CK-12 General Chemistry

Kevin Pyatt, Ph.D.

Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
Dana Desonie, Ph.D.
Ck12 Science

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AUTHORS
Kevin Pyatt, Ph.D.
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other
Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
interactive content, visit www.ck12.org
Dana Desonie, Ph.D.
Ck12 Science

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Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.
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Contents www.ck12.org

Contents

1 Introduction to Chemistry 1
1.1 What is Chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Matter and Change 18

2.1 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Classification of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Measurement 40
3.1 Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Unit Conversions, Error, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4 Atomic Structure 64
4.1 Evolution of the Atomic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2 Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5 Atoms to Molecules 79

6 Ions 82

7 Stoichiometry 88
7.1 Isotopes and Atomic Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.2 The Mole Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.3 Mole Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.4 Avogadro’s Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

8 Chemical Reactions 109

8.1 Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2 Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

9 Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield 137

10 Stoichiometric Calculations 146

11 The Properties of Gases 149

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11.1 Gas Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

11.2 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.3 Gas Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

12 Gas Stoichiometry 172

13 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 175

14 Glossary 178
14.1 A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.2 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.3 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
14.4 D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
14.5 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
14.6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
14.7 G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.8 H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14.9 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
14.10 K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
14.11 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
14.12 M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
14.13 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.14 O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
14.15 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.16 Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
14.17 R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.18 S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
14.19 T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
14.20 U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.21 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
14.22 W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
14.23 Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

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C HAPTER
8 Chemical Reactions
Chapter Outline
8.1 C HEMICAL F ORMULAS
8.2 C HEMICAL E QUATIONS
8.3 T YPES OF C HEMICAL R EACTIONS
8.4 R EFERENCES

For millennia, humans have been fascinated with the composition of things and the workings of the chemical world.
Over time we have come to understand that all matter is comprised of indivisible particles called atoms. Our
understanding of how matter works has been a long pursuit. It started with figuring out how to make things burn.
Humans have been fascinated with chemical reactions that burn, explode, produce loud bangs, and have brilliant
colors. Early alchemists learned that throwing certain salts on a fire would produce different “magical” colors.
Chinese alchemists created human kind’s first explosion with the invention of gunpowder. This chemical recipe was
eventually shared across the medieval globe. Historically, humans have been fascinated with coaxing nature into
doing things, like burning. This fascination, coupled with our ability to observe, record, and share, has led us to
our current understanding of matter. Our understanding of chemical reactions and the equations that describe them
are based on many years of trial and error. The image above is an example of this. It is a star shell bursting over
the night sky. The technology of pyrotechnics, like composition of the propellant, the explosive charge, the colors,
and the shapes of the burst, is a result of hundreds of years of intensive study of chemical reactions and chemical
equations. We are going to study chemical reactions and chemical equations in this chapter.
Jon Sullivan. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Firework. j pg. Public Domain.

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8.1 Chemical Formulas

Lesson Objectives

• Use a chemical formula or mass data to calculate the percent composition of a compound.
• Use the percent composition of a compound to calculate the mass of an element in a given sample.
• Be able to calculate the empirical formula for a compound when given percent composition data.
• Be able to calculate the molecular formula for a compound when you know its molar mass and its empirical
formula.

Lesson Vocabulary

• percent composition: The percent by mass of each element in a compound.

• empirical formula: An elemental formula showing the lowest whole-number ratio of the elements in a
compound.
• molecular formula: A formula showing how many atoms of each element are present in one molecule of a
molecular compound.

Check Your Understanding

• How can you calculate the amount of a substance in moles from its mass and its molar mass?

Introduction

Packaged foods that you eat typically have nutritional information provided on the label. The label of a popular
brand of peanut butter (Figure 8.1) reveals that one serving size is considered to be 32 g. The label also gives the
masses of various types of compounds that are present in each serving. One serving contains 7 g of protein, 15 g of
fat, and 3 g of sugar. This information can be used to determine the composition of the peanut butter on a percent
by mass basis. For example, to calculate the percent of protein in the peanut butter, we could perform the following
calculation:

7 g protein
⇥ 100% = 22% protein
32 g

In a similar way, chemists often need to know what elements are present in a compound and in what percentages.
The percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a compound. It is calculated in a way that is
similar to what we just saw for the peanut butter.

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FIGURE 8.1
Foods like peanut butter provide nutritional information on the label in the form of masses of different types of
compounds present per serving.

Percent Composition and Mass

Determining Percent Composition from Mass Data

We can calculate percent composition based on the following formula:

mass of element ⇥ 100%

% by mass = mass of compound

The example below shows how the percent composition of a compound can be calculated based on mass data:
Example 10.13
A certain newly synthesized compound is known to contain the elements zinc and oxygen. When a 20.00 g sample
of the compound is decomposed, 16.07 g of pure zinc remains. Determine the percent composition of the compound.
Answer:
If the compound contained only zinc and oxygen, and 16.07 grams was due to the zinc, we can subtract to determine
the mass of oxygen in the original sample:
Mass of oxygen = 20.00 g - 16.07 g = 3.93 g O
Then, we divide the individual masses of each element by the total mass of the sample to determine the percent (by
mass) of each element in the compound:

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16.07 g Zn
% Zn = ⇥ 100% = 80.35% Zn
20.00 g
3.93 g O
%O= ⇥ 100% = 19.65% O
20.00 g

The calculations make sense because the sum of the two percentages adds up to 100%. By mass, the compound is
mostly zinc.

Determining Masses from Percent Composition Data

We can also perform the reverse calculation, determining the mass of an element in a given sample, if we know the
total mass of the sample and its percent composition.
Example 10.14
You have a 10.0 g sample of a metal alloy that contains only aluminum and zinc. If the sample is 36% aluminum by
mass, what masses of Al and Zn are present?
Answer:
We are told that the sample is 36% aluminum by mass. Because the only other component is zinc, it must make up
the remaining 64% of the mass. We can multiply each of these percentages by 10.0 grams to find the masses of each
element.
10.0 g sample ⇥ 0.36 = 3.6 g Al
10.0 g sample ⇥ 0.64 = 6.4 g Zn

Empirical Formulas

Recall that an empirical formula is one that shows the lowest whole-number ratio of the elements in a compound.
Because the structure of ionic compounds is an extended three-dimensional network of positive and negative ions,
only empirical formulas are used to describe ionic compounds. However, we can also consider the empirical formula
of a molecular compound. Ethene is a small hydrocarbon compound with the formula C2 H4 (Figure 8.2). While
C2 H4 is its molecular formula and represents its true molecular structure, it has an empirical formula of CH2 . The
simplest ratio of carbon to hydrogen in ethene is 1:2. In each molecule of ethene, there is 1 carbon atom for every
2 atoms of hydrogen. Similarly, we can also say that in one mole of ethene, there is 1 mole of carbon for every 2
moles of hydrogen. The subscripts in a formula represent the molar ratio of the elements in that compound.

FIGURE 8.2
Ball-and-stick model of ethene, C2 H4 .

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Determining Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula

The percent composition of a compound can also be determined from its chemical formula. The subscripts in the
formula are first used to calculate the mass of each element found in one mole of the compound. That value is then
divided by the molar mass of the compound and multiplied by 100%.

mass of element in 1 mol of compound

% by mass = molar mass of compound ⇥ 100%

The percent composition of a given compound is always the same as long as the compound is pure.
Example 10.15
Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2 O7 ) is a highly reactive compound used in some synthesis reactions. Calculate the percent
composition of dichlorine heptoxide.
Answer:
Determine the mass of each element in one mole of the compound, and find the total molar mass of the compound:

• mass of Cl in 1 mol Cl2 O7 = 2 x molar mass of Cl = 70.90 g

• mass of O in 1 mol Cl2 O7 = 7 x molar mass of O = 112.00 g
• molar mass of Cl2 O7 = 70.90 g/mol + 112.00 g/mol = 182.90 g/mol

Now, calculate the percent by mass of each element by dividing the mass of that element in 1 mole of the compound
by the molar mass of the compound and multiplying by 100%.

70.90 g Cl
% Cl = ⇥ 100% = 38.76% Cl
182.90 g
112.00 g O
%O= ⇥ 100% = 61.24% O
182.90 g

As expected, the percentages add up to 100%.

Determining Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition

A procedure called elemental analysis allows us to determine the empirical formula of an unknown compound.
Percent composition data can be directly obtained with this technique, and these values can be used to find the molar
ratios of the elements, which gives us the empirical formula. The steps to be taken are outlined below.

1. Assume a 100 g sample of the compound so that the given percentages can be directly converted into grams.
2. Use each element’s molar mass to convert the grams of each element to moles.
3. In order to find a whole-number ratio, divide the moles of each element by the smallest value obtained in step
2.
4. If all the values at this point are whole numbers (or very close), each number is equal to the subscript of the
corresponding element in the empirical formula.
5. In some cases, one or more of the values calculated in step 3 will not be whole numbers. Multiply each of
them by the smallest number that will convert all values into whole numbers (or very close to whole numbers).
Note that all values must be multiplied by the same number so that the relative ratios are not changed. These
values can then be used to write the empirical formula.

Example 10.16

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A compound of iron and oxygen is analyzed and found to contain 69.94% iron and 30.06% oxygen by mass. Find
the empirical formula of the compound.
Answer:
Follow the steps outlined in the text.
1. Assume a 100 g sample. In 100 grams of the compound, there would be 69.94 g Fe and 30.06 g O.
2. Convert to moles.

1 mol Fe
69.94 g Fe ⇥ = 1.252 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe
1 mol O
30.06 g O ⇥ = 1.879 mol O
16.00 g O

3. Divide both values by the smallest of the results.

1.252 mol Fe
= 1 mol Fe
1.252
1.879 mol O
= 1.501 mol O
1.252

4. Since the moles of O is still not a whole number, both numbers can be multiplied by 2. The results are now close
enough to be rounded to the nearest whole number.

1 mol Fe ⇥ 2 = 2 mol Fe
1.501 mol O ⇥ 2 = 3 mol O

The empirical formula of the compound is Fe2 O3 .

Molecular Formulas

Molecular formulas tell us how many atoms of each element are present in one molecule of a molecular compound.
In many cases, the molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula. For example, the molecular formula of
methane is CH4 , and because 1:4 is the smallest whole-number ratio that can be written for this compound, that is
also its empirical formula. Sometimes, however, the molecular formula is a simple whole-number multiple of the
empirical formula. Acetic acid is an organic acid that gives vinegar its distinctive taste and smell. Its molecular
formula is C2 H4 O2 . Glucose is a simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula
is C6 H12 O6 . The structures of both molecules are shown in Figure 8.3. They are very different compounds, yet both
have the same empirical formula, CH2 O.
The following Table 8.1 shows a few other compounds with their empirical and molecular formulas:

TABLE 8.1: Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Compound Empirical Formula Molecular Formula
water H2 O H2 O
hydrogen peroxide HO H2 O2
methane CH4 CH4
butane C2 H5 C4 H10 115
8.1. Chemical Formulas www.ck12.org

FIGURE 8.3
Acetic acid (left) has a molecular formula
of C2 H4 O2 , while glucose (right) has a
molecular formula of C6 H12 O6 . Both have
the empirical formula CH2 O.

Empirical formulas can be determined from the percent composition of a compound. In order to determine its
molecular formula, it is necessary to also know the molar mass of the compound. Chemists have various methods
to determine the molar mass of an unknown compound. In order to go from the empirical formula to the molecular
formula, follow these steps:

1. Calculate the empirical formula mass (EFM), which is simply the molar mass represented by the empirical
formula.
2. Divide the molar mass of the compound by the empirical formula mass. The result should be a whole number
or very close to a whole number.
3. Multiply all of the subscripts in the empirical formula by the whole number found in step 2. The result is the
molecular formula.

Example 10.17
The empirical formula of a compound that contains boron and hydrogen is BH3 . Its molar mass is 27.7 g/mol.
Determine the molecular formula of the compound.
Answer:
Follow the steps outlined above.

1. The empirical formula mass (EFM) = 13.84 g/mol

molar mass 27.7
2. = =2
EFM 13.84
3. BH3 ⇥ 2 = B2 H6

The molecular formula of the compound is B2 H6 . The molar mass of the molecular formula matches the molar mass
of the compound.

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Lesson Summary

• The percent composition of a compound is the percent by mass of each of the elements in the compound. It
can be calculated from mass data or from the chemical formula.
• Percent composition data can be used to determine a compound’s empirical formula, which is the molar ratio
between the elements in the compound.
• The empirical formula and the molar mass of a substance can be used to determine its molecular formula,
which is the number of each kind of atom in a single molecule of the compound.

Lesson Review Questions

1. Calculate the percent carbon in C2 H6 .

2. Calculate the percent nitrogen in CH3 CH2 CH2 NH2 .
3. A sample of a given compound contains 13.18 g of carbon and 3.32 g of hydrogen. What is the percent
composition of this compound?
4. 5.00 g of aluminum is reacted with 7.00 g of fluorine to form a compound. When the compound is isolated, its
mass is found to be 10.31 g, with 1.69 g of aluminum (and no fluorine) left unreacted. Determine the percent
composition of the compound.
5. Calculate the percent by mass of each element present in sodium sulfate (Na2 SO4 ).
6. Vitamin C contains carbon (40.9%), hydrogen (4.6%), and oxygen (54.5%). Calculate the empirical formula
for vitamin C. The molecular mass is about 180. Determine the molecular formula for vitamin C.
7. Calculate the empirical formula of each compound from the percentages listed:

a. 63.65% N, 36.35% O
b. 81.68% C, 18.32% H

8. A compound was analyzed and found to contain 13.5 g Ca, 10.8 g O, and 0.675 g H. What is the empirical
formula of the compound?
9. Calculate the percent composition of the following compounds:

a. magnesium fluoride, MgF2

b. silver nitrate, AgNO3

10. A compound with the empirical formula CH has a molar mass of 78 g/mol. Determine its molecular formula.
11. A compound is found to consist of 43.64% phosphorus and 56.36% oxygen. The molar mass of the compound
is 284 g/mol. Find the molecular formula of the compound.

Further Reading/Supplementary Links

• Dalton and relative weights: http://dl.clackamas.edu/ch104-03/relative.htm

• Finding empirical formulas given percent composition: http://www.chemteam.info/Mole/Emp-formula-given-
percent-comp.html

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Points to Consider

In the next chapter we will be able to use this information to determine how much material we need for a chemical
reaction and how much product we can produce as a result of a reaction.

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8.2 Chemical Equations

Lesson Objectives

• Give examples of historically significant chemical recipes and equations.

• Briefly describe the major milestones that took place in developing the chemical recipe of gunpowder.
• Understand mass relations between reactants and products for a given chemical process.
• Be able to use stoichiometric coefficients in chemical equations.
• Be able to balance chemical equations.

Lesson Vocabulary

• stoichiometric coefficient: The letters a, b, c, and d where A and B are reactants, and C and D are products.
The stoichiometric coefficients indicate the relative amounts of reactants and products.
• balanced chemical equation: An equation where the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side
is equal to the number of atoms on the product side.

Check Your Understanding

1. Which of the following are physical changes and which are chemical changes?

a. melting of ice
b. a burning candle
c. melting of candle wax
d. sublimation of dry ice to CO2 gas.

Introduction

Ever since the 9th century, humans have been fascinated with the nature of explosions. Whether to scare away evil
spirits, to light up the night sky in celebration, or to be used in warfare, our understanding of gunpowder is based on
our understanding of chemical recipes. Our ability to modify, share, and replicate them has allowed us to develop
new recipes and to refine existing ones. Chemical reactions can be described in terms of chemical equations. They
are the foundation of our modern day chemical recipes.

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FIGURE 8.4

Origins of Chemical Recipes: Gunpowder

The first people to discover gunpowder were 9th century Chinese alchemists. This discovery was made by accident
while they were creating various chemical mixtures in pursuit of an elixir that would make them immortal. The
first formulation of gunpowder was a thick toffee made from honey, saltpeter (a mixture composed primarily of
potassium nitrate), and sulfur. They hoped that eating it would help them live forever. In reality, it burst into flames
and burnt down their homes.
Over time, Chinese alchemists refined the recipe and began to develop early pyrotechnic technology to help scare
away evil spirits. A more fully developed, and more explosive, formula called for 75 percent potassium nitrate, 15
percent charcoal, and 10 percent sulfur.

FIGURE 8.5

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Medieval Europe

This recipe made its way to Europe in medieval times. A Franciscan friar named Roger Bacon was particularly
fascinated by the properties of gunpowder. He discovered that a key factor in the energetics of the mixture was the
purity of the saltpeter. Bacon was responsible for developing early crystallization techniques to purify the mixture.
He also discovered that the more tightly packed the powder, the larger the explosion.
Bacon feared that bad things could happen if the mixture ended up in the wrong hands. He encoded the recipe in an
anagram, which read (when translated from the original Latin) “And so thou wilt call up thunder and destruction if
thou know the art.” The secret recipe, however, did not stay secret for long.

FIGURE 8.6

Pyrotechnics, or fireworks, used in events recorded in 14th century Italy show that the recipe was no longer a secret.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Italians continued refining the art of pyrotechnics. Then, in 1830, a major
leap forward in gunpowder technology occurred. It was discovered that replacing potassium nitrate with potassium
chlorate resulted in a more energetic mixture, and so the recipe was revised once again.

FIGURE 8.7

The modern day formulation of gun powder is called black powder. It is still commonly used today. Its formulation

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is still quite similar to what was used in 9th century China. Black powder is considered a low explosive. It is a
mixture that burns quickly, but the resulting shock wave travels at subsonic speeds. The speed at which it burns is
dependent on the accessibility of oxygen atoms to the carbon source. In contrast, high explosives like nitroglycerin
detonate instead of burning, creating shock waves that are supersonic (faster than the speed of sound).

The Chemical Equation

Chemical equations describe the changes in composition that take place during a chemical reaction. Along with
the identities of the starting reactants and the final products, chemical equations show the ratios in which these
substances are consumed and produced. The reaction of iron with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide is shown in the
Figure 8.8.

FIGURE 8.8
The sparks from a steel grinder are
molten iron. The iron reacts with oxygen
to form iron(III) oxide.

We can describe this reaction with a chemical equation:

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ! 2Fe2 O3(s)
This equation is said to be balanced, because the amount of each element expressed on the reactants side is equal to
the amounts expressed on the products side. This is shown more explicitly in the following Table 8.2.

TABLE 8.2: 4Fe

Reactants Products
Fe 4 4
O 6 6

Often times, the processes described by chemical equations do not represent a single reaction. For example, the
following equation shows the starting materials and the products for photosynthesis:
light
6CO2(g) + 6H2 O(l) ! C6 H12 O6(s) + 6O2(g)
This process does not occur in a single step. A sequence of many individual reactions is required to make glucose
and oxygen gas out of carbon dioxide and water. Chemical equations can be used to represent individual reactions
or the net change that occurs after multiple sequential chemical processes.

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The Balanced Chemical Equation

We can describe chemical reactions in terms of generic expressions like the following equation:
aA + bB ! cC + dD
where A and B are reactants, and C and D are products. The letters a, b, c, and d represent stoichiometric
coefficients, or the relative amount of each substance that is involved in the reaction. In this particular reaction,
there are two reactants and two products, but others might have more or less. For example, the equation describing
the rusting of iron had two reactants (Fe and O2 ) and one product (Fe2 O3 ).
In a balanced chemical equation, the number of atoms of each element on the reactant side is equal to the number
of atoms on the product side. This is necessary for all chemical equations, due to the law of conservation of mass.
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction, only rearranged. Here are some examples of
general expressions that will be applied to specific reactions in the next section.
Example 11.1
Substance A reacts with substance B to form substance AB. Write the balanced chemical equation for this process.
Answer:

Write the general expression.

A + B ! AB

Balance (it already is).

TABLE 8.3: A + B ! AB
Reactants Products
A 1 1
B 1 1

Example 11.2
Substance A reacts with substance B2 to form substance AB. Write the balanced chemical equation for this process.
Answer:

Write the general expression.

A + B2 ! AB

Balance.

2A + B2 ! 2AB

TABLE 8.4: Example 11.2

Reactants Products
A 2 2
B 2 2

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Example 11.3
Substance A2 reacts with substance B2 to form substance AB3 . Write the balanced chemical equation for this
process.
Answer:

Write the general expression.

A2 + B2 ! AB3

Balance.

TABLE 8.5: A
Reactants Products
A 2 2
B 6 6

Balancing Chemical Equations for Real Reactions

Now that we have studied the general process for describing and balancing chemical equations, we are going to
apply this approach to examples that include actual chemicals. As we present the following reactions, we are going
to focus only on the changes in composition from reactants to products. In later chapters, we will look at other
reaction properties, such as states of matter, temperature, and the energy lost or gained by a given reaction. In the
following lesson, we will look at ways to classify different types of reactions. This knowledge will allow us to make
reasonable predictions about the products that might be generated from a given set of reactants.
Tips for Balancing Equations
Before we get started with balancing chemical equations, here are some simple tips to consider:

1. If there are polyatomic ions that exist unchanged on both sides of the equation, it is often simpler to treat them
as single units than to break them down into their individual elements.
2. It is often easier to leave elements that occur in their pure elemental form (on either side of the equation) for
last.
3. If a reactant or product has a coefficient of 1, this number is not explicitly written.
4. In a correctly balanced equation, all coefficients must be whole numbers. However, the use of fractions can
be helpful as a way of finding the correct coefficients. If all atoms in an equation are balanced but some have
fractional coefficients, multiply all coefficients in the entire equation (including those not explicitly written!)
by the lowest common denominator to get the final balanced equation.

Example 11.4
Liquid mercury is heated in the presence of oxygen to produce mercury(II) oxide. Write the balanced chemical
equation for this process.
Answer:

Start by writing the general expression.

Hg(l) + O2 (g) ! HgO(s)

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Then, alter the coefficients to balance each element.

TABLE 8.6: 2Hg(l)+O

Reactants Products
Hg 2 2
O 2 2

Notice that in this example, the formula for oxygen is the diatomic form O2 . Many pure nonmetallic elements
are unstable as individual atoms and combine readily to make diatomic molecules. Hydrogen (H2 ), nitrogen (N2 ),
oxygen (O2 ), and the halogens (F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , and I2 ) exist as diatomic molecules when in their pure elemental forms.
Example 11.5
Hydrogen gas and fluorine gas react to form hydrogen fluoride gas. Write the balanced chemical equation for this
process.
Answer:

Start by writing the general expression.

H2 (g) + F2 (g) ! HF(g)

Then balance each element.

TABLE 8.7: H
Reactants Products
H 2 2
F 2 2

Again, pure hydrogen and fluorine exist as diatomic gases.

Example 11.6
Ammonium nitrate decomposes to form nitrogen gas, water, and oxygen gas. Write the balanced chemical equation
for this process.
Answer:

Write the general expression.

NH4 NO3 (s) ! N2 (g) + H2 O(l) + O2 (g)

Balance.

Because this equation involves more than two elements, it is slightly less straightforward to balance. Since nitrogen
and oxygen both occur in their pure elemental forms, we start by balancing hydrogen:
NH4 NO3 (s) ! N2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + O2 (g)
Hydrogen and nitrogen are now balanced, but oxygen is not. This can be fixed by changing the coefficient on its
pure elemental form:

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NH4 NO3 (s) ! N2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 12 O2 (g)

The atoms are now balanced, but to avoid having fractional coefficients, we must multiply all coefficients in the
equation by 2:
2NH4 NO3 (s) ! 2N2 (g) + 4H2 O(l) + O2 (g)
We can confirm that this equation is balanced by writing the following Table 8.8.

TABLE 8.8: 2NH

Reactants Products
N 4 4
H 8 8
O 6 6

Example 11.7
Lead(II) nitrate reacts with sodium chloride to form lead(II) chloride and sodium nitrate. Write the balanced
chemical equation for this process.
Answer:

Write the general expression.

Pb(NO3 )2 + NaCl ! PbCl2 + NaNO3

Balance.

TABLE 8.9: Pb(NO

Reactants Products
Pb 1 1
NO3 2 2
Na 2 2
Cl 2 2

By keeping the polyatomic nitrate ion intact as a single unit, balancing this equation becomes somewhat simpler.
This was done because the ion exists unchanged on both sides of the equation. Note that this is in contrast to the
previous example, in which the nitrate ion decomposed to form other substances.

Lesson Summary

• The composition of gunpowder gradually changed as alchemists and scientists experimented with ways to
make it even more explosive.
• Chemical reactions are described using chemical equations.
• Stoichiometric coefficients are used in chemical equations to indicate the amounts of reactants and products.
• Because of the law of conservation of mass (matter can neither be created nor destroyed through chemical
reactions), chemical equations must have equal amounts of each specific atom on both sides of the equation.

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Lesson Review Questions

1. Early Chinese alchemists discovered an early form of gunpowder. What was the composition of this sub-
stance?
2. What later developments were made to the gunpowder recipe that improved its pyrotechnic properties?
3. Make an argument for why the burning of a candle is consistent with the law of conservation of matter/mass.
4. Think of an experiment that you could conduct to demonstrate that mass is conserved for a given chemical
change.
5. Balance the following chemical equations:
a. C + O2 ! CO
b. CO + O2 ! CO2
c. H2 + Br2 ! HBr
d. K + H2 O ! KOH + H2
e. O3 ! O2
f. N2 + H2 ! NH3
g. Zn + AgCl ! ZnCl2 + Ag
h. Cl2 + NaI ! NaCl + I2
i. P4 O10 + H2 O ! H3 PO4
j. Be2 C + H2 O ! Be(OH)2 + CH4
k. S + HNO3 ! H2 SO4 + NO2 + H2 O
l. NH3 + CuO ! Cu + N2 + H2 O
m. HCl + CaCO3 ! CaCl2 + H2 O + CO2

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Gunpowder in Ancient China: http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/war/gunpowder.htm

• Practice Balancing Chemical Equations:
– http://education.jlab.org/elementbalancing/index.html
– http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/scripts/bal_eq1.html
– http://gregthatcher.org/Chemistry/BalanceEquation/S
• Chemical Equation Balances: http://www.personal.psu.edu/jzl157/balance.htm

Points to Consider

• What is the relationship between chemical equations and chemical reactions?

• In this chapter, an argument was made that the human fascination with fire and explosions ultimately con-
tributed to our current understanding of chemical equations. Can you think of other aspects of nature for
which further exploration has contributed to our current understanding of chemistry?

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8.3 Types of Chemical Reactions

Lesson Objectives

• Be able to classify a chemical reaction as a combination, decomposition, single replacement, double replace-
ment, or combustion reaction.
• Be able to predict the products when given a set of reactants for a given chemical process.
• Explain the concept of solubility and the process of precipitation.
• Use solubility information to predict whether or not a given substance is soluble in water.
• Use the general solubility rules to predict chemical behavior.
• Be able to write molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations for a given chemical process.

Lesson Vocabulary

• combination reaction: A reaction where two or more chemical species combine to produce a single new
compound.
• decomposition reaction: A reaction where a single chemical species breaks down to produce two or more
new chemical species.
• single replacement reaction: Occurs when one chemical species (often a single element) replaces a portion
of another compound to produce two new products.
• double replacement reaction: Occurs when the cations from the original two ionic compounds trade anions
to make two new ionic compounds.
• molecular equation: An equation that shows all ionic components as neutral compounds, but the ones that
are dissolved in water are denoted with "(aq)."
• ionic equation: A chemical equation in which the various reaction components are represented as they
actually exist in the reaction, for example, as individual ions.
• spectator ion: Ions that are present in solution but do not participate in the overall reaction.
• net ionic equation: The simplified ionic equation in which all of the spectator ions are cancelled out.
• combustion: Occurs when a hydrocarbon reacts in the presence of oxygen to produce water and carbon
dioxide.

Check Your Understanding

Study the Figure 8.9, which depicts the mass change that occurs when steel wool burns in air.

1. What happens to the mass of the steel wool as the reaction proceeds?
2. Given that mass must be conserved in chemical reactions (it cannot come from nowhere), what might be your
explanation for the change in the mass of the steel wool?
3. How might mass changes such as this help us identify and categorize a given chemical process?

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FIGURE 8.9
Mass changes for steel wool burning in air

Introduction

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/59229

The video above at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Y1alDuXm6A (1:12) shows the decomposition of mer-

cury(II) oxide into liquid mercury and oxygen gas. This reaction was an important one in the history of chemistry,
because it helped early chemists to understand the relationship between reactants and products.
In the last lesson, we began investigating how a chemical equation can represent a given chemical reaction. In this
lesson, we are going to study the ways in which chemical reactions are classified. There are literally thousands
of chemical reactions that take place every day in our lives. Some reactions take place in the atmosphere, such
as the combustion of fossil fuels. Others occur in solution, like the reactions responsible for photosynthesis or the
reactions that break down our food to give us energy. Chemical reactions can take place in a variety of environments.
Reactions happen on the sea floor, in our cells, and in the upper atmosphere. As we look at chemical reactions, we
notice some commonalities and trends. When we studied the elements, we saw characteristics that allowed us to
categorize them by family. There are also various ways to categorize chemical reactions. Some reactions produce
heat, while others consume it. Some reactions are spontaneous, while others are not. Some reactions happen in
nanoseconds, while others happen over longer spans of time. Some produce electricity, some emit light, and some
release gaseous products. The products of chemical reactions tell us a lot about the chemistry of the process. In the
above video, we see mercury(II) oxide decomposing into elemental mercury and oxygen gas. Decomposition was
one of the first reaction types to be identified by chemists. Decomposition is one type of reaction you’ll learn about
in this lesson.

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Combination Reactions

The first type of reaction that we will investigate is the combination reaction, which is sometimes also referred to
as a synthesis reaction. In combination reactions, two or more chemical species combine to produce a single new
compound. A generic combination reaction might have the following form:
A+B !C
Substances in all states of matter can participate in combination reactions. For example, oxygen in the air can react
with iron to produce rust. Rusting is a common occurrence, especially in regions of the world where precipitation is
relatively high. Although rust tends to be a mixture of compounds, its primary component is iron(III) oxide (Fe2 O3 ).
Rusting is generally a very slow process, but when the iron has a very high surface area, as in the case of steel wool,
it can happen at a much faster rate, as shown in the following video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5MDH92VxPEQ

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/84883

The balanced chemical equation for this process is shown below:

4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) ! 2Fe2 O3 (s)

Decomposition Reactions

A decomposition reaction is the exact opposite of a combination reaction. In decomposition reactions, a single
chemical species breaks down to produce two or more new chemical species. A generic decomposition reaction
might take the following form:
C ! A+B
Again, substances in all states of matter commonly participate in decomposition reactions. For example, hydrogen
peroxide will decompose over time to produce water and oxygen gas according to the following equation:
2H2 O2 (l) ! 2H2 O(l) + O2 (g)
Another common type of decomposition reaction involves the process of electrolysis, in which an electrical current
is passed through a substance to break apart a compound. One example of a decomposition reaction requiring the
use of electrolysis is the decomposition of molten sodium chloride, as shown by the following equation:
2NaCl(s) ! 2Na(s) + Cl2 (g)

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Single Replacement Reactions

A single replacement reaction (sometimes called a single displacement reaction) occurs when one chemical species
(often a single element) replaces a portion of another compound to produce two new products. The general form of
a single replacement reaction is shown below:
AB +C ! AC + B
Two common types of single replacement reactions involve pure metals reaction with aqueous solutions of either an
acid or an ionic compound. When a reactive metal is placed in an acid solution, the following reaction is likely to
occur:
Metal + acid ! ionic solution + hydrogen gas
An example of this would be the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid, which produces zinc chloride and
hydrogen gas. Here is an image of this reaction:

FIGURE 8.10
Zinc metal reacting with a solution of hy-
drochloric acid

The balanced chemical equation for this single replacement reaction is shown below:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ! ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Another type of single replacement reaction involves a solid metal replacing the metal cation in an ionic compound
that has been dissolved in water. If the solid metal is more reactive than the dissolved metal cations, the following
type of reaction can occur:
Metal + ionic solution ! different metal + different ionic solution
A common example of this reaction is when iron is replaced by the more reactive zinc metal. The balanced chemical
equation for this process is shown below.
Zn(s) + FeSO4 (aq) ! Fe(s) + ZnSO4 (aq)

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Double Replacement Reactions

Double replacement reactions typically include two water-soluble salts that react with one another in solution. The
general form of a double replacement reaction would look something like the following:
AB +CD ! AD +CB
In double replacement reactions, the cations from the original two ionic compounds trade anions to make two new
ionic compounds. In general, at least one of the new compounds must precipitate (form an insoluble solid) for us to
conclude that a reaction has occurred. An example of such a process is shown below with the double replacement
reaction between solutions of potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate.

FIGURE 8.11
A double replacement reaction is used to
form lead(II) iodide. The reactants shown
here are colorless solutions of potassium
iodide and potassium nitrate. When com-
bined, these produce a yellow precipitate
of lead(II) iodide.

Representing Ionic Reactions as Chemical Equations

For reactions that involve ions dissolved in water, there are several different ways to express the overall process as a
chemical equation. For example, the overall molecular equation shows all ionic components as neutral compounds,
but the ones that are dissolved in water are denoted with "(aq)." Note that the ionic substances do not exist as
molecules, but we write them out as though they were. In the following example, two water-soluble compounds
trade partners to produce one dissolved ionic compound and one solid precipitate:
AB(aq) +CD(aq) ! AD(aq) +CB(s)
In reality, the aqueous substances do not exist as molecules or ionic crystal lattices. Instead, the individual ions are
dissolved and distributed throughout the solution. If the reaction above were written as an ionic equation, it would
look something like the following:

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A+ (aq) + B (aq) +C+ (aq) + D (aq) ! A+ (aq) + D (aq) +CB(s)

In this example, the various reaction components are presented in a form that is closer to the way they actually exist
during the reaction. The aqueous components are separated into ions, and the precipitate is found as a combined
solid. We are assuming in this example that A and C form cations with a charge of 1+, while B and D form anions
with a charge of 1-. In real examples, we would look at which group each element is found in on the periodic table
to determine its likely charge.
Notice that in the ionic equation, A+ and D were unchanged over the course of the reaction; they exist as aqueous
ions on both the reactant and product sides. In other words, these species did not experience any net change. Ions
that are present in solution but do not participate in the overall reaction are known as spectator ions. The ionic
equation can be simplified to the net ionic equation by canceling out all the spectator ions.

A+⇠
⇠
⇠
⇠
(aq) ⇠⇠ ! ⇠
D ⇠(aq)
+ B (aq) +C+ (aq) + ⇠ A+⇠ ⇠
⇠
(aq) ⇠⇠ +CB(s)
D ⇠(aq)
+⇠
B (aq) +C+ (aq) ! CB(s)

Let’s look at these three types of equations again using a real example. If we were to mix aqueous solutions of
potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate, lead(II) iodide would precipitate as a solid, and potassium nitrate would remain
dissolved. This can be represented by any of the three following equations:
Molecular Equation
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) ! 2KNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s)
Ionic Equation
2K+ (aq) + 2I (aq) + Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) ! 2K+ (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s)
Net Ionic Equation
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I (aq) ! PbI2 (s)

Predicting Solubility of Ionic Compounds

How do we determine which ions are likely to form an insoluble precipitate and which will remain dissolved in
water? By combining various ionic solutions, chemists have come up with some general guidelines for whether a
given cation-anion pairing is likely to be soluble or insoluble in water. It should be noted that such an approach is
an oversimplification. Each compound has its own solubility value, so two "soluble" compounds might have very
different abilities to dissolve in water. Additionally, even "insoluble" salts can dissolve in water to a very limited
extent. We will take a more quantitative approach to solubility in the chapter on solutions. However, qualitative
rules like the ones in the Table 8.10 are useful for predicting whether a precipitate is likely to form when combining
moderate amounts of specific cations and anions.

TABLE 8.10: Solubility Properties to Predict Products of Chemical Reactions

Type of Particle Soluble Insoluble
Common Cations Alkali metal cation (Li+ , Na+ , K+ ,
Rb+ , or Cs+ ) or the NH4 + cation
Common Anions ClO4 and NO3 compounds
Halides Most Cl , Br , and I compounds Compounds that include the Ag+ ,
Pb2+ , or Hg2 2+ cations
Sulfates Most SO4 2 compounds PbSO4 , Ag2 SO4 , Hg2 SO4 , CaSO4 ,
SrSO4 , and BaSO4
Sulfides Compounds with NH4 + or a metal Most S2 compounds
from group IA or IIA as cation
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TABLE 8.10: (continued)

Type of Particle Soluble Insoluble
Hydroxides Compounds with NH4 + , Ba2+ , or a Most OH compounds
metal from group IA as cation
Carbonates, phosphates, and sul- Compounds with NH4 + or a metal Most CO3 2 and PO4 3 , and
fites from group IA as cation SO3 2 compounds

Combustion

Combustion occurs when a hydrocarbon reacts in the presence of oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide.
These reactions are very exothermic, which means that they produce a large amount of heat. Combustion reactions
are quite common in our everyday lives, such as the burning of gasoline to fuel a car. The chemical equation for a
combustion reaction has the following generic form:
Cx Hy + O2 ! H2 O + CO2

FIGURE 8.12
Combustion reaction of a marshmallow
(sucrose) and wood (cellulose).

The process of cellular respiration can be thought of as a highly controlled version of a combustion reaction. We do
not literally burn hydrocarbons in our body, but the overall reactants and products are the same. Hydrocarbons, such
as sucrose (C12 H22 O11 ), are combined with oxygen in a series of enzymatic steps to product water, carbon dioxide,
and energy, which is stored in the form of reactive molecules. The unbalanced chemical equation for this overall
process is shown below:
C12 H22 O11 + O2 ! CO2 + H2 O

Lesson Summary

• Combination reactions occur when two or more reactants combine to produce a single compound.
• Decomposition reactions involve one compound decomposing into two or more products.
• Single replacement reactions occur when one reactant replaces part of another compound to form new sub-
stances.

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• A common type of double replacement reaction occurs when two ionic reactants exchange anions, making
two new ionic compounds. The precipitation of a solid is a common result for this type of reaction.
• Combustion reactions involve the reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen gas to produce water and carbon
dioxide.

Lesson Review Questions

1. Categorize the following chemical reactions as single replacement, double replacement, combustion, combi-
nation, or decomposition.
a. Equimolar (having the same number of moles) solutions of silver nitrate and potassium chloride are
mixed to produce solid silver chloride and aqueous potassium nitrate.
b. Magnesium metal is added to hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and aqueous magnesium
chloride.
c. Ethanol is burned in air to produce water and carbon dioxide gas.
d. Water is electrolyzed to produce hydrogen and oxygen gas.
e. Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are ignited to produce water.
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for the following combination and decomposition reactions.
a. Magnesium carbonate is heated strongly to produce magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
b. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to produce water and oxygen gas.
c. Solid potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of manganese dioxide as a catalyst to produce potas-
sium chloride and oxygen gas. (Catalysts speed up reactions but are not expressed in the overall balanced
equation)
d. Molten aluminum oxide is electrolyzed using inert (non-reactive) electrodes to produce aluminum metal
and oxygen gas.
3. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following replacement reactions:
a. Zinc metal is added to a solution of iron(II) sulfate.
b. Equimolar solutions of lead(II) nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed to produce solid lead(II) chloride
and aqueous sodium nitrate.
c. Solutions of potassium phosphate and zinc nitrate are mixed.
4. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following combustion reactions.
a. Propane (C3 H8 ) is ignited in air to produce water and carbon dioxide gas.
b. Methanol(CH4 O) is ignited in air to produce water and carbon dioxide gas.
c. Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) is burned in air.
5. Write the molecular equation, ionic equation, and net ionic equation for each of the following double replace-
ment reactions.
a. Silver nitrate reacts with potassium iodide to produce potassium nitrate and silver iodide.
b. Silver nitrate reacts with iron(III) chloride to produce iron(III) nitrate and silver chloride.
c. Lead(II) nitrate reacts with potassium iodide to produce potassium nitrate and lead(II) iodide.
d. Iron(III) chloride reacts with lead(II) nitrate to produce lead(II) chloride and iron(III) nitrate.
e. Calcium chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce calcium hydroxide and sodium chloride.
6. Would it be possible to have a double precipitate formed for a double replacement process? Can you write an
equation where a double precipitate forms?
7. What is meant when we describe a compound as (aq) or (s)? Explain the similarities and differences between
these terms.

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8. Write the balanced chemical equation for the combination reaction in which hydrogen and oxygen gases react
explosively to produce water. (Remember that hydrogen and oxygen exist as diatomic gases in their most
common elemental form.)
9. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurs when a piece of aluminum metal is placed
in a solution of silver nitrate.
10. Using the solubility rules given above, predict whether or not the following compounds are soluble or insoluble
in water.
a. Potassium nitrate
b. Lead(II) chloride
c. Barium sulfate
d. Aluminum sulfide
e. Calcium carbonate

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Chemical reaction library: http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA3/STILLS/VOLTAGE/VOLTAGE

3/64JPG48/3.JPG
• Solubility concepts video: http://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/states-of-matter/v/solubility
• How to use a solubility chart: http://www.sophia.org/solubility-table/solubility-table-tutorial

Points to Consider

1. In an earlier section, we discussed the origins of the chemical recipe for gunpowder, one of the earliest
chemical formulas to be described. The recipe for gun powder is 75 percent potassium nitrate, 15 percent
charcoal, and 10 percent sulfur. How might one measure out these amounts in a predictable and reliable way?
2. So far, we have discussed the characteristics of a variety of reactions. However, we have spent little time
discussing how we might measure and calculate amounts of reactants and products. The steel wool reaction is
as follows: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ! 2Fe2 O3(s) . How might you measure the amounts of each reactant used and the
product that forms?
3. In the chemical reactions that we have already studied, we have assumed that all reactants are transformed
into products (the reaction "goes to completion"). Are there reactions that do not go to completion? How do
you know whether you will have reactants left over?
4. What are some factors that control whether or not a chemical reaction takes place?

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8.4 References

1. Joy Sheng. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0

2. Ben Mills (User:Benjah-bmm27/Wikimedia Commons). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethylene-
CRC-MW-3D-balls.png . Public Domain
3. (”left”) Ben Mills (User:Benjah-bmm27/Wikimedia Commons); (”right”) Ben Mills (User:Benjah-bmm27/Wikimedia
Commons), User:Yikrazuul/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acetic-acid-2D-
flat.png; http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:D-glucose-chain-2D-Fischer.png . Public Domain
4. Courtesy of NASA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_rocket.gif . Public Domain
5. User:PericlesofAthens/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Gunpowder
_Formula.JPG . Public Domain
6. Joseph Wright. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JosephWright-Alchemist.jpg . Public Domain
7. Oliver H.. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spk-RZ.jpg . Public Domain
8. Jared Tarbel. http://www.flickr.com/photos/generated/5554654375/ . CC BY 2.0
9. Jodi So. CK-12 Foundation . CC BY-NC 3.0
10. User:Chemicalinterest/Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zn_reaction_with_-
HCl.JPG . Public Domain
11. Der Kreole. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lluvia_de_oro.JPG . CC BY 3.0
12. Flickr:webhamster. http://www.flickr.com/photos/26316553@N07/2897369014/ . CC BY 2.0

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