜎1 = 75 𝑥 106
Strain Energy:
wkt strain energy stored in bar loaded axially as,
𝜎2𝑉
𝑈=
2𝐸
Since the bar is having varying cross-section area, strain
energy is found for each section separately and
summation will give the total strain energy.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3
Strain Energy in part AB:
𝜎12 𝑉1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝐿1

𝜎12 𝐴1 𝐿1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈1 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈1 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part BC:
𝜎22 𝑉2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝐿2

𝜎22 𝐴2 𝐿2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸

(150 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 100 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.05

𝑈2 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈2 = 0.28125 𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part CD:
𝜎32 𝑉3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴3 𝑥 𝐿3

𝜎32 𝐴3 𝐿3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈3 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈3 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Total Strain Energy:
𝑤𝑘𝑡 the total strain energy as
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3

𝑈 = 1.335 + 0.283+1.335

𝑈 = 2.95125 𝑁 − 𝑚.
Problem:
The maximum stress produced by a pull in a bar of
length 1m is 150 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . The area of cross-sections and
length is shown below. Calculate the strain energy
stored in the bar if E=200GPa.
Given:
Length, L =1m
Max.Stress, 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Part AB:
Length L1= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A1= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part BC:
Length L2= 50mm = 0.05m
Area A2= 100𝑚𝑚2 = 100𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part CD:
Length L3= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A3= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Young’s Modulus E = 200GPa = 200𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
In this problem, the load applied is unknown. However
the maximum stress developed is given.
We know that the maximum stress will occur in the
section where the cross-sectional area is minimum.
In our problem section BC is having minimum area and
will have the maximum stress.
The sections AB and CD are having equal areas and so
the stress will be same in both sections.
Let,
𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵𝐶 = 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷
Since the load is common for all the sections,
𝑃 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 = 𝜎2 𝐴2
𝜎2 .𝐴2
𝜎1 =
𝐴1
150 𝑥 106 𝑥100𝑥10−6
𝜎1 =
200𝑥10−6

𝜎1 = 75 𝑥 106
Strain Energy:
wkt strain energy stored in bar loaded axially as,
𝜎2𝑉
𝑈=
2𝐸
Since the bar is having varying cross-section area, strain
energy is found for each section separately and
summation will give the total strain energy.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3
Strain Energy in part AB:
𝜎12 𝑉1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝐿1

𝜎12 𝐴1 𝐿1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈1 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈1 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part BC:
𝜎22 𝑉2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝐿2

𝜎22 𝐴2 𝐿2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸

(150 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 100 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.05

𝑈2 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈2 = 0.283𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part CD:
𝜎32 𝑉3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴3 𝑥 𝐿3

𝜎32 𝐴3 𝐿3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈3 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈3 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Total Strain Energy:
𝑤𝑘𝑡 the total strain energy as
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3

𝑈 = 1.335 + 0.283+1.335

𝑈 = 2.953 𝑁 − 𝑚.
Problem:
Two bars A and B are each 30cm long and are of the
same material. Bar A is 20mm in diameter for a length
of 10cm and 40mm in diameter for the remaining
length. Bar B is 2cm in diameter for a length of 20cm
and 4cm in diameter for the remaining length. An axial
blow given to bar A produces a maximum
instantaneous stress of 200 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . Calculate the
maximum instantaneous stress produced by the same
blow on bar B.
If each bar is stresses upto the elastic limit, calculate
the ratio of energy stored by A and B at proof stress.
Given:
For Bar A,
Length, La1 =20cm
Length, La2 =10cm
Diameter, da1=4cm
Diameter, da2=2cm
For Bar B,
Length, Lb1 =10cm
Length, Lb2 =20cm
Diameter, db1=4cm
Diameter, db2=2cm
Maximum stress, 𝜎𝐴 = 200𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2
wkt, 𝜎𝐴 = 200𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2
The cross sectional area of bar A is not constant.
Therefore the maximum stress will happen in the part
where cross-sectional area is minimum.
Hence,
𝜎𝐴,2 = 200𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2
We also know that the bar carries same load across the
different cross sections.
𝜎𝐴,1 . 𝐴𝐴,1 = 𝜎𝐴,2 . 𝐴𝐴,2
 𝜎𝐴,1 . 𝐴𝐴,1 = 𝜎𝐴,2 . 𝐴𝐴,2
Let,
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝐴,1 = 𝑑𝐴,1 = (4 𝑥 10−2 )2
4 4

𝐴𝐴,1 = 0.0012564𝑚2

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝐴,𝟐 = 𝑑𝐴,2 = (2 𝑥 10−2 )2
4 4

𝐴𝐴,2 = 0.0003141𝑚2

𝜎𝐴,1 . (0.0012564) = (200𝑥106 ). (0.0003141)

𝜎𝐴,1 . 0.0012564 = 200𝑥106 . 0.0003141

62820
𝜎𝐴,1 =
0.0012564

𝜎𝐴,1 = 50𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2

Strain Energy:
wkt strain energy stored in bar loaded axially as,
𝜎2𝑉
𝑈=
2𝐸
Since the bar A is having varying cross-section area,
strain energy is found for each section separately and
summation will give the total strain energy.
𝑈𝐴 = 𝑈𝐴,1 + 𝑈𝐴,2
Strain Energy in Bar A part 1:
𝜎𝐴,12 𝑉𝐴,1
𝑈𝐴,1 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉𝐴,1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 1 = 𝐴𝐴,1 𝑥 𝐿𝐴,1

𝜎𝐴,12 𝐴𝐴,1 𝐿𝐴,1

𝑈𝐴,1 =
2𝐸
(50 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 0.0012564 𝑥 20 𝑥 10−2
𝑈𝐴,1 =
2𝐸
3.141 𝑥 1011
𝑈𝐴,1 =
𝐸
Strain Energy in bar A part 2:
𝜎𝐴,22 𝑉𝐴,2
𝑈𝐴,2 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉𝐴,2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝐴,2 𝑥 𝐿𝐴,2

𝜎𝐴,22 𝐴𝐴,2 𝐿𝐴,2

𝑈𝐴,2 =
2𝐸
(200 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 0.0003141 𝑥 10 𝑥 10−2
𝑈𝐴,2 =
2𝐸
6.282 𝑥 1011
𝑈𝐴,2 =
𝐸
Strain Energy in bar A
Now the total strain energy in bar A is given as,
𝑈𝐴 = 𝑈𝐴,1 + 𝑈𝐴,2

3.141 𝑥 1011 6.282 𝑥 1011

𝑈𝐴 = +
𝐸 𝐸

9.423 𝑥 1011
𝑈𝐴 =
𝐸
The cross sectional area of bar B is also not constant.
Therefore the maximum stress will happen in the part
where cross-sectional area is minimum.
We also know that the bar carries same load across the
different cross sections.
𝜎𝐵,1 . 𝐴𝐵,1 = 𝜎𝐵,2 . 𝐴𝐵,2
 𝜎𝐵,1 . 𝐴𝐵,1 = 𝜎𝐵,2 . 𝐴𝐵,2
Let,
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝐵,1 = 𝑑𝐵,1 = (4 𝑥 10−2 )2
4 4

𝐴𝐵,1 = 0.0012564𝑚2

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴𝐵,𝟐 = 𝑑𝐵,2 = (2 𝑥 10−2 )2
4 4

𝐴𝐵,2 = 0.0003141𝑚2

𝜎𝐵,1 . (0.0012564) = 𝜎𝐵,2 . (0.0003141)

𝜎𝐵,1 . (0.0012564) = 𝜎𝐵,2 . (0.0003141)

0.0003141
𝜎𝐵,1 = . 𝜎𝐵,2
0.0012564

𝜎𝐵,1 = 0.25𝜎𝐵,2
Strain Energy in Bar B part 1:
𝜎𝐵,12 𝑉𝐵,1
𝑈𝐵,1 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉𝐵,1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 1 = 𝐴𝐵,1 𝑥 𝐿𝐵,1

𝜎𝐵,12 𝐴𝐵,1 𝐿𝐵,1

𝑈𝐵,1 =
2𝐸
(0.25𝜎𝐵,2 )2 𝑥 0.0012564 𝑥 10 𝑥 10−2
𝑈𝐵,1 =
2𝐸
3.9269 𝑥 10−6 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2
𝑈𝐵,1 =
𝐸
Strain Energy in Bar B part 2:
𝜎𝐵,22 𝑉𝐵,2
𝑈𝐵,2 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉𝐵,2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 1 = 𝐴𝐵,2 𝑥 𝐿𝐵,2

𝜎𝐵,22 𝐴𝐵,2 𝐿𝐵,2

𝑈𝐵,2 =
2𝐸
(𝜎𝐵,2 )2 𝑥 0.0003141 𝑥 20 𝑥 10−2
𝑈𝐵,2 =
2𝐸

3.141 𝑥 10−5 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2

𝑈𝐵,2 =
𝐸
Strain Energy in bar B
Now the total strain energy in bar B is given as,
𝑈𝐵 = 𝑈𝐵,1 + 𝑈𝐵,2

3.9269 𝑥 10−6 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2 3.141 𝑥 10−5 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2

𝑈𝐵 = +
𝐸 𝐸

3.5341 𝑥 10−5 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2

𝑈𝐵 =
𝐸
It is given that the blow on both the bars are same,
therefore strain energy stored in both bars are equal.
𝑈𝐴 = 𝑈𝐵

9.423 𝑥 1011 3.5341 𝑥 10−5 𝑥 (𝜎𝐵,2 )2

=
𝐸 𝐸

9.423 𝑥 1011
(𝜎𝐵,2 )2 =
3.5341 𝑥 10−5

(𝜎𝐵,2 )2 = 2.667 𝑥 1016

𝜎𝐵,2 = 163.3 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2

Strain Energy in bar B
3.5341 𝑥 10−5 𝑥(𝜎𝐵,2 )2
𝑈𝐵 =
𝐸

3.5341 𝑥 10−5 𝑥(163.3𝑥 106 )2

𝑈𝐵 =
𝐸

9.41364 𝑥 1011
𝑈𝐵 =
𝐸
Ratio of Strain Energy:
Let the ratio of strain energy be,

9.423 𝑥 1011
𝑈𝐴 𝐸
=
𝑈𝐵 9.423 𝑥 1011
𝐸

𝑈𝐴 9.423 𝑥 1011
=
𝑈𝐵 9.423 𝑥 1011

𝑈𝐴
=1
𝑈𝐵
Problem:
An unknown weight falls through a height of 10mm on
a collar rigidly attached to the lower end of a vertical
bar 5m long and 600𝑚𝑚2 .If the maximum extension of
the rod is to be 2mm, what is the corresponding stress
and magnitude of the unknown weight? Take
E=200GPa.
Given:
Height of fall, h=10mm.
Length, L =5m
Area, A =600𝑚𝑚2
Maximum extension, 𝛿𝐿𝑖 =2mm
Young’s modulus, E= 200𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
wkt from hooke’s law,
𝜎 = 𝐸. 𝜀

𝐸𝛿𝐿𝑖
𝜎𝑖 =
𝐿

200 𝑥109 𝑥2𝑥10−3

𝜎𝑖 =
5

𝜎𝑖 = 80𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2
Strain Energy:
wkt the maximum stress developed in a bar subjected
to impact load as,
𝑃 2𝐴ℎ𝐸
𝜎= 1+ 1+
𝐴 𝑃𝐿

𝑃 2𝑥600𝑥10 −6 𝑥10𝑥10−3 𝑥200𝑥109

80𝑥106 = 1+ 1+
600𝑥10−6 5𝑥𝑃

48000 480000
= 1+ 1+
𝑃 𝑃
 48000 480000
−1 = 1+
𝑃 𝑃
On squaring both sides,
2
48000 − 𝑃 480000
= 1+
𝑃 𝑃

(480002 + 𝑃2 − (2𝑥48000𝑥𝑃)) 480000

2
= 1+
𝑃 𝑃

480002 + 𝑃2 − 96000𝑃 = 𝑃2 + 480000𝑃

480002 + 𝑃2 − 96000𝑃 = 𝑃2 + 480000𝑃

480002 = 576000𝑃

2.304𝑥109 = 576000𝑃

𝑃 = 4000 𝑁
Problem:
A vertical compound tie member fixed rigidly at its
upper end, consists of a steel rod 2.5m long and
200mm in diameter, placed within an equally long brass
tube 21mm in internal diameter and 30mm external
diameter. The rod and tube are fixed together at the
ends. The compound member is then suddenly loaded
in tension by a weight of 10kN falling through a height
of 3mm on to a flange fixed on its lower end. Calculate
the maximum stresses in steel and brass. Take
Es=200GPa and Eb=100GPa.
Problem:
Given:
Height of fall, h=3mm.
Length of steel rod, Ls = 2.5m
Length of brass tube, Lb = 2.5m
Diameter of steel rod, Ds = 20mm
External Diameter of brass tube, Db = 30mm
Internal Diameter of brass tube, db = 21mm
Weight, P =10kN
Young’s modulus for steel, Es= 200𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
Young’s modulus for brass, Eb= 100𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
wkt
For a compound tube,
(i) strain developed will be same for both tube and rod.
(ii) Elongation produced in the rod will be equal to the
elongation produced in the tube.
 𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑏

Using hooke’s law and modifying we get,

𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑏
=
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑏

𝜎𝑠 𝐸𝑠 200𝑥109
= = 9
=2
𝜎𝑏 𝐸𝑏 100𝑥10

𝜎𝑠 = 2 𝜎𝑏
𝑤𝑘𝑡 elongation of bar as,
𝜎𝑏 𝜎𝑠
𝛿𝐿 = . 𝐿𝑏 = . 𝐿𝑠
𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑠

𝜎𝑠 𝐸𝑠 200𝑥109
= = 9
=2
𝜎𝑏 𝐸𝑏 100𝑥10

𝜎𝑠 = 2 𝜎𝑏
Work done:
𝑊 = 𝑃 ℎ + 𝛿𝐿

𝜎 𝑏 𝐿𝑏
𝑊 = 𝑃(ℎ + )
𝐸𝑏
𝜎𝑏 𝑥 2.5
𝑊= 10𝑥103 (3𝑥10−3 + 9 )
100𝑥10
𝑊 = 10𝑥103 (3𝑥10−3 + 𝜎𝑏 𝑥 2.5𝑥10−11 )

𝑊 = 30 + 𝜎𝑏 𝑥 2.5𝑥10−7
Strain Energy:
𝜎𝑠 2 𝐴𝑠 𝐿𝑠 𝜎𝑏 2 𝐴𝑏 𝐿𝑏
𝑈= +
2𝐸𝑠 2𝐸𝑏
(2𝜎𝑏 )2 𝑥2.5𝑥3.1415𝑥10−4
𝑈= 9
2𝑥200𝑥10
𝜎𝑏 2 𝑥2.5𝑥3.6049𝑥10−4
+
2𝑥100𝑥109

−15 2 −15 2
𝑈= 7.8537𝑥10 𝑥𝜎𝑏 + 4.5061𝑥10 𝑥𝜎𝑏

−14 2
𝑈= 1.2359𝑥10 𝑥𝜎𝑏
Wkt,
Work done = Strain energy

W=U

−7 −14 2
30 + 𝜎𝑏 𝑥 2.5𝑥10 = 1.2359𝑥10 𝑥𝜎𝑏

−14 2
1.2359𝑥10 𝑥𝜎𝑏 − 𝜎𝑏 𝑥 2.5𝑥10−7 − 30 = 0

Solving the quadratic equation,

𝜎𝑏 = 60.4 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2

Wkt,
𝜎𝑠 = 2 𝜎𝑏

𝜎𝑠 = 2 𝑥 60.4 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2

𝜎𝑠 = 120.8 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2

Strain Energy Due to Torsion:

Consider a solid shaft that is under torsion.

Consider an elementary ring of width ‘dr’ at a radius of
‘r’.
Let,
D = Diameter of the shaft.
L = Length of the shaft.
R = Radius of the shaft.
𝜏 = Shear stress on the shaft surface.
G = Modulus of rigidity of shaft material.
U = Total shear strain energy in the shaft.
The shear stress due to torsion at the small strip i.e., at
radius ‘r’ from the center is given by,
𝜏𝑟 𝜏
=
𝑟 𝑅
𝜏
𝜏𝑟 = . 𝑟
𝑅

Area of elementary ring, 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟

Volume of the ring, 𝑉 = 𝑑𝐴. 𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙. 𝑑𝑟
wkt, the strain energy due to shear load as,
𝜏2𝑉
𝑈=
2𝐺
The strain energy for the small strip is given as,
𝜏 2
. 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝑙. 𝑑𝑟
𝑈= 𝑅
2
2𝐺
𝜏 𝑙 2
𝑈= 2
. 𝑟 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
2𝐺𝑅
To calculate the strain energy for the whole shaft,
Integrate the above equation within the limits o to R.
𝑅
𝜏2𝑙 2 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
න 2
. 𝑟
0 2𝐺𝑅
 𝑅
𝜏2𝑙 2 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝑈=න 2
. 𝑟
0 2𝐺𝑅
𝑅
𝜏2𝑙 2 . 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝑈= න 𝑟
2𝐺𝑅2 0
Let 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑑𝑟
𝑅
𝜏2𝑙 2
𝑈= 2
න 𝑟 . 𝑑𝐴
2𝐺𝑅 0
Where,
𝑅 2
‫׬‬0 𝑟 . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽 = 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎
For a circular shaft,
𝜋𝐷4
𝐽=
32

𝜏 2 𝑙 𝜋𝐷4
𝑈= 2
.
2𝐺𝑅 32

𝜏 2 𝑙 𝜋16𝑅4
𝑈= 2
.
2𝐺𝑅 32

𝜏2
𝑈= . 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙
4𝐺

𝜏 2𝑉
𝑈=
4𝐺
For a hollow circular shaft,
𝜋(𝐷4 − 𝑑4 )
𝐽=
32

𝜏 2 𝑉 (𝐷2 +𝑑 2 )
𝑈= .
4𝐺 𝐷2
Problem:
The maximum stress produced by a pull in a bar of
length 1m is 150 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . The area of cross-sections and
length is shown below. Calculate the strain energy
stored in the bar if E=200GPa.
Given:
Length, L =1m
Max.Stress, 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
Part AB:
Length L1= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A1= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part BC:
Length L2= 50mm = 0.05m
Area A2= 100𝑚𝑚2 = 100𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Part CD:
Length L3= 475mm = 0.475m
Area A3= 200𝑚𝑚2 = 200𝑥10−6 𝑚2
Young’s Modulus E = 200GPa = 200𝑥109 𝑁/𝑚2
In this problem, the load applied is unknown. However
the maximum stress developed is given.
We know that the maximum stress will occur in the
section where the cross-sectional area is minimum.
In our problem section BC is having minimum area and
will have the maximum stress.
The sections AB and CD are having equal areas and so
the stress will be same in both sections.
Let,
𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵𝐶 = 150 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚2
𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷
Since the load is common for all the sections,
𝑃 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 = 𝜎2 𝐴2
𝜎2 .𝐴2
𝜎1 =
𝐴1
150 𝑥 106 𝑥100𝑥10−6
𝜎1 =
200𝑥10−6

𝜎1 = 75 𝑥 106
Strain Energy:
wkt strain energy stored in bar loaded axially as,
𝜎2𝑉
𝑈=
2𝐸
Since the bar is having varying cross-section area, strain
energy is found for each section separately and
summation will give the total strain energy.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3
Strain Energy in part AB:
𝜎12 𝑉1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝐿1

𝜎12 𝐴1 𝐿1
𝑈1 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈1 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈1 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part BC:
𝜎22 𝑉2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝐿2

𝜎22 𝐴2 𝐿2
𝑈2 =
2𝐸

(150 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 100 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.05

𝑈2 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈2 = 0.283𝑁 − 𝑚
Strain Energy in part CD:
𝜎32 𝑉3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸
where,
𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴3 𝑥 𝐿3

𝜎32 𝐴3 𝐿3
𝑈3 =
2𝐸

(75 𝑥 106 )2 𝑥 200 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 0.475

𝑈3 =
2 𝑥 200 𝑥 109

𝑈3 = 1.335𝑁 − 𝑚
Total Strain Energy:
𝑤𝑘𝑡 the total strain energy as
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 +𝑈3

𝑈 = 1.335 + 0.283+1.335

𝑈 = 2.953 𝑁 − 𝑚.
•A circular shaft consists of two portions
BC and CD of the same material and
same length but different cross-sectional
areas as shown in Figure Determine the
strain energy of the shaft when it is
subjected to twisting couple T at end D.
Using Eq. (1 3.18) to compute the strain energy of
each of the two portions of shaft
and then adding.
Castigliano’s first theorem

• For linearly elastic structures, where external forces only

cause deformations, the complementary energy is equal to the
strain energy.
• For such structures, Castigliano’s first theorem may be stated
as the first partial derivative of the strain energy of the
structure with respect to any particular force giving the
displacement of the point of application of that force in the
direction of its line of action.
OR
• for determinate structure within linear elastic range the
partial derivative of the total strain energy with respect to any
external load is equal to the displacement of the point of
application of load in the direction of the applied load,
provided the supports are unyielding and temperature is
maintained constant.
• This theorem is advantageously used for calculating
deflections in elastic structure.
Find the displacement and slope at the tip of a
cantilever beam loaded as in Figure. Assume the
flexural rigidity of the beam EI to be constant for
the beam.
Strain energy due to bending
• But actually there is no moment applied at A. Hence substitute M0 = 0
we get the slope at A.
• A cantilever beam that is curved in the shape of a quadrant of
a circle is loaded as shown in Figure. The radius of curvature
of the curved beam is R, Young’s modulus of the material is
E, and the second moment of the area is I about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the paper through the centroid
of the cross-section. Find the vertical displacement of point A
on the curved beam.
• The bending moment at any section θ of the curved beam is given by
• A cylinder attached to a fixed wall, with a constant diameter
d=4 cm and length L=2 m, and a torque of 8 N·m is applied.
Assume G=120 GPa. find the displacement of the cylinder
• The area and moment of inertia are not changing
Find horizontal displacement at D of the frame shown in
Figure Assume the flexural rigidity of the beam to be constant
throughout the member. Neglect strain energy due to axial
deformations.
Castigliano’s Second Theorem
 Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem
Deflection at D due to a unit load at C is the same as the
deflection at C if a unit load was applied at D.
In our notation, δCD = δDC.
 Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem

• Maxwell's reciprocal theorem doesn't just apply to beams but

to any linear elastic body, including surfaces.
• It doesn't just apply to displacements but also to rotations
produced by torques.
• It is derived relatively straightforwardly by examining the
work done when two different forces are applied.
 Principle of virtual work
• If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of a number of
forces, the total work done by the forces for a small arbitrary
displacement of the particle is zero
• Particle, A, is acted on by a number of concurrent forces, F1,
F2, . . . , Fk, . . . , Fr; the resultant of these forces is R.
• Suppose that the particle is given a small arbitrary
displacement, v, to A′ in some specified direction; v is an
imaginary or virtual displacement and is sufficiently small so
that the directions of F1, F2, and so on are unchanged.
• Let θR be the angle that the resultant, R, of the forces, makes
with the direction of v and θ1, θ2, . . . , θk, . . . , θr the angles
that F1, F2, . . . , Fk, . . . , Fr make with the direction of v,
respectively.
The total virtual work, WF, done by the forces F as the particle
moves through the virtual displacement, v, is given by
Refer link for the the answer :
https://civilengineeronline.com/str/prob73.htm
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzULLcCJtqU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw-Y3-Y9baU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIsf5qS5wv4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y2miSebyOJk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_Rmz31P7BM
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/101105084
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzULLcCJtqU&list=RDLVy2miSebyOJk&
index=7
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygqnyH3x7CE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-IuyiTnqSp4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_gQ4Y03Flg
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0WFxeEtAIIA&list=RDLVV_gQ4Y03Flg&i
ndex=3
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/101105084
• https://civilengineeronline.com/str/prob73.htm