POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Republic of the Philippines

Polytechnic University of the Philippines
NDC Campus Anonas cor. Pureza St. Sta. Mesa, Manila, Philippines
College of Engineering and Architecture
A.Y. 2022-2023

Submarine Cable: An Invention that Linked the World

Aleck Gervin D. Mirasol

BS ECE 1-5
Dr. Marianito Gallego Jr.
Professor
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I. Introduction
• Definition of submarine cables …………………………………………………………. 3
II. History of submarine cables
• Early attempts at laying submarine cables ………………………………………….. 4
• Advancements in technology and materials …………………………………………. 5
III. Components of a submarine cable
• Fiber optic strands ………………………………………………………………………… 6
• Insulation layers …………………………………………………………………………… 6
• Armor layers ………………………………………………………………………………… 7
• Protective coatings …………………………………………………………………..…….. 7
• Landings and Cable Stations ……………………………………………………………. 7
IV. Laying and maintenance of submarine cables
• Surveying the ocean floor ………………………………………………………………… 8
• Cable Manufacture and Testing ………………………………………………….…….. 8
• Laying the cable ………………………………………………………………………........ 8
• Regular maintenance and repair ……………………………………………………….. 9
V. Importance and Benefits of Submarine Cables
• Global Communications Infrastructure ………………………………………………. 9
• Internet Connectivity ……………………………………………………………………… 9
• International Trade and Economy …………………………………………………….. 10

VI. Challenges of submarine cables

• Damage from natural disasters ………………………………………………………… 10
• Human interference ………………………………………………………………………. 10
• Cybersecurity threats …………………………………………………………………….. 10
VII. Future of submarine cables
• Increasing demand for global connectivity …………………………………………... 11
• Potential for new routes and connections ……………………………………………. 11
VIII. Conclusion
• Recap of importance and impact of submarine cables ………………….………… 12
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I. Introduction

i. Definition of submarine cables

A submarine cable, also known as a subsea cable, is an optical fiber mounted

beneath the seafloor that connects land-based stations to transmit telecommunication
signals across oceans and seas. The graphic below depicts the significant undersea
cables that are currently in service across the world.

Additionally, Submarine cables serve

as the global telecommunications
infrastructure's backbone, allowing
transcontinental communication,
worldwide internet access, and the
transmission of massive volumes of
data across continents. Submarine
cables are also specialized to send
data, audio, and video information.

As of early 2023, there are 1.4 million

Figure 1. Submarine Cable across the Globe kilometers of submarine cables in
service globally. Some are short, like
the Celtix Connect cable between
Ireland and the UK, while others are
long, like the 20,000-kilometer Asia
America Gateway cable.
Modern cables are typically 25 mm (1
in) in diameter and weigh 1.4 tons per
kilometer for deep-sea sections, while
larger and heavier cables are used for
shallow-water sections near shore.

Figure 2. Submarine Cable at the seabed

II. History of submarine cables

i. Early attempts at laying submarine cables

➢ It all began when William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone demonstrated their
functioning telegraph in 1839, the concept of a submerged connection across the
Atlantic Ocean began to be considered as a possible future victory.
➢ Samuel Morse, the creator of Morse Code buried a wire insulated with tarred hemp
and India rubber in New York Harbor and telegraphed it in 1842. He did it to
illustrate the possibilities of subsea cables.
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➢ In Swansea Bay, Wheatstone conducted a similar experiment. For the success of a

long undersea line, he discovered that a suitable insulator was required to cover the
wire and prevent the electric current from seeping into the water.
➢ In 1847, William Siemens, then an officer in the Prussian army, constructed the first
successful underwater cable, utilizing gutta percha insulation, across the Rhine
between Deutz and Cologne.

➢ The first successful undersea

cable across the English
Channel was built in 1850,
linking England with France.
The Dover-Calais Cable was
built using a single copper wire
insulated with gutta-percha (a
natural latex) and protected by
iron and hemp. It enabled
telegraph contact between
England and France,
drastically lowering message
transmission time. It was
chopped down weeks later by
fisherman who mistook it for
seaweed. It demonstrated the
feasibility of intercontinental
communication.
Figure 3. Production of gutta-percha

➢ In 1902 and 1903, the first trans-Pacific cables were built, connecting the US
mainland to Hawaii in 1902 and Guam to the Philippines in 1903.
➢ TAT-1, the first subsea telephone cable, was installed between 1955 and 1956. It
was a collaborative initiative between the UK Post Office (of which BT was a member
for a couple of years), the American Telephone and Telegraph business (now AT&T),
and the Canadian Overseas Telecommunications Corporation that could carry 35
simultaneous telephone calls.
➢ TAT-8, the eighth transatlantic communications cable, was the first fiber optic
subsea cable. The cable, built in 1988 by a partnership led by AT&T, France Télécom,
and British Telecom, it could carry 280 Mbits per second. It was retired in 2002.
➢ There are now about 400 subsea cables in service. Some connections between
neighboring islands can be less than 50 miles long. Others can go more than 10,000
kilometers across the Pacific. Some link single points across a body of water, while
others have several landing spots connecting various nations.
➢ On the other hand, Antarctica is the only continent without an undersea
telecommunications cable; however, one is allegedly being investigated to increase
access for researchers in the region.
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ii. Advancements in technology and materials

Technological and material advancements have played a vital influence in the

growth of undersea cables, increasing their capacity, durability, and transmission
capacities. Here are a few important developments:

• The widespread adoption of fiber optics in the 1980s was one of the most significant
advancements in submarine cable technology. Fiber optic connections replaced old
copper-based cables and provided various benefits such as increased bandwidth,
quicker data transfer rates, and increased transmission capacity. Optical fibers,
which are constructed of glass or plastic, carry data in light pulses, allowing for
higher signal integrity and longer transmission lengths with less signal deterioration.

• In addition, submarine cable design has improved to improve longevity and resilience
to external forces. Modern cables include many protective layers, such as
polyethylene sheaths, water-blocking polymers, and steel wire armoring, which
provide mechanical protection, water resistance, and protection against external
forces such as anchor damage.

• Repeaters are crucial

components in long-distance
submarine cables as they
amplify and regenerate the
optical signals, enabling
transmission over extended
distances without signal
Figure 4. Repeater installed in Submarine degradation. Advancements in
Cable. repeater technology have
resulted in more sophisticated
and reliable repeaters, allowing
for longer cable spans and higher
transmission speeds.

Figure 5. Components of a Repeater

• The introduction of DWDM technology enables multiple wavelengths of light to be

transmitted simultaneously over a single optical fiber, significantly increasing the
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capacity of submarine cables. By dividing the optical spectrum into multiple

channels, each carrying data independently, DWDM enables high-speed data
transmission and allows for the multiplexing of vast amounts of information over a
single fiber.
• Innovations in submarine cable installation techniques have facilitated more efficient
and cost-effective deployments. Specialized cable-laying vessels, equipped with
dynamic positioning systems and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), have made it
easier to lay and bury submarine cables on the ocean floor. These advancements
have reduced the time and complexity involved in cable installations, allowing for
quicker network expansion and upgrades.

III. Components of a submarine cable

Figure 6. Parts of a submarine cable.

i. Fiber optic strands

The core component of a submarine cable is the optical fiber, which is typically made of
glass or plastic. Glass fibers offer higher performance in terms of low signal attenuation
and high bandwidth capacity. Plastic fibers, such as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA),
are sometimes used in shorter cable spans or specific applications where cost is a factor.

ii. Insulation layers

At the early age of underwater cables, the copper conductors were coated in gutta-
percha, a natural latex.

Modern undersea cables frequently include polyethylene sheaths because they offer
mechanical protection and moisture isolation.

Water-blocking substances: To keep water out of the cable and guard the fibers against
moisture damage, special substances like petroleum jelly or water-blocking tapes (mylar
tape) are put within the cable.
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iii. Armor layers

Steel Wires: Steel wires are

frequently used for armoring since
they are strong and pressure
resistant.
Synthetic Materials: Fiberglass or
aramid fibers may be employed as
strength members for armoring in
particular circumstances.
Jelly Filling: Some submarine
cables use a jelly filling compound
around the fibers to provide
stability, prevent micro bending,
and enhance signal transmission.

Foam Materials: Foam materials

may be used as cushioning
elements within the cable structure
to absorb mechanical stresses and
protect the fibers. Figure 7. Subsea cable parts/materials

iv. Protective coatings

Polyethylene Sheath: A polyethylene sheath is often applied as the outermost layer,
offering resistance against abrasion, corrosion, and physical impact.
Metallic Layers: In certain applications, a metallic layer, such as aluminum or copper,
may be included to provide electrical shielding or grounding.

v. Landings and Cable Stations

Landing points are locations where submarine cables make landfall and are brought
ashore, chosen based on factors such as proximity to population centers, accessibility,
favorable geographical conditions, and connectivity to terrestrial networks. They are
typically situated along coastlines or in designated cable landing stations. While Cable
landing stations are structures built at landing places to contain the equipment and
infrastructure required for undersea cable termination and management. They connect
underwater cables to terrestrial network infrastructure by containing cable
terminations, power feeding equipment, terminal equipment, amplifiers, network
management systems, and monitoring/control systems.

Cable landing stations are critical infrastructure in the submarine cable network,
serving as the vital link between the submarine cables and the terrestrial
telecommunications infrastructure. They facilitate the efficient and reliable exchange
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of data between undersea and land-based networks, enabling seamless global

communication and connectivity.

IV. Laying and maintenance of submarine cables

i. Surveying the ocean floor

Before installing a submarine

cable, investigations should be
undertaken to determine
undersea characteristics, depth
profiles, and potential dangers.
Sonar and other sensors are
used to map the seafloor, detect
existing cables, and decide the
best path. Geological stability,
marine ecology, and fishing
operations are all considered.
Figure 8. Mapping the seafloor.

ii. Cable Manufacture and Testing

Submarine cables are made in specialized factories with technology capable of
generating enormous lengths of cable. Optical fibers are assembled and enclosed in
protective layers, and quality control techniques are undertaken to assure signal
integrity, mechanical strength, and environmental resistance.

iii. Laying the cable

Submarine cables are loaded onto

dedicated cable-laying vessels for
transport to the installation site,
typically stored in tanks or
turntables to ensure controlled
tension and protection. Cable-
laying vessels are equipped with
specialized equipment to deploy
submarine cables onto the
seafloor. Different laying methods,
such as plowing, trenching, or
direct burial, are employed
depending on the depth and
conditions.
Figure 9. Cables being rolled up in a cargo hold.
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Dynamic positioning systems and ROVs assist in the accurate placement and burying
of the cable on the seafloor.

iv. Regular maintenance and repair

Submarine cables require constant

maintenance to guarantee continued
functioning and to avoid service
interruptions. Maintenance operations
include routine inspections,
performance parameter monitoring,
and preventative maintenance duties.
In the case of a fault or damage, repair
vessels equipped with ROVs are sent to
pinpoint and fix the affected segment
of the cable. Repairs may include Figure 10. Recovering of the subsea
splicing, jointing, or replacing cable for maintenance
damaged portions.

V. Importance and Benefits of Submarine Cables

ii. Global Communications Infrastructure

Undersea cables are the primary means of intercontinental communication, linking

countries and continents all over the world. They allow data such as audio, video,
internet traffic, and other types of digital communication to be transmitted allowing
worldwide connectivity and instantaneous interaction.

ii. Internet Connectivity

Submarine cables provide high-

speed connectivity, enabling fast
and efficient internet access
across long distances. They also
provide low-latency connections,
minimizing data transmission
delays and supporting real-time
applications.
Figure 11. Map showing the connections of
Submarine cable system.
This enhances user experience and enables the smooth delivery of bandwidth-intensive
services. The cables can support multiple terabits per second (Tbps) of data transfer,
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and some have been designed with capacities exceeding 10 Tbps or even higher. This
varies depending on the cable and its design.

iii. International Trade and Economy

Fundamentally, Undersea cables are essential for global economic growth, enabling
international trade, finance, and business operations. They facilitate the exchange of
information between businesses, governments, and individuals, supporting e-
commerce, financial transactions, and supply chain management. Additionally,
submarine cables are critical for worldwide enterprises because they allow them to
interact with consumers, partners, and suppliers in remote regions. They also enhance
international trade and business by allowing governments to exchange information and
data.

VI. Challenges of submarine cables

i. Damage from natural disasters

Submarine cables are subject to

unforeseen incidents due to their
subsurface placement. Environmental
variables such as earthquakes may
contribute to damage. According to the
ICPC data, natural causes generated
5% of total damage or failures.

ii. Human interference

Two-thirds of all cable problems are

caused by accidents such as fishing
vessels and ships dragging anchors.
Additionally, almost all the greatest Figure 12. A graph depicting the
incidents were resulted from anchor proportion of damage to submarine cables.
dragging; In December 2008, the SEA-
ME-WE 4 (South-East Asia - Middle iii. Cybersecurity threats
East - Western Europe 4) submarine
cable was cut near Alexandria, Egypt. Advanced information and
The incident resulted in significant communication technology and network
disruptions to internet connectivity for management software are used to route
several countries in the Middle East and and transmit international internet and
South Asia, including Egypt, India, telecommunications traffic over the
Pakistan, and the United Arab underwater telecommunication cable
Emirates. network, rendering the system
susceptible to hackers.
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To intercept and gather sensitive data passing over underwater cables, cybercriminals
or state-sponsored entities may try to hack into them. Cable espionage could disrupt
communication secrecy and reveal private information.

VII. Future of submarine cables

i. Increasing demand for global connectivity

To handle the exponential expansion in data traffic, larger capacities are anticipated
from underwater cables in the future. Higher data transfer speeds will be made possible
by technologies including enhanced transmission methods, sophisticated modulation
schemes, and more fibers. The addition of extra fibers per cable and the use of
sophisticated amplification methods will increase capacity even further. Moreover, a
fiber optic submarine cable system that has sensors installed at regular intervals along
its whole length is referred to as a "green" system. Temperature, pressure, and three-
axis acceleration sensors are the three fundamental types of sensors. Together, these
sensors make it possible to assess seismic activity, tsunamis, changes in sea level, and
ambient temperature. A "green" system gets its name from the capability to assess
environmental conditions in the deep ocean. Sensors are installed nominally once every
repeater span over the whole length of the system, as opposed to only at a few chosen
spots, which distinguishes green systems from mixed-use systems. The goal of green
system development is to include sensor functions into each repeater housing in
commercial telecommunications cables, eliminating the need to establish a dedicated
cabled observatory.

Without a doubt, Submarine cables will still play a crucial role in supporting the
integration of 5G networks and emerging technologies such as Internet of Things (IoT),
Artificial Intelligence (AI), and edge computing. These technologies will generate a
massive amount of data that will require efficient and high-capacity connectivity
provided by submarine cables.

ii. Potential for new routes and connections

As technology progresses and connectivity demands expand, additional undersea cable

locations and connections will be investigated to extend global networks and ensure
that more people and areas can benefit from reliable and high-speed internet access.

The Philippine telecom sector is now completely open to international investment. On

March 21, 2022, Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte signed Republic Act No. 11659,
altering the 85-year-old Public Service Act (PSA) to allow foreigners to hold 100% of
corporations in the telecommunications, shipping, airline, railway, toll road, and
transport network vehicle industries. As public utilities, these industries were once
subject to a 40% foreign equity cap. In respect to this, by 2024, there will be seven trans-
pacific underwater cables connecting the Philippines to the United States, including the
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Guam-Philippines, AAG, SEA-US, Jupiter, PLCN, CAP-1, and Bifrost, cementing the
Philippines' status as an international telecommunications hub in the APAC area.

There are already 11 international

undersea cable systems connecting
the Philippines, with another 6
transpacific and intra-Asian subsea
cables in the works, including ADC,
Apricot, Bifrost, CAP-1, SEA-H2X,
and ALC.

Figure 13. Globe Telecom’s new submarine

cable project

VIII. Conclusion

i. Recap of importance and impact of submarine cables

Submarine cables play an important role in delivering worldwide internet

access. They connect countries and regions that would otherwise be geographically
isolated or reliant on satellite linkages or limited-capacity terrestrial networks.

Fundamentally, it is essential for global connectivity, economic growth,

research, education, disaster resilience, national security, and bridging the digital
divide. They enable the exchange of information, foster collaboration, and empower
societies, businesses, and individuals.

In conclusion, submarine cables have enormous promise for expanding global

connection, enabling innovative technologies, and addressing the ever-increasing
demand for high-speed data transfer. With continued technological developments and
strategic investments, submarine cables will continue to serve as the backbone of the
global communications infrastructure, providing seamless connectivity across
continents and promoting the digital transformation of society and economies.