EXP-PR-RT010-EN-R0 - 1 - Mathematics

THEORY REVIEW
MATHEMATICS
TRAINING MANUAL
Course EXP-PR-RT010
Revision 0.1
Exploration & Production
Theory Review
Mathematics
THEORY REVIEW
MATHEMATICS
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................6
2. NUMBERS.......................................................................................................................7
2.1. INTEGERS ................................................................................................................7
2.2. DECIMALS................................................................................................................7
2.3. REAL NUMBERS ......................................................................................................8
2.4. SCIENTIFIC REPRESENTATION OF A REAL NUMBER ........................................8
2.5. FACTORISATION OF A WHOLE NUMBER .............................................................9
2.6. APPROXIMATE VALUE OF A NUMBER, OF A PHYSICAL UNIT............................9
2.7. ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A NUMBER.........................................................................9
2.8. RECIPROCAL NUMBERS ......................................................................................10
3. OPERATIONS ...............................................................................................................11
3.1. THE 4 BASIC OPERATIONS: + , - , / , * .................................................................11
3.1.1. The addition symbol "+"...................................................................................11
3.1.2. The subtraction symbol "-"...............................................................................11
3.1.3. Multiplication: symbols "x" or "*" ......................................................................11
3.1.4. Division: symbols ":" or "/" ...............................................................................12
3.2. COMPARISON OF NUMBERS, INEQUALITY AND EQUIVALENCE SYMBOLS...13
3.3. BRACKETS .............................................................................................................13
3.3.1. Simple bracket.................................................................................................13
3.3.2. "Nested" brackets ............................................................................................14
3.3.3. Calculations with brackets ...............................................................................14
3.3.4. Distributive property.........................................................................................14
3.3.5. Bracket elimination rules .................................................................................15
3.4. Fractions and proportions........................................................................................16
3.4.1. General points .................................................................................................16
3.4.2. Operations on fractions ...................................................................................17
3.4.2.1. Simplification ..............................................................................................17
3.4.2.2. Sum and subtraction ..................................................................................18
3.4.2.3. Multiplication ..............................................................................................18
3.4.2.4. Division.......................................................................................................19
3.4.2.5. Equality ......................................................................................................19
3.4.2.6. Proportion:..................................................................................................19
3.4.3. Exercises.........................................................................................................21
3.5. PERCENTAGES (% SYMBOL)...............................................................................25
3.5.1. Instantaneous percentage ...............................................................................25
3.5.2. Variation percentage .......................................................................................26
3.5.3. Exercises.........................................................................................................27
4. AVERAGES AND STATISTICS.....................................................................................34
4.1. GENERAL POINTS.................................................................................................34
4.1.1. The arithmetic average....................................................................................34
Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN
Last revised: 26/04/2007 Page 2 / 135
Theory Review
Mathematics
4.1.2. The geometric average....................................................................................34

4.1.3. Harmonic average (or harmonic mean) ...........................................................35
4.1.4. Weighted average (or weighted mean)............................................................36
4.1.5. Quadratic average (or quadratic mean)...........................................................36
4.2. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS .........................................................................38
4.2.1. Terminology.....................................................................................................38
4.2.2. Graphic representation ....................................................................................40
4.2.3. Statistical analysis indicators...........................................................................41
4.2.4. Statistics examples:.........................................................................................43
5. OTHER OPERATIONS..................................................................................................47
5.1. POWERS ................................................................................................................47
5.1.1. General points .................................................................................................47
5.1.2. Positive exponent power .................................................................................47
5.1.3. Negative exponent power................................................................................48
5.1.4. Algebraic operations on powers ......................................................................49
5.1.5. Powers of ten ..................................................................................................50
5.1.5.1. Exercises....................................................................................................52
5.1.6. The square root: symbol "√" ............................................................................53
5.1.7. Exercises.........................................................................................................54
5.2. EXPONENTIAL .......................................................................................................57
5.3. LOGARITHMS ........................................................................................................59
5.3.1. Introduction......................................................................................................59
5.3.2. Properties of logarithm functions .....................................................................61
5.3.3. Napierian logarithm .........................................................................................62
5.3.4. Decimal logarithms (log)..................................................................................64
5.3.4.1. Mantissa and characteristics ......................................................................65
5.3.5. Using logs in graphic representations .............................................................68
5.3.6. Exercises.........................................................................................................75
6. SIMPLE EQUATION SYSTEMS ....................................................................................76
6.1. CONCEPT OF EQUATIONS...................................................................................76
6.2. PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY ENABLING EQUATION SOLVING .........................76
6.3. 1st DEGREE EQUATION WITH ONE UNKNOWN ..................................................77
6.3.1. Exercises.........................................................................................................79
6.4. PROBLEM SOLVING USING AN EQUATION SYSTEM ........................................80
6.4.1. Addition method ..............................................................................................84
6.4.2. Substitution method.........................................................................................85
6.5. LITERAL EXPRESSIONS AND CALCULUS ..........................................................87
7. FUNCTIONS..................................................................................................................89
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF FUNCTIONS ........................................89
7.2. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF A FUNCTION .................................................90
7.2.1. System of coordinates .....................................................................................90
7.2.2. Positioning of a point in its coordinate system.................................................91
7.2.3. Definition of a point's coordinates in its coordinate system .............................91
7.2.4. Scales of graduations ......................................................................................91
7.2.5. Example of graphic representation of a law of physics....................................92
7.2.6. Graphic representation of y = ax .....................................................................94
7.2.7. Exercises on graphic representation ...............................................................96
8. TRIGONOMETRY .........................................................................................................97
Theory Review
Mathematics
8.1. RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES ..................................................................................97

8.2. PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM....................................................................................97
8.2.1. Fun demonstration of Pythagoras' theorem.....................................................98
8.2.2. Generalisation of Pythagoras' theorem: Al-Kashi's formula.............................98
8.3. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE .............................................................................99
8.4. FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE WITH PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM ....................100
8.5. APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE ............................................101
8.5.1. Finding an angle ............................................................................................101
8.5.2. Finding the measurement of a side ...............................................................101
8.6. TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC VALUES OF ACUTE ANGLES ............................102
8.7. The main formulae in trigonometry........................................................................103
8.7.1. Addition and difference formulae...................................................................103
8.7.2. Duplication formulae......................................................................................103
8.7.3. Linearization formulae ...................................................................................104
8.7.4. Development formulae ..................................................................................104
8.7.5. Factorisation formulae ...................................................................................104
9. SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES............................................................................105
9.1. SURFACE AREAS ................................................................................................105
9.1.1. Triangles........................................................................................................105
9.1.1.1. Area of triangle if the base and height values are known.........................105
9.1.1.2. Area of an equilateral triangle if the length of the side is known...............106
9.1.1.3. Area of an isosceles triangle if the length of the equal sides and base are
known....................................................................................................................106
9.1.1.4. Area of a scalene triangle if the lengths of the sides are known...............107
9.1.1.5. Area of a right-angle triangle ....................................................................107
9.1.2. Quadrilaterals ................................................................................................108
9.1.2.1. Squares....................................................................................................109
9.1.2.2. Rectangles ...............................................................................................110
9.1.2.3. Area of a rhomb if the length of the diagonals is known...........................110
9.1.2.4. Area of a trapezoid if the 2 bases and height are known .........................111
9.1.3. Other flat figures............................................................................................111
9.1.3.1. Area of a regular pentagon if the length of the sides is known .................112
9.1.3.2. Area of a regular hexagon if the length of the sides is known. .................112
9.1.3.3. Circle ........................................................................................................112
9.1.3.4. Arc of circle ..............................................................................................113
9.1.3.5. Ring..........................................................................................................114
9.1.4. Miscellaneous figures ....................................................................................114
9.1.4.1. Parabola, ellipse and helix .......................................................................114
9.1.4.2. Spheres, sphere portions and paraboloids...............................................116
9.2. VOLUMES.............................................................................................................118
9.2.1. Cubes ............................................................................................................118
9.2.1.1. Volume of a cube if the length of the edge is known ................................118
9.2.1.2. Diagonal of a cube ...................................................................................119
9.2.2. Volume of a parallelepiped ............................................................................119
9.2.3. Cylinder .........................................................................................................119
9.2.3.1. Volume of a cylinder.................................................................................119
9.3. EXERCISE ............................................................................................................120
10. GLOSSARY ...............................................................................................................121
Theory Review
Mathematics
11. LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................122

12. SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES...................................................................................123

Theory Review
Mathematics
1. OBJECTIVES
This course does not set out to teach mathematics, but to review the basic elements
required to perform simple calculations.
So this will involve a quick review of the topics, and solving as many exercises as possible.
An operator must have a satisfactory level in mathematics to allow him to conduct daily
tasks without this being a “problem”.
Consequently, he must be able to:
Differentiating between different categories of “Numbers”
Interpreting graphic results of these numbers
Performing basic operations: ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘/’, ‘*’
Placing the different “brackets” in the right place
Handling percentages and fractions
Determining and calculating a mean
Calculating a statistic, a balance after compiling results
Using decimal and Naperian logs in calculations
Interpreting the different “conventional” curves: exponential, logarithmic,

parabolic, etc.
Solving a 1st degree equation
Plotting a function in a Cartesian coordinate system
Naming the main formulas used in trigonometry
Apply the formulas above to calculate the different values of angles and sides of
a triangle
Determine the surface areas of different planar polygonal shapes
Calculate the volumes and surface areas of the main geometric shapes, such as
cubes, spheres, cylinders, etc.
Determine and calculate portions of surfaces and volumes

Theory Review
Mathematics
2. NUMBERS
2.1. INTEGERS
Numbers are written using ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Examples:
The number 4 is written with the digit 4.

The number 421 is written with the digits 1, 2, and 4
To simplify reading large whole numbers (also called integers), the digits can be grouped
in 3s, starting from the end.
Example: 31 415 926 (in English, the 3-digit group separator may also be a comma, in
which case the number above is written 31,415,926).
2.2. DECIMALS
Decimal numbers are written with an integer part and a decimal part, separated by a point
("."), which is the decimal separator.
A decimal number remains unchanged whether you add or take away
0s before the integer part,
0s after the decimal part.
Examples:
7 = 007
1.2000 = 1.20 = 1.2
0841.065 = 841.0650
A whole number is a decimal number with a decimal part which is equal to zero (e.g. 12
can also be written 12.00000).

Theory Review
Mathematics
2.3. REAL NUMBERS
The totality of real numbers is the totality of all the numbers we use. E.g. (-25.3478, -1.0,
3.748, 1 584 679); these numbers may have a special symbolic representation (3 5, 7π
…).
Natural integers consist of some of the real numbers (0,1,2,3….)
Relative integers consist of other real numbers (…-2,-1,0,1,2,.)
Decimal numbers are those which are written with a point followed by a finite number of
digits (-4.457 - 127.4897).
N.B. to simplify calculations, numbers are very often represented by letters a, b, c, … or

symbols Ω, µ,σ, π.
Examples:
1.24578898 + 12548.24586 may be written a + b if you have defined: a =

1.24578898 and b = 12548.24586
π is often written instead of 3.141592653589…
Note on the decimal system:
Each digit constituting a number belongs to a different group, each being a multiple of 10.
Unit (100) – tens (101) – hundreds (102) – millions (106) – hundredths (10-2) …..
1258.44= 1*103 + 2*102 + 5*101 + 8*100 + 4*10-1 + 4*10-2
2.4. SCIENTIFIC REPRESENTATION OF A REAL NUMBER
This is a representation in the form a*10p where a is a decimal number and p a relative
integer:
-4.457 = - 4.457*100 = - 44.57*10-1 = - 445.7*10-2 = - 4457*10-3
1274897 = 1274897*100 = 127489.7*101 = 12748.97*102 ……=1.274897*106.

Theory Review
Mathematics
2.5. FACTORISATION OF A WHOLE NUMBER
Factorisation consists of breaking down a natural integer into other non-divisible natural
integers; this is used in particular to simplify the calculation of divisions:
738 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 3 * 7
162 = 2 * 3 * 3 * 3 * 3
378 / 162 = 3 / 7
2.6. APPROXIMATE VALUE OF A NUMBER, OF A PHYSICAL UNIT
This consists of simplifying a number and/or a physical unit for the sake of logic,
consistency for a requirement; it generally involves a simplification based on common
sense:
What time is it? 08:10 is the simplification of 08:10 mins, 45 secs, 4/10ths and 85
hundredths!!!!
1/3 = 0.33 , 0.333333333333333333333333333333333333333……
108+0.000000001 = 108
For each number in question the degree of approximation will be specified by an element
representing the desired degree of précision:
Example:
17.854 % to the nearest 1% will be written 17%
1/3 = 3.3333333…. to the nearest 10-3 will be written 3.333
2.7. ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A NUMBER
The numbers a and (-a) have the same absolute value, which is denoted: ⏐a⏐
Example:
7 and (-7) have an absolute value of ⏐7⏐.

Theory Review
Mathematics
2.8. RECIPROCAL NUMBERS
Two numbers are reciprocal of each other when their product = 1
Example:
1 1
the reciprocal of a is so a × = 1
a a
1 1
the reciprocal of 7 is so 7 × = 1
7 7

Theory Review
Mathematics
3. OPERATIONS
3.1. THE 4 BASIC OPERATIONS: + , - , / , *
3.1.1. The addition symbol "+"
This is the calculation for obtaining the sum of two or more numbers to find the sum.
5 + 8 = 13
2 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 2 = 13
12536 + 12 + 54 = 13602
5 tomatoes + 2 tomatoes = 7 tomatoes
5 aircraft and 2 chickens =???? => as with all operations, addition can only be
performed with identical elements!!!!
Properties of addition:
commutative: a + b + c = c + a + b = b + c + a
associative (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3.1.2. The subtraction symbol "-"
This is the calculation which enables you to deduct from a number one or more other
numbers to find the sum.
5–2=3
52 – 6 – 6 = 40
18 – 4 – 4 = 10
200 litres of petrol – 128 litres of petrol = 72 litres of petrol
3.1.3. Multiplication: symbols "x" or "*"
This calculation is used for adding a number to itself a certain number of times to find the
sum.
5 + 5 + 5 = 5 * 3 = 15
10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 10 * 5 = 50

Theory Review
Mathematics
properties of multiplication:
commutative & associative a × b × c = a × c × b = (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)
distributive: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
Example: 3 × [4 + (−6)] = 3 × 4 + 3 × (−6) = 12 + (−18) = −6
Sign rule:
Multiplying 2 numbers with the same sign gives a positive number
Multiplying 2 numbers with opposing signs gives a negative number
Examples:
3x2=6
(-3) x (-2) = 6
(3) x (-2) = -6
(-3) x (2) = -6
3.1.4. Division: symbols ":" or "/"
This calculation is used for determining how many times a number is contained in another;
it is the reverse principle of multiplication.
15 / 3 = 5
50 / 10 = 5
50 / 5 = 10

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.2. COMPARISON OF NUMBERS, INEQUALITY AND EQUIVALENCE

SYMBOLS
a < b means that a is strictly less than b
Example: if b = 5 we can say a < b if a is any value less than b, e.g. a = 4.99999999
a <= b means that a is less than or equal to b
Example: if b = 5 we can say a <= b if a is any value less than b, e.g. a = 4.99999
but also if a = 5
a > b means that a is strictly greater than b
Example: if b = 5 we can say a > b if a is any value greater than b, e.g. a = 5.00001
a >= b means that a is greater than or equal to b
Example: if b = 5 we can say a >= b if a is any value greater than b, e.g. a =

5.00001
a <=> b means that the value (numerical but more used for logic) of a is equivalent to that
of b
Example: 10% of 100 <=> 100% of 10
3.3. BRACKETS
The function of brackets is to group terms (digits / numbers/ functions) which are subjected
to the same operation; it is a representation which simplifies calculations, but which
systematically needs to be checked.
3.3.1. Simple bracket
(a + b) * c = a * c + b * c
(a + b) / c = a / c + b / c
(a + b) – c = a + b - c
(a + b) / (c + d) = a / (c + d) + b / (c + d)

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.3.2. "Nested" brackets
(a * (c + d) / e) = (a * c + a * d) / e = a * c / e + a * d / e
3.3.3. Calculations with brackets
In a calculation with brackets, you first do the calculations inside the brackets, starting with
the innermost brackets.
Examples:
D = 15 - (8.2 + 4.8)
D = 15 - 13
D=2
E = 5 × (3 + (12 - 10))
E = 5 × (3 + 2)
E=5×5
E = 25
N.B. in fractional expressions, the fraction bar serves as brackets.
Examples:
8.3 + 2.5
can also be written (8.3 + 2.5): 6
6
4500
can also be written 4500: (728 + 712)
728 + 712
3.3.4. Distributive property
For all numbers a, b and k, we have:
k × (a + b) = k × a + k × b and k × a + k × b = k × (a + b)
We say that multiplication is distributive in relation to addition.
Similarly for all numbers a, b and k, we have:
k × (a - b) = k × a - k × b and k × a - k × b = k × (a - b)
We say that multiplication is distributive in relation to subtraction.

Theory Review
Mathematics
We can apply these equalities:
to convert a product into a sum:
F = 12 × 110
F = 12 × (100 + 10)
F = 12 × 100 + 12 × 10
F = 1200 + 120
F = 1320
G = 25 × 900
G = 25 × (1000 - 100)
G = 25 × 1000 - 25 × 100
G = 25 000 - 2500
G = 22 500
to convert a sum into a product:
H = 137 × 5.62 + 137 × 4.38

H = 137 × (5.62 + 4.38)
H = 137 × 10
H = 1370
I = 125 × 8 - 125 × 7.99

I = 125 × (8 – 7.99)
I = 125 × 0.01
I = 1.25
3.3.5. Bracket elimination rules
If a bracket opens after a + sign, you can eliminate this bracket without changing anything.
Examples:
3 + (a + b) = 3 + a + b
(x + y) + (- a + b) = x + y - a + b
If a bracket opens after a - sign, you can eliminate this bracket as long as you change all
the signs.
Examples:
A = 3 - (a + b) = 3 - a - b
B = 3 - (-a - b) = 3 + a + b

Theory Review
Mathematics
C = (x - 7) + x + 4 - [5 - (-x + 3)] = x - 7 + x + 4 - [5 + x - 3]
=x-7+x+4-5-x+3
D = 3(x - 8) - 5(x + 6) = 3x - 24 - 5x - 30
Development of products
k(a + b) = ka + kb
k(a - b) = ka - kb
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
We say that multiplication is distributive in relation to addition and subtraction.
Example:
(x - 3)(x - 1) = x * x - x * 1 - 3 * x + 3 * 1 = x² - x - 3x + 3 = x² - 4x + 3
3.4. Fractions and proportions

3.4.1. General points
When we talk about proportions, fractions or percentages, we are talking about dividing 2
numbers, but this division must remain consistent in the units used.
They are quotients of real numbers which are very commonly used in calculations; certain
basic rules can be applied to make handling the calculations very simple, and these
numbers may or may not be integers.
Examples:
10 carrots / 5 = 2 carrots is consistent
10 carrots / 5 chickens is inconsistent.
5 km/hour means 5 kilometres in 1 hour; it is consistent since this represents a

speed.
Fractions, proportions and percentages are expressions of a quotient of 2 numbers a and

b.
This quotient is written a / b; a is known as the numerator and b the denominator.
The quotient of a over b, denoted a / b, is equal to a unique number (18 / 2 = 9)
This quotient only exists if b is not 0. (18 / 0 =?????)

Theory Review
Mathematics
(-a) / b = -a / b = a / (-b)
(-a) / (-b) = a / b
Two fractions with equal quotients are known as equivalent fractions
18 / 2 = 36 / 4 = 9
A fraction is irreducible when it cannot be simplified.
The value of a fraction (or exact quotient) is not changed if the numerator and denominator
are divided by the same number.
3.4.2. Operations on fractions
3.4.2.1. Simplification
Based on the fact that the numerator and denominator have an identical whole number
(which is eliminated from the numerator and denominator); the result generally remains
expressed in the form of a quotient:
=> a * b / b = a and a / a * b = 1 / b
Example:
a = 2, b = 5
2 * 5 / 5 = 2 (we could have calculated 10 / 5 = 2)
2 / 2 * 5 = 1 / 5 = 0.2 (we could have calculated 2 / 10 = 0.2)
=> a * c / b * c = a / b
Example:
a = 2, b = 4, c = 5
2 * 5 / 4 * 5 = 2 / 4 = 2 * 1 / 2 * 2 = 1 / 2 = 0.5 (we could have calculated 10 /
20 = 1 / 2 = 0.5)

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.4.2.2. Sum and subtraction
If the denominators are equal, we simply find the sum of the numerators and retain the
denominator
=> a / b + c / b = (a + c) / b
Example:
2 / 10 + 8 / 10 = (2 + 8) / 10 = 10 / 10 = 1
(we could have calculated 0.2 + 0.8 = 1)
=> a / b – c / b = (a - c) / b (from the previous equation)
Example:
2 / 10 – 8 / 10 = (2 - 8) / 10 = -6 / 10 = -0.6
(we could have calculated 0.2 – 0.8 = -0.6)
If the denominators are different, the two quotients need to be reduced to the same
denominator so as to be able to add "like with like"
=> a / b + c / d = (ad + bc) / (bd)
Examples:
3 / 4 + 15 / 100
to get the same denominator you need only multiply 3 / 4 by 25 = 75 / 100
3 / 4 + 15 / 100 = 75 / 100 + 15 / 100 = 90 / 100 = 9 / 10
2 / 10 + 8 / 50 = (2 * 50 + 10 * 8) / 10 * 50 = 180 / 500 = 0.36

(we could have calculated 0.2 + 0.16 = 0.36)
5+ 2 / 6 = (5 * 6) / 6 + 2 / 6 = 30 / 6 +2 / 6 = 32 / 6
3.4.2.3. Multiplication
The numerator of the quotient resulting from multiplication is the product of the
numerators, and the denominator is the product of the denominators.
=> (a / b) * (c / d) = a * c / (b * d)
Examples:
1 * 3 / 5 = 1 / 1 * 3 / 5 = (1 * 3) / (1 / 5) = 3 / 5
Theory Review
Mathematics
3 / 5 * 8 / 10 = (3 * 8) / (5 * 10) = 24 / 50 = 0.48
(we could have calculated 0.6 * 0.8 = 0.48)
3 / 5 * 8 / 10 * 7 / 2 = (3 * 8 * 7) / (5 * 10 * 2) = 168 / 100 = 1.68

(we could have calculated 0.6 * 0.8 * 3.5 = 1.68)
3.4.2.4. Division
The numerator is an integer, and the denominator a quotient: inverse the terms of the
quotient:
=> 1 / (a / b) = b / a
Example:
1 / (-3 / 4) = 4 / 3
The numerator and denominators are quotients: inverse the terms of the denominator, and
multiply them by the terms of the numerator
=> (a / b) / (c / d) = a / b * d / c = (a * d) / (b * c)
Example:
3/5 / 8/10 = (3 * 10) / (5 * 8) = 30 / 40 = 0.75

(we could have calculated 0.6 / 0.8 = 0.75)
3.4.2.5. Equality
The numerators and denominators of the 2 terms are different, but the quotient is equal:
=> a / b = c / d is equivalent to a * d = b * c
Example:
1 / 9 = 3 / 27 is equivalent to writing 1 * 27 = 9 * 3 since 1 * 27 = 27 = 9 * 3
3.4.2.6. Proportion:
2 or more exact quotients constitute a proportion.
Example:
3.2 16
=
3 15
Theory Review
Mathematics
a c
If q = b and q' = d the usual operations are:
a c ad + bc
q + q' = b + d = bd
a c ad - bc
q - q' = b - d = bd
a c ac
q x q' = b x d = bd
a d ad
q / q' = b x c = bc

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.4.3. Exercises
24
1. Calculate: = ……………………………………………………..
36
2. Calculate: - 10 = ……………………………………………………..
50
3. Calculate: 150 ……………………………………………………..

=
- 650
4. Calculate: - 36 = ……………………………………………………..
- 60
3 x
5. Find x: = ……………………………………………………..
4 24
735
6. Reduce the fraction = ……………………………………………………..
315
12 24 6 2
7. Are , , , irreducible?
18 36 9 3
Yes
No
12 24
8. Is 12 / 18 or equivalent to 24 / 36 or
18 36
Yes
No
3 7
9. Calculate: + = ……………………………………………………..
4 4

Theory Review
Mathematics
1 5
10. Calculate: + = ……………………………………………………..
3 6
4 3
11. Calculate: + = ……………………………………………………..
20 8
……………………………………………………..
5 3
12. Calculate: 4 + − = ……………………………………………………..
6 8
……………………………………………………….
5 11
13. Calculate: x = ……………………………………………………..
7 4
34 18
14. Calculate: x = ……………………………………………………..
16 51
21 - 28
15. Calculate: x = ……………………………………………………..
- 52 49
-5 4
16. Calculate: 27 x x = ……………………………………………………..
6 3
-1
17. Calculate: 72 x = ……………………………………………………..
48
0,015 1,4
18. Calculate: x = ……………………………………………………..
1,2 0,35
5 11
19. Calculate: / = ……………………………………………………..
7 4
34 18
20. Calculate: / = ……………………………………………………..
16 51
……………………………………………………..
Theory Review
Mathematics
21 - 28
21. Calculate: / = ……………………………………………………..
- 52 49
……………………………………………………..
22. Convert the decimals to fraction form:
0.00235 = ……………………………………………………..
4.28 = ……………………………………………………..
0.459 = ……………………………………………………..
0.00001 = ……………………………………………………..
0.1 = ……………………………………………………..
4.096 = ……………………………………………………..
29. What is the value of A?
A = 110 + 2 x (5 - 4 x 6) x (7 x 4 - 8) - 3 + 5 x 6 - (19 - 7 x 6)
= ……………………………………………………..
= ……………………………………………………..

Theory Review
Mathematics
30. What is the value of B?
B = 25 - 4 x (7- 2 x 9 + 15) – 12
= ……………………………………………………..
= ……………………………………………………..
31. What is the value of C?
C = 12 + 6 x (8 - 4 x 5) - 19 + 3 x [9 - (5 x 7 - 17)]
= ……………………………………………………..
= ……………………………………………………..
32. What is the value of D?
D=-3/4+2x5+1/2
= ……………………………………………………..
33. What is the value of E?
E = 5 - (1 – 3 / 4 + 1 / 9) / (1 + 3 / 4 – 1 / 9)
= ……………………………………………………..
= ……………………………………………………..

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.5. PERCENTAGES (% SYMBOL)
A percentage is simply a fraction whose denominator is 100 (divided by 100)
Examples:
37 = 37 / 100
75% = 75 / 100
N.B.:
Percentage is a concept of comparison by division between 2 numbers, one used

as a reference, the other for comparison; so it can only apply to numbers
corresponding to the same unit (same family)
A percentage is generally between 0 and 100; it exceeds 100 when the reference
element is less than the comparison element.
Variation of a percentage may be due to variation of the numerator or of the

denominator, or to simultaneous variation of the two.
The simplest type of % is the instantaneous percentage (ratio between two

elements whose values are compared at the same moment). The 2nd type of
percentage is an evolution percentage (ratio between two elements at different
moments, with known variation law).
3.5.1. Instantaneous percentage
The instantaneous percentage is the ratio of part of the elements of a whole to the totality
of the elements of this whole.
Examples:
20 litres of crude oil as a percentage of a 200 litre barrel corresponds to 10% of

the barrel
⇒ part (20 litres) / totality (200 litres) = 0.1 = 10%
4 tomatoes expressed as a % of 52 tomatoes: 4 / 52 = 0.0769 = 7.69 %
3 chickens expressed as a % of 127 tomatoes: impossible, since chickens and

tomatoes are not part of the same whole
N.B.: In all cases it is important to correctly define the elements and the whole in question.

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.5.2. Variation percentage
The evolution percentage represents a variation between 2 moments of an element's value

in relation to its initial value:
Examples:
The flowrate of a pump rises from 12 m3/h to 18m3/h: what is the % change in flow
rate?
The flowrate has increased by 50% (18 - 12) / 12 = 0.5 = 50%
An evolution percentage may be less than or more than 100.

Theory Review
Mathematics
3.5.3. Exercises
In a college 36 girls play football, and 45 do not, while 27 boys play football, and 42 do not
34. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of the whole college
population:
= ……………………………………………………..
35. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of the all the girls:
= ……………………………………………………..
36. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of all the football players:
= ……………………………………………………..
Convert into %:
37. 38 / 50 = ……………………………………………………..
38. 0.85 = ……………………………………………………..
39. 2/3 = ……………………………………………………..
40. 0.17 = ……………………………………………………..
41. 0.74 = ……………………………………………………..
42. 0.125 = ……………………………………………………..
43. 1.17 = ……………………………………………………..
44. 0.5624 = ……………………………………………………..
45. 0.06 = ……………………………………………………..
46. 0.0015 = ……………………………………………………..
47. 0.0015 = ……………………………………………………..
48. 0.0107 = ……………………………………………………..

Theory Review
Mathematics
Put the % into figures:
49. 3.45 % = ……………………………………………………..
50. 408.85 % = ……………………………………………………..
51. 0.45 % = ……………………………………………………..
52. 41% = ……………………………………………………..
53. 87% = ……………………………………………………..
54. 35% = ……………………………………………………..
55. 3% = ……………………………………………………..
56. 19.6% = ……………………………………………………..
57. 7.5% = ……………………………………………………..
58. 0.5% = ……………………………………………………..
59. 150% = ……………………………………………………..
A 15% increase corresponds to a multiplier of
1 + 15 / 100 = 1 + 0.15 = 1.15
Give the multiplier of:
60. 25% = ……………………………………….
61. 8% = ……………………………………….
62. 100% = ……………………………………….
63. 4.75% = ……………………………………….
64. 150% = ……………………………………….
65. 0.82% = ……………………………………….

Theory Review
Mathematics
A multiplier of 1.72 corresponds to a % increase given by:
1.72 – 1 = 0.72 = 72 / 100 = 72%
Give the percentage increase:
66. 1.25 = ……………………………….
67. 1.175 = ……………………………….
68. 3 = ……………………………….
69. 1.001 = ……………………………….
70. 3.1 = ……………………………….
71. 1.01 = ……………………………….
72. 1.0049 = ……………………………….
73. 1.0101 = ……………………………….
A 15% decrease corresponds to a multiplier of
1 – 15 / 100 = 1 – 0.15 = 0.85
Give the multiplier:
74. 20% = ……………………………….
75. 7% = ……………………………….
76. 100% = ……………………………….
77. 2.75% = ……………………………….
78. 0.1% = ……………………………….
79. 0.64% = ……………………………….

Theory Review
Mathematics
A multiplier of 0.72 corresponds to a percentage decrease given by:

1 – 0.72 = 0.28 = 28%
Give the percentage decrease:
80. 0.98 = ……………………………….
81. 0.875 = ……………………………….
82. 0.5 = ……………………………….
83. 0.999 = ……………………………….
84. 0.1 = ……………………………….
85. ¼ = ……………………………….
86. We have a sum of US$ 15 000 that we invest in a bank at an annual interest rate
of 6%. What value will we have one year after placement?
87. I buy a prestige car for €35 500, which loses 9 % of its value every year; what is its
value after one year?
88. I buy a prestige car for €35 500, which loses 9 % of its value every year; what is its
value after 2 years?
89. A shop decides to enact a sell-off reduction of 30% on all its items still in stock.
The price of an item is US$ 90. What is the price paid at the till by the customer?

Theory Review
Mathematics
In an election, there were 41 751 registered voters, 22 159 who voted and Mr. Vador
obtained 12 826 votes.
90. Give Mr. Vador's result as a percentage of the voters.
91. Give Mr. Vador's result as a percentage of those registered to vote.
92. Give the percentage abstention.
93. The price of a product undergoes successively an increase of 12%, a decrease of

5%, a decrease of 8% and an increase of 2%.
What is the final variation percentage? (Following the multipliers method).
94. On 1st July 2005 a car manufacturer raises the price of all its models by 2%. The
price of a model on 30 June 2005 was € 10 300. What is its price on 1st July 2005?

Theory Review
Mathematics
price of a model on 30 June 2005 was € 17 150. What is its price on 1st July 2005?
Bauxite is an ore containing alumina in a proportion of 24%.
By electrolysis of alumina, we obtain aluminium in a proportion of 53%.
96. How much alumina do we obtain by extracting 5 250 kg of bauxite?
97. With 1 260 kg of alumina, how much aluminium do we get?
98. How much alumina do we obtain by extracting 3 000 kg of bauxite, and then how
much aluminium?
99. How much aluminium do we obtain by extracting 55 000 kg of bauxite?
100. How can we directly determine the mass of aluminium from the mass of bauxite?

Theory Review
Mathematics
101. To what percentage of the mass of bauxite does the mass of aluminium obtained
correspond?
Below are the inflation rates for two consecutive months in two different countries.
Month 1 Month 2
Country 1 0.2 % 0.3 %
Country 2 12 % 15 %
102. Give the corresponding multipliers.
103. For each country, give the multiplier corresponding to inflation for the two months
in question. Deduce from this the rate of inflation for the two months for each
country.
104. Is the rate of inflation over the two months equal to the sum of the rates of
inflation?

Theory Review
Mathematics
4. AVERAGES AND STATISTICS
4.1. GENERAL POINTS
The average is a way of representing a set of values with a single value. This
representation is of necessity incomplete unless there is only one value: the average is
then equal to the value.
If we have data of the same type, we often have to calculate its average. But contrary to
what we sometimes think, there is not just one type of average. Mathematics gives us
several types of average which we encounter in everyday life, and the 5 main ones are
described below .
Furthermore, it can be said (Encyclopedia Universalis) that the word statistics refers both
to a set of observation data, and the activity which consists of collecting, processing and
interpreting it.
So it is clear that the concept of average will be used in statistics, as it makes an effective
contribution to the interpretation of a set of data
4.1.1. The arithmetic average
The arithmetic average is the normal average
The arithmetic average of n values of the variable x: x1,...,xn is the sum of these values
divided by their number:
x1 + ... + x n
M =
n
This is for example the average that a teacher calculates from the pupils' marks...
4.1.2. The geometric average
The geometric average is the n-th root of the product of the different values:
M = n x1 × x 2 × ... × x n
This average is a value weighting method, used when the arithmetic average is not
representative, and the number of values to be averaged is low.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Example:
An insurance company, which has to provide compensation for trees that burned down in
a forest fire, said that it has calculated that 10 000 trees had been burned down, while the
owner according to its calculation reckons 100 000 trees?
What is the closest number?
The arithmetic average would give 55 000 = (10 000+100 000)/2, but this ovrestimates the
importance of the owner's figure (it is half of the figure they declare, but 5 times that of the
insurers), if the insurers had declared 1 000, the average would be 50 500 =
(1 000+100 000)/2, so practically unchanged, even if the insurer declares 10 times less…
so we can see that using the arithmetic average is not the right approach.
A better idea is to consider that the insurer and the owner are "cheating" similarly, one
underestimating and the other overestimating (e.g. half and double).
If x is the actual number of trees burned down, and k the multiplier, the insurer declares x/k
trees, and the owner kx.
The geometric average of the figure declared by the insurer and by the owner = √ k/x .kx
so we find x exactly.
So a better approximation than the arithmetic average seems for our problem to be the
geometric average. With our values, we find approximately 31 600 trees.
4.1.3. Harmonic average (or harmonic mean)
The harmonic average is the reciprocal of the arithmetic average of the reciprocal of the xi.
n 1 1
= + ... +
M x1 xn
A striking example to illustrate the usefulness of the harmonic average:
A cyclist climbs a 1 km slope at 20 km/h, and then goes back down this same slope at 30
km/h. What is his average speed?
If your answer is 25 km/h (arithmetic average of the speeds), you would be wrong!!
In fact the average speed is the ratio total distance / total time
Total distance = 2 km
Total time = t1climb + t2descent = 60 / 20 + 60 / 30 = 5 minutes
Average speed = 2 km / 5 mins = 24 km/h

Theory Review
Mathematics
Written literally, if V is the average speed and t the total time of climb and descent:
distance travelled = Vt = 2 km, if we denote respectively t1 and t2 the climbing and
descent times, we get t = t1+t2 and t1 = 1 km/v1 t2=1 km/v2.
So Vt = 2 => t = 2 / V = t1 + t2 => 2 / V = 1 / v1 + 1 / v2
=>V = 2v1v2 / (v1 + v2) = 120 / 5 = 24 km/h
So the average speed is the harmonic average of the two speeds!
4.1.4. Weighted average (or weighted mean)
The weighted average is an average in which the values to be averaged do not have the
same weight.
Example:
Average marks in an exam: i.e. a case of 4 subjects which are not taken into account with
the same importance (maths, physics, French and sport, with the respective coefficients 4,
3, 2,2); the average mark for a pupil getting for each of these subjects 12/20, 17/20, 13/20
and 18/20 will not be the arithmetic average
(12 + 17 + 13 + 18) / 4 * 20 = 60 / 4 * 20 = 15 / 20
But (12 x 4 + 17 x 3 + 13 x 2 + 18 x 2) / (4 + 3 + 2 + 2) * 20 = 161 / 11 * 20 = 14.6 / 20
This average is used if not all the values to be averaged have the same weight, and are
allocated a certain coefficient.
If x1,...,xn are the values, and a1,...,an are the weights, the weighted average of the xi with
weight ai will be the quantity:
a1 x1 + ... + a n x n
M =
a1 + ... + a n
4.1.5. Quadratic average (or quadratic mean)
The quadratic average is particularly common in statistics (see introduction to stastics).
x12 + ... + x n2
M =
n
This average is primarily used in statistical calculations to show how one of the values is
positioned in relation to the whole.

Theory Review
Mathematics
In fact an arithmetic average gives a figure all the more representative of the averaged
values as a whole when these are all close to the value of this average, which is not
always the case.
N.B.
The sliding average is a special representation, where the average rather than being
calculated from n fixed values is calculated from n consecutive "sliding" values. For
example, the average over 12 months will vary from January to December, then from
February to January, then March to February .. only taking into account the values from
the months in question.
If the value to be averaged can represent a curve (i.e. is the function of a variable), the
average between the 2 values of the variable in question is equal to the area of this curve
calculated between the 2 values of the variable (see exercise 3 – calculation of average
voltage) divided by the difference between the 2 variables.

Theory Review
Mathematics
4.2. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
The aim of statistics is to define an average value when other methods are not suitable
and a qualitative analysis of the result is required:
Given that it is an average first of all we need the data in an organised form – to this end
our task is to group the data in a table of values.
4.2.1. Terminology
Certain terms are used in statistics - the main terms will be reviewed using the table below:
We will consider the results of the class homework for 25 pupils:
11, 13, 8, 16, 11, 7, 13, 12, 11, 12, 12, 8, 11, 8, 12, 11, 11, 7, 16, 8, 11, 8, 12, 8, 16
which are arranged in a table.
Marks 7 8 11 12 13 16 total
Occurrence 2 6 7 5 2 3 25
Increasing cumulative
2 8 15 20 22 25
occurrence
Frequencies 0.08 0.24 0.28 0.20 0.08 0.12 1
Frequencies in % 8 24 28 20 8 12 100
Population:
A set subjected to a statistical study is known as the population.
In our example: the population is the class of 25 pupils
Individual
An element of a population is known as an individual.
In our example: An individual is a pupil
Character:
The criterion by which the population is studied is known as the character.
Depending on the scenario the character may be discrete (age, shoe size, eye
colour...) or continuous (height, wages,...).
In the latter case the values are given by class ([160, 165] for height)
In our example: the character is the mark obtained by each pupil. This is a discrete
character.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Series of statistical values

This is the list of values we aim to study
When the values in the series are not allocated any coefficient (they have the same
weight), we say that the values are individual.
In our case the series of statistical values is the list of 25 marks
Occurrence
The number of individuals which correspond to the same character is known as the
occurrence.
In our example: 7 is the occurrence of the mark 11
There were 7 pupils who scored 11.
Increasing Cumulative Occurrence (ICO)

The number of individuals which correspond to the same character and the
previous characters is known as the increasing cumulative occurrence.
In our example: there are 15 pupils who scored a mark less than or equal to 11 (15
pupils scored 11 or less than 11).
Total occurrence
The total occurrence is the total number of individuals in the population.
In our example: the total occurrence is 25.
Frequency
The ratio between the number of a value and the total number is known as the
frequency.
In our example for the mark 11 f = 7 / 25 = 0.28 = 28%

(28% of the pupils scored 11)
Average (or arithmetic average or arithmetic mean)

The ratio between the sum of the values and the number of values is known as the
arithmetic average or mean.
In our example: Average of values: (-7 + 8 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 16) / 6

= 67 / 6 = 11.17
Weighted average
An average in which each value has a coefficient is known as a weighted average.
In our case, 2 pupils scored 7, 6 scored 8, 7 scored 11 …and 3 scored 16
In our example, the weighted average:
2 x7 + 6 x8 + 7 x11 + 5 x12 + 2 x13 + 3 x16 273

= = 10.92
2+6+7+5+2+3 25
The class average for this task is 10.92

Theory Review
Mathematics
Median
The value situated in the middle of the list, when this is classified in increasing
order, is known as the median. If the number of values is even, the median is the
average of the two values situated in the middle.
In our example:
7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13, 16, 16, 16
The median is 11.
Mode
The value of the variable which has the greatest occurrence is known as the mode
of a statistical distribution. This table shows that the mark most awarded is 11,
(awarded 7 times), so this value is the mode of this distribution.
Range
For a statistical series, the difference between the highest value and the lowest
value is known as the range. When this value is "big" in relation to the possible
values as a whole, we say that the series is scattered.
In our example the highest value is 16, and the lowest value is 6
so the range is = 16 – 7 = 9 so the marks are "spread" from 7 to 16, the series is
scattered.
4.2.2. Graphic representation
To get an overview of the statistical distribution of a population, we make a graphic

representation of it; there are two possible types of representation.
The choice is made in accordance with the number of characters to be represented; we

will use:
Stick graphs (also known as bar graphs if the stick is thicker) if the number of
characters is sufficiently low to make for a simple display.
In this case the character value (in our case the mark) is placed on the x axis, and
the occurrence value (in our case the number of times the mark is awarded) on the
y axis.
Figure 1: Stick graph

Theory Review
Mathematics
Histograms (also known as class groups), if the number of characters is too great
(e.g. 500 different marks) or if the values are continuous. To estimate the average in
problems of this type we use the centre of each class as the class representative.
Figure 2: Histogram
4.2.3. Statistical analysis indicators
Average
Denoted x , the average of a statistical series is obtained by:
n1 x1 + n2 x2 + ... + n p x p
x= , where N total occurrence, ni : occurrence of x i
N
where x i the value of the character and p: number of different classes or values of
the character
Variance of a statistical series:
This is the sum of all the terms n ( x − x ) 2 / N which will be calculated in the table
i i
(after obtaining the average value) for each ni /xi.
∑ n (x i i − x)2
V= i =1
=
N

Theory Review
Mathematics
The standard deviation of a statistical series:
This is simply the square root of the variance. σ = V
The greater σ , the more the values of the variable are scattered.
If the statistical distribution can be represented by a "Gaussian curve", we will
observe the following distribution of numbers around the average x :
Figure 3: Gaussian curve
approximately 68 % of the values belong to the interval [x − σ ; x + σ ]
approximately 95 % of the values belong to the interval [x − 2σ ; x + 2σ ]
approximately 99 % of the values belong to the interval [x − 3σ ; x + 3σ ]
The median of a statistical series:

This is the value of the variable such that the number of values less than it is equal to the
number of values greater than it.

Theory Review
Mathematics
4.2.4. Statistics examples:
Example 1:
In a survey, 51 families were asked the following question: "How many televisions does
your household have?" The following results were obtained:
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 2
1 0 1 1 1 0 3 2 0 1
3 1 1 2 1 1 3 0 3 0
1 1 2 3 0 0 1 0 1 1
2 0 0 1 3 1 2 2 1 3
1
The statistical analysis of this data was used to complete the table below:
Television 0 1 2 3 4 5
Occurrence 13 23 8 7 0 0
Frequency (%) 25.5 45.1 15.7 13.8 0 0
So this table represents the corresponding

histogram of the occurrence:
Example 2:
The heights, rounded to whole numbers, in centimetres of 50 boys in a football club are as
follows:
176 175 174 176 175 177 174 178 176 172
179 181 176 179 178 173 173 174 174 178
179 177 175 178 172 172 177 175 178 174
179 177 176 174 175 175 175 172 171 174
172 174 177 175 175 179 170 171 180 173

Theory Review
Mathematics
The statistical analysis of this data was used to complete the table, in which the heights
are grouped in classes of 10 cm, the first class being 160,165 cm:
Heights
Number 0 1 18 29 2 0
Frequency (%) 0 2 36 58 4 0
So this table represents the corresponding

histogram of the occurrence,
Example 3:
Calculation of standard deviation for the following table, showing the time devoted weekly
to watching television:
Time (hrs) Number ni centre x i ( xi − x ) 2 ni ( x i − x ) 2

[0; 4] 40 2 144 5 760
[4; 8] 80 6 64 5 120
[8; 12] 160 10 4 640
[12; 20] 200 16 4 800
[20; 28] 140 24 100 14 000
620 26 320
40 × 2 + 80 × 6 + 160 × 10 + 200 × 16 + 140 × 24

Average x = = 14 h
620
26 320
Variance V = = 42.45
620
Standard deviation σ = 42.45 = 6.5 i.e. 6 hrs 30 mins

Theory Review
Mathematics
Example 4:
The statistical distribution below was drawn up according to the sales of self-service bags
of sweets:
Bag weight (in g) Number of bags Increasing cumulative

occurrence
xi ni
ICO
]0; 50] 20 20
]50; 100] 70 90
]100; 150] 140 230
]150; 200] 70 300
]200; 250] 60 360
]250; 300] 30 390
]300; 350] 10 400
400
N 400
The rank of the median is = = 200 .
2 2
N
The perpendicular line (AB) from the ordinate parallel to the x-axis intersects the curve
2
at M.
The x-value of point M, equal to 139, is the median value of the statistical series.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Example 5:
Calculate the average value of the periodic voltage represented by the graph below.
The first step consists in determining

the 2 values of the variable (time in
this case) which will "delimit" the
calculation zone.
This is a periodic function

It will be noted that the period of this
signal is 15 ms.
Second step: we calculate the algebraic

area of the demarcated area over a
period.
The algebraic area of the hatched area =

algebraic area
(A + B + C) = 5 x 6 / 2 + (- (5 x 3) / 2) + 5 x 6 / 2 = 22.5 algebraic area unit
It should be noted that the algebraic area of B is counted as negative since the area B is
under the axis.
Third step: The algebraic area obtained in the second step (22.5 u) is divided by the period
obtained in the first step (15 secs) to obtain the average value:
Hence the average value of u: 22.5 / 15 = 1.5 V

Theory Review
Mathematics
5. OTHER OPERATIONS
5.1. POWERS
5.1.1. General points
The concept of power is a special case of multiplication.
The power of a number is the result of multiplying this number by itself a certain number of
times; so this number of times is a strictly positive integer, which is known as the exponent
Example:
The cubic power of the number a, denoted a3, is the product: a × a × a

The integer 3 is the exponent of a3
We will look at the normal power operations, but we can already observe that
24 x 22 = (2 x 2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2) = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 26 = 24+2
24 / 22 = (2 x 2 x 2 x 2) / (2 x 2) = 2 x 2 = 22 = 24-2
(22)3 = (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) x (2 x 2) = (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2) = 26 = 22x3
We will then introduce the negative integer exponent power as the reciprocal of positive
integer exponent power of this real number, e.g.
1
if a is a real number other than zero, a − 3 = 3
a
5.1.2. Positive exponent power
We shall consider a number a, and an integer n, other than zero. The nth power of a,
denoted a n and read "a to the power n", is the result of multiplying this number a by itself n
times: a n = a × a ×...× a, n times.
The number n is known as the exponent of the power a n.
Special cases:
By convention a 0 = 1
It should be noted that a1/2 is the square root of a

Theory Review
Mathematics
It should be noted that a1 = a.
a 2 is known as the square of a.
a 3 is known as the cube of a.
5.1.3. Negative exponent power
We shall now consider a number a, other than zero, and an integer n.
The number a-n, read "a to the power minus n", is the reciprocal of the nth power of a, i.e.:
1
a −n = n
a
The number -n is the exponent of the power a-n.
It should be understood that we had to specify that a was not 0 in this definition, since
including it would mean having to divide by 0, which is impossible.
Special cases:
It should be noted that a-1 = 1 / a (the reciprocal of the number a).
Observation on the exponent sign and number sign
There is no connection between the exponent sign and the number sign.
A high number to an even power (positive or negative) will always give a positive
result.
A high number to an odd power will give a result of the same sign.
E.g.
(- 2)3, the cube of -2, equals (-2) × (-2) × (-2)= -8 < 0.
1 1 1
3-4, the reciprocal of 3 to the power 4, equals 4
= = >0
3 3 x3 x3 x3 81

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.1.4. Algebraic operations on powers
There are no special formulae for adding or subtracting powers.
On the other hand, for multiplying and dividing powers, for all numbers a and b and for all
natural integers m and n other than zero, the following formulae apply:
a m xa n = a m + n Example: 104 x 102 = 10000 x 100 = 1000000 = 106 = 104+2
am
n
= a m−n Example: 104 / 102 = 10000 / 100 = 100 = 102 = 104-2
a
(a m ) n = a mxn Example: (104)2 = 100002 = 100000000 = 108 = 104x2
( a × b) n = a n × b n Example: (10 x 100)2 = 10002 = 1000000 = 100 x 10000

= 102 x 1002:
n
⎛a⎞ an
⎜ ⎟ = Example: (1000 / 10)2 = 1002 = 10000 = 1000000 / 100
⎝b⎠ bn
= 10002 / 102
1 an
a n × a − n = a n + ( − n ) = a n − n = a 0 = 1 since a n × a − n = a n × = =1
an an
(a )b 1/ b
(
= a1/ b )
b
= b ab = ( a)
b
b
= ab/b = a
c
ab = ab/c
1
a −1 / b =
b
a
N.B.: some pitfalls to avoid:
The power applies to the number situated before or inside brackets, and always takes
priority over other operations: analyse the differences:
-26 =? and (-2)6=?
3 x 74 =? and (3 x 7)4 =?
5 + 3² =? and (5 + 3)² =?

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.1.5. Powers of ten
The powers of 10 are special cases for powers. Their usefulness lies in the fact that we
use the decimal writing system.
Table of powers of ten

100 = 1
10-1 = 0.1 101 = 10
10-2 = 0.01 102 = 100
10-3 = 0.001 103 = 1000
10-4 = 0.0001 104 = 10 000
10-5 = 0.00001 105 = 100,000
10-6 = 0.000001 106 = 1 000 000
We frequently use powers to multiples of three, which correspond to prefixes in the

international system (SI):
Table of powers of ten to multiples of three

Power of ten SI prefix Power of ten SI prefix
-3 3
10 = 0.001 10 = 1 000
m (milli-) k (kilo-)
one thousandth thousand
10-6 = 0.000001 106 = 1 000 000
µ (micro-) M (mega-)
one millionth one million
10-9 = 0.000000001 109 = 1 000 000 000
n (nano-) G (giga-)
one billionth one billion
Multiplying a number by a power of 10 means shifting the decimal point n places to the left.
So:
325.72 × 10 = 3 257.2
325.72/10 = 32.572
325.72 × 105 = 32 572 000
325.72/105 = 0.0032572

Theory Review
Mathematics
Powers of 10 are used
for explicitly writing in base 10 (breaking down a number with the powers of 10):
325.72 = 3 × 102 + 2 × 10 + 5 + 7 × 10-1 + 2 × 10-2
in scientific descriptions of decimal numbers (just 1 digit before the point): 325.72
is denoted 3.2572 × 102
and in engineering terms: 325.72 is denoted 325.72 and 32572 is denoted

32.572×103

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.1.5.1. Exercises
Put the following into the form of a power of 10 (e.g. 5.2 105) and /or simplify
105. (10-4)4 = …………………………………………
106. (0.001)3 = …………………………………………
107. 0.00001 = …………………………………………
108. 1004 = …………………………………………
109. 107 / 104 = …………………………………………
110. 10-7 / 10-3 = …………………………………………
111. 100 000 = …………………………………………
112. 1 / 10 000 = …………………………………………
113. 250 000 = …………………………………………
114. 0.000000000167 = …………………………………………
115. 9.3 x 107 = …………………………………………
116. 0.012 = …………………………………………
117. 0.37 x 106 = …………………………………………
118. - 431 x 10-5 = …………………………………………
119. 1 412 x 102 / 10-5 = …………………………………………
120. - 0.02 x 10-4 / 10-6 = …………………………………………
121. 0.22 x 10-2 = …………………………………………
122. (8.5 x 103) x (4.2 x 107) = …………………………………………
123. (6.3 x 105) / (2.1 x 108) = …………………………………………

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.1.6. The square root: symbol "√"
We have already seen (positive exponent power) that the square root was a special case
in powers (a1/2 is the square root of a); it is frequently used in physics.
"√" is the root symbol; the square root of the number "a" is the number "b" which needs to
be multiplied by itself to obtain "a": ( 9 = 3 since 9 = 3 * 3 and y = a if y * y = a) so y2 =
a).
Comment: the properties seen in the general context of powers apply to the square root,
e.g.:
a *b = a * b Example: 9*4 = 9 * 4 = 36 = 3 * 2 = 6
a/b = a / b Example: 36 / 4 = 36 / 4 =6/2=3

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.1.7. Exercises
Put the following in the form: a b
124. 80 = ……………………………………………………….
125. 75 = .……………………………………………………….
126. 54 = ……………………………………………………….
127. 150 = ……………………………………………………….
128. 90 = ……………………………………………………….
129. 0.0018 = ……………………………………………………….
130. 1800 = ……………………………………………………….
131. 0.175 = ……………………………………………………….
132. 17500 = ……………………………………………………….
Calculate the square root of the following numbers:
133. 625 = ……………………………………………………….
134. 576 = ……………………………………………………….
135. 256 = ……………………………………………………….
136. 1024 = ……………………………………………………….
137. 225 = ……………………………………………………….
138. 6784 = ……………………………………………………….
139. 484 = ……………………………………………………….

Theory Review
Mathematics
140. 441 = ……………………………………………………….
141. 1936 = ……………………………………………………….
Calculate:
142. 75 x 48 = ……………………………………………………….
143. 98 x 8 = ……………………………………………………….
144. 2 42 x 54 = ……………………………………………………….
145. 3 24 x 5 48 = ……………………………………………………….
Calculate:
146. 34 = ……………………………………………………….
147. 2-3 = ……………………………………………………….
148. - 34 = ……………………………………………………….
149. - 23 = ……………………………………………………….
150. (-5)4 = ……………………………………………………….
151. - 2-3 = ……………………………………………………….
152. 5-4 = ……………………………………………………….
153. 3-4 = ……………………………………………………….
154. 33 x 22 = ……………………………………………………….
155. 2ab2 x 3a2 b3 = ……………………………………………………….
156. a=2 b=3 c = -1 A = a2 (b2c2)3 =.... ……………………………
157. (- 11)6 / 11-3 = ……………………………………………………….
158. - 4a2c x abc = ……………………………………………………….

Theory Review
Mathematics
159. (5-2)-3 = ……………………………………………………….
160. 74 / 75 = ……………………………………………………….
161. 24 x 2-2 = ……………………………………………………….
162. 3-5 / 3-7 = ……………………………………………………….

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.2. EXPONENTIAL
There exist in nature many phenomena in which a variable changes very quickly. To be
able to represent and study such phenomena, mathematicians introduced the exponential
function. To be able to make calculations on these phenomena they needed to create a
mathematical tool simplifying the complex calculations, hence the idea of seeking to
convert multiplications into additions; this work gave rise to exponential and logarithmic
functions.
We can mention among the specialities of these functions electricity and electronics,
radioactivity, statistics and probability calculations, thermodynamics, vibration phenomena,
gas kinetics...
Very often scientific terms evolve with a growth expressed as a percentage of the last
cumulative value. Any value which grows X% of the last cumulative value is an
exponential … and this growth is very quick.
A simple example is water-lilies on a pond; the water-lilies double in area every day (daily
increase of 100%); if it takes 30 days for half of the pond to be covered, only 24 more
hours will be required for the entire pond to be covered!!!
We have already seen that the power of a number A consisted in multiplying it by itself a
certain whole number of times (e.g. 3): A to the power 3 = A3
When we extend this concept to multiplying the number B by itself a non-integer number of
times (e.g. 3.12)
B3.12 is known as the exponential of 3.12 in base B.
You will observe that the calculations become highly complex.
N.B. The power is just a special case of the exponential; in fact if a is a real number and n
is an integer, then the "exponential of n in base a" is equal to "a to the power n".
exp a ( x ) = a × a × ... × a (n times)
The number a is known as the base: this means the exponential functions of base a (a is
any value).
If we talk about the exponential function (on its own), this means the exponential function
of base e.
There is a special base e, with which we denote by definition ex = exp(x)
This is the exponential in base e of x, where e = 2.71828…. Napier's constant.

Theory Review
Mathematics
This base has a special feature: it is used for calculating type ax terms using the
mathematical formula:
ax = exp (x.lna) (1)
where ln is the Napierian logarithm function ln(e) =1, and we will see that the logarithm
function can convert products into sums, therefore simplifying calculations.(next chapter).
These properties arise from the fact that the exponential of base e is the reciprocal
function of the Napierian logarithm (also called Naperian log or natural log): ln(a) = b a
= exp(b) (2); but this is not covered in this course)
Let's take for example the simple calculation of Y = 42, using the formula above and the
table opposite.
Using formula (1) we can write:
Y = 42 = exp(2ln4) so ln4 = 1.38639546
2ln4 = 2 x 1.38639546 = 2.77279092
so y = exp(2.77279092)
Using formula (2) we can write:
y = exp(2.77279092) => lny = 2.77279092
We look in the table for the closest ln(x):

2.77256066, which corresponds to 16, so
y = 16
lnx
Figure 4: Representation of real exponential

Theory Review
Mathematics
From the exponential function, it is simple to calculate:
fractional powers: x 1 / n = n x , where n is an integer
real powers: x y may be defined for a real y and any strictly positive x.
The rules seen above for algebraic operations on powers, also apply to exponentials, so in
particular we can write:
exp( x − y ) =
exp( x)
exp( y )
1
epx(− y ) =
exp( y )
exp(nx) = (exp( x)) n
⎛ x⎞
exp⎜ ⎟ = n exp( x)
⎝n⎠
⎛1⎞
exp⎜ ⎟ = exp(1) = e
⎝2⎠
5.3. LOGARITHMS
5.3.1. Introduction
In mathematics, the logarithm function, denoted Log, was created to simply calculations;
it is a function which converts a product into a sum:
Log(a.b) = log(a) + log(b), which possesses the characteristic log(x) = 1 if x is the base of
this function (see concept of base in the section on powers)
For a simple understanding of the concept of logarithms, we need only look at the
logarithms of a few numbers using a pocket calculator
logarithm of 10 = 1 or 10=101
logarithm of 100 = 2 or 100=102
logarithm of 1000 = 3 or 1000=103
logarithm of 10000 = 4 or 10000=104

Theory Review
Mathematics
logarithm of 1000000 = 5 or 100000=105
logarithm of 3 = 0.4771212
logarithm of 30 = 1.4771212
We can note 2 points of particular interest:
to obtain the logarithm of 30 (3x10) you need only add the logarithm of 3 and of
10 (1.4771212 = 0.4771212 + 1)
when calculating the logarithms of 10, 100, 1000... 1000000 the result is equal to
the power of 10 of the number in question, i.e. generally speaking: log 10x = x
Generally speaking a logarithm is defined as follows:
The logarithm of a number "c" is the power "a" to which a constant "b", known as
the base*, needs to be raised to obtain this number.
In the case above using the calculator, we were using base 10
The most well-known logarithm functions are the decimal logarithm (or base 10 logarithm)
and the base e natural or Napierian logarithm.
Napierian logarithm of base e = 2.71828, represented by ln
This function gives the corresponding x for the number y when x = ey
Base 10 decimal logarithms are represented by log
This function gives the corresponding x for the number y when x = 10y
N.B.
To distinguish these 2 logarithms, we write ln(x) to describe the Napierian logarithm of x
and log(x) to specify the decimal logarithm; in certain works the Napierian logarithm is
represented by Log(x).
In fact the decimal logarithm was introduced to simplify calculations, as handling a number
e = 2.71828 is not the easiest task.
The idea was to create a base 10 function, the decimal logarithm; we will see that there is
a simple relationship between the 2 expressions.
So the logarithm function is systematically associated with the power; the general relation
between base a logarithms and the powers in this same base is:
y = ax log (base a)y = x.

Theory Review
Mathematics
For the sake of simplicity and staying with the 2 logarithms we are concerned with, we can
say:
For base e Napierian logarithms: writing y = ex also means that ln y = x
For base 10 decimal logarithms: writing y = 10x also means that log y=x
The relation between the 2 logarithms is: log(x) = ln(x) / ln(10)
5.3.2. Properties of logarithm functions
Special properties of the logarithm functions:
log a ( xy ) = log a ( x) + log a ( y )
log a (a) = 1
General properties of logarithm functions:
These properties are a direct result of the properties of the powers associated with the
specific properties of these functions:
log a (1) = 0
1 = a 0 ⇒ log(1) = log(a 0 )
log a ( x / y ) = log a ( x) − log a ( y )
log a ( x n ) = n log a ( x)
log a (a n ) = n
⎛1⎞
log⎜ ⎟ = − log(b)
⎝b⎠
( )
log a =
1
2
log(a)
Among other things, this enables us to verify that ax = exp (x.lna) (1)
if y = ax => ln y = ln ax = x ln a then ln y = x lna
using the relation ln(a) = b a = exp(b)
we can say ln(y) = x lna y = exp(x lna)

Theory Review
Mathematics
N.B.
Using the log function we can represent, with a logarithmic scale, a function which would
be unusable if represented in numeric form.
Rather than going through long explanations, try representing on a sheet of paper y= ax
with x varying between 1 and 10 and a equal to Napier's constant!! (see table) what is your
conclusion? What is the most appropriate method for this representation?
5.3.3. Napierian logarithm
ln(x) = y means ey = x where ln(e) = 1
The Napier log function, denoted ln, was "created" to simplify calculations.
The base of the Napierian log is e = 2.71828…This is Napier's constant; the fact that e is
the base of ln can be expressed ln(e) = 1.
They are used for establishing a correspondence (application in mathematics) between the
successive whole powers of e = 2.7182….
...; 2.7182-3; 2.7182-2; 2.7182-1; 2.71820; 2.71821; 2.71822; 2.71823; ...
(unlimited series based on e = 2.7182....); e is known as Napier's constant
E.g.:
ln(2.71823)=3
ln(2.7182-3) = -3
ln(2.71822) = 2
ln(2.7182x) = x
Properties of the Napierian logarithm:
shares the general properties of logarithms (see corresponding chapter)
ln(1) = 0
ln(e) = 1
eln x = x. In fact we can write ln(eln x) ) = ln x

lne = ln x
so eln x) = x

Theory Review
Mathematics
In addition it is the reciprocal of the exponential function: which means y = ln x x = ey
Reminder: exp(x) is a way of writing ex.
The drawback is that the base of ln (e=2.71828) is not an easily handled value …
Question:
Would it not be possible to find another logarithmic function with a simpler base?
E.g. base 10, which is the base of the decimal system.
If log is the base 10 logarithm function, to find a simple relation between log and ln, you
need only try to relate them by means of a coefficient.
We write log(x) = k ln(x) and assume x = 10 so log(10) = k ln(10)

or log10 = 1 so k = 1 / ln(10).
So we can write: log(x) = ln(x) / ln(10)
Figure 5: Graphic representation of the "Napierian logarithm" function
The base 10 logarithm of a number is the value of the Napierian logarithm of this same
number divided by the Napierian logarithm of 10.
N.B. ln(10) = 2.3026

Theory Review
Mathematics
E.g.:
log(2) = 0.30102
ln(2) = 0.693147
we verify that log(2) = ln(2) / ln(10): 0.6931471806 / 2.3026 = 0.30102 = log(2)
5.3.4. Decimal logarithms (log)
log(10x) = x,
Definition: the function which at any value of x makes y = log x correspond to x =10y
is known as the decimal logarithm function
So decimal logarithms establish a simple correspondence between all of the successive
whole powers of 10:
...; 10-3; 10-2; 10-1; 100; 101; 102; 103; ...
and the sequence of integers:
...; - 3; - 2; - 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; ... (unlimited arithmetic progression in steps of 1)
log 0.1 = log 10-1 = - 1
log 1 = log 100 = 0
log(10) = 1
log(100) = log(10 * 10) = log(10) + log(10) = 2
log(1000) = 3.
⎛1⎞
log(0,1) = log⎜ ⎟ = − log(10) = −1
⎝ 10 ⎠
log(0.01) = - 2,
log(0.001) = -3
log(10n) = n
So the decimal logarithm of a number x is the power y to which 10 needs to be raised to

obtain this number.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Decimal logarithm properties:
shares the general properties of logarithms (see corresponding chapter)
log(1)=0
log(10)=1
log(x)= ln(x) / ln(10)
eln x = x. In fact we can write ln(eln x)) = ln x .ln e = ln x so e(ln x) = x
5.3.4.1. Mantissa and characteristics
The logarithms of whole powers of 10 can be easily calculated using the product to sum
conversion rule:
The arithmetic properties of logarithms make it possible to deduce the value of any
logarithm as long as the logarithms of all the numbers between 1 and 10 are known.
In fact, any number x can be written in the form x = a.10n where a is a number between 1
and 10 (exclusive). This form is known as the scientific denotation of x. So 10n represents
the order of magnitude of the number x.
E.g.:
120 = 1.2.102 and 0.00314 = 3.14.10 − 3
So switching to the decimal logarithm will reveal the two elements of the scientific
denotation of the number
log(120) = log (1.2 x 100) = log(1.2) + log(102) = log(1.2) + 2
log(0.0034) =log(3.4 / 1000) = log(3.4) + log(10 − 3) = log(3.4) - 3
log(x) = log(a.10^n) = n + log(a)
For any real number a between 1 and 10 (exclusive), log(a) is between 0 and 1. So the
relative integer n is the integer part of log(x), and log(a) the decimal part to be added to n
to obtain log(x).
If we solve: log(x) = log(a.10n) = n + log(a)
The integer part ‘n’ of log(x) is known as the characteristic of the log.
The decimal part ‘log(a)’ to be added to the integer part is known as the mantissa

Theory Review
Mathematics
N.B. take care when writing logarithms with numbers smaller than 1
log(0.0034) = -3 + log(3.4) -3 + 0.531
log(0.0034) -2.469
N.B.
We have seen that we could deduce the decimal logarithm from the Napierian
logarithm simply using the formula log(x) = ln(x) / ln(10)
(getting ln(10) = 2.30259)
The base 10 logarithm of a number is the value of the Napierian logarithm of this
same number divided by the Napierian logarithm of 10
It is this decimal logarithm denoted log or log10 which is the most practical in
numeric calculations; it can also be found in the creation of logarithmic scales,
The approximate value of the decimal logarithm of a number can be quickly

estimated e.g.:
The decimal logarithm of 421 (421 is a number between 102 and 103) is a number
between 2 and 3: i.e. log 421 = 2 something (2 for its integer part),
So reading the logarithm of a number is an easy way to determine its order of

magnitude: if log(x) = 5.3
Its characteristic is 5 so x is in the form a.105. Its mantissa is 0.3 which is close to
log(2). So x is close to 2.105
log(n) n log(n)
n
.
0 -infinity 10 1.0000
1 0 11 1.0414
2 0.3010 12 1.0792
3 0.4771 13 1.1139
4 0.6021 14 1.1461
5 0.6989 15 1.1761
6 0.7781 16 1.2041
7 0.8451 17 1.2304
8 0.9031 18 1.2553
9 0.9542 19 1.2788
Figure 6: Extract of decimal logarithm table and the corresponding graph.
The curve shows the variation of the function log(x), the decimal logarithm or base 10
function.
Theory Review
Mathematics
We can see that:
log(1) = 0
log(10) = 1
but also that log(0) tends towards minus infinity
Examples of use
Verifying: log(2) + log(3) = log(6) we get: 0.3010 + 0.4771 = 0.7781

log(2) = 0.3010. log(10) = 1 so log(20) = 1.3010
Calculating log(17.5) – the value may be obtained by interpolation: by finding the

average of the log of 17 (1.2304) and of 18 (1.2553) i.e. 1.2433.
Usefulness of the calculation:
Calculating 24? without a calculator but with the table above!
Assuming that x is the result: 24 = x so log(24) = log(x)

i.e. 4 log2 = logx i.e. 4*0.3010 = 1.204
So logx = 1.204, we look up what the value of x is in the table …to get 8!!!
Of course this type of exercise may not be convincing, since there are calculators
everywhere.
Logs however remain very common in physics when we have to handle quantities
varying between 10− 10 and 1010. So they are encountered in pH and decibel
calculations, among others
Assuming that x = 435.728 and y = 1.6275
Calculate, without using a calculator, the product xy
We calculate log(x): x = 4.35728.102 so the characteristic is 2, the mantissa is read

from a logarithm table: 0.6392 - log(x) = 2.6392
We calculate log(y), characteristic 0, mantissa 0.2115 - log(y) = 0.2115
We need only calculate log(xy) = log(x) + log(y) = 2.8507, isolate the characteristic:
2 and the mantissa 0.8507, which by reverse look-up in the log table gives us 7091.
So the product xy is approximately 7.091.102 = 709.1

Theory Review
Mathematics
By always taking these two numbers, it is also very easy to calculate an approximate value
of the cube root of their quotient
So the characteristic is zero, the mantissa is 0.8092 which, by reverse look-up, gives us
6445.
Some logarithms of special values:
log(pi) = 0.49715
log(pi²) = 0.99430
log(e) = 0.43429
log(g) = 0.99152
It need only be said that the value of logarithms of numbers other than powers of 10
requires an approximate calculation.
Calculating the log(2) e.g. can be done by hand:
we try to find a relation between 2 and a power of 10
210 = 2 x 23 x 23 x 23 = 1024 rounded to 1000
210 =1000 so log (210)=log(1000) = log(103) so 10 log(2) = 3 which gives log(2)=0.3
we have used the property log an = n log a to obtain 10 log(2)".
5.3.5. Using logs in graphic representations
When representing phenomena in graph form, it may be of great benefit to use the log
function:
A semi-logarithmic graph includes an arithmetic scale, generally on the x axis, while the
second scale is logarithmic on which the value in question is represented by the value of
its decimal logarithm (see below).
In a log-log graph, both scales are logarithmic, along the same principle.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Example of scaling to represent a variable changing over time from 0 to 1000:
The x axis contains the years

with a regular interval.
The y axis will contain the

logarithmic representation
Each term on the scale has

the associated log:
log(1) = 0
log(10) = 1
log(100) = 2
log(1000) = 3 etc….
thereby creating a new
arithmetic scale.
To place a point A on this graph

we need only use the correspondence between the "normal" value and its log; e.g. for the
value 850 the log of which is 2.93, we will note this point on the log-deduced arithmetic
scale, so point A is situated between 2 and 3 (its real value 850 would be placed between
100 and 1000, so the log of its value is actually placed between the log of 100: 2 and log
1000: 3).
The log scale: for highlighting differences in progression:
We have decided to compare the number of contracts obtained by two salesmen in

2004 and 2005:
2004 2005 Progression

Salesman 1 300 600 2 fold
Salesman 2 100 400 4 fold
The table shows that the number of contracts obtained by salesman 1 progressed
by a factor of 2 and that the number of contracts obtained by salesman 2
progressed by a factor of 4.
On an ordinary graph (below, left), the two progressions are parallel.
However, on a graph with a logarithmic y-axis, we can clearly see that salesman 2's
progression is quicker than salesman 1's.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Figure 7: Ordinary graph and graph with a logarithmic y axis
In the right-hand graph, the y-axis scale is logarithmic, but the figures indicated (the
numbers of contracts) are the same as on the right-hand graph.
However, instead of using the values themselves, the graph uses the decimal
logarithm of the values, as indicated in the table below:
2004 2005
Salesman 1 log(300) = 2.48 log(600) = 2.78
Salesman 2 log(100) = 2 log(400) = 2.6
The log scale: converting graphs showing constant rate evolution into straight
lines
We want to plot a graph showing the change in turnover of a very rapidly growing
company:
Year Sales figure (in euros)

2001 100
2002 1 000
2003 10 000
2004 100 000
2005 1 000 000
As we can see by comparing the two graphs below, the progression which is
exponential on the left becomes linear on the right:

Theory Review
Mathematics
Figure 8: Graph with ordinary scale and graph with logarithmic scale
The log scale: simplifying the representation of laws of physics.
Examples:
Discharge of a capacitor.
When reading the discharge voltage ‘u’ of a capacitor into a resistor, the following
values are found over time:
Time t, in seconds 0 3 5 7 10
Voltage v, in Volts 9.0 4.8 3.1 2.0 1.1
If we plot the corresponding curve:
on graph paper, we obtain an exponential plot.
on semi-logarithmic paper, we obtain a straight line.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Figure 9: Curve on semi-logarithmic paper
The alignment of the measurement points is easily shown, which leads us to

conclude that the expected model is suited to the phenomenon:
u (t ) = e − kt
Adiabatic compression.
The volume V and pressure P of a gas are connected by the relation PV γ = P0V0γ
To calculate the pressure P at a given volume V, the logarithm tool is highly

practical:
log( P ) = log( P0 ) + γ (log(V0 ) − log(V ))
Interpreting the curve representing P as a function of V is more tricky, unless we

use "log – log" paper.
When both axes are assigned logarithmic scales, the curve representing P as a
function of V is a straight line.
Theory Review
Mathematics
Figure 10: Curve on log-log paper
An example of application with:
Vo= 8.10-4 m3
Po=1.105 Pa and γ = 1,4
The graph is graduated in m3.10-4 for volume, and in Pa.105 for pressure.
γ
⎛V ⎞
P = P0 × ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝V ⎠
Solving a type (a + x)n = k equation
Example:
Solving the equation (2 − x)3 = 12
We can use the decimal logarithm of the two members of the equation i.e.
log(2 − x)3 = log 12
Using the property log an =n log a, we get

Theory Review
Mathematics
1
3 log (2 − x) = log 12 so log (2 − x) = log 12
3
1 1
i.e. log (2 − x) = log 12 3 so 2 − x = 12 3

1
hence x = 2 − 12 3 = − 0.29
N.B. we arrive at the same result using Napierian logarithms.
Indeed: ln (2 − x)3 = ln 12
Using the property ln an = n ln a, we get

1
1
3 ln (2 − x) = ln 12 so ln (2 − x) = ln 12 and ln (2 − x) = ln 12 3
3
1 1
2 − x = 12 3 i.e. x = 2 − 12 3 = − 0.29

Theory Review
Mathematics
5.3.6. Exercises
Calculate:
163. log(20) knowing that log (2) = 0.3010
164. log(50) knowing that log (5) = 0.6989
Solve a type ax = b equation
165. 5x = 625
166. 1.02x = 24
167. 3(x+1) = 124

Theory Review
Mathematics
6. SIMPLE EQUATION SYSTEMS
6.1. CONCEPT OF EQUATIONS
Generally speaking: an equation is an equality between two algebraic expression where

the unknown (or unknowns) “x” (or “y”, or “z”) must be calculated to verify the equality
2 = 1 + 1 is a true equality (everyone knows that 2 = 1+ 1)
2 = 1 + 3 is a false equality (it is better not to write false equalities)
2 = x + 1 is an equality which may be true or false depending on the value given to x.
This is known as an equation.
Solving an equation means finding the value or values of x for which the equality is true.
These values are known as the equation's solutions.
Example:
Is the equality 4x - 5 = 1 + 2x true for x = 2?
Calculating the first member: 4 2 - 5 = 8 - 5 = 3
Calculating the second member: 1 + 2 2 = 1 + 4 = 5
3 is not equal to 5, so the equality is false for x = 2.
6.2. PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY ENABLING EQUATION SOLVING
An equation is characterised by an equality between the terms on either side of the equals
sign.
Intuitively, an equality works a bit like a two-pan scales:

if we add something to one side, we need to add the same thing on the other side to retain
the balance.
Equality and addition

If a = b, then a + c = b + c
We can add (or subtract) the same number to (from) both members of an
equality.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Equality and multiplication

If a = b and if c is not 0, then a c = b c
We can multiply (or divide) both members of an equality by the same number
other than 0.
Why take precautions with 0?

e.g. 2 = 3 is false, but 2 0 = 3 0 is true.
Multiplying by 0 may make a previously false equality true – which is rather a
nuisance...
Remarkable products (will be useful in the solution of higher equations)

Regardless of the real numbers a and b:
(a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²
(a - b)² = a² - 2ab + b²
(a - b)(a + b) = a² - b²
6.3. 1st DEGREE EQUATION WITH ONE UNKNOWN
We have already seen that solving an equation means finding the value(s) of x for which
the equality is true.
When x, which is known as the unknown in the equation, is neither squared nor cubed (nor
to any other power), we say that it is a first degree equation. If x is squared the equation
will be 2nd degree (and so on).
Example:
Solve the equation: 4x - 5 = 1 + 2x
We take away 2x from both sides of the equation to bring together the x terms into a
single one for both members, and then calculate.
4x - 5 - 2x = 1 + 2x - 2x
2x - 5 = 1
We add 5 to both members to isolate the x terms and then calculate.
2x - 5 + 5 = 1 + 5
2x = 6

Theory Review
Mathematics
2x 6
we divide both members of the equality by 2 to isolate the x: =
2 2
x=3
For 4x - 5 to be equal to 1 + 2x, x must equal 3.
N.B.
Equation with no solution
3(1 - 2x) = 2 - 6x
3 - 6x = 2 - 6x
3 - 6x + 6x = 2 - 6x + 6x
3=2
3 = 2 is a false equality, so the initial equality is false, whatever the value

assigned to x. =>This equation has no solution.
Equation with infinite solutions
3(1 - 2x) = 3 - 6x
3 - 6x = 3 - 6x
3 - 6x + 6x = 3 - 6x + 6x
3=3
3 = 3 is a true equality, so the initial equality is true, whatever the value

assigned to x. => All numbers are solutions to this equation.

Theory Review
Mathematics
6.3.1. Exercises
Solve the following equations:
168. 5x - 9 = 3x + 4 => ……………………………………………………
169. 3x – 5(3 – 2x) = 6x – 15 => ……………………………………………………
170. -9x -16 = -12x –7 => ……………………………………………………
171. 4x - 5(3 - 2x) = 4 - (2x - 7) => ……………………………………………………
172. -6x - 8 = -8x – 22 => ……………………………………………………
173. 3x - 7 = 5x – 11 => ……………………………………………………
174. 2(3x - 7) + (3x + 2) = 6(5x + 9) + 3 => …………………………………………………
175. 8 - (3x + 2) = 5x – 5 => ……………………………………………………
176. 5x - 3[7 - 4(3 - 2x)] = 5(3 - x) – 4 => ……………………………………………………
177. 7 + 2(3 - x) = 4x – 1 => ……………………………………………………
178. 3 / 4x + 5 / 6 = 5x – 125 / 3 => ……………………………………………………
179. (6x - 7) / 4 + (3x - 5) / 7 = (5x + 78) / 28 => ……………………………………………
180. (3x - 2) / 9 – x / 6 = (13 - 2x) / 3 => ……………………………………………………
181. (2x + 1) / 3 - (5x - 4) / 18 = x – 2 => ……………………………………………………
182. (x - 3) / 8 – (x - 5) / 24 = 2 –(x - 2) / 12 => ……………………………………………

Theory Review
Mathematics
6.4. PROBLEM SOLVING USING AN EQUATION SYSTEM
This method consists of translating using one or more equations the statement of a
mathematical problem.
Example 1
The sum of the ages of 3 brothers is 22, the eldest (A) is twice as old as the
youngest (C), and the second (B) is 2 years older than the youngest. What age is
each brother?
First we need to translate the givens into equation form; assuming that the ages are
a,b,c respectively
The sum of the ages of 3 brothers is 22 => a + b + c = 22 (1)
The eldest (A) is twice as old as the youngest (C) => a = 2c (2)
The second (B) is 2 years older than the youngest => b = c + 2 (3)
We can see from (2) and (3) that a and b are both expressed only as a function of c,
so we replace a and b in (1) with their expression as a function of c
A = 2c and b = c + 2
A + b + c = 22 => 2c + c + 2 + c = 22 => c = 5
from (2): a = 2c we deduce a = 10 and from (3) b = c + 2 so we deduce b = 7
Example 2
The 3 corners of a triangle have angles in °: x°, 2x° and 3x°+30°. What is the value
of each angle?
We know that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°, so we can write:
1x + 2x + 3x + 30 = 180 => 6x + 30 = 180 => 6x = 150 => x = 150 / 6 = 25°
So solving a problem using an equation system consists firstly in writing the givens of the
problem in equation form, defining the relations between the unknowns and givens.
The equations then need to be solved progressively to isolate one of the unknowns; we
recommend the following systematic approach even if the problem is simple, because it
instils the habit of good methodology, which will be all the more necessary when the
problem is more complex.
Theory Review
Mathematics
There are 4 steps to follow for a systematic approach:
Select the unknown
Form an equation
Solve
Write the conclusion
Comment: Before approaching the "problem solving" aspect, it is essential to understand

that first and foremost, we have to correctly understand the statement of the problem and
analyse all the information available, without which equation formation will be impossible
or incorrect.
Let's take the following example to illustrate this observation:
It concerns finding the age of a mathematician's 3 children:
Here is rather odd dialogue taking place one day between two mathematicians A and B:
A: Come to think of it, how old are your 3 children?
B: The product of their ages is 36.
A: I don't get it.
B: By a strange coincidence, the sum of their ages is half your age.
A: I still can't draw a conclusion.
B: The eldest broke his leg last Monday.
A: Perfect, now I know their ages.
Have you got it??

Theory Review
Mathematics
We break down 36 into products of 3 factors (the possible ages of the children), and
calculate the sum of the 3 ages (right-hand column)
36= 1*1*36 38
1*2*18 21
1*3*12 16
1*4*9 14
1*6*6 13
2*2*9 13
2*3*6 11
3*3*4 10
Since A could not draw a conclusion when he knew the sum of their ages, it must be
because we have the two equal sums, i.e. the case of 2 * 2 * 9, or 1 * 6 * 6.
But since we have the additional information of the existence of an eldest child, we can
conclude that the respective ages of the children are 9, 2, 2.
Example of equation formation
At a school party, the first table was served 3 Fantas and 2 Cokes for 39 F.
The second table was served 1 Fanta and 3 Cokes for 34 F
How much does Fanta cost? And how much does Coke cost?
So the 2 unknowns are the price of Fanta and the price of Coke.
Lets denote for example x as the price of an Fanta and y the price of a Coke, and
translate the statement of the problem using x and y,
The price paid at the first table is written: 3x + 2y = 39 (1)
This equality is a first degree equation with two unknowns x and y.
Comment:
We can easily find values for x and for y to verify this equation:
E.g. if x = 7 and y = 9 then 3 x 7 + 2 x 9 = 21 + 18 = 39: The equality is verified.
We can say that the two values x = 7 and y = 9 constitute a pair (7; 9), which is a
solution to the equation 3x + 2y = 39.
We can see that the pair (5; 12) is also a solution, since 3 x 5 + 2 x 12 = 39.

Theory Review
Mathematics
However, the pair (6; 8) is not a solution, since 3 x 6 +2 x 8 = 34 and 34 # 39.

Since the equality 3x + 2y = 39 (1) is not verified.
To find the right values of x and y we need to take into account the rest of the
statement of the problem:
The price paid on the second table is written: x + 3y = 34 (2)
To find the price of Coke and of Fanta, we need to solve the equation system:
⎧3x + 2 y = 39 (1)
⎨
⎩ x + 3 y = 34 (2)
Example of solving procedure:
A rectangular pitch has a perimeter of 750 m. The length measures 15 m more

than the width. Calculate the dimensions of the rectangle.
Choose the unknown

Let x be the measurement of width and y the measurement of the length.
⎧2 x + 2 y = 750 (1)
Form the equation ⎨
⎩ y = x + 15 (2)
Solve
Using the substitution method:
I replace y by x + 15 in (1)
2x + 2(x + 15) = 750 so 2x + 2x + 30 = 750 i.e. 4x = 720 so x = 180
I replace x with 180 in (2)
y = x + 15 so I can write y = 180 + 15, which gives me y = 195
Write the conclusion: The width measures 180 m, and the length 195 m.
We will see that there are actually two calculation methods for isolating one of the
unknowns, the addition method and the substitution method.

Theory Review
Mathematics
6.4.1. Addition method
For example to solve the system:
⎧2 x + 3 y = 5 (1)
⎨
⎩5 x + 4 y = 16 (2)
We need to find how to eliminate one of the two unknowns by adding the equalities.
To do so we need to multiply each member of equalities (1) and (2) by "correctly chosen"
numbers and then add "member to member".
There are various possibilities according to the choice of eliminating x or y; for example we
will try to eliminate x .
We multiply the 2 members of equality (1) by 5 and those of equation (2) by -2:
x5 ⎧2 x + 3 y = 5 (1)
⎨
x(−2)⎩5 x + 4 y = 16 (2)
⎧5 × (2 x) + 5 × (3 y ) = 5 × 5
⎨
⎩(−2) × (5 x) + (−2) × 4 y = (−2) × 16
⎧10 x + 15 y = 25
⎨
⎩− 10 x − 8 y = −32
We add together the two equalities member to member:
(10x + 15y) + (-10x - 8y) = 25 + (-32)
10x -10x + 15y - 8y = 25 -32 so 7y = -7, which gives us y = -1
We transfer the value of y into one of the two equations, e.g. (1):
2x + 3y = 5
2x + 3 x (-1) = 5
2x -3 = 5 so 2x = 5 + 3 i.e. 2x = 8, which gives us x = 4
Verification of the result
The values x = 4 and y = -1 must verify the equation system we had to solve:

Theory Review
Mathematics
2 x 4 + 3 x (-1) = 8 - 3 = 5
5 x 4 + 4 x (-1) = 20 - 4 = 16
So the solution of the system is indeed the pair of values (4; -1).
6.4.2. Substitution method
If we take the problem of finding the prices of Fanta and Coke

Solving the system involves finding all the pairs (x; y) which are common solutions to the
two equations (1) and (2).
⎧3x + 2 y = 39 (1)
⎨
⎩ x + 3 y = 34 (2)
We need to find how to eliminate one of the two unknowns by using one of the equalities
to express one of the unknowns as a function of the other, and use this expression in the
other equality.
E.g. we will try to eliminate x
We isolate x in one of the 2 equations, e.g. in equation (2): x = 34 - 3y (3)
We replace x by 34 - 3y in equation (1):
3x + 2y = 39, so 3(34 - 3y) + 2y = 39 i.e. 102 - 9y + 2y = 39 and 02 - 7y = 39
which gives us 102 - 39 = 7y so y = 63/7 i.e. y = 9
We feed y = 9 into an equation, e.g. (3)
x = 34 - 3y so x = 34 - 3 x 9 and x = 34 – 27 i.e. x = 7
Verification of result
The values x = 7 and y = 9 must verify the equation system we had to solve:
3 x 7 + 2 x 9 = 21 + 18 = 39
1 x 7 + 3 x 9 = 7 + 27 = 34
So the solution to the system is the pair of values (7; 9)
Conclusion:
Fanta costs 7 F and Coke 9 F.

Theory Review
Mathematics
Additional exercise:
In an election, the two candidates X and Y share the votes of 18 000 voters, 52% of whom
are women.
53.5% of the votes won by X are from women,
51% of the votes won by Y are from women.
Find the number of people voting for X and the number of people voting for Y.
We will try to find the division of votes between X and Y, calling them x and y respectively
The translation of the statement into equation form gives us: x + y = 18000 (1)
Furthermore:
the total number of women's votes is 18000 * 0.52
the number of women's votes for X is 0.535 * x
the number of women's votes for Y is 0.51 * y
So: 0.535x + 0.51y = 18000 * 0.52 (2)
So it is a 1st degree system with 2 unknowns, which is written: x + y = 18000 (1)
0.535x + 0.51y = 18000 * 0.52 (2)
We will solve it using the substitution method:
1st step: multiplying the two members of equation (1) by (- 0.51), giving us
-0.51x – 0.51y = -0.51°1800 (1)
0.535x + 0.51y = 18000 * 0.52 (2)
2nd step: adding together the two equations (1) and (2) member to member, giving us:
(0.535 - 0.51) x = 180 i.e. 0.025x = 180
So we obtain the following simplified system:
x + y = 1800 (1)
0.25x = 180 (2)

Theory Review
Mathematics
3rd step: equation (2) gives us: x = 180 / 0.25 = 7200 (2)
Equation (1) gives us: y = 1800 - 7200 = 10800 (1)
….. it is up to you to verify whether the pair (7200, 10800) is the solution to the problem.
6.5. LITERAL EXPRESSIONS AND CALCULUS
Literal expressions and calculus consist of representations in the form of more or less
complex equations connecting magnitudes, and of performing operations without using
figures. It is a method frequently used for expressing reasoning before performing a
calculation; it is used in particular in the laws of physics.
Examples of literal expressions:
Perimeter of a circle: P = 2π × R
Area of a circle: A = π × R2
Volume of a cylinder: V = A × H = π × R2 × H
Perimeter of a square: P’ = 4 × L
Area of a square: A’ = L2
Volume of a cube: V’ = L3
Examples of literal calculations
P1 × V1 P2 × V2
The Boyle-Mariotte ideal gas law =
T1 T2
where P1 gas pressure in volume V1 at temperature T1 (ditto for gas 2)
express V2 as a function of V1 if T1 = T2
if T1 = T2 we can say P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 so V2 = (P1 x V1) / P2
In turbulence, the head loss ∆P of a fluid in a straight tube can be calculated using the
L u2
formula: ∆P = f × ×ρ×
D 2

Theory Review
Mathematics
f: friction factor
L: length of tube
D: diameter of tube
ρ: density
u: fluid velocity
If we know that the flowrate Q = A × u , where A is the cross-sectional area of the tube.
Where A = π × D2 / 4.
Express the head loss as a function of flow rate.
L (Q) 2 π × D2
∆P = f × × ρ × or A =
D 2 × ( A) 2 4
L (Q) 2 ×16
so ∆P = f × ×ρ×
D 2 × π 2 × ( D) 4
⎡ 16 ⎤ L (Q) 2 (Q) 2
hence ∆P = ⎢ f × × × ρ × = F × L × ρ ×
⎣ 2 × π 2 ⎥⎦ D ( D) 4 ( D) 5
(Q) 2
∆P = F × L × ρ ×
( D) 5

Theory Review
Mathematics
7. FUNCTIONS
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF FUNCTIONS
For simplicity's sake we can define a function as being the (mathematical) representation
of the relation between 2 or more magnitudes.
A magnitude y is a known function of another magnitude x when, if we know a value of x,

we can calculate the corresponding value of y.
The relation between y and x is the function represented by y = f(x) (y equals “eff” of x).
This relation may be very simple, such as y = x, y = 2x, y = 2x + 5 or much more

complicated; in this course we will limit ourselves to functions represented by a 1st degree
equation, such as y = ax + b (where a and b are parameters).
N.B. in physics a magnitude is often the function of several variables, so it is written in the
form y = f(x, z); to solve it we look at y for various fixed values of z, only varying x.
E.g. if I fill a 200 litre barrel and try to express the fill level y, this level is a function of the
time and flowrate i.e. y = f(t,Q), but for a given flowrate y is then only a function of the filling
time y = f(t).
We constantly use this concept without paying it any attention, e.g. "I am driving at
km/hour" is the expression of a distance as a function of time.
In fact if I drive for 1 hr I cover 60 km, in 2 hrs 120 km etc …
So I can say distance = 60 x number of hours.
or more simply distance = 60 x time i.e. d = 60 T
If I drive at 60 km/h the distance covered is 60T; I have just expressed the relation
between the 2 magnitudes: the distance and time d = 60 T
if I continue the reasoning with different speeds I can say: d = V x T (distance = speed x
time).
The distance is a function of speed and time, which is written as: d = f(V,T)
To find out the distance we need to know the speed and time; if we know the speed for
example if we are driving only at 60 km/h we can say d = f(T)
This expression can be generalised in the form y = f(x)

In our case y is the distance and x is the time, and for 60 km/h we can write y = 60x
Theory Review
Mathematics
This concept is very commonly used in physics in particular, because it firstly is the basis
of the mathematical laws expressing the physics, and in particular enables graphic
representations to be made, which as we will see, allow us to find the value of a parameter
without making this calculation.
7.2. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF A FUNCTION
7.2.1. System of coordinates
To be able to represent a function y = f(x) graphically, we first need to draw two

perpendicular axes, the x axis and the y axis.
On each of these axes we have to specify scales (e.g. km in the y axis and hours in the x
axis for the function y = 60x)
Figure 11: Graphic representation of a function y = f(x)
The horizontal axis which is known as the abscissa axis or x axis has a positive
part (the part from 0 to x) and a negative part (the part from 0 to x’)
The vertical axis, which is known as the ordinate axis or y axis has a positive part
(the part from 0 to y) and a negative part (the part from 0 to y’)

Theory Review
Mathematics
The 0 point is known as the origin, the abscissa axis and ordinate axis form the
coordinate axes and the whole thing is known as the coordinate system.
7.2.2. Positioning of a point in its coordinate system
A pair of two algebraic numbers, e.g. x = - 4 and y = 5, has a corresponding point A on the
graph, obtained as follows using the coordinate system mentioned above:
since x equals - 4, count 4 graduations in the negative direction on x'x from 0
since y equals 5, count 5 graduations in the positive direction on y'y from 0;
extrapolate lines parallel to the axis at the two marked graduations; they will
intersect at point A.
We say that the numbers - 4 and + 5 are the coordinates of point A; - 4 is its abscissa, and
+ 5 is its ordinate.
7.2.3. Definition of a point's coordinates in its coordinate system
Let point B be situated in the coordinate system.
We extrapolate lines parallel to the coordinate axes via this point. The intersection of
these parallel lines with the different axes determines the coordinates of the point.
So point B has the coordinates x = 6 and y = - 3, which is written: B (6,- 3).
7.2.4. Scales of graduations
For simplicity's sake, we have used divisions with the same length in both axes.
However, we can use on one of the axes divisions with a different length to that used for
the other, i.e. adopt different scales for the two graduations.

Theory Review
Mathematics
7.2.5. Example of graphic representation of a law of physics
In electricity, Ohm's law demonstrates that the voltage across the terminals of a resistor is
a function of the current passing through this resistor
U=RxI
U: voltage in Volts
R: resistance in Ohms
I: current in Amperes
If we have a 10 ohm resistor (R = 10 ohms), the relation U = RI is written U = 10I,

assigning various values to I we obtain the corresponding U
for I = 1 ampere U = 10 * 1 = 10 Volts

for I = 2 amperes U = 10 * 2 = 20 Volts
for I = 3 amperes U = 10 * 3 = 30 Volts
Since we had agreed that the resistance value was constant at 10 ohms, we replace the
letter "R" with "a". As for the other two magnitudes U and I, let's replace them with y and x
respectively. The relation U = RI can now be written: y = ax
So each value of x will have a corresponding value of y that we can calculate. We can also
say that the number y is a function of the number x.
If a number is a function of another, if we know one, we can calculate the other.
The number x, to which we assign the values we like, is known as the variable. The
number y, which we are calculating, is known as the function. Mathematically, to express
that a magnitude (y) is a function of a variable x, we write y = f (x), which is read: y equals
f of x or y is a function of x.
Figure 12: Graphic representation of a law of physics

Theory Review
Mathematics
The circuit in the figure represents a generator delivering a flow through a fixed 100 ohm
resistor.
If the voltage supplied by the generator is successively set to 100, 200, 300...volts, the
corresponding current will have a value of 1, 2, 3... amperes (through application of the
relation U = RI, and therefore I = U / R).
The ampere and volt are two corresponding units. If we adopt a scale of 1 cm = 1 ampere,
it would be unreasonable to use 1 cm = 1 volt, because that would require a graph several
metres in size (100 V = 100 cm = 1 m, 200 V = 200 cm = 2 m, etc.).
Consequently, to make a graphic representation of this relation, we will adopt as a scale 1

cm = 100 volts and 1 cm = 1 ampere.
Once the straight line representing the function I = U / R is plotted, we can find the value of
I without any calculation for a given value of V (e.g. for V = 500 V the value of I is 5 A)
N.B.:
The curve representing the function y = ax is a straight line passing through the
origin, since at x = 0. y = a x 0 = 0, so the point (0,0) is on the straight line
Given that 2 points are needed to plot a straight line, we need only determine a
value of y for a selected value of x (e.g. y = 5 amperes for x = 500 v in our example,
giving the 2nd point (500,5) – the straight line representing the function will be the
one passing through these 2 points.
Of course since the law U = RI is simple, this graphic representation seems pointless; but
in fact representation in a coordinate system can be applied for highly complex functions
which would require a long calculation to be made for each value required.
It also allows us to view how y varies for all the values of x, which is not possible with a
mathematical formula.
Exercise: Of the six graphs below, indicate (and explain which magnitude you are taking
to be on the x-axis and which on the y-axis) which corresponds to the following situation:
A walker sets off from home, walks for 3

hours (always moving further from home),
stops for 1 hour and comes back home by
bus.

Theory Review
Mathematics
7.2.6. Graphic representation of y = ax
We can represent the following y = ax functions on the same coordinate system

y = - 4x y = - x y = - 0,5x y = 0,5x y = x y = 3x
We know that to plot the corresponding straight lines, we need to determine two points;
one is already formed by the intersection of the axes x'x and y'y, i.e. the point 0. To obtain
the second, we need only assign x any numeric value, e.g.:
y = - 4x for x = 2 y = - 4 (2) = - 8 = P1
y=-x for x = 5 y = 1 (- 5) = - 5 = P2
y = - 0.5x for x = 6 y = - 0.5 (6) = - 3 = P3
y = 0.5x for x = 6 y = 0.5 (6) = 3 = P4
y=x for x = 6 y = 1 (6) = 6 = P5
y = 3x for x = 2 y = 3 (2) = 6 = P6
Figure 13: The gradient of a straight line varies with the coefficient of x
Theory Review
Mathematics
Since these points are now perfectly defined by their coordinates, P1 (2; - 8); P2 (5; - 5);
P3 (6; - 3) etc. we can place them on the graph and plot the straight lines representing
each function, having them pass via the origin 0 and the corresponding points P (see
figure above).
N.B. gradient of the straight line y = ax
If the coefficient "a" increases as an absolute value, the angle formed by the x-axis
(x'x) and the corresponding line increases equally. Hence the angle x 0 P6 (function
y = 3 x) is greater than the angle x 0 P5 (function y = x).
The coefficient "a" of "x" in the relation y = ax is known as the gradient, or angular
coefficient, of the straight line y = ax.
In summary, the gradient of the straight line y = ax increases as the absolute value
of the coefficient a of x.

Theory Review
Mathematics
7.2.7. Exercises on graphic representation
183. Make a graphic representation of the function y = 2x – 1
First you need to calculate the values of y for various values of x
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y = f(x)
Then plot the corresponding points on graph paper to represent the function y = 2x
–1
This function could have been represented by calculating the values of y for only 2
values of x. Explain why.
y
4
x
0
- - - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 4 3 2 1
-
1
-
2
-
3
How can we represent on the same sheet the function defined by the equation y + x
=2

Theory Review
Mathematics
8. TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is the study of measurements of triangles (measurements of sides and
angles), and the links that exist between them. This study employs the sine, cosine,
tangent and cotangent functions (known as the trigonometric functions).
This subject is generally approached by means of the special case of the right-angle
triangle (the simplest), before drawing conclusions on any triangles.
The angles of a right-angle triangle never exceed 90°; but trigonometry extends to any
angles.
8.1. RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES
A right-angle triangle is a triangle with a right angle (90°)

- in this case between side AB and AC.
The side opposite the right angle is the hypotenuse
(BC).
8.2. PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM
Pythagoras' theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse

of a right-angle triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the smaller sides.
BC2 = AB2 + AC2
This simple theorem is used in many applications, giving us for

example the distance between two points marked by their
Cartesian coordinates.
As the figure shows, the segment connecting

the two points A and B can be considered to be
the hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle, the
third side of which is point P.

Theory Review
Mathematics
8.2.1. Fun demonstration of Pythagoras' theorem
In fact there have been a great many demonstrations, from all eras and all sources, from
ancient China to the White House; the one we will describe is based on the observation of
various geometric figures.
We will cut up pieces of paper into squares.
The starting hypothesis is that if we take away equal areas from two identical squares, no
matter how they are cut, the two remaining pieces will have the
same area.
The first figure which will be used for the demonstration is the
square with side a + b. If we cut from the four corners of this
square the right-angle triangle with small sides a and b, we
obtain a second square, with a side equal to the hypotenuse (h)
of this right-angle triangle.
Therefore the area of this square with side h is equal to the

square of the hypotenuse.
The second figure shows the same square again with side a +
b, and we cut it as shown in figure 2: we obtain 2 squares with
sides a and b respectively, and two rectangles with sides a
and b.
So we cut these two rectangles into 4 right-angle triangles with

small sides a and b, i.e. precisely the triangle whose
hypotenuse we want to calculate.
So we have taken from the same square with side (a + b) four identical triangles in two
different ways, so we can assert that the remaining areas - the square with side h, and the
two squares with sides a and b - have the same area, and the area of a square is equal to
the square of its side, hence we obtain what we had to demonstrate: h2 = a2 + b2
8.2.2. Generalisation of Pythagoras' theorem: Al-Kashi's formula
For information only:
While Pythagoras' theorem is only applied to right-angle triangles, the formula of the
mathematician Al-Kashi is applicable to any triangle:
h2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab * cosα

Theory Review
Mathematics
where α is the angle formed by the sides a and b (angle opposite the hypotenuse). This
theorem is sometimes known as the "generalised Pythagorean theorem".
This formula can handle extreme cases:
the simplest, the right-angle triangle: the angle is 90°, so its cosine is zero, which
gives us Pythagoras' formula.
the triangle is "flat": it is either entirely open (α = 180°, so cos α = -1), or completely
closed (α = 0°, so cos α = 1). In either case, we find the formula from the square of
(a+b) or (a-b).
8.3. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE
For any angle θ 3 main values can be defined: the cosine, sine and tangent
adjacent side
Cosine θ: which is written cos θ =
hypotenuse
opposite side
Sine θ: which is written sin θ =
hypotenuse
opposite side
Tangent θ: which is written tan θ =
adjacent side
These three formulae enable us to calculate the value of an angle or that of a side if we
know the values of the triangle's other elements.
So to be able to use these formulae we need to define the adjacent side and opposite side
for a given angle:
the adjacent side to an angle C' is the side, other than the hypotenuse, touching the
angle concerned
the side opposite an angle C' is the side, other than the hypotenuse, which is
opposite the angle concerned
N.B. the sides can change "name" according to the angle concerned, except for the
hypotenuse

Theory Review
Mathematics
Let's consider the angle B in the figure, and name the sides of
the triangle relative to this angle:
BC hypotenuse of the triangle (never changes)
side AB is touching angle B: so AB is the side adjacent

to angle B
side AC is opposite the angle B: so AC is the side

opposite angle B
If we now consider angle C
BC hypotenuse of the triangle (never changes)
AB is not touching angle C as it was touching angle B: it is opposite angle C: so AB

is the side opposite angle C
AC is not opposite angle C as it was opposite angle B, but it is touching angle C: so

side AC is the side adjacent to angle C
8.4. FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE WITH PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM
Pythagoras' theorem and the trigonometry formulae are used for calculating the
measurement of one of the sides of a right-angle triangle, but there can be no confusion
as to the type of formula to use:
Pythagoras' theorem is used for calculating the measurement of one of the sides in
relation to the other two
The trigonometry formulae are used for calculating the measurement of one of the
sides in relation to the measurement of a side and an angle

Theory Review
Mathematics
8.5. APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE
8.5.1. Finding an angle
Problem such as: Calculate angle B of a triangle ABC with a right-angle at A

where AB = 6 cm and BC = 12 cm:
We need only know which trigonometric formula to apply,

which is a matter of identifying the sides with known values:
BC is the hypotenuse and AB is the side adjacent to angle B

adjacent side
So I have to use the formula cos B =
hypotenuse
AB 6
So cos B = = = 0.5
BC 12
The value of B in degrees is that of the angle whose cosine is equal to 0.5. This value can
be found in tables or using a calculator (function 1 / cos) = 60°
8.5.2. Finding the measurement of a side
Problem such as: Calculate the measurement of side AC of a

triangle ABC with a right-angle at A where AB = 4 cm and angle
C = 43°:
We only need know which trigonometry formula to apply, which

is a matter of identifying the sides with known values:
AC is adjacent to angle C and AB and the side opposite angle

C
opposite side
So I have to use the formula tan C =
adacent side
AB
so tan C =
AC
4
tan 43 =
AC
4 4
AC = = = 4.28 cm
tan 43 0.9325
The value of tan 43 is obtained from the table of trigonometric ratios below.

Theory Review
Mathematics
8.6. TABLE OF TRIGONOMETRIC VALUES OF ACUTE ANGLES
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent

0° 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000
1° 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.2900
2° 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.6363
3° 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.0811
4° 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.3007
5° 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.4301
6° 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.5144
7° 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 8.1443
8° 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.1154
9° 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.3138
10° 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.6713
11° 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.1446
12° 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 4.7046
13° 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.3315
14° 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.0108
15° 0.2588 0.9659 0.2679 3.7321
16° 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 3.4874
17° 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.2709
18° 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.0777
19° 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.9042
20° 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.7475
21° 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.6051
22° 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.4751
23° 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.3559
24° 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 2.2460
25° 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.1445
26° 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.0503
27° 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.9626
28° 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 1.8807
29° 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 1.8040
30° 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.7321
31° 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.6643
32° 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 1.6003
33° 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 1.5399
34° 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.4826
35° 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.4281
36° 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.3764

Theory Review
Mathematics
37° 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.3270

38° 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.2799
39° 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 1.2349
40° 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.1918
41° 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.1504
42° 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.1106
43° 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 1.0724
44° 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 1.0355
45° 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000 1.0000
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent
8.7. The main formulae in trigonometry
8.7.1. Addition and difference formulae
sin (A + B) = sin A * cos B + cos A * sin B
sin (A - B) = sin A * cos B - cos A * sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A * cos B - Sin A * sin B
cos (A - B) = cos A * cos B + sin A * sin B
tan (A + B) = (tan A + tan B) / (1- tan A * tan B)
tan (A - B) = (tan A – tan B) / (1+ tan A * tan B)
8.7.2. Duplication formulae
These formulae are important to bear in mind, since they are used in many problems. We
need only make A = B in the previous formulae.
sin (2A) = sin A * cos A + cos A * sin A = 2sin A * cos A
cos (2A) = cos2 A - sin2A = 2cos2 A – 1 = 1 - sin2 A

Theory Review
Mathematics
8.7.3. Linearization formulae
1 + cos(2a)
cos 2 a =
2
1 − cos(2a)
sin 2 a = whence: sin² a + cos² a = 1
2
1 − cos(2a)
tan 2 a =
1 + cos(2a)
8.7.4. Development formulae
cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)
cos a × cos b =
2
cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)
sin a × sin b =
2
sin(a + b) − sin(a + b)
cos a × sin b =
2
8.7.5. Factorisation formulae
⎛a + b⎞ ⎛a −b⎞
cos a + cos b = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛a +b⎞ ⎛a −b⎞
cos a − cos b = −2 sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛a + b⎞ ⎛a −b⎞
sin a + sin b = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛a −b⎞ ⎛a + b⎞
sin a − sin b = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Theory Review
Mathematics
9. SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES

The purpose of this chapter is to recap the formulae for calculating the main areas and
volumes.
9.1. SURFACE AREAS
9.1.1. Triangles
Figure 14: Representation of various triangles
9.1.1.1. Area of triangle if the base and height values are known
b×h S= area
S= b = base
2 h = height
Example:
Given: b = 10 cm, h = 3 cm
10 × 3
Area: S = = 15 cm 2
2

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.1.2. Area of an equilateral triangle if the length of the side is known.
The equilateral triangle is a triangle with all three sides equal.
3 2 S = area
S= × c ≅ 0,433 × c 2
4 c = side
The ≅ sign means approximately equal; in this case it means that the number 0.433 is an
3
approximate value of
4
Example:
Given: c = 5 cm
Area: S ≅ 0.433 x 52 = 0.433 X 25 = 10.825 cm2
9.1.1.3. Area of an isosceles triangle if the length of the equal sides and base
are known
An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two equal sides.
2 S = area
b ⎛b⎞
S = × c2 − ⎜ ⎟ b = base
2 ⎝2⎠ c = length of equal sides
Example:
Given: b = 16 mm, c = 10 mm
2
16 ⎛ 16 ⎞
Area: S = × 102 − ⎜ ⎟ = 8 × 1002 − 82 = 8 × 100 − 64 = 8 × 36 = 8 × 6 = 48mm 2
2 ⎝2⎠

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.1.4. Area of a scalene triangle if the lengths of the sides are known
A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides.
S = area
a = side
b = side
S= p × ( p − a ) × ( p − b) × ( p − c ) c = side
a+b+c
p= = half perimeter
2
In this formula "p" denotes the half perimeter, i.e. half the sum of the three sides.
Before applying the formula, we need to calculate the value of the half perimeter "p"
separately.
Example:
Given: a = 3.5 cm, b = 12 cm, c = 12.5 cm
3.5 + 12 + 12.5 28
Half perimeter: p = = = 14 cm
2 2
Area: S = 14 × (14 − 3.5) × (14 − 12) × (14 − 12.5) = 14 × 10.5 × 2 × 1.5 = 441 = 21 cm 2
9.1.1.5. Area of a right-angle triangle
Calculating the hypotenuse (the longest side) of a right-angle triangle (1 side with
an angle of 90°), if the lengths of the sides are known.
h = hypotenuse
h = a +b 2 2
a = side
b = side
Example:
Given: a = 3 cm, b = 4 cm
Hypotenuse: h = 3² + 4² = 9 + 16 = 5 cm

Theory Review
Mathematics
Calculation of one side of a right-angle triangle, if the length of one of the sides and
the hypotenuse are known (see previous scenario)
h = hypotenuse
a = h² − b² a = unknown side
b = known side
Example:
Given: h = 5 cm, b = 4 cm
Unknown side: a = 5² − 4² = 25 − 16 = 9 = 3 cm
Calculating the area of a right-angle triangle, if the 2 sides of the right angle are
known
a×b S = area
S= a = side
2 b = side
Example:
Given: a = 3 cm, b = 4 cm
3 × 4 12
Area: S = = = 6 cm²
2 2
9.1.2. Quadrilaterals
Figure 15: Representation of various quadrilaterals (4 sided flat figures)

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.2.1. Squares
Calculating the diagonal of a square, if the length of the side is known.
d = diagonal
d = 2 × c ≅ 1.414 × c b = side
Example:
Given: c = 50 mm
Diagonal: ≅ 1.414 x 50 = 70.7 mm
Calculating the area of a square, if the length of the side is known.
S = area
S = c²
c = side
Example:
Given: c = 50 mm
Area: ≅ 50 x 50 = 2500 mm²
Calculating the area of a square if the length of the diagonal is known.
d² S = area
S=
2 d = diagonal
Example:
Data: d = 70.7 mm
70.7 × 70.7 4998.49

Area: S ≅ = = 2499.245 mm²
2 2
N.B. if we compare this result with that obtained previously, the difference of 0.755
mm² (2500 – 2,499.245 = 0.755) is due to the introduction of the approximate value
of 70.70 in the area calculation, but the resulting error is very low (only 0.03 %), so
practically negligible.

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.2.2. Rectangles
Calculating the diagonal of a rectangle if the base and height are known
d = diagonal
d = b² + h² b = base
h = height
Example:
Diagonal: d = 10² + 5² = 100 + 25 = 125 ≅ 11,18 cm
Calculating the area of a rectangle if the base and height are known
S = area
S = b×h b = base
h = height
Example:
Area: S = 10 × 5 = 50 cm²
9.1.2.3. Area of a rhomb if the length of the diagonals is known
A rhomb is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and unequal adjacent angles
D×d S = area
S= D = big diagonal
2 d = small diagonal
Example:
Given: D = 8 cm, d = 5 cm
8× 5
Area: S = = 20 cm²
2

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.2.4. Area of a trapezoid if the 2 bases and height are known
S = area
h × (b + B) h = height
S=
2 b = small base
B = big base
Example:
Given: h = 8 cm, b = 6 cm, B = 14 cm
8 × (6 + 14) 8 × 20 160
Area: S = = = = 80 cm²
2 2 2
9.1.3. Other flat figures
Figure 16: Representation of various flat figures

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.3.1. Area of a regular pentagon if the length of the sides is known
A regular pentagon is a polygon with five equal sides and five equal angles.
S = area
S ≅ 1.72 × c ²
c = length of sides
Example:
Given: c = 20 mm
Area: S ≅ 1.72 × 20² = 688 mm²
9.1.3.2. Area of a regular hexagon if the length of the sides is known.
A regular hexagon is a polygon with six equal sides and six equal internal angles.
S = area
S ≅ 2.60 × c ²
c = length of sides
Example:
Given: c = 12 mm
Area: S ≅ 2.60 × 12² = 374.4 mm²
9.1.3.3. Circle
Calculating the perimeter (circumference) of a circle, if the diameter value is known

d = diameter
c = π × d ≅ 3.14 × d
c = circumference
Example:
Given: d = 0.8 mm
Circumference: c ≅ 3.14 x 0.8 = 2.512 mm

Theory Review
Mathematics
Calculating the area of a circle, if the diameter value is known
π S = area
S= × d ² ≅ 0.785 × d ²
4 d = diameter
Example:
Given: d = 0.8 mm
Area: S ≅ 0.785 x 0.8 X 0.8 = 0.5024 mm²
9.1.3.4. Arc of circle
Calculating the length of an arc, if the centre angle and the radius values are
known.
π a = length
a= × ϕ × r ≅ 0.0174 × ϕ × r ϕ = centre angle
180 r = radius
Example:
Given: r = 45 m, ϕ = 30°
Length: a ≅ 0.0174 x 30 X 45 = 23.49 m
Calculating the area of a circle sector, if the centre angle and radius values are
known (a circle sector is the flat area demarcated by a circle arc and two radii).
π S = area
S= × ϕ × r ² ≅ 0.00872 × ϕ × r ² ϕ = centre angle
360 r = radius
Example:
Given: r = 45 m, ϕ = 30°
Area of sector: S ≅ 0.00872 x 45² = 0.00872 x 2025 = 529.74 m²

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.3.5. Ring
Calculating the area of a circular ring if the values of both diameters are known (a circular
ring is the flat area between two concentric circumferences).
π S = area
S= × ( D ² − d ²) ≅ 0.785 × ( D ² − d ²) D = diameter
4 d = diameter
Example:
Given: D = 5 cm, d = 4 cm
Area: S ≅ 0.785 x (25 – 16) = 7.065 m²
9.1.4. Miscellaneous figures
9.1.4.1. Parabola, ellipse and helix
Figure 17: Representation of parabola (a), ellipse (b) and helix segments (c)
Calculating the area of a parabola segment if the base and height values are known
(a parabola segment is the flat area between a parabola arc and the chord
subtended between the ends of the arc).
2 S = area
S= ×b×h b = base
3 h = height

Theory Review
Mathematics
Example:
Given: D = 12 cm, h = 8 cm
2
Area: S = × 12 × 8 = 64 cm²
3
Calculating the area of an ellipse if the length of each axis known
π S = area
S= × a × b ≅ 0.785 × a × b a = axis
4 b = axis
Example:
Given: a = 35 mm, b = 25 mm
Area: S ≅ 0.785 x 35 x 25 = 686.875 mm²
Calculating the length of a helix if the number of loops, the values of the diameter
and the height are known.
L = length
n = number of loops
L = π ² × n² × d ² + h ² ≅ 9.86 × n ² × d ² + h²
d = diameter
h = height
Example:
Given: n = 10 loops, d = 2 cm, h = 8 cm
Length:
L ≅ 9.86 × 10² × 2² + 8² = 9.86 × 100 × 4 + 64 = 3944 + 64 = 4008 ≅ 63.31 cm

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.1.4.2. Spheres, sphere portions and paraboloids
Figure 18: Representation of various volumes
Calculating the area of a sphere if the diameter value is known
S = surface
S = π × d ² ≅ 3.14 × d ²
d = diameter
Example:
Given: d = 15 mm
Area: S ≅ 3.14 x 15 x 15 = 706.5 mm²
Calculating the volume of a sphere if the diameter value is known
π V = volume
V = × d 3 ≅ 0.523 × d 3
6 d = diameter
Example:
Given: d = 15 mm
Area: V ≅ 0.523 x 153 = 0.523 x 3375 = 1765.12 mm3
Calculating the area of a sphere portion if the diameter, contour and height values
are known.
π S = area
S= × (d ² + 4h²) ≅ 0.785 × (d ² + 4h ²) d = diameter
4 h = height
Theory Review
Mathematics
Example:
Given: d = 6 mm, h = 4 cm
Area: S ≅ 0.785 x (36 + (4 x 16)) = 78.5 cm²
Calculating the volume of a sphere portion if the base diameter and height of the
portion are known.
3d ² + 4h² 3d ² + 4h ² V = volume
V = π × h² × ≅ 3,14 × h ² × d = diameter
24 × h 24 × h h = height
Example:
Given: d = 6 mm, h = 4 cm
Volume:
(3 × 6²) + (4 × 4²) (3 × 36) + (4 × 16) 108 + 64
V ≅ 3.14 × 4² × = 3.14 × 16 × = 3.14 × 16 ×
24 × 4 96 96
172
= 3.14 × 16 × = 3.14 × 16 × 1.79 = 3.14 × 28.64 = 89.92 cm 3
96
Calculating the volume of a paraboloid if the base diameter and height values are
known.
π V = volume
V = × d ² × h ≅ 0,392 × d ² × h d = diameter
8 h = height
Example:
Given: d = 2 dm, h = 3 dm
Volume: V ≅ 0.392 x 4 x 3 = 4.704 dm3

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.2. VOLUMES
Figure 19: Representation of various volumes
9.2.1. Cubes
9.2.1.1. Volume of a cube if the length of the edge is known
V = volume
V = a3
a = length of edge
Example:
Given: a = 4 dm
Volume: V = 43 = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 cm3

Theory Review
Mathematics
9.2.1.2. Diagonal of a cube
The diagonal of a cube with edge a is the hypotenuse of a right-angle triangle, the two
other sides of which are:
one edge of the cube (length a)
a diagonal of a square ABCD forming one face (length b to be determined)
By applying Pythagoras' theorem to a triangle ABC (on one face)
a² + a² = b² and 2a² = b² so b = a√2
We can now calculate the length c of the cube diagonal:
a² + b² = c² and a² + 2a² = c² and c² = 3a² so c = a√3
9.2.2. Volume of a parallelepiped
Calculating the volume of a parallelepiped if the base length and width values and the
height are known.
V = volume
d = diameter
V=axbxh
a = base length
b = base width
Example:
Given: a = 25 m, b = 30 mm, h = 70 mm
Volume: V = 25 x 30 x 70 = 52.5 cm3
9.2.3. Cylinder
9.2.3.1. Volume of a cylinder
Calculating the volume of a cylinder, if the diameter and height values are known (if
calculating the volume of a pipe, the height will be the pipe length)
π V = volume
V = × d ² × h ≅ 0,785 × d ² × h d = diameter
4 h = height
Theory Review
Mathematics
Example:
Given: d = 2 cm, h = 5 cm
Volume: V ≅ 0.785 x 4 x 5 = 15.7 cm3
Calculating the volume of a hollow cylinder if the values of the 2 diameters and
height are known
V = volume
π D = outer diameter
V = × ( D ² − d ²) × h ≅ 0,785 × ( D ² − d ²) × h
4 d = inner diameter
h = height
Example:
Given: D = 3 cm. d = 2.5 cm. h = 5 cm
Volume: V ≅ 0.785 x (3² - 2.5²) X 8 = 0.785 x ((3 x 3) – (2.5 x 2.5)) x 8
= 0.785 x 2.75 x 8 = 17.27 cm3
9.3. EXERCISE
We have a metal square 20 cm on each side.
To make a parallelepiped box, we remove a square with side a

from each corner and fold up the edges.
Express the volume V = f(a) of this box as a function of a.

Theory Review
Mathematics
10. GLOSSARY

Theory Review
Mathematics
11. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Stick graph..........................................................................................................40
Figure 2: Histogram ...........................................................................................................41
Figure 3: Gaussian curve...................................................................................................42
Figure 4: Representation of real exponential .....................................................................58
Figure 5: Graphic representation of the "Napierian logarithm" function ............................63
Figure 6: Extract of decimal logarithm table and the corresponding graph. .......................66
Figure 7: Ordinary graph and graph with a logarithmic y axis ............................................70
Figure 8: Graph with ordinary scale and graph with logarithmic scale ...............................71
Figure 9: Curve on semi-logarithmic paper ........................................................................72
Figure 10: Curve on log-log paper .....................................................................................73
Figure 11: Graphic representation of a function y = f(x).....................................................90
Figure 12: Graphic representation of a law of physics .......................................................92
Figure 13: The gradient of a straight line varies with the coefficient of x............................94
Figure 14: Representation of various triangles ................................................................105
Figure 15: Representation of various quadrilaterals (4 sided flat figures) ........................108
Figure 16: Representation of various flat figures .............................................................111
Figure 17: Representation of parabola (a), ellipse (b) and helix segments (c).................114
Figure 18: Representation of various volumes.................................................................116
Figure 19: Representation of various volumes.................................................................118

Theory Review
Mathematics
12. SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
24
1. Calculate: = 4/6=2/3
36
2. Calculate: - 10 = -1 / 5
50
3. Calculate: 150 -15 / 65 = -3 / 13

=
- 650
4. Calculate: - 36 = 6 / 10 = 3 / 5
- 60
3 x
5. Find x: =
4 24
735
6. Reduce the fraction = 147 / 63 = 49 / 21 = 7 / 3
315
12 24 6 2
7. Are , , , irreducible?
18 36 9 3
Yes
No
12 24
8. Is 12 / 18 or equivalent to 24 / 36 or
18 36
Yes
No
3 7
9. Calculate: + = 10 / 4 = 5 / 2
4 4
1 5
10. Calculate: + = 2 / 6 + 5 / 6 = 7 / 6
3 6

Theory Review
Mathematics
4 3
11. Calculate: + = 8 * 4 / 20 * 8 + 3 * 20 / 8 * 20 = 32 + 60 / 160 = 92 / 160
20 8
= 46 / 80 = 23 / 40
5 3
12. Calculate: 4 + − = 4 * 48 / 48 + 5 * 8 / 6 * 8 – 3 * 6 / 6 * 8
6 8
= (4 * 48 + 5 * 8 – 3 * 6) / 48 = (192 + 40 - 18) / 48
= 214 / 48 = 107 / 24
5 11
13. Calculate: x = 55 / 28
7 4
34 18
14. Calculate: x = 17 / 8 * 6 / 17 = 17 * 6 / 8 * 17 = 6 / 8 = 3 / 4
16 51
21 - 28
15. Calculate: x = 21 * 28 / 52 * 49 = 3 * 14 / 26 * 7 = 3 * 7 / 7 * 13 = 3 / 13
- 52 49
-5 4
16. Calculate: 27 x x = -27 * 5 * 2 / 3 * 3 = -3 * 5 * 2 = -30 / 1
6 3
-1
17. Calculate: 72 x = -72 / 48 = -24 * 3 / 24 * 2 = -3 / 2
48
0,015 1,4
18. Calculate: x = 0.021 / 0.42 = 1000 * 0.021 / 1000 * 0.42 = 21 / 420
1,2 0,35
= 1 / 20
5 11
19. Calculate: / = 5 * 4 / 7 * 11 = 20 / 77
7 4
34 18
20. Calculate: / = 34 * 51 / 16 * 18 = (17 * 2) * (3 * 17) / (8 * 2) * (3 * 6)
16 51
= 17 * 17 / 8 * 6 = 289 / 48
21 - 28
21. Calculate: / = 21 * 49 / 52 * 28 = (3 * 7) * (7 * 7) / (13 * 4) * (4 * 7)
- 52 49
= 3 * 7 * 7 / 13 * 4 * 4 = 147 / 208
22. Convert the decimals into fractions:
0.00235 = 235 / 100000 = 47 / 20000
4.28 = 428 / 100 = 214 / 50 = 107 / 25

Theory Review
Mathematics
0.459 = 459 / 1000
0.00001 = 1 / 100000
0.1 = 1 / 10
4.096 = 4096 / 1000 = 2048 / 500 = 1024 / 250 = 512 / 125
28. What is the value of A?
A = 110 + 2 x (5 - 4 x 6) x (7 x 4 - 8) - 3 + 5 x 6 - (19 - 7 x 6)
= 110 + 2 * (5 - 24) * (28 - 8) – 3 + 30 – (19 - 42)
= 110 + 2 * (-19) * (20) – 27 - (23) = 110 – 760 – 27 - 23 = -600
29. What is the value of B?
B = 25 - 4 x (7- 2 x 9 + 15) – 12
= 25 – 4 * (7 – 18 + 15) - 12 = 25 – 4 * (4) - 12 = 24 – 16 – 12= -3
30. What is the value of C?
C = 12 + 6 x (8 - 4 x 5) - 19 + 3 x [9 - (5 x 7 - 17)]
= 12 + 6 * (8 - 20) - 19 + 3 * (9 - (35 - 17))
= 12 + 6 * -12 - 19 + 3 * (9 - 18) = 12 - 72 - 19 – 3 * 9
= 12 + 72 – 19 - 27 = -106
31. What is the value of D?
D=-3/4+2x5+1/2
= - 3 / 4 + 10 + 1 / 2 = -3 / 4 + 40 / 4 + 2 / 4 = 39 / 4
32. What is the value of E?
E = 5 - (1 – 3 / 4 + 1 / 9) / (1 + 3 / 4 – 1 / 9)
= 5 – (36 – 3 * 9 + 1 * 4) / 36 / (36 + 3 * 9 – 1 * 4) / 36
= 5 – (36 – 27 + 4) / (36 + 27 - 4) = 5 - 13 / 59
= (5 * 59 - 13) / 59 = (295 - 13) / 59 = 282 / 59

Theory Review
Mathematics
33. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of the entire college
population:
= 24% (36 * 100 / 150)
34. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of all the girls:
= 44.4% (36 * 100 / 81)
35. Calculate the percentage of girls playing football out of all the football players:
= 57.1% (36 * 100 / 63)
36. Convert into %: 38 / 50 = 0.76 = 76%
37. Convert into %: 0.85 = 85%
38. Convert into %: 2/3 = 0.66 = 66%
39. Convert into %: 0.17 = 17 / 100 = 17%
40. Convert into %: 0.74 = 74 / 100 = 74%
41. Convert into %: 0.125 = 12.5 / 100 = 12.5%
42. Convert into %: 1.17 = 117 / 100 = 117%
43. Convert into %: 0.5624 = 56.24 / 100 = 56.24%
44. Convert into %: 0.06 = 6 / 100 = 6%
45. Convert into %: 0.0015 = 0.15 / 100 = 0.15%
46. Convert into %: 0.0015 = 0.15 / 100 = 0.15%
47. Convert into %: 0.0107 = 1.07 / 100 = 1.07%
48. Put the % into figures: 3.45 % = 0.0345
51. Put the % into figures: 41% = 41 / 100 = 0.41

Theory Review
Mathematics
55. Put the % into figures: 19.6% = 19.6 / 100 = 0.196
59. Give the multiplier of: 25% = 1 + 25 / 100 = 1 + 0.25 = 1.25
61. Give the multiplier of: 100% = 1 + 100 / 100 = 1 + 1 = 2
62. Give the multiplier of: 4.75% = 1 + 4.75 / 100 = 1 + 0.0475

= 1.0475
64. Give the multiplier of: 0.82% = 1 + 0.82 / 100 = 1 + 0.0082

= 1.0082
65. Give the percentage increase: 1.25 = 1.25 – 1 = 0.25 = 25%
66. Give the percentage increase: 1.175 = 1.175 – 1 = 0.175 = 17.5%
67. Give the percentage increase: 3 = 3 – 1 = 2 = 200%
68. Give the percentage increase: 1.001 = 1.001 – 1 = 0.001 = 0.1%
71. Give the percentage increase: 1.0049 = 1.0049 – 1 = 0.0049

= 0.49%
72. Give the percentage increase: 1.0101 = 1.0101 – 1 = 0.0101

= 1.01%
73. Give the multiplier: 20% = 1 – 20 / 100 = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8
74. Give the multiplier: 7% = 1 – 7 / 100 = 1 – 0.07 = 0.93

Theory Review
Mathematics
75. Give the multiplier: 100% = 1 – 100 / 100 = 1 – 1 = 0
76. Give the multiplier: 2.75% = 1 – 2.75 / 100 = 1 – 0.0275

= 0.9725
77. Give the multiplier: 0.1% = 1 – 0.1 / 100 = 1 – 0.001 = 0.999
78. Give the multiplier: 0.64% = 1 – 0.64 / 100 = 1 – 0.0064

= 0.9936
79. Give the percentage decrease: 0.98 = 1 – 0.98 = 0.02 = 2%
80. Give the percentage decrease: 0.875 = 1 – 0.875 = 0.125 = 12.5%
82. Give the percentage decrease: 0.999 = 1 – 0.999 = 0.001 = 0.1%
84. Give the percentage decrease: ¼ = 1 – 1 / 4 = 1 – 0.25 = 0.75 = 75%
85. We have a sum of US$ 15000 that we invest in a bank at an annual rate of 6%.
What value will we have one year after placement?
15000 + 15000*0.06 = 15000+900 = €15,900
86. I buy a prestige car for €35,500, which loses 9 % of its value every year; what is its
value after one year?
Value after one year 35500 * (1 - 0.09) = 35500 * 0.91 = € 32,305
87. I buy a prestige car for €35,500, which loses 9 % of its value every year; what is its
value after one 2 years?
Value after 2 years 32305*(1-0.09) = 32305*0.91 = € 29,397.55

It should be noted that 35500*(1-0.09)2 = 35500*(0.91)2 = € 29,397.55 €
88. A shop decides to enact a sell-off reduction of 30% on all its items still in stock.
The price of an item is US$ 90. What is the price paid at the till by the customer?
90 x 30/100= 90 x 0.3 = 27; since the price of the item is €90. The reduction
equates to € 27.
90 – 27 = 63; the price paid at the till will be €63.

Theory Review
Mathematics
A quicker solution:
We can directly write the price at the till in the form:
90 – 90 x 30 / 100 = 90 x (1 – 0.3) = 90 x 0.7 = 63.
N.B. for an item worth 312€, the price at the till may be obtained directly by writing:
312 x 0.7 = 218.40
89. In an election, there were 41,751 registered to vote, 22,159 voters and Mr. Vador
obtained 12,826 votes. Give Mr. Vador's result as a percentage of the voters.
Mr. Vador obtained 12,826 votes out of 22,159 voters.

12826 / 22159 ≈ 0.5788 i.e. 57.88 / 100 = 57.88 %
Mr. Vador has a result of 57.88% of the voters.
obtained 12,826 votes. Give Mr. Vador's result as a percentage of those registered
to vote.
Mr. Vador obtained 12,826 out of 41,751 registered voters.

12826 / 41751 ≈ 0.3072 i.e. 30.72 %
Mr. Vador has a result of 30.72% registered voters.
obtained 12,826 votes. Give the percentage abstention.
Out of 41,751 registered voters, 22,159 voted and so

41 751 – 22 159 = 19,592 abstentions.
19592 / 41751 = 0.4692 = 46.92%. There was an abstention of 46.92%.
92. The price of a product successively undergoes an increase of 12%, a decrease of

5%, a decrease of 8% and an increase of 2%.
What is the final variation percentage? (Following the multipliers method)
The multipliers associated with the various variations are:

12% increase : multiplier 1.12
5% decrease : multiplier 0.95
8% decrease : multiplier 0.92
2% increase : multiplier 1.02
So the multiplier associated with the final variation is
1.12 x 0.95 x 0.92 x 1. 02 = 0.9984576 ≈ 0.9985
So the final variation is a decrease of approximately 0.15%.
(This does not correspond to the sum of the various percentages)
price of a model on 30 June 2005 was € 10,300. What is its price on 1st July 2005?

Theory Review
Mathematics
10 300 x 2 / 100 = 10 300 x 0.02 = 206.

Since the price of the model on 30 June 2005 was €10,300, the 2% increase
corresponds to €206.
10 300 + 206 = 10 506. So the new price is €10,506.
A quicker solution: We can write the new price directly in the form:
10 300 + 10 300 x 0.02 = 10 300 x 1 + 10 300 x 0.02 = 10 300 x (1 + 0.02)
= 10 300 x 1.02 = 10,506.
price of a model on 30 June 2005 was € 17,150. What is its price on 1st July 2005?
For a model costing € 17,150 on 30 June 2005, the new price may be obtained
directly by writing: 17 150 x 1.02 = 17 493. The new price is € 17,493
95. How much alumina do we obtain by extracting 5250 kg of bauxite?
5250 x 24 / 100 = 1260. Since alumina represents 24% of bauxite, 5250 kg of

bauxite will give us 1260 kg of alumina.
96. With 1260 kg of alumina, how much aluminium do we get?
1260 x 53 / 100 = 667.8. From electrolysis of alumina, we obtain 53% aluminium.

1260 kg of alumina will give us 667.8 kg of aluminium.
97. How much alumina do we obtain by extracting 3000 kg of bauxite, and then how
much aluminium?
3 000 x 24 / 100 = 720. With 3000 kg of bauxite we obtain 720 kg of alumina.

720 x 53 / 100 = 381.6. With 720 kg of alumina we obtain 381.6 kg of aluminium.
With 3000 kg of bauxite, we obtain 720 kg of alumina and then 381.6 kg of
aluminium.
98. How much aluminium do we obtain by extracting 55 000 kg of bauxite?
55 000 x 24 / 100 x 53 / 100 = 6996. With 55 000 kg of bauxite, we obtain 6 996 kg of

aluminium.
99. How can we directly determine the mass of aluminium from the mass of bauxite?
To directly determine the mass of aluminium from the mass of bauxite, we need
only multiply by 24 / 100 x 53 / 100 i.e. by 1272 / 10000
= 12.72 / 100 = 0.1272
100. To what percentage of the mass of bauxite does the mass of aluminium obtained
correspond?

Theory Review
Mathematics
The mass of aluminium obtained represents 12.72 / 100 i.e. 12.72 % of the mass of
bauxite.
101. Give the corresponding multipliers.
Month 1 Month 2
Country 1 1.002 1.003
Country 2 1.12 1.15
102. For each country, give the multiplier corresponding to inflation for the two months
in question. Deduce from this the rate of inflation for the two months for each
country.
For each country the multiplier corresponding to inflation for the two months is equal
to the product of the respective multipliers for each month.
For Country 1, we get: 1.002 x 1.003 = 1.005006, the multiplier is 1.005006.
For Country 2, we get: 1.12 x 1.15 = 1.288, the multiplier is 1.288.
For Country 1, this gives us 1.005006 – 1 = 0.005006 = 0.5006/100 = 0.5006 %.
For Country 2, this gives us 1.288 – 1 = 0.288 = 28.8/100 = 28.8 %
103. Is the rate of inflation over the two months equal to the sum of the rates of
inflation?
The rate of inflation over two months does not correspond to the sum of the rates of
inflation, but in the case of Country 1 where the percentages are low, the error is
minimal.
104. Test (10-4)4 = 10-16
105. (0.001)3 = (10-3)3 = 10-9
106. 0.000 01 = 10-5
107. 1004 = (102)4
108. 107 / 104 = 107 *10-4 = 103
109. 10-7 / 10-3 = 10-7 * 103 = 10-4
110. 100 000 = 105
111. 1 / 10 000 = 1 / 104 = 10-4
112. 250 000 = 2.5 105
113. 0.000 000 000167 = 1.67 10-10

Theory Review
Mathematics
114. 9.3 x 107 = 93 106
115. 0.012 = 12 10-3
116. 0.37 x 106 = 37 104
117. - 431 x 10-5 = -4.31 10-3
118. 1 412 x 102 / 10-5 = 1.412 105 / 105 = 1.412
119. - 0.02 x 10-4 / 10-6 = -2 10-6 / 10-6 = 2
120. 0.22 x 10-2 = 22 10-4
121. (8.5 x 103) x (4.2 x 107) = 8.5 x 4.2 x 1010 = 35.7 1010
122. (6.3 x 105) / (2.1 x 108) = 3 * 105 * 10-8 = 3 10-3
123. 80 = 4 * 20 = 2 20
124. 75 = 3 * 25 = 5 3
125. 54 = 2* 3*3*3 = 3 6
126. 150 = 2 * 3 * 25 = 5 6
127. 90 = 9 * 10 = 3 10
128. 0,0018
= 18 * 10 -4 = 18 ⋅10 −2
129. 1800 = 0.18 * 10 4 = 0.18 ⋅10 2
130.
0,175
= 1750 * 10 -4 = 1750 ⋅10 −2
131. 17500 = 1,750 * 10 4 = 1,750 ⋅10 2
132. 625 = 25
133. 576 = 24
134. 256 = 16

Theory Review
Mathematics
135. 1024 = 32
136. 225 = 15
137. 6784 = 28
138. 484 = 22
139. 441 = 21
140. 1936 = 44
2 2
141. 75 x 48 = 75 x 48 = 75 * 48 = 3600 = 60
142. 98 x 8 = 95 * 8 = 784 = 28
143. 2 42 x 54 = 2 42 * 54 = 2 2268
144. 3 24 x 5 48 = 15 24 * 48 = 15 1152
145. 34 = 3 * 3 * 3 * 3 = 9 * 9 = 81
146. 2-3 = ½ * ½ * 1/2 = 1 / 8
147. - 34 = - 3 * 3 * 3 * 3 = - 9 * 9 = - 81
148. - 23 = -2 * 2 * 2 = -8
149. (-5)4 = (-5 * -5) * (-5 * -5) = 25 * 25 = 625
150. - 2-3 = -½ * 1/2 * 1/2 = -1/8
151. 5-4 = 1/5 * 1/5 * 1/5 * 1/5 = 1/625
152. 3-4 = 1/3 * 1/3 * 1/3 * 1/3 = 1/81
153. 33 x 22 = 27 x 4 = 108
154. 2ab2 x 3a2 b3 = 6a3b5
155. a=2 b=3 c = -1 A = a2 (b2c2)3 = 22 * 36 * 16 = 186624

Theory Review
Mathematics
156. (- 11)6 / 11-3 = 119
157. - 4a2c x abc = -4a3bc2
158. (5-2)-3 = 5-6
159. 74 / 75 = 74 * 7-5 = 7-1
160. 24 x 2-2 = 22
161. 3-5 / 3-7 = 3-5 * 37 = 32 = 9
162. log(20), knowing that log (2) = 0.3010
log(2 x 10) = log(2) + log(10) = log(2) + log(101) = log(2) + 1 = 1.3010
163. log(50), knowing that log (5) = 0.6989
log(5 x 10) = log(5) + log(10) = log(5) + log(101) = log(5) + 1 = 1.6989
164. 5x = 625
log 625
so log 5x = log 625 i.e. x log 5 = log 625 and x = =4
log 5
165. 1.02x = 24
ln 24
so 1.02 x = ln 24 i.e. x ln 1.02 = ln 24 and x = = 160.49
ln 1.02
166. 3(x+1) = 124
so log 3 (x+1) = log 124 hence (x + 1) log 3 = log 124

log 124
x+1= and x = 4.39 − 1 = 3.39
log 3
167. 5x - 9 = 3x + 4 => (5 - 3) x = 9 + 4 => x = 13/2
168. 3x – 5(3 – 2x) = 6x – 15 => x = 0
169. -9x -16 = -12x –7 => (-9 +12) x = -7 + 16 => x = 9 / 3 = 3
170. 4x - 5(3 - 2x) = 4 - (2x - 7) => x = 33 / 16
171. -6x - 8 = -8x – 22 => (-6 + 8) x = -22 + 8 => x = -14 / 2 = -7
172. 3x - 7 = 5x – 11 => (3 - 5) x = -11 + 7 => x = -4 / -2 = 2
173. 2(3x - 7) + (3x + 2) = 6(5x + 9) + 3 => x = 68 / 39

Theory Review
Mathematics
174. 8 - (3x + 2) = 5x – 5 => (-3 - 5) x = -5 - 6 => x = -1 / -8 = 1/8
175. 5x - 3[7 - 4(3 - 2x)] = 5(3 - x) – 4 => x = -2/7
176. 7 + 2(3 - x) = 4x – 1 => (-2 - 4) x = -1 - 13 => x = -14 / -6 = 7/3
177. 3 / 4x + 5 / 6 = 5x – 125 / 3 => (18x + 20) / 24 = (120x - 1000) / 24

Ö 120x - 18x = 1000 - 20 => x = 980 / 102 = 490 / 51
178. (6x - 7) / 4 + (3x - 5) / 7 = (5x + 78) / 28 => 7(6x - 7) + 4(3x - 5) = 5x + 78

Ö 42x + 12x - 5x = 78 + 49 + 20 => x = 147 / 49
179. (3x - 2) / 9 – x / 6 = (13 - 2x) / 3 => 2(3x - 2) - 3x = 6(13 - 2x)

=> 6x - 3x + 12x = 78 + 4x = 82 / 15
180. (2x + 1) / 3 - (5x - 4) / 18 = x – 2 => 6(2x + 1) - 5x + 4 = 18x - 36

Ö 12x - 5x - 18x = -36 – 6 - 4 => x = -26 / 11
181. (x - 3) / 8 – (x - 5) / 24 = 2 –(x - 2) / 12 => 3x - 9 – x + 5 = 48 - 2x + 4

Ö 3x – x + 2x = 48 + 4 + 9 - 5 => x = 56 / 4 = 14


EXP-PR-RT010-EN-R0 - 1 - Mathematics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EXP-PR-RT010-EN-R0 - 1 - Mathematics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EXP-PR-RT010-EN-R0 - 1 - Mathematics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THEORY REVIEW

4.1.2. The geometric average....................................................................................34

8.1. RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES ..................................................................................97

11. LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................122

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

Consequently, he must be able to:

Differentiating between different categories of “Numbers”

Interpreting graphic results of these numbers

Performing basic operations: ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘/’, ‘*’

Placing the different “brackets” in the right place

Handling percentages and fractions

Determining and calculating a mean

Calculating a statistic, a balance after compiling results

Using decimal and Naperian logs in calculations

Interpreting the different “conventional” curves: exponential, logarithmic,

Solving a 1st degree equation

Plotting a function in a Cartesian coordinate system

Naming the main formulas used in trigonometry

Determine the surface areas of different planar polygonal shapes

Determine and calculate portions of surfaces and volumes

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

Numbers are written using ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

The number 4 is written with the digit 4.

A decimal number remains unchanged whether you add or take away

0s before the integer part,

0s after the decimal part.

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

2.3. REAL NUMBERS

Natural integers consist of some of the real numbers (0,1,2,3….)

Relative integers consist of other real numbers (…-2,-1,0,1,2,.)

N.B. to simplify calculations, numbers are very often represented by letters a, b, c, … or

1.24578898 + 12548.24586 may be written a + b if you have defined: a =

π is often written instead of 3.141592653589…

Note on the decimal system:

1258.44= 1*103 + 2*102 + 5*101 + 8*100 + 4*10-1 + 4*10-2

2.4. SCIENTIFIC REPRESENTATION OF A REAL NUMBER

-4.457 = - 4.457*100 = - 44.57*10-1 = - 445.7*10-2 = - 4457*10-3

1274897 = 1274897*100 = 127489.7*101 = 12748.97*102 ……=1.274897*106.

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

2.5. FACTORISATION OF A WHOLE NUMBER

2.6. APPROXIMATE VALUE OF A NUMBER, OF A PHYSICAL UNIT

1/3 = 0.33 , 0.333333333333333333333333333333333333333……

17.854 % to the nearest 1% will be written 17%

1/3 = 3.3333333…. to the nearest 10-3 will be written 3.333

2.7. ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A NUMBER

7 and (-7) have an absolute value of ⏐7⏐.

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

2.8. RECIPROCAL NUMBERS

Two numbers are reciprocal of each other when their product = 1

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

3.1. THE 4 BASIC OPERATIONS: + , - , / , *

3.1.1. The addition symbol "+"

3.1.2. The subtraction symbol "-"

3.1.3. Multiplication: symbols "x" or "*"

Training Course: EXP-PR-RT010-EN

commutative & associative a × b × c = a × c × b = (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)

Example: 3 × [4 + (−6)] = 3 × 4 + 3 × (−6) = 12 + (−18) = −6

Multiplying 2 numbers with the same sign gives a positive number

Multiplying 2 numbers with opposing signs gives a negative number

1258.44= 1103 + 2102 + 5101 + 8100 + 410-1 + 410-2

-4.457 = - 4.457100 = - 44.5710-1 = - 445.710-2 = - 445710-3

1274897 = 1274897100 = 127489.7101 = 12748.97102 ……=1.274897106.