Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF 3. Adhesion-related failures are most numerous and can
PAINT FAILURE EHFDWDVWURSKLF6XFKIDLOXUHVDUHEOLVWHULQJÀDNLQJ
by Charles G. Munger and peeling.
Good Painting Practice, Steel Structures Paint Manual, 4. Failure can occur from the surface to be protected
Volume 1, Chapter 23 (the substrate). The coating may be incompatible
ZLWKWKHVXUIDFHWKHUHPD\EHDFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQ
Coatings or paints are the principal materials of corrosion EHWZHHQWKHVXUIDFHDQGWKHFRDWLQJRUWKHGHQVLW\RU
protection for all steel structures. This is true almost smoothness of the surface may cause the coating to
ZLWKRXWUHJDUGWRWKHXVHRIWKHVWUXFWXUHZKHWKHULWEHD have poor adhesion.
EULGJHVKLSFKHPLFDOSODQWWDQNIDUPUH¿QHU\KLJKULVH 5. The coating may fail from exterior forces such as
RI¿FHEXLOGLQJRUXQGHUJURXQGSLSHOLQH(YHU\H[SRVXUH FKHPLFDOH[SRVXUHDEUDVLRQRUVHYHUHZHDWKHULQJ
of a coating is different, even though it may be used for 6. The coating may fail because of poor or inadequate
the same purpose at different locations. Bridges in Florida surface preparation or application. Here, surface
are exposed to vastly different conditions than bridges FRQWDPLQDWLRQSRRUVXUIDFHSUR¿OHLQDGHTXDWH
in the northern part of the United States or Canada, and thickness control, pinholes, overspray, improper
a tank farm in California is exposed to conditions quite drying, lack of cure or holidays can cause rapid failure.
different from one on the Gulf Coast. As coatings are 7. The design of the structure itself is often a cause for
the primary protection for all of these vastly different VHYHUHIDLOXUH6KDUSHGJHVFUHYLFHVVNLSZHOGV
exposures, it is understandable that failure of coated back-to-back angles all are focal points for failure.
surfaces is inherent and that time to failure is the critical
dimension in this phenomenon. All paints, and particularly many of the more advanced
coatings, are complex chemical mixtures that must react
Failure can occur for a number of reasons: LQSODFHRQWKHVXUIDFHRYHUZKLFKWKH\DUHDSSOLHG3DLQWV
1. Improper selection of the coating for the service. Too and coatings contain a number of interacting ingredients:
often, a coating designed for steel surfaces may be resins, plasticizers, curing agents, pigments, extenders,
H[WHQGHGRXWRYHUDFRQFUHWHRUZRRGVXUIDFHIURP catalysts, fungicides and solvents. These are applied
WKHVWHHOVWUXFWXUHZLWKUDSLGIDLOXUHRFFXUULQJRQWKH WRWKHVXUIDFHDVDYHU\WKLQ¿OPDIHZPLFURPHWHUV
QRQPHWDOOLFVXUIDFH$OVRDFRDWLQJZKLFKPLJKWEH or thousandths of an inch in thickness. The solvents
excellent on the exterior of a storage tank may be must evaporate properly. The non-volatile portion of the
a complete failure on a chemical reaction vessel. OLTXLGFRDWLQJPXVWGHSRVLWLQDFRQWLQXRXVHYHQ¿OP
3URSHUVHOHFWLRQRIDFRDWLQJIRUDQ\VSHFL¿FSXUSRVH over the surface. It must adhere to and possibly react
is extremely important. ZLWKWKHVXUIDFH,WDOVRPD\UHDFWZLWKLQWHUQDOFXULQJ
2. The coating may fail from causes inherent to that DJHQWVZLWKR[\JHQIURPWKHDLURUZLWKZDWHUIURPWKH
VSHFL¿FFRDWLQJ6XFKIDLOXUHFRXOGEHFKDONLQJ DLULQRUGHUWREHFRPHDQLQVROXEOHUHODWLYHO\LQHUW¿OP
checking or alligatoring. RIORZSHUPHDELOLW\ZKLFKKDVJRRGDSSHDUDQFH7KLV
WKLQ¿OPPXVWWKHQZLWKVWDQGUDLQZLQGWKHVXQ¶VUD\V
humidity, cold, heat, oxidation, physical abuse, chemicals,
biodegradation and other forces. With all of the variables
involved in the formation and use of paints or coatings,

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

it is obvious that there can be many causes for coating ¿HOGWHVWVRUE\VHUYLFHLQFRPPHUFLDOXVHVWKHSDLQW
failures. VKRXOGEHHYDOXDWHGE\DFFHOHUDWHGWHVWV+RZHYHULW
must be emphasized that evaluation by accelerated tests
7KHFRPPRQFDXVHVIRUSDLQWRUFRDWLQJIDLOXUHZKLFK should be used cautiously and then only for comparison
DUHOLVWHGDERYHZLOOEHWDNHQXSLQGLYLGXDOO\ purposes. The results of such tests must not be valued
WRRKLJKO\XQOHVVWKHUHLVFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHLUUHVXOWV
I. SELECTION OF THE COATING SYSTEM and the observed performance of the paint in actual
XVH8QIRUWXQDWHO\FRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHUHVXOWVRI
The primary requirement of a coating system is that it accelerated tests and performance during service is
VKDOOUHVLVWGHWHULRUDWLRQE\WKHHQYLURQPHQWLQZKLFK usually not available.
the coating is to serve as a protection for a substrate.
Since no one coating, or type of coating, is resistant to $VRXUFHRILQIRUPDWLRQE\ZKLFKWRVHOHFWDFRDWLQJLV
all environments (atmospheric, aqueous, or chemical), the manufacturer of the paint or the supplier of materials
many types of coatings have been developed for service for paints. Yet, such information can be incomplete or
under special conditions and for application by various misleading if a precise description of the conditions
methods. Selection of a paint from among these many WREHPHWLVQRWJLYHQWRWKHSHUVRQVZKRVHDGYLFHLV
types can be made intelligently only on the basis of the VRXJKWRULIWKHEDVLVRQZKLFKWKHLUUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV
IROORZLQJIDFWRUVWKHNQRZQSHUIRUPDQFHRIFRDWLQJVLQ are made is not disclosed to the potential user of the
VLPLODUDSSOLFDWLRQVWKHNQRZQFKHPLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQ coating. Selection of paint on the basis of price only or on
and physical properties of the paints, and the results of the unsubstantiated opinion of a salesman can prove to be
exposures of the coatings under consideration to test extremely costly.
environments simulating the conditions of use.
Mixing of paint systems is often practiced by persons
Of these factors, the best basis for critical judgment ZLWKOLPLWHGNQRZOHGJHRIFRDWLQJVXVXDOO\DVDPDWWHU
of the relative suitability of a paint system is previous of expediency. This can result only in costly failures.
H[SHULHQFHZLWKWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKDWFRDWLQJ 7KHFRPSDWLELOLW\RIRQHFRDWZLWKDQRWKHULVH[WUHPHO\
1HYHUWKHOHVVDFWXDO¿UVWKDQGREVHUYDWLRQVRIWKH important to the satisfactory service life of a paint.
VHUYLFHDELOLW\RIDFRDWLQJFDQEHPLVOHDGLQJLIWKHQHZ Generic types of coatings should generally not be mixed
HQYLURQPHQWLQZKLFKWKHSDLQWLVWRVHUYHLVGLVVLPLODU unless recommended by the manufacturer, nor should
RULIWKHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKHSDLQWKDVEHHQPRGL¿HG WKHSURGXFWVRIRQHPDQXIDFWXUHUEHPL[HGZLWKWKDW
.QRZOHGJHRIWKHFKHPLFDODQGSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRID RIDQRWKHU2QO\WKHPDQXIDFWXUHUFDQNQRZWKHWUXH
coating (e.g., acid and alkali resistance, heat resistance, FRPSDWLELOLW\FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHSDLQWV\VWHPZKLFK
abrasion resistance, etc.) is a selection aid but should he has developed and is recommending. Selecting parts
QRWEHWKHVROHEDVLVIRU¿QDOVHOHFWLRQ of paint systems from different manufacturers or from
If the durability of a coating has not been proved in GLIIHUHQWJHQHULFW\SHVZLWKRXWEDVLFNQRZOHGJHRIWKH
products is almost a guarantee of failure.

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

II. COATING FAILURES WHICH ARE INHERENT a coating system formulated from these may remain in a
WITHIN THE COATING ITSELF chalk-free condition for several years.
)2508/$7,215(/$7('
There are many failures of coatings due to the basic Pigments also play a very important part in the chalking
formulation, the resins used, the pigments or the many reaction. Some pigments, such as anatase titanium
other ingredients used in coatings. The relation of the GLR[LGHFKDONYHU\UHDGLO\DQGUDSLGO\ZKLOHPRVWUXWLOH
inherent coating failures to coating classes should be titanium dioxide pigments are very resistant to chalking.
considered: i.e., those based on organic materials and Many pigments tend to catalyze the chalking reaction.
those based on inorganic vehicles. 6RPHEODFNSLJPHQWVZLOOFKDONDIWHUDVKRUWSHULRGRI
WLPHZKLOHRWKHUVZLOOUHPDLQIRU\HDUVZLWKOLWWOHVXUIDFH
A. ORGANIC COATINGS, HIIHFW,URQEOXHSLJPHQWVWHQGWREURQ]HDVWKH¿UVWVWHSLQ
FORMULATION-RELATED FAILURES their chalking process.
1. Chalking
With chalking, the organic binder in the coating tends 7KHLQÀXHQFHRISLJPHQWVRQFKDONLQJLVQRWDOOEDG
to gradually disintegrate on the surface releasing the inasmuch as they tend to reduce chalking by shielding
SLJPHQWVDQGDOORZLQJWKHPWRUHPDLQRQWKHVXUIDFHDV the resin from the sun’s rays. Aluminum pigmentation is
SRZGHURUFKDON7KLVLVVWULFWO\DVXUIDFHSKHQRPHQRQ an excellent example of this type of shielding. The shingle
While in some cases it can result in rapid reduction HIIHFWRIWKHOHD¿QJDOXPLQXPÀDNHSLJPHQWSUHYHQWVWKH
LQFRDWLQJWKLFNQHVVLWLVJHQHUDOO\DUHODWLYHO\VORZ sun’s rays from penetrating to the coating vehicle. Almost
SURFHVVDQGRQHZKLFKGRHVQRWUHVXOWLQFDWDVWURSKLF DQ\FRDWLQJYHKLFOHLVPRUHUHVLVWDQWWRFKDONLQJZKHQ
failure or severe corrosion to the substrate. Chalking, IRUPXODWHGZLWKOHD¿QJDOXPLQXPSLJPHQW
RUSRZGHULQJLVSULPDULO\FDXVHGE\WKHDFWLRQRIWKH
actinic rays of the sun on the organic binder. Permanently 7KHXVHRIWKHQHZHUUHVLQVVXFKDVWKHDFU\OLFVDQG
shaded areas seldom chalk. Humidity and oxygen from DOLSKDWLFSRO\XUHWKDQHVFRPELQHGZLWKFKDONLQJUHVLVWDQW
the air also play a part in this phenomenon. pigments and the use of coating additives, such as ultra-
YLROHWDEVRUEHUVKDVUHVXOWHGLQSDLQWVDQGFRDWLQJVZKLFK
The resins that make up the binder are the key to the remain free of any surface change or change in gloss over
chalking rate. As an example, many epoxy coatings a period of several years.
have a strong tendency to chalk. Properly formulated,
WKH\FKDONPLQLPDOO\KRZHYHUWKHUHKDYHEHHQHSR[\ The chalking reaction has been one used by a number
IRUPXODWLRQVWKDWFKDONDWDVXI¿FLHQWUDWHVRWKDWD RIPDQXIDFWXUHUVWRSURGXFHFRDWLQJVZLWKVHOIFOHDQLQJ
coating of eight or ten mils thickness can be reduced to properties. When chalking is properly regulated through
WKHSRLQWZKHUHWKHSULPHULVYLVLEOHLQDRQH\HDUSHULRG the prudent selection of the coating binder and the
On the other hand, acrylic, silicone, and polyurethane pigments, the chalking reaction can be controlled to the
resins are only slightly affected by the sun’s rays, and SRLQWZKHUHWKHVXUIDFHHURGHVVORZO\EXWDWDVXI¿FLHQW
UDWHWRNHHSWKHVXUIDFHIUHHIURPDQ\JULPHRUGLUWZKLFK
PLJKWRWKHUZLVHDFFXPXODWHIURPWKHDWPRVSKHUH,QWKHVH
cases, the reduction in thickness is uniform and relatively
FRQVWDQWVRWKDWVXI¿FLHQWFRDWLQJUHPDLQVWRIXOO\SURWHFW

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

the surface over a number of years. Chalking may result 3. Checking
in some color change and a reduction in gloss of the Checking is an age-related failure of a coating. It is
coating, and such factors must be considered in selecting characterized by uneven and generally nonlinear, non-
a product. continuous breaks in the coating. These breaks are
primarily a surface phenomenon and do not penetrate the
Of all the types of coating failure that can occur, chalking full depth of the coating. Checking can be characterized
can be considered preferable to the rest. A clean, chalked DV³YLVLEOH´LIWKHFKHFNVFDQEHVHHQZLWKWKHQDNHG
VXUIDFHZKLFKLVIUHHIURPRWKHUW\SHVRIIDLOXUHRU H\HRU³PLFURVFRSLF´LIWKH\FDQEHVHHQRQO\XQGHUORZ
FRUURVLRQLVFRQVLGHUHGDVDWLVIDFWRU\VXUIDFHRYHUZKLFK PDJQL¿FDWLRQ
to apply additional coats of paint for maintenance.
There can be several causes of checking. It is generally
2. Erosion DIRUPXODWLRQSUREOHPZKLFKUHVXOWVLQVXUIDFHVWUHVVHV
(URVLRQLVDW\SHRIIDLOXUHFDXVHGE\WKHZHDULQJDZD\ LQWKHFRDWLQJ,WFDQRFFXUZKHQVROYHQWVHYDSRUDWHYHU\
RIWKHFRDWLQJGRZQWRWKHEDVHVXUIDFHRUWRWKHSULPHU rapidly from the surface and cause the surface to shrink
7KLVZHDULQJDZD\RIWKHVXUIDFHPD\EHUHODWHGWRWKH more rapidly than the body of the coating. It can be caused
above chalking mechanism. On the other hand, it may E\UHVLQVZKLFKR[LGL]HRQWKHVXUIDFHRUE\FHUWDLQ
often be aggravated by the surface being exposed to SLJPHQWVZKLFKDSSDUHQWO\FDWDO\]HWKHFKHFNLQJUHDFWLRQ
KHDY\UDLQIDOOKDLOKLJKZLQGVRUDFRPELQDWLRQRIKLJK on the surface. Essentially, it is a stress set up in the
ZLQGVDQGUDLQ6DQGHURVLRQRIWKHFRDWLQJFDXVHGE\ VXUIDFHZKLFKFDXVHVWKHVPDOOFKHFNVWRDSSHDUZKLOH
KLJKZLQGVDQGVDQGVXFKDVHQFRXQWHUHGLQEHDFK the body of the coating is not subject to the same reaction.
DUHDVRULQWKHGHVHUWVRIWKHZHVWFDQQRWEHFRQVLGHUHG Wetting and drying, heating, cooling and sunlight exposure
in this same category since such erosion may be may all contribute to the checking of a coating.
catastrophic from one storm. While initially the checks in a coating do not penetrate, if
WKHFRDWLQJLVOHIWZLWKRXWPDLQWHQDQFHWKHFRDWLQJZLOO
(URVLRQLVRIWHQVHHQLQEUXVKHGFRDWLQJVZKHUHWKH HYHQWXDOO\EUHDNGRZQE\IXUWKHUFKHFNLQJLQWKHVDPH
high ridges of brush marks are exposed because of area until the checks become cracks and the underlying
the greater erosion of the raised area. Erosion of this surface is exposed. Checking is prevented primarily in the
type can best be prevented by the selection of a chalk VHOHFWLRQRIWKHFRDWLQJ$FRDWLQJIRUPXODWHGZLWKZHDWKHU
UHVLVWDQWFRDWLQJDVGHVFULEHGDERYHDQGRQHZKLFK UHVLVWDQWUHVLQVVKRXOGEHVHOHFWHGZLWKSLJPHQWVWKDWGR
WHQGVWRÀRZRXWWRDYHU\VPRRWK¿OP QRWFRQWULEXWHWRFKHFNLQJDQGZLWKUHLQIRUFLQJSLJPHQWV
that aid the coating in resisting surface stresses.
ASTM-D 662 describes degree of erosion of exterior ASTM Standard D-660-44, reapproved 1976, provides
paints. ASTM-D 821, describes degree of abrasion and a standard method for the evaluation of the degree of
erosion. ASTM-D 913 describes degree of chipping of checking in exterior paints.
WUDI¿FSDLQW
4. Cracking
Cracking is also an age-related failure caused by similar
conditions to those described under “checking”. It contrasts
ZLWKFKHFNLQJLQWKDWLWLVQRWDVXUIDFHSKHQRPHQRQ

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

EXWRQHZKHUHEUHDNVLQWKHFRDWLQJSHQHWUDWHWRWKH ASTM Standard D 661 provides a method for the
underlying surface. This makes it a much more damaging evaluation of the degree of cracking in exterior paints.
type of failure than checking, since corrosion can rapidly
take place at the breaks in the coating. It may occur in 5. Alligatoring
DQLUUHJXODUSDWWHUQZKHUHWKHFRDWLQJVWUHVVHVDUHUDWKHU Alligatoring can be considered a macro-checking failure
XQLIRUP,WPD\EHOLQHDUIROORZLQJEUXVKPDUNVRUHYHQ DQGLVFDXVHGE\LQWHUQDOVWUHVVHVVHWXSZLWKLQDQG
some spray patterns, or it may occur in a curved pattern on the surface of the coating. The stresses cause the
ZLWKWKHFUDFNPHHWLQJDQGLQWHUVHFWLQJLQDUDWKHUW\SLFDO surface of the coating to shrink much more rapidly and
IRUP$VXUIDFHVXFKDVZRRGWKDWUDSLGO\H[SDQGVDQG to a much greater extent than the body of the coating.
contracts can contribute to cracking. Excessive thickness The strong surface stresses, because of the shrinkage,
of coatings can also cause cracking because of increased tend to create very large checks in the surface that do not
stresses on drying or curing. penetrate to the substrate. These can be caused by rapid
polymerization of the resin on the surface, rapid oxidation
&UDFNLQJLVDIRUPXODWLRQGHIHFWZKLFKFDQEHRYHUFRPH of the surface of the coating or a very rapid release of
E\WKHXVHRISURSHUZHDWKHUUHVLVWDQWUHVLQVDQG solvents or volatile plasticizers from the surface.
SLJPHQWVSOXVWKHDGGLWLRQRIWZRDGGLWLRQDOLQJUHGLHQWV As an example, some air drying or chemically cured
WKDWKHOSPDWHULDOO\WRUHGXFHWKHLQWHULRUVWUHVVHVZLWKLQ FRDWLQJVZKHQDSSOLHGRYHUDFROGVXUIDFHDQGWKHQ
the coating. One of these is reinforcing pigments. Such heated on the coated surface to speed the drying, often
SLJPHQWVDUH¿EURXVRUDFLFXODUDQGDFWYHU\PXFKOLNH alligator. Such a reaction may be found on coating the
FKRSSHGJODVV¿EHUVLQUHLQIRUFHGSODVWLFV7KH\GH¿QLWHO\ interior of tanks or tank cars. This is caused by shrinkage
DGGSK\VLFDOVWUHQJWKWRWKHFRDWLQJ¿OP7KHVHFRQG RIWKHVXUIDFHZKLOHWKHERG\RIWKHFRDWLQJEHFDXVHRI
is a permanent plasticizer or soft, compatible resin the cold metal, does not change at the same rate as the
that increases the elasticity of the coating. Increased coating surface. Basically, it is a physical phenomenon
reinforcing and elasticity both reduce the physical ZKHUHE\WKHFRDWLQJVXUIDFHKDUGHQVDQGVKULQNVDWD
VWUHVVHVFDXVHGE\ZHDWKHULQJKHDWLQJDQGFRROLQJRU much faster rate than the body of the coating itself. It may
ZHWWLQJDQGGU\LQJ also be caused by the application of a very strong, tough,
hard top coat over a softer, more resilient primer. In this
Coatings made from oxidizing materials such as oils or FDVHWKHXQGHUFRDWÀRZVDQGPRYHVDVWKHWRSFRDW
alkyd resins, or internal curing resins such as epoxies, tends to shrink.
are often susceptible to this type of failure since they
FRQWLQXHWRFXUHEHFRPHPRUHEULWWOHDQGVKULQNZLWK It is almost a rule of thumb that a hard, tough top
time. Fully polymerized materials, such as vinyls, acrylics coat should never be applied over a soft undercoat.
DQGFKORULQDWHGUXEEHUVZKHQSURSHUO\IRUPXODWHGDUH Asphalt and coal tar coatings are often subject
less susceptible to cracking since they continue to cure, to this phenomenon. The surface hardens due to
EHFRPHPRUHEULWWOHDQGVKULQNZLWKWLPH ZHDWKHULQJZKLOHWKHERG\UHPDLQVVRIW,WPD\DOVRRFFXU
ZKHUHR[LGL]LQJFRDWLQJVDUHDSSOLHGRYHUDQDVSKDOWRUD
coal tar base. Thick coatings are also more subject to this
reaction. While thickness is reduced in the checks of the
DOOLJDWRUSDWWHUQVXI¿FLHQWWKLFNQHVVPD\UHPDLQWRSURWHFW

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

the substrate for some period of time. As stated under UDSLGGU\LQJRIZDWHUEDVHFRDWLQJVDQGE\WKHXVHRI
³FKHFNLQJ´IDLOXUHZLOOHYHQWXDOO\WDNHSODFHLQWKHFKHFNV reinforcing pigments. Mud-cracking can also be prevented
due to the reduced cross section of the coating in these by satisfactory drying conditions, by application of the
areas. FRDWLQJVLQWKLQQHU¿OPVDQGE\HOLPLQDWLRQRIVDJVRU
SXGGOHVZKHUHUDSLGGU\LQJFRXOGFDXVHWKLVW\SHRIIDLOXUH
Where a material is used that may result in the alligator (WK\OVLOLFDWH]LQFULFKSULPHUVZLOOPXGFUDFNLIDSSOLHGWRR
W\SHUHDFWLRQDFRDWLQJZLWKVWURQJUHLQIRUFLQJSLJPHQWV thick (over 6 mils). This generally is caused by the lack of
RU¿EHUVVKRXOGEHVHOHFWHG7KLQFRDWVVKRXOGEH PRLVWXUHWRRORZKXPLGLW\7KXVDKHDY\¿OPZRXOGQRW
applied and each one properly dried before the addition DOORZPRLVWXUHWRSHQHWUDWHDQGSURSHUO\FXUHWKH]LQFULFK
of another coat. Care should be taken to prevent the primer.
application of a hard coating that oxidizes or requires
polymerization for cure over a permanently softer and 7. Wrinkling
more rubbery one. :ULQNOLQJLVWKHIRUPDWLRQRIIXUURZVDQGULGJHVLQWKH
VXUIDFHRIDSDLQWV\VWHP,WRFFXUVZKHQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKH
6. Mud-Cracking SDLQW¿OPH[SDQGVPRUHUDSLGO\GXULQJGU\LQJWKDQGRHV
Mud-cracking can be considered a macro-cracking the body of the paint. It is proportional to the thickness
SKHQRPHQRQZKHUHWKHEUHDNVLQWKHFRDWLQJXVXDOO\ of the surface layer that dries more rapidly than the body
JRGRZQWRWKHVXEVWUDWH,QWKLVZD\LWLVDPXFK RIWKHSDLQW¿OPDQGWRWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHGU\LQJ
more dangerous failure than alligatoring. It can cause rates and the expansion of the surface layer and the main
LPPHGLDWHFRUURVLRQDQGUHVXOWLQWKHFKLSSLQJDQGÀDNLQJ body of the paint.
of the coating from the surface. It is not a common failure
of organic coatings that are properly formulated for Wrinkling results from a formulation failure and is most
ZHDWKHUH[SRVXUH,WPD\RFFXUZKHUHFRDWLQJVDUHYHU\ FRPPRQZLWKRLOEDVHSDLQWVRUDON\GVFRQWDLQLQJGULHUV
KLJKO\¿OOHGDQGZKHUHWKH\DUHDSSOLHGWRDVXUIDFHWKDW WKDWLQFUHDVHWKHUDWHRIGU\LQJ'ULHUVVHUYHWZRJHQHUDO
dries the coating extremely rapidly. purposes: to dry the surface of the paint, and to dry the
ERG\RIWKHSDLQW¿OPWKDWLVVXUIDFHGULHUVDQGERG\
0XGFUDFNLQJLVRIWHQDSKHQRPHQRQRIZDWHUEDVH driers, respectively. Cobalt compounds are a common type
coatings and improperly cured inorganic zinc-rich RIVXUIDFHGULHU]LQFDQGOHDGFRPSRXQGVDUHFODVVL¿HGDV
SULPHUV%HFDXVHPRVWZDWHUEDVHFRDWLQJPDWHULDOVDUH body driers.
emulsions or dispersions, very rapid drying prevents the
UHVLQSDUWLFOHVIURPFRDOHVFLQJLQWRDFRQWLQXRXV¿OP Ordinarily, paints are formulated so that the drying process
%\FRQWUDVWZKHUHWKHUHVLQVDUHGLVVROYHGLQDVROYHQW proceeds at the same rate on the surface and in the body.
a true solution exists and the resin is in a continuous +RZHYHUZKHQDSDLQWFRQWDLQVDQH[FHVVRIVXUIDFH
phase as the solvent evaporates. Mud-cracking can GULHUVWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHSDLQWZLOOVZHOOE\DEVRUSWLRQRI
be prevented by proper formulation to prevent the too R[\JHQDQGZLOOZULQNOH6XFKDUHDFWLRQGHSHQGVRQDLU
temperature, surface temperature and coating thickness.
([FHVVLYHWKLFNQHVVDJJUDYDWHVWKHZULQNOLQJSURFHVV
VLQFHWKHERG\RIWKHSDLQWFDQQRWFXUHVXI¿FLHQWO\WRUHVLVW
the change in volume of the paint surface. The temperature

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

RIFXUHFDQLQÀXHQFHWKHUDWHRIZULQNOLQJ3DLQWVWKDW ,QWKHVHDUHDVDSRZHUJODVVUHYHDOVIXQJXVJURZWKV
FXUHZLWKRXWZULQNOLQJDWQRUPDOWHPSHUDWXUHVPD\ DFWLQJRQDQGZLWKLQWKHFRDWLQJ3UHYHQWLRQRIVXFKDWWDFN
ZULQNOHLIFXULQJLVDFFHOHUDWHGE\EDNLQJ$OVRLIWKH is primarily by formulation of the coating.
amounts of surface driers and body driers are balanced
IRUFXULQJDWDJLYHQWHPSHUDWXUHDSDLQWPD\ZULQNOH Fungus attack is reduced or completely eliminated
at a higher temperature, because the increase in the in oil type coatings by the addition of zinc oxide,
temperature tends to cure the surface more rapidly than fungicides, bactericides or a combination of the three to
the body of the paint. the formulation. In non-oil type coatings, such as pure
epoxies, vinyls or chlorinated rubbers, plasticizers or
7RSUHYHQWZULQNOLQJPDNHFHUWDLQWKDWDLUR[LGL]HGRU PRGL¿HUVVKRXOGEHQRQELRGHJUDGDEOH
air-reacting coatings are properly formulated for the
FRQGLWLRQVXQGHUZKLFKWKHFRDWLQJZLOOEHDSSOLHG $670'GHVFULEHVGHJUHHRIVXUIDFHGLV¿JXUHPHQW
:KHUHZULQNOLQJRIDFRDWLQJDSSHDUVWREHDSUREOHP E\IXQJDOJURZWKRUVRLODQGGLUWDFFXPXODWLRQ
WKHFRDWLQJVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGLQDWKLQHYHQ¿OPZLWKQR
areas of excessive thickness such as runs or puddles. 9. Discoloration
Because appearance may be as much a function of a
8. Microorganism Failure coating as its corrosion resistance, coatings that change
Both bacteria and fungi can cause coating failure. They color after application and become unsightly can be
SULPDULO\DWWDFNELRGHJUDGDEOHFRDWLQJVZKHUHWKHIXQJXV considered to have failed. This type of failure is, of course,
or bacterium derives their energy from the materials one based on formulation and arises from a number of
making up the coating. Oil type coatings, alkyds, causes.
polyamide epoxies and coatings using biodegradable
plasticizers are most often affected. On the other hand, Many of the resins used to formulate coatings contain
coatings made from vinyl chloride acetate resins or XQVDWXUDWHGSKRWRVHQVLWLYHJURXSVZKLFKRQH[SRVXUHWR
chlorinated rubber coatings using non-biodegradable VXQOLJKWFDXVHGDUNHQLQJ\HOORZLQJRURWKHUGLVFRORUDWLRQ
plasticizers have excellent resistance to biological attack. of the vehicle. Vinyl chloride-acetate coatings, as an
2QHH[DPSOHRIWKHFRPSDUDWLYHUHVLVWDQFHRIWZRVLPLODU H[DPSOHLIXVHGDVFOHDUFRDWLQJVZLOOWXUQGDUNEURZQRU
FRDWLQJVLVLQWKHLUH[SRVXUHWRVHZDJHFRQGLWLRQV$ HYHQEODFNZLWKLQDIHZZHHNVRIH[SRVXUHWRVXQOLJKW
polyamide epoxy may rapidly disintegrate due to bacteria 6RPHHSR[\UHVLQVWHQGWR\HOORZDVGRVRPHRIWKH
RUIXQJLDWWDFNXQGHUVHYHUHVHZDJHFRQGLWLRQV2QWKH more resistant polyurethane resins. Proper pigmentation
other hand, a polyamine epoxy can remain unaffected to shade the basic resin from sunlight is one of the prime
under the same exposure. A fungus attack often occurs methods of preventing discoloration.
on the north or shady side of a structure under damp,
humid conditions. A coating under these conditions turns 2IWHQKRZHYHUSLJPHQWDWLRQLVQRWVXI¿FLHQW&RDWLQJV
JUH\RUJUHHQZLWKEODFNVSORWFK\DUHDVRYHUWKHVXUIDFH VXEMHFWWRVWURQJVXQOLJKWDQGZHDWKHUFRQGLWLRQVVKRXOG
SUHIHUDEO\EHIRUPXODWHGZLWKVLOLFRQHVDFU\OLFVRU
aliphatic polyurethanes in order to reduce any possible
color change to a minimum. Many pigments can also
cause color change in a coating. Some orange pigments

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

DUHFRORUUHDFWLYHDQGGDUNHQ&HUWDLQ\HOORZSLJPHQWV checking if the formulation or the application are not
WHQGWRJUH\DQGZKLWHQ/HDGSLJPHQWVDUHSDUWLFXODUO\ SURSHU7KHVHFRDWLQJVDUHKLJKO\¿OOHGZLWKSRZGHUHG
VXVFHSWLEOHWRDWWDFNLQVXO¿GHDWPRVSKHUHVDQGWXUQ metallic zinc and other pigments. The ratio of the pigment
dark or even black. Iron blue pigments tend to bronze WRDUHODWLYHO\ORZYLVFRVLW\ELQGHULVKLJKDQGXQGHUWKHVH
RUWXUQEURZQ2EYLRXVO\WKHVHSLJPHQWVVKRXOGQRWEH conditions, rapid drying can cause the surface checking of
XVHGLQIRUPXODWLRQVZKHUHWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIWKHFRDWLQJ the coating.
LVLPSRUWDQWDQGZKHUHLWLVH[SRVHGWRVHYHUHZHDWKHU
conditions. 0DQ\IRUPXODWLRQVFRQWDLQ¿EURXVSLJPHQWVWRKHOSSUHYHQW
FKHFNLQJDVZHOODVVSHFLDOVROYHQWVDQGVLOLFDWHELQGHUV
 6XO¿GH'LVFRORUDWLRQ to aid in controlling the drying rate. The tendency to check
7KLVLVWKHVWDLQLQJRIWKH¿OPE\K\GURJHQVXO¿GH can also be improved or prevented by proper application.
+\GURJHQVXO¿GHDWWDFNVSDLQWVFRQWDLQLQJOHDGRU 7KHFRDWLQJVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGDVWKLQO\DVLVSUDFWLFDOZLWK
mercury turning them gray or black in patches or streaks. a second pass if necessary to reach the recommended
Exposure of copper base anti-fouling paints not only thickness. As rapid drying increases the tendency to
turns them black but can inactivate the copper causing check, application should be under controlled temperature
them to foul rapidly. This often occurs in contaminated conditions or under less severe drying conditions, i.e.,
ZDWHU DSSO\LQJLWXQGHUFRYHURUZKHQLQWKHRSHQLQWKHHDUO\
morning or late afternoon. The application conditions
7KLVEODFNHQLQJPD\EHGLVWLQJXLVKHGIURPPROGJURZWK established by the manufacturer should be closely
E\WUHDWPHQWZLWKGLOXWHK\GURFKORULFDFLGGLVDSSHDUDQFH IROORZHG
RIWKHEODFNHQLQJLQGLFDWHVWKHSUHVHQFHRIVXO¿GH
:KHQUHSDLQWLQJRUSDLQWLQJLQK\GURJHQVXO¿GHDUHDV Since checking is a surface phenomena and does not
use paints that do not contain mercury, lead or copper extend through the coating, it is much less of a problem
pigments or lead driers. If emulsion paints are used ZLWKLQRUJDQLF]LQFFRDWLQJVWKDQZLWKRUJDQLFFRDWLQJV$V
IRUUHSDLQWLQJLWZRXOGEHQHFHVVDU\WRUHPRYHDQ\ long as the adhesion of the inorganic zinc is unimpaired,
undercoats, containing lead or mercury. WKH¿QHFKHFNVZLOOJUDGXDOO\¿OOZLWK]LQFUHDFWLRQSURGXFWV
DQGWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHFRDWLQJZLOOEHPDLQWDLQHG
B. INORGANIC COATINGS, Evaluation of checking is covered by ASTM-D 660.
FORMULATION-RELATED FAILURES
Inorganic zinc coatings also have some inherent failures 2. Mud-Cracking
because they are made primarily from silicate vehicles Mud-cracking, because the breaks extend through the
and metallic zinc. coating to the substrate, is a more serious problem than
FKHFNLQJ$GKHVLRQLVRIWHQLPSDLUHGZLWKWKHFRDWLQJ
1. Checking ÀDNLQJIURPWKHVXUIDFH0XGFUDFNLQJLVSULPDULO\D
Inorganic zinc coatings are particularly subject to SUREOHPRIH[FHVVLYHWKLFNQHVVZKHUHWKHWKLFNQHVV
exceeds the manufacturer’s recommendations. It is found,
IRUWKHPRVWSDUWLQUXQVRUSXGGOHVRUZKHUHKHDY\
overlapping occurs.

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

The reason for this type of failure is similar to the reason WKDQWKHUHPDLQGHURIWKHFRDWLQJVWDUWLQJZLWKDQLVRODWHG
for checking. The volume of the pigmentation is high SLQSRLQWRIUXVWVKRZLQJKHUHDQGWKHUHLQWKHVHWKLQVSRWV
compared to the volume of the vehicle in the dried $VWLPHJRHVE\WKHSLQSRLQWVZLOOEHFRPHFORVHUWRJHWKHU
¿OP:KHUHDSSOLHGLQH[FHVVLYHWKLFNQHVVWKHYRODWLOH DQG¿QDOO\DWWKHWLPHRIIXOOIDLOXUHWKHVSRWVRISLQSRLQW
LQJUHGLHQWVLQZDWHUEDVH]LQFULFKFRDWLQJVHYDSRUDWH UXVWZLOOEHDOPRVWFRQWLQXRXVDQGJHQHUDORYHUWKHHQWLUH
UDSLGO\ZLWKVKULQNDJHWDNLQJSODFHWKURXJKRXWWKHFRDWLQJ surface.
EHIRUHDQ\FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQFDQRFFXU6XFKDUHDVZLOO
HYHQWXDOO\SXOOWKHPVHOYHVDZD\IURPWKHVXUIDFHDQG Such failure usually occurs after many years of service,
FKLSRUÀDNH even under marine atmospheric conditions. While this type
of failure can be expected, it can also be prevented by
To eliminate or prevent this problem, apply the coatings SURSHUPDLQWHQDQFHDQGUHSDLURIWKHWKLQDUHDVWKDW¿UVW
LQUHODWLYHO\WKLQ¿OPVQRWRYHUWKHPD[LPXPWKLFNQHVV VKRZIDLOXUH$6706WDQGDUG'SURYLGHVDPHWKRG
recommended by the manufacturer). of evaluating rusting. A maintenance coat of inorganic
Heavy coats (over 6.0 mils) tend to mud-crack. For ethyl zinc may be applied over itself or over galvanizing at the
silicate zinc-rich primers, mud-cracking is caused by WLPHRIWKH¿UVWLQGLFDWLRQRIIDLOXUH/LJKWDEUDVLRQRIWKH
lack of moisture needed to cure the coating beneath the surface by hand sanding or brush blast is necessary for
VXUIDFHRIWKH¿OP proper adhesion of the maintenance coat.

3. Chemical Resistance 5. Pitting in Seawater

Obviously, coatings containing zinc, organic zinc Inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing immersed in
coatings, inorganic zinc coatings or galvanizing should VHDZDWHUPD\SLWDIWHUH[SRVXUHRIIURPWRPRQWKV
QRWEHXVHGDORQHRUZLWKRXWWRSFRDWVLQDVWURQJO\ This phenomenon occurs because of the reaction of some
acidic atmosphere. Because of the zinc in the coating, RIWKHVDOWVLQWKHVHDZDWHUZLWKWKHVXUIDFHRIWKH]LQFWR
DFLGDWWDFNLVUDSLGDQGWKHFRDWLQJZRXOGEHVXEMHFWWR such an extent that the surface becomes insoluble and
IDLOXUH8QGHUWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVJDOYDQL]LQJZRXOGWHQG no longer provides zinc ions to protect the steel surface
to fail faster than the inorganic zinc coatings, inasmuch from corrosion. Normally, zinc coatings provide cathodic
as the zinc in the inorganic coating is partially protected SURWHFWLRQWRWKHVWHHOVXUIDFHKRZHYHUDVWKHFKHPLFDO
E\WKHVLOLFDWHPDWUL[6WURQJDONDOLZLOOWHQGWRUHDFWZLWK UHDFWLRQIURPVHDZDWHUWDNHVSODFHRQWKHVXUIDFHRI
WKHVLOLFDWHYHKLFOHDVZHOODVZLWKWKH]LQFDWS+YDOXHV the zinc, the surface becomes inert, although it is still
above 10. conductive. Under these conditions, since zinc ions are
no longer available, the zinc coating becomes cathodic
4. Pinpoint Rusting and the holiday or break becomes an anode. When this
Zinc coatings, either galvanized, inorganic zinc or organic KDSSHQVSLWWLQJZLOOWDNHSODFHZKHUHEUHDNVRFFXURU
zinc, normally fail at the end of their useful life by pinpoint ZKHUHWKHUHDUHVKDUSHGJHVDEUDVLRQRUKROLGD\V
rusting. This occurs primarily in areas that are thinner 3LWWLQJFDQEHSUHYHQWHGZLWKDFRPSDWLEOHDQGSURSHU
RUJDQLFFRDWLQJV\VWHPRYHUWKH]LQFZKHUHYHULWLV
H[SRVHGWRVHDZDWHULPPHUVLRQ

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

III. ADHESION-RELATED FAILURES *HQHUDOO\FRDWLQJVZLWKWKHORZHVW097UDWHWKHJUHDWHVW
UHVLVWDQFHWRWKHSDVVDJHRIPROHFXODUZDWHUWKURXJKWKH
1. Blistering FRDWLQJZLOOKDYHWKHOHDVWWHQGHQF\WREOLVWHU7DEOHOLVWV
Blistering is one of the most common forms of adhesion some typical MVT rates for several of the common coating
UHODWHGFRDWLQJIDLOXUHSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHUHWKHFRDWLQJLV types. It must be stressed again that these rates are
LPPHUVHGLQZDWHUVHDZDWHURURWKHUOLTXLGV,WFDQDOVR IRUVSHFL¿FFRDWLQJIRUPXODWLRQVDQGGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\
RFFXULQDUHDVRIKLJKKXPLGLW\ZKHUHWKHUHLVFRQWLQXLQJ LQGLFDWHDSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQFRDWLQJW\SHV
or intermittent condensation on the surface. 3HUPHDWLRQLVLQÀXHQFHGE\¿OPWKLFNQHVVFRDWLQJ
pigmentation and means of application.
%OLVWHULQJLVFDXVHGE\JDVVHVRUOLTXLGVZLWKLQRUXQGHU
the coating that exert pressures stronger than both
the adhesion and the internal cohesion of the coating.
7KLVDOORZVWKHFRDWLQJWRVWUHWFKDQGWRIRUPWKH
KHPLVSKHULFDOEOLVWHU7KHEOLVWHUZLOOJHQHUDOO\LQFUHDVH
in size until the tensile strength of the coating is greater
than the internal pressure. If the pressure is greater than
WKHWHQVLOHVWUHQJWKWKHEOLVWHUZLOOEUHDN7KLVLVRIWHQ
WKHFDVHZKHUHDEULWWOHFRDWLQJZLWKOLWWOHH[WHQVLELOLW\LV
involved. After the blister breaks, frequently the substrate
ZLOOEHUHDGLO\DWWDFNHGFDXVLQJUXVW
As blistering is an adhesion-related failure, there is a
There are several forces that contribute to the formation JHQHUDOUXOHRIWKXPEWKDWDSSOLHVDFRDWLQJZLWKH[FHOOHQW
RIWKHOLTXLGRUJDVXQGHUQHDWKRUZLWKLQWKHFRDWLQJ DGKHVLRQHYHQZLWKKLJK097ZLOOKDYHDORZWHQGHQF\
In addition to strength of adhesion the key to most to blister. At this point, it should be stated that there is no
blistering is the moisture-vapor transmission rate of FRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHPRLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQRIDFRDWLQJ
WKHFRDWLQJ(DFKFRDWLQJIRUPXODWLRQKDVLWVRZQ and the moisture-vapor transmission rate. Moisture
characteristic moisture-vapor transmission (MVT) rate, DEVRUSWLRQLVWKHDPRXQWRIPROHFXODUZDWHUZKLFKLV
WKHUDWHDWZKLFKPROHFXODUZDWHUSDVVHVWKURXJKWKH KHOGZLWKLQWKHPROHFXODUVWUXFWXUHRIWKHFRDWLQJ7KHUH
inter-molecular spaces in the coating. Any area of poor DUHVRPHFRDWLQJPDWHULDOVZKLFKPD\KDYHDUDWKHU
DGKHVLRQZLOOWHQGWRDFFXPXODWHPRLVWXUHRUPRLVWXUH KLJKPRLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQEXWZKLFKGRQRWKDYHDKLJK
YDSRUDWWKHLQWHUIDFHEHWZHHQWKHFRDWLQJDQGWKH moisture-vapor transmission rate. The converse is also
substrate. Moisture-vapor in this area creates a vapor WUXHWKHUHLVRQHV\QWKHWLFUHVLQPDWHULDOZKLFKKDV]HUR
pressure that causes blisters to form. ZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQ\HWKDVDQH[WUHPHO\KLJK097UDWH
This being the case, moisture absorption is not necessarily
a good measure of the blistering tendency of a coating.

Osmosis also contributes strongly to the transmission of

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

ZDWHURUPRLVWXUHWKURXJKDFRDWLQJ2VPRVLVRFFXUV 2VPRVLVFDQDOVRFDXVHEOLVWHULQJLIZDWHUVROXEOH
ZKHQPRLVWXUHYDSRUSDVVHVWKURXJKDVHPLSHUPHDEOH materials are incorporated into the coating itself.
PHPEUDQHIURPWKHZDWHUVROXWLRQKDYLQJWKHOHVVHU Oftentimes, primers contain inhibitive pigments having
FRQFHQWUDWLRQWRWKHRQHZLWKDKLJKHUFRQFHQWUDWLRQRI DGHJUHHRIZDWHUVROXELOLW\IRULQVWDQFH]LQF\HOORZRU
dissolved solids. zinc chromate. This pigment is an excellent inhibitor of
Osmosis FRUURVLRQRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLIDSULPHUPDGHZLWK]LQF
FKURPDWHLVWRSFRDWHGDQGLPPHUVHGEOLVWHULQJZLOO
often result. In this case, because of the solubility of the
FKURPDWHRVPRVLVFRQGLWLRQVDUHVHWXSZLWKLQWKHFRDWLQJ
Moisture Absorbed
Humid Air Moisture
Vapor
by Soluble Salt LWVHOIIRUFLQJZDWHUWRWKHDUHDZKHUHWKHVROXEOHFKURPDWH
Soluble Salt or
Transmission
Salt Crystal LVORFDWHG&RDWLQJVIRUPXODWHGZLWKVXFKVROXEOHSLJPHQWV
Liquid Level
should not be used for immersion purposes.
STEEL

Coating
Soluble Salt or Table 3 lists several chromates that have been used or are
Salt Crystal
Water or Salt Water (dilute) Salt Solution SUHVHQWO\EHLQJXVHGLQFRDWLQJV7KHRQHVZLWKWKHORZHVW
(Concentrated)
Direction of water by osmosis (passage of water through
a semi-permeable membrane from the dilute solution in the Formed by Moisture solubility are preferable from the standpoint of resistance
direction of the more concentrated solution). Vapor on Soluble Salt
to osmosis and blistering.
$VDQH[DPSOHLIDFRDWLQJZHUHDSSOLHGLQDPDULQH
atmosphere to a piece of steel having a salt deposit on
WKHVXUIDFHDQGLIDIWHUWKHFRDWLQJZHUHDSSOLHGDQGGU\
WKHVWHHOZHUHVXEMHFWWRLPPHUVLRQPRLVWXUHZRXOGEH
IRUFHGWKURXJKWKHFRDWLQJIURPWKHZDWHURQWKHRXWVLGH
of the coating to the salt crystals on the underside of the
FRDWLQJ7KHVDOWFU\VWDOVZRXOGDEVRUEDVPDOODPRXQWRI
PRLVWXUHLQWKHEHJLQQLQJFUHDWLQJDVROXWLRQZLWKDKLJK
concentration of salt. Osmotic pressure is created by the
PRLVWXUHYDSRUZKLFKKDVSDVVHGWKURXJKWKHFRDWLQJ
from the more dilute side to the more concentrated side Another blister forming process is that of electro-
of the membrane. The pressure built up on the underside endosmosis. In this process moisture vapor or molecular
of the coating may be quite high (several ounces/sq. ZDWHULVIRUFHGWKURXJKWKHFRDWLQJE\DQHOHFWULFDOFXUUHQW
in.). Moisture vapor being forced by the osmotic process LQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHHOHFWULFDOSROHZLWKWKHVDPHFKDUJH
WKURXJKDFRDWLQJZLWKSRRUDGKHVLRQFDQFDXVHEOLVWHUV as the coating. Most coatings are negatively charged, and
to form. But coating may have adhesion stronger than if the underlying metal surface is cathodic, or has a source
WKHRVPRWLFSUHVVXUHWKDWGHYHORSVDQGWKXVZLOOQRW RIQHJDWLYHHOHFWURQVPRLVWXUHLVWKHQGUDZQWKURXJK
blister. WKHFRDWLQJWRZDUGVWKHQHJDWLYHSROH8QGHUWKHVH
conditions, if there are areas of poor adhesion, blisters
form readily. Incidentally, this process has caused coatings
on structures subject to excessive cathodic protection
WREOLVWHUDZD\IURPWKHVXUIDFH&DWKRGLFSRWHQWLDOVLQ

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

excess of 1.0 volt cause many coatings to blister and lose WKHEOLVWHUVZLOOEUHDN
DGKHVLRQ&RDWHGSLSHOLQHVLQZHWVRLOFRQGLWLRQVKDYH %OLVWHULQJGXHWRHQWUDSSHGVROYHQWVLVFRPPRQZKHQ
RIWHQVKRZQWKLVW\SHRIIDLOXUH EDNHG¿QLVKHVDUHXVHG,WFDQEHDYRLGHGLIWKHFRDWLQJ
is prebaked at a temperature high enough to drive out
Blistering most often results from poor surface all the solvent but not high enough to cure the surface of
preparation or applying a coating over a dirty, greasy, the paint before the solvent is removed. After most of the
moist or contaminated surface. Such a surface is the solvent has evaporated, the baking temperature can be
cause; osmosis or electro-endosmosis is the process that increased to cure the paint completely.
makes it take place.
$FRDWLQJFDQDOVREOLVWHUZKHQLWLVXVHGDVDOLQLQJ Blistering can be caused also by hydrogen absorbed in
DQGLVVXEMHFWWRDZDUPZDWHUVROXWLRQZLWKWKHVWHHO the surface of the steel during pickling, that is, during the
substrate being considerably cooler than the liquid (for process of removing rust and mill scale before the surface
example, an uninsulated tank containing liquid at a is coated. If, after the coating has been applied, the
higher temperature than the outside air). In this case, the temperature of the coated object is raised, this hydrogen
PRLVWXUHSDVVHVWKURXJKWKH¿OPDQGEHFDXVHWKHVWHHO ZLOOOHDYHWKHPHWDODQGLIWKHUDWHRIK\GURJHQHYROXWLRQ
surface is cooler than the vapor, it condenses underneath is more rapid than the rate of diffusion of the gas through
the coating causing blistering. WKHSDLQWSUHVVXUHDUHDVZLOOEHIRUPHGDWWKHPHWDOSDLQW
interface. When the pressure of the gas under the coating
Another cause of blistering is entrapped solvents. These H[FHHGVWKHIRUFHRIDGKHVLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZRVXUIDFHV
are solvents that remain in the coating for some period WKHSDLQWZLOOEHOLIWHGRIIWKHPHWDOLQEOLVWHUV$IWHUSLFNOLQJ
of time, usually by solution in the coating resin. If the steel plate or shapes, hydrogen can be eliminated by
temperature of the coating system is raised and the rate heating the steel prior to applying the coating. Preferably
RIGLIIXVLRQRIWKHVROYHQWYDSRUWKURXJKWKH¿OPLVVORZHU WKHFRDWLQJVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGZKLOHWKHVWHHOLVVWLOOZDUP
WKDQWKHUDWHRIIRUPDWLRQRIWKHYDSRUWKHQEOLVWHULQJZLOO There is a strong tendency for some coating materials to
take place. blister on cast iron. Cast iron is much more porous than
VWHHODQGFRQWDLQVJDVHVWKDWH[SDQGSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQ
Many coatings that dry rapidly on the surface are subject heated. Coatings applied even to clean, sand blasted
WRWKLVW\SHRIEOLVWHULQJSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHUHDSSOLHGLQ FDVWLURQZKHQLWLVFROGRIWHQEOLVWHUDVWKHWHPSHUDWXUH
the sun or on a heated surface. When the pressure LQFUHDVHV,IWKHFDVWLURQLVKHDWHGVXI¿FLHQWO\WRUHOHDVH
exerted by the solvent vapor becomes greater than the WKHJDVHVDQGWKHFRDWLQJLVDSSOLHGWRWKHFDVWLURQZKLOH
DGKHVLRQRIWKHSDLQWEOLVWHUVZLOOEHIRUPHGDQGZLOO LWLVVWLOOZDUPEOLVWHULQJZLOOQRWRFFXU
LQFUHDVHLQVL]HXQWLOHTXLOLEULXPEHWZHHQWKHSUHVVXUH
DQGWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKH¿OPLVHVWDEOLVKHG,IWKHSUHVVXUH Chemical exposure often causes blistering and loss of
EHFRPHVJUHDWHUWKDQWKHFRKHVLYHVWUHQJWKRIWKH¿OP DGKHVLRQRIFRDWLQJVSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHUHDFRDWLQJPD\EH
subject to volatile acids such as acetic acid, hydrochloric
acid or nitric acid. These volatile materials can penetrate

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

WKHFRDWLQJDQGUHDFWZLWKWKHXQGHUO\LQJPHWDOVXUIDFH 2. Peeling
:LWKPRLVWXUHYDSRUDOZD\VSUHVHQWDVWURQJDFLG Peeling is a coating failure usually caused by a coating
solution is formed that not only has a strong osmotic having a tensile strength greater than its bond strength to
SUHVVXUHEXWDOVRLVVWURQJO\UHDFWLYHZLWKWKHPHWDO WKHVXUIDFHV7KLVZDVDFRPPRQHDUO\GD\FDXVHRIYLQ\O
surface, creating hydrogen gas. Acetic acid is a good FRDWLQJIDLOXUH,WKDVEHHQRYHUFRPHE\YLQ\OSULPHUVQRZ
solvent for many coating materials, but its presence KDYLQJVXSHULRUERQGVWUHQJWKZKHQWKH\DUHDSSOLHGWR
increases the probability of blistering. clean - preferably abrasive blasted - surfaces. Any coating
ZLOOSHHORUSXOOIURPWKHVXUIDFHLILWKDVOHVVDGKHVLRQ
to the substrate than it has tensile strength, or if it reacts
Blistering conditions can best be prevented by using a DGYHUVHO\ZLWKWKHVXEVWUDWHRYHUDSHULRGRIWLPHWKXV
FRDWLQJZLWKYHU\VWURQJDGKHVLRQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGD substantially reducing the adhesion.
ORZPRLVWXUHYDSRUWUDQVPLVVLRQUDWHDQGDSSO\LQJWKH
coating over a perfectly clean surface. The best surface 3. Flaking and Scaling
LVSHUIHFWO\FOHDQDQGZKLWHPHWDOEODVWHG663&63 7KHVHWZRW\SHVRIIDLOXUHDUHDGKHVLRQUHODWHG)ODNLQJ
It has been proven by many tests and hundreds of actual LVDWHUPGHVFULELQJDFRQGLWLRQZKHUHVPDOOSLHFHV
FRDWLQJDSSOLFDWLRQVWKDWZLWKDOOH[SRVXUHFRQGLWLRQV of coating detach themselves from the surface of the
being equal) proper surface preparation can reduce substrate. Its edges are generally raised up from the
blistering to a minimum or completely prevent it. ASTM surface and the small pieces can be rather easily
Standard D 714 provides a good method of describing removed, leaving the bare substrate.
the degree of blistering of paints.
)ODNLQJLVTXLWHFRPPRQRQZRRGHQVXUIDFHVDQGWHQGVWR
Warm Liquid Solution Higher
occur after oil paints have oxidized for a period of years.
Temperature Than The Outside Air.
,WLVDFRPPRQVLJKWRQIHQFHVDQGROGZRRGHQEXLOGLQJV
WATER Coating Flaking also occurs on metal surfaces, particularly those
ZKLFKKDYHEHHQJDOYDQL]HG$ON\GVRURLOW\SHSDLQWV
Moisture Vapor Passes Through
applied to galvanized surfaces eventually age and oxidize
Coating And Condenses on Steel Surface.
Coating Blisters Where Coating has Poor
WRWKHSRLQWZKHUHWKH¿OPVKULQNVVXI¿FLHQWO\WRSXOOLWVHOI
Adhesion or is Applied Over Contamination.
Air Cooler Than DZD\IURPWKHVXUIDFH7KHUHFDQDOVREHDQLQWHUIDFLDO
The Solution
FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQFUHDWLQJD]LQFVRDSEHWZHHQWKH
RUJDQLFFRDWLQJDQGWKH]LQFVXEVWUDWHZKLFKFDXVHVORVV
Blister Rises As Water Continues
To Condense As Long As Steel Is RIDGKHVLRQDQGÀDNLQJ
At Lower Temperature Than The
Solution. Steel Cooled By
Air Temperature
6FDOLQJLVVLPLODUWRÀDNLQJH[FHSWWKDWWKHSLHFHVWKDW
EUHDNDZD\IURPWKHVXUIDFHDUHPXFKODUJHU7KLVLVD
common type of failure on coated, galvanized surfaces.
Blistering Due to Thermal Gradient
Pieces of coating several inches in diameter may crack
GXHWRDJLQJVWUHVVHVFXUODQGFRPHRIILQODUJHÀDNHV
6FDOLQJFDQDOVRRFFXUZKHUHDQHZFRDWLVDSSOLHGRYHU

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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

DYHU\ROGZHOOR[LGL]HGFRDWLQJ7KHDGKHVLRQEHWZHHQ
WKHWZRVXUIDFHVZKHUHVXUIDFHSUHSDUDWLRQLVSRRULV The temperature of application is also critical. Since the
ORZDQGWKHWRSFRDWLQJRQDJLQJZLOOWHQGWRFXUODQGWR curing reactions are temperature-dependent, the higher
scale. the temperature, the more rapidly the second coat should
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7KHSUHYHQWLRQRIÀDNLQJDQGVFDOLQJLVSULPDULO\RQH VKRXOGEHFORVHO\IROORZHGZKHUHLQWHUQDOO\RUH[WHUQDOO\
RIVXUIDFHSUHSDUDWLRQ&OHDQVXUIDFHVZLWKDJRRG cured coatings are used. Polyurethanes, epoxies, coal
DQFKRUSDWWHUQFRPELQHGZLWKDFRDWLQJWKDWKDVVWURQJ tar epoxies and oxidizing coatings are subject to this
DGKHVLRQDQGJRRGDJLQJFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZLOOSUHYHQWWKLV W\SHRIIDLOXUH:KHUHFDWDO\]HGHSR[\LVDSSOLHGDWORZ
problem. ASTM Standard D 772-47 (reapproved 1975) temperatures, an exudate may remain on the surface
is a standard method for the evaluation of the degree of FDXVLQJLQFRPSDWLELOLW\ZLWKVXEVHTXHQWWRSFRDWV
ÀDNLQJDQGVFDOLQJRIH[WHULRUSDLQWV
Coal tar epoxy coatings have special problems of intercoat
4. Intercoat Delamination delamination. In addition to the normal internal curing
This is the failure of one coat to adhere to an underlying of the coating, external forces also create intercoat
FRDWZKHWKHUDSSOLHGDVRQHFRDWIROORZLQJWKHRWKHURU delamination. Even though the curing of the coating has
ZKHUHWKHWRSFRDWLVDSSOLHGDVDPDLQWHQDQFHFRDWLQJ not progressed to the point of insolubility, if the coating
DIWHUVRPHSHULRGRIWLPH7KHFDXVHLVJHQHUDOO\ZLWKLQ is subject to condensation, rain, or moisture prior to the
the coating itself. Air-reactive coatings, either those that application of the second coat, intercoat delamination is
require oxygen or moisture for cure, or coatings that probable. Also, if the coal tar epoxy coating is applied in
react internally by the action of catalysts or reactive the sunlight, even though the coating has not reacted to
resins are subject to this type of failure. Compatibility of the point of insolubility, intercoat delamination may occur
one type of coating to another is essential. due to the heat and actinic rays of the sun, causing the
VXUIDFHWRFXUHEH\RQGWKHSRLQWZKHUHJRRGDGKHVLRQ
In the case of air-reactive coatings, either by the EHWZHHQWKHWZRFRDWVFDQUHVXOW:KHQHYHUDQ\RIWKH
DEVRUSWLRQRIR[\JHQRUZDWHUWKHVXUIDFHEHFRPHV above phenomena occur and the second coat is applied
rapidly insoluble and dense. In the case of internally over an insoluble coat, there is a positive interface
reactive coatings, the entire coating becomes insoluble EHWZHHQWKHFRDWV:KHQZDWHURUPRLVWXUHSHQHWUDWHV
and dense. In both cases, the coatings are insoluble in WRWKHLQWHUIDFHDQ\DSSDUHQWDGKHVLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZR
the original solvents in the liquid coating. Solventless coats is lost, causing delamination to occur.
coatings are also subject to intercoat delamination. Lacquer-type coatings, such as vinyls, acrylics or
7KHVHFRQGFRDWVKRXOGEHDSSOLHGRYHUWKH¿UVWDIWHU chlorinated rubbers are not as subject to this type of failure
WKHLQLWLDOVHWRIWKH¿UVWFRDWLQJEXWEHIRUHWKDWFRDWLQJ as are the reactive type coatings. Lacquer-type coatings
has been completely cured either by internal or exterior DUHSHUPDQHQWO\VROXEOHLQWKHLURZQVROYHQWVWKXV
forces. DOORZLQJWKHVHFRQGFRDWWRGLVVROYHLQWRWKH¿UVWFRDWLQJ
UHGXFLQJWKHFKDQFHRIDQ\LQWHUIDFHIRUPLQJEHWZHHQWKH
WZRFRDWV

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

An additional major cause of intercoat delamination is One of the preferred methods of preventing undercutting
WKHFRQWDPLQDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWFRDWEHIRUHWKHDSSOLFDWLRQ on steel surfaces is the application of an inorganic
of the second. Moisture, dust, fumes, chemical fall-out, zinc coating as a permanent primer before the
oil and grease all can cause this result. The method organic coating is applied. The inorganic binder reacts
of prevention is obvious: prevent the contamination FKHPLFDOO\ZLWKWKHVWHHOSURYLGLQJYHU\WLJKWDGKHVLRQ
from reaching the coating during application. Where DQGSUHYHQWLQJWKHXQGHUFXWWLQJZKLFKLVFKDUDFWHULVWLF
WKLVLVLPSRVVLEOHSDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQDSSO\LQJFRDWLQJV of most organic paints or coatings. This coating system
to structures or tanks subject to fallout from adjacent has been successful on hundreds of millions of square
plants or adjacent operations, very fast drying lacquer feet of surface exposed to extreme marine or industrial
coatings, vinyls or acrylics, if applicable from a corrosion conditions.
standpoint, should be used. The second coat should
EHDSSOLHGDVUDSLGO\DVSRVVLEOHIROORZLQJWKH¿UVWWR
provide good results.

5. Undercutting
Undercutting is another type of adhesion failure that
involves the gradual penetration of corrosion underneath
WKHFRDWLQJIURPDEUHDNRUSLQKROHLQWKH¿OPRUIURP
unprotected edges.
8QGHUFXWWLQJRIWHQRFFXUVZKHQDFRDWLQJKDVEHHQ
applied over mill scale. Moisture and oxygen penetrate
WKHFRDWLQJDQGUHDFWZLWKWKHVFDOHFDXVLQJLWWRORVH
adhesion and thus form progressive corrosion beneath
the coating. The application of coatings over a very
VPRRWKGHQVHVXUIDFHZKHUHDGKHVLRQLVFULWLFDODOVR
creates a condition inviting this type of failure. Most of
these undercutting failures can be substantially reduced
by proper surface preparation prior to the application of
Undercutting

WKHFRDWLQJDQGWKHXVHRIDFRDWLQJZLWKVWURQJDGKHVLRQ
characteristics. Salt
Water Oxygen

Rust Tubercle
Organic Coating

Steel

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

IV. FAILURE DUE TO THE SUBSTRATE &RDWLQJFRPSDWLELOLW\ZLWKWKHVWHHOLVQRWDVFULWLFDODVLW
FDQEHZLWKRWKHUPDWHULDOV
The substrate is not often considered as being a
major factor in the failure of protective coatings, but To assure consistently good coating life, abrasive blasting
it is extremely important. The common surfaces that of steel is recommended to remove all contamination and
need to be considered are steel, aluminum, zinc, oxidation and to increase the surface area for maximum
FRSSHUFRQFUHWHDQGZRRG(DFKRIWKHVHKDYHD coating adhesion. SSPC-Vis 2 provides a standard for
very different effect on the coating. One coating may evaluating the degree of rusting on painted steel surfaces.
be very effective over one surface and completely This standard is also available as ASTM-D 610.
ineffective over another. Concrete, on the other hand, is a chemically active, non-
XQLIRUPSRURXVVXUIDFH¿OOHGZLWKZDWHUDQGDLUSRFNHWV
An example of this is the coating of steel surfaces WKXVPDNLQJDVXUIDFHWKDWLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWWRDSDLQW
for exposure to sodium hypochlorite. Even though SURSHUO\ZLWKDFRQWLQXRXVFRDWLQJ,QDGGLWLRQWRDYHU\
the coating applied may be completely pinhole free, YDULDEOHVXUIDFHLWLVVHQVLWLYHWRPRLVWXUHDQGZKHQWKH
EHFDXVHRIWKHEUHDNGRZQUHDFWLRQRIWKHVRGLXP PRLVWXUHLVFRQ¿QHGXQGHUDFRDWLQJDS+RIXSWRPD\
hypochlorite on aging into nascent oxygen and be encountered. Only a very inert, highly alkali-resistant
sodium chloride, coatings applied over a steel surface and penetrating coating can be expected to perform
generally last only a very short period of time. Nascent satisfactorily.
R[\JHQZLOOSHQHWUDWHWKHFRDWLQJDQGUHDFWZLWK
the surface underneath the coating. Tubercles are The problems of coating a concrete substrate to obtain a
IRUPHGZKLFKEUHDNWKHFRDWLQJDOORZLQJFRUURVLRQWR failure-free coating are primarily physical. The surface is
proceed very rapidly. On the other hand, if the same YDULDEOHZLWKWKHPRVWFRQVLVWHQWFRQFUHWHEHLQJDKDUG
FRDWLQJZHUHDSSOLHGRYHUFRQFUHWHORQJOLIHFRXOGEH VWHHOWURZHOHGVXUIDFHVLGHZDON¿QLVK7KLVVXUIDFHLV
expected because the concrete itself is unaffected by SUHIHUUHGIRUFRDWLQJ+RZHYHUEHFDXVHLWLVRIWHQJOD]HG
the nascent oxygen. While this is rather an extreme GXHWRWKHWURZHOLQJDFWLRQWKHJOD]HPXVWEHUHPRYHG
example, it nevertheless demonstrates the importance by acid etching (1 part commercial hydrochloric acid and
of the substrate to the life of the coating. SDUWVZDWHUIROORZHGE\DFOHDQZDWHUZDVKRUDOLJKW
Steel may be the best and the easiest surface over brush blast for consistent coating adhesion. A poured
ZKLFKWRDSSO\DFRDWLQJ,WLVDYHU\GHQVHDQG FRQFUHWHVXUIDFHLVWKHPRVWGLI¿FXOWRIDOOVXUIDFHVRYHU
essentially non-porous material; therefore, a coating ZKLFKWRDSSO\DFRQVLVWHQWXQLIRUPSRUHIUHHFRDWLQJ
FDQEHDSSOLHGRYHULWDVDFRQWLQXRXV¿OPZLWKUHODWLYH All surface imperfections, air pockets and pinholes must
ease. While the steel surface is reactive, it is less be eliminated. The surface must receive a coat of cement
VRWKDQPDQ\RWKHUVXUIDFHVRYHUZKLFKFRDWLQJV SODVWHUKDUGWURZHOHGDVGHVFULEHGDERYHRUDUHVLQRXV
are applied, and most coatings or paints adhere FRQFUHWHVXUIDFHUPXVWEHDSSOLHGZKLFKZLOO¿OODOOWKH
UHDVRQDEO\ZHOORYHUDFOHDQGU\VWHHOVXEVWUDWH concrete surface imperfections, have some penetration
into the concrete for maximum adhesion and provide a
smooth, pore-free base for the subsequent coatings. Both
of the above methods are applicable for the best coating
VHUYLFHXQGHUGLI¿FXOWFRQGLWLRQV:KHUHFRQFUHWHRUVWXFFR

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

surfaces are coated for decoration only, such surface ZLWK]LQFKDYHKLJKDGKHVLRQDQGDORZ097UDWH&HUWDLQ
treatments may not be required. YLQ\OVHSR[LHVDQGFKORULQDWHGUXEEHUVZRUNZHOO=LQF
$OXPLQXPJHQHUDOO\KDVDGHQVHVPRRWKVXUIDFHZLWK DOVRKDVDVPRRWKVXUIDFHKRZHYHURQFHLWLVR[LGL]HG
a tight aluminum oxide coating on the surface. While by exposure to the atmosphere for a period of several
this surface is relatively stable, it can cause adhesion ZHHNVRUPRQWKVWKHVPRRWKVXUIDFHWHQGVWRGLVDSSHDU
problems for some coatings. Where there are breaks, SURYLGLQJPXFKEHWWHUDGKHVLRQ,IDQHZJDOYDQL]HG
particularly under alkaline conditions, undercutting and surface must be coated, it should be lightly dust blasted,
even perforation of the metal may occur. as indicated for the aluminum or copper surfaces, or it
VKRXOGEHFKHPLFDOO\WUHDWHGZLWKD]LQFVXUIDFHWUHDWPHQW
&RSSHUSURYLGHVDGHQVHVXUIDFHZLWKDFRSSHUR[LGH (commercially available) prior to coating.
¿OPRYHULW0DQ\FRDWLQJVIDLOWRREWDLQSURSHUDGKHVLRQ
WRWKLVVXUIDFH,QPDQ\ZD\VLWLVVLPLODUWRDOXPLQXP :RRGKDVLWVRZQLQKHUHQWFKDUDFWHULVWLFVZKLFKFDXVH
although it is not as reactive a surface so that coating FRDWLQJIDLOXUHV,WLVYHU\PRLVWXUHVHQVLWLYHDQGZLOOVZHOO
failure is not as prevalent. The failure of many effective GXULQJWLPHVRIKLJKKXPLGLW\DQGVKULQNZKHQFRQGLWLRQV
coatings is caused by these types of smooth, dense are dry. This dimensional change can take place on a
VXUIDFHV$OLJKWGXVWEODVWLQJZLWKXVHGVDQGRUYHU\ GDLO\F\FOHLQDGGLWLRQWRFOLPDWLFFKDQJHVZKLFKRFFXU
¿QHVDQGDQGORZSUHVVXUHDLUZLOOEUHDNXSWKHVXUIDFH RYHUORQJHUSHULRGV:RRGKDVWZRW\SHVRIVXUIDFHV
LQFUHDVHWKHVXUIDFHDUHDDQGDOORZDGKHVLRQWKDWFDQQRW WKDWSURYLGHGE\YHU\GHQVHZLQWHUJUDLQDQGWKHUDWKHU
EHREWDLQHGE\DQ\RWKHUPHDQVRQHLWKHURIWKHVHWZR porous, soft summer grain. This is very characteristic of
types of surfaces. ZRRGVVXFKDV2UHJRQSLQHFHGDUDVKDQGPDQ\RWKHU
RSHQJUDLQHGZRRGV0DSOHELUFKDQGZRRGVZKLFKDUH
=LQFLVDPRUHUHDFWLYHPHWDOWKDQDOXPLQXPZKLFKLVWKH YHU\GHQVHDUHVRPHZKDWOHVVRIDSUREOHPDOWKRXJK
reason for its use as a galvanic coating. Galvanizing and ERWKW\SHVRIVXUIDFHLHVXPPHUDQGZLQWHUJUDLQDUH
inorganic zinc coatings have proven to have a very long present. These grains tend to expand and contract at a
life in many atmospheres. In spite of this, under certain different rate due to varying humidity and temperature,
PDULQHRUKLJKO\KXPLGFRQGLWLRQVZKHQXVHGDVDEDVH DQGDQ\FRDWLQJZKLFKLVDSSOLHGRYHUWKHVHVXUIDFHVDQG
coat, zinc may react under the top coat producing a ZKLFKZLOOQRWH[SDQGDQGFRQWUDFWZLWKWKHPZLOOWHQGWR
YROXPLQRXVZKLWHFRUURVLRQSURGXFW7KLVFDXVHVFRDWLQJ fail rather quickly along the grain boundaries.
IDLOXUHE\ZKLWHVDOWVRI]LQFFRUURVLRQWKDWFRPSOHWHO\
undercut the coating and lift it from the surface. $Q\FRDWLQJZKLFKLVDSSOLHGRYHUDVXUIDFHPXVWEH
WKRURXJKO\FRPSDWLEOHZLWKWKDWVXUIDFHPXVWKDYHVWURQJ
7KHUHDUHDOVRFRDWLQJVWKDWUHDFWZLWKWKHYDULRXVDONDOLQH permanent adhesion to it and must not chemically react
zinc hydroxides to form zinc soaps. These are oil paints ZLWKLW8QOHVVWKHFRDWLQJKDVWKHVHFDSDELOLWLHVIDLOXUHLV
or alkyd coatings and are not recommended for direct inevitable.
application over galvanizing or inorganic zinc. Top coats
for zinc surfaces should be inert, thoroughly compatible The failure of a coating over a used surface is much
PRUHSUREDEOHWKDQZKHQDSSOLHGRYHUDSHUIHFWO\QHZ
original surface. This has been proven many times. As an
H[DPSOHWDQNVLQWKHZHVW7H[DVRLO¿HOGVZKHUHVXO¿GHV

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 Ponderosa Protective Coatings™

Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

DUHDSUREOHPKDYHEHHQUHSDLUHGE\WKHXVHRIQHZ the inorganic zinc, the required top coating can then be
VWHHOVKHHWV7KHHQWLUHVXUIDFHRIWKHWDQNZDVWKHQVDQG applied.
EODVWHGWRZKLWHPHWDODQGWKHFRDWLQJDSSOLHGZLWKHTXDO
FDUHRYHUWKHQHZDQGWKHROGVXUIDFH,QDPDWWHURIMXVW 'RQRWXQGHUHVWLPDWHWKHSUREOHPVLQYROYHGZLWKXVHG
DIHZPRQWKVWKHFRDWLQJDSSOLHGRYHUWKHROGVXUIDFH steel surfaces. Untold failures of coating have occurred
IDLOHGZKLOHLWZDVVWLOOFRPSOHWHO\HIIHFWLYHRYHUWKHQHZ EHFDXVHWKLVSUREOHPRISULRUXVHZDVQRWUHFRJQL]HG
steel. Used aluminum and zinc surfaces are less of a problem.
+RZHYHUFDUHVKRXOGEHWDNHQZKHQHYHUDVXUIDFHKDV
7KLVVDPHSKHQRPHQRQRFFXUVDERDUGVKLSVZKHUH been subjected to serious corrosion.
corrosion has taken place on steel plates. It occurs in
chemical tanks and on the exterior of structural steel :RRGDQGFRQFUHWHDUHGH¿QLWHO\DIIHFWHGE\SUHYLRXVXVH
bridges. This problem occurs to the greatest extent on Both can absorb and retain soluble or reactive materials,
VWHHOVXUIDFHVDQGLQDUHDVZKHUHVHYHUHFRUURVLRQ ZKLFKLIQRWUHPRYHGSULRUWRWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHFRDWLQJ
conditions exist. The previous use of the steel must be ZLOOFDXVHEOLVWHULQJODFNRIDGKHVLRQDQGFRDWLQJIDLOXUH
taken into consideration in order for the coating to be 7KHGHQVLW\RUVPRRWKQHVVRIDVXUIDFHRYHUZKLFKD
effective. The problem is the retention of very minute coating is applied is extremely important. As an example,
quantities of corrosion product in the rough corroded FROGUROOHGVWHHOLVPXFKPRUHGLI¿FXOWWRFRDWWKDQKRW
DUHDVRIWKHVWHHODQGZKHQWKHFRQWDPLQDWLRQLVQRW UROOHGVWHHOZLWKWKHPLOOVFDOHUHPRYHG&ROGUROOHGVWHHO
FRPSOHWHO\UHPRYHGWKH\FRQWLQXHWRUHDFWZLWKWKH has an extremely dense, smooth surface, and it has
PRLVWXUHYDSRUZKLFKFDQSHQHWUDWHWKHFRDWLQJFDXVLQJ proven in the laboratory many times that a coating applied
early failure in the previously corroded area. over such a surface compared to a coating applied over a
VDQGEODVWHGFROGUROOHGVXUIDFHZLOOIDLOPXFKIDVWHUZKHQ
7KHUHDUHWZRPHWKRGVWKDWFDQEHXVHGWRLPSURYHWKLV both are subject to the same conditions. The problem,
situation. 1) After the original blasting, react the surface of course, is that the very dense, smooth surface does
ZLWKDGLOXWHSKRVSKRULFDFLGVROXWLRQDOORZLWWRGU\ QRWDOORZWKHVDPHTXDOLW\RIDGKHVLRQRIWKHFRDWLQJDV
and then re-blast the surface. This procedure produces GRHVWKHRQHWKDWKDVEHHQURXJKHQHGDQGWKDWDOORZV
DUHDFWLRQWKDWDOORZVWKHPLQXWHDPRXQWVRIFRUURVLRQ PHFKDQLFDODGKHVLRQLQDGGLWLRQWRQRUPDOZHWWLQJRIWKH
product to be removed on the second blasting. 2) The surface.
VHFRQGSURFHGXUHZKHUHDQLQRUJDQLF]LQFFRDWLQJFDQ
be used as a permanent primer, is a very satisfactory Cleanliness of the surface is vitally important, of course to
RQH7KHLQRUJDQLF]LQFFRDWLQJWHQGVWRUHDFWZLWKWKH the life of any coating. It is a rule of thumb that any coating
minute amount of corrosion product on the surface, DSSOLHGRYHUDSHUIHFWO\FOHDQVXUIDFHZLOOODVWORQJHUDQG
eliminating its corrosive tendency, and at the same time be more effective than the same coating applied over
WRUHDFWZLWKWKHVWHHOVXUIDFHWRSURYLGHDYHU\VWURQJ a lesser surface. This applies to metals, concrete and
FKHPLFDOERQG)ROORZLQJWKHDSSOLFDWLRQDQGFXUHRI ZRRGWRWKHVDPHGHJUHH,WDOVRDSSOLHVWRWKHUHSDLU
DQGPDLQWHQDQFHRIFRDWLQJVDVZHOODVWRRULJLQDOFRDWLQJ
installations.

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Causes and Prevention of Paint Failure

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