Liyakhat Project

STUDY ON FIRE RESISTANCE IN BUILDING: CONCRETE AND STEEL
ABSTRACT
Steel is utilized as the building material and is as of now the world's essential
building material. It ties well to concrete, and has a comparable thermal
development coefficient. Steel is solid and the reinforced concrete is utilized to
give profound establishments and storm cellars and so forth. It has quality,
excellence, simple taking care of, less time utilization, versatile and effectively
available, not so much segments but rather more open space, recyclable, fire
resistance, quake resistance, lighter and less affecting on condition and so forth.,
structural steel can hold 60% of its encompassing temperature yield quality at
1,000 *F-and most building fires surpass that temperature sooner or later,
Building guidelines require certain components of a structure to have fire
resistance, for example, steel. Vigorously loaded steel will lose its structured
security edge at temperature around 550°C-regardless of the grade of steel. To
ensure the structural steel in your building, PAROC fire protection pieces
alongside some fire safe covering is utilized in steel.
Many modern codes for fire safety in buildings are either prescriptive
approach or performance-based approach. Nowadays, it is widely recognized
that performance-based approach provides great advantages over the
prescriptive approach as it allows designers to use rational structural fire
engineering methods to assess the fire safety of the structures. However, as the
performance assessment of an entire structure is not straightforward, the
majority of modern fire safety codes still adopt prescriptive approach or a
combination of both prescriptive and performance-based approaches.
It is important to recognize that the key feature for implementing the

performance based structural fire engineering is the assessment of the fire
resistances of the structures under specific fire exposures. All the basic
principles of these methods are presented and discussed through their
applications in assessing the structural performance of composite slabs and
beams under fire. Furthermore, the structural behaviour of concrete under fire
attack is brief.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

APPA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY Page 1
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
When a fire occurs in a steel frame building, its heat reduces the strength of the
steel and hence that of the building. The present Building Standards Law prescribes
the fire protection by fire- resistant coatings of the steel frames of buildings to be used
by an unspecified number of people and of buildings in urban areas. The 3-hour fire-
resistance rating specified for high-rise buildings, for example, calls for steel frames
to be fireproofed with 5-cm thick wet—sprayed rock wool, so that the average steel
frame temperature remains at 350°C or less when the steel frame is heated by fire to
about 1,000°C for 3 hours.
This fire proofing requirement translates into a cost increase of ¥ 50,000 to ¥
60,000 per ton of steel when the finishing material is included. This was one factor
responsible for the low-cost competitiveness of steel frame buildings. In order to
shorten the construction period, make more effective use of interior space, there were
extremely pressing needs for reducing the fire-resistant coating work cost as well as
eliminating the fire-resistant coating.
Improving the fire-resistant coating material spraying work environment is
also imperative in view of the construction industry labor shortage and the need for
necessary protection against dispersion of sprayed materials to the surrounding area.
There also were many attempts to incorporate the steel frames themselves into the
architectural design of buildings, so elimination of fire-resistant coatings was
desirable in this respect as well.

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE-RESISTANT STEELS AND STAINLESS

STEELS
the allowable temperatures of steels in fires at an average of 350"C and prescribes the
fire-resistant coating of steels to limit their temperature at or below 350°C during a
fire. This is because the elevated-temperature yield stress of conventional steels falls
to two-thirds of their room-temperature yield stress or allowable stress for sustained
loading (217 N/mm' for IIS G 3106 Grade SM490A) as shown in Fig. 1, and becomes
lower than the yield strength required of buildings when exposed to fire. Fire-resistant
steels are guaranteed so that their elevated-temperature yield stress should remain
above the allowable stress for sustained loading at temperatures up to 600‘C (this
guarantee is written on their mill sheets), and have much higher elevated-temperature
yield strength than conventional steels. Fire-resistant steels have the followirig
characteristics:
(1) Their elevated-temperature yield strength is extremely high compared with
conventional steels (see Fig. 1). (It is guaranteed that the yield stress at 600‘C IS
equal to or higher than two-thirds of the specified room-temperature yield
strength.)
(2) Their room-temperature performance meets the standards: IIS
G 3106 - Rolled Steels for Welded Structures and JIS G 3136 - Rolled Steels
for Building Structures. (Their design for room-temperature performance is the same
as that of conventional steels.)
(3) Their weldability is the same as that of conventional steels.
Stainless steels" are iron-based alloys with chromium or chromium and nickel
added to impart excellent corrosion resistance. The types and standards of stainless
steels that can be used as building materials are shown here. These stainless steels are
all austenitic and are available in the following strength levels:
(1) SUS304, SUS316, SCS13A: As strong as SS400
(2) SUS304N2: As strong as SM490
Commonly called 18-8 stainless steel, SUS304 contains about 18 $ Cr and
8No Ni, is the most popular stainless steel, and is as strong as the carbon steel SS400.

5US304N2 is SUS304 with added nitrogen and niobium, and is as strong as the
carbon steel SM490. SUS316 contains molybdenum and other alloying elements. It
features higher corrosion resistance than SUS304. Combining excellent

corrosion resistance and heat resistance, stainless steels have been widely used as
heat-resistant steels for pressure vessels and boiler tubes. Fig. 2 compares the
elevated- temperature strength of the stainless steel SUS304 and carbon steel 55400.
At temperatures close to 200°C
Fig. l Temperature dependence of yield strength of steels

Fig .2 Elevated –temperature strength of stainless steel
facture and its yield point declines. The rate of this yield point drop is
extremely small until the temperature exceeds 700°C. Since the yield point initially
decreases due to the loss of work hardening, the temperature at which the yield point
falls below two-thirds of the specified room-temperature yield strength is about
500°C, which is lower than for the fire-resistant steels, but the rate of yield point
decrease in the temperature region over 600‘C is smaller than that of fire-resistant
steels.

1.2 FIRE-SAFE DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BUILDINGS
Buildings constructed of fire-resistant or stainless steels do not meet some of

the provisions of the Building Standards Law. One example is that their column and
beam temperatures in fires are higher than the temperamre of 350‘C specified for
conventional steels. Irrespective of whether they are protected by thinner fire-
resistant coatings or not protected by fire-resistant coatings, fire-resistant or stainless
steel frame buildings must be individually designed to maintain fire safety, and be
approved by the Minister of Construction as specified in Article 38 of the Building
Standards Law. Nippon Steel commissioned the Building Center of Japan to prepare
the “Fire-Resistance Design Guidelines for Buildings Constructed of Fire-Resistant
Steels”, and the Building Center of Japan completed the guidelines in January 1989.
The fire-resistance design of each building constructed of fire-resistant or stainless
steels is reviewed in the fire-resistant performance appraisal of the Building Center of
Japan. The guidelines were disclosed to four companies, including other integrated
steelmak- ers, in October 1990, and are applied by these companies to fire- resistant
steels.
Fig. 3 shows the fire-resistant design flow specified in the
guidelines. The fire-resistant design flow is based on the “Comprehensive

Fire-Resistant Design System for Building Fire Safety”. Use of fire-resistant steels
has made it necessary to

Fig. 3 Fire-resistant design flow

introduce the following criteria not covered in the Building Standards Law:
In place of the conventional fire resistance test, in which the temperature of steel
exposed to the standard fire is measured, a fire resistance test under load for
evaluating the load carrying capacity of building members (columns and beams) at
elevated temperatures to guage their ftre- resistance.
A technique for verifying the fire safety of steel frames by measuring the thermal
deformation that rises with increasing steel temperature to 600‘C.
A technique for verifying the damage of steel frames in external steel frame buildings
from a widespread fire in an urban area where many wooden houses are located.
1.3 CONCRETE PROVIDES COMPRESSIVE FIRE

PROTECTION
Reducing deaths in fire and the impact of fire damage requires a comprehensive
approach to fire safety. The aim is to ensure that buildings and structures are capable
of protecting both people and property against the hazards of fires. But private
owners, insurance companies and national authorities may also have interests in fire
safety for other reasons, such as economic survival, data storage, environmental
protection and upkeep of critical infrastructure.
1.3.1 Structural Fire Protection Measures Must Fulfil Three Aims:
 Personal protection to preserve life and health;

 Protection of property to preserve goods and other belongings both in
residential or commercial units that have caught fire, and in neighbouring
properties. To this must be added substantial preservation of the building
structures;
 Environmental protection to minimise the adverse effects on the environment
through smoke and toxic gases as well as from contaminated water used for
extinguishing fire.

1.3.2 Using Concrete In Buildings And Structures Offers Exceptional Levels Of

Protection And Safety In Fire:
 Concrete does not burn, and does not add to the fire load.
 Concrete has high resistance to fire, and stops fire spreading.
 Concrete does not drip molten particles, which can spread the fire
 Concrete is easy to repair after a fire, and so helps businesses recover sooner.
 Concrete does not produce any smoke or toxic gases, so helps reduce the risk
to occupants.
1.3.3 Cementitious Spray-Fire Proofing:
Fireproofing’s rendering something (structures, materials, etc.) proof against

fire, or incombustible; or material for use in making anything fire-proof. It is a passive
fire protection measure.
Figure 1.3: Construction worker applying spray resistive material

Chapter-2
LIERATURE REVIEW
Dafni Pantousa et al., in the journal, "Numerical Assessment of the Fire

Behavior of Steel Posttensioned Moment-Resisting Frames", spoke to the primary
factors that influence the conduct of the SC-MRF at raised temperatures. For that
reason, three-dimensional (3D) limited component models are created, and transient
thermal/structural examinations are directed to reproduce the conduct of the SC-MRF
enduring an onslaught conditions. The subsequent target is to concentrate how explicit
structural subtleties of the bar section associations influence the fire resistance of the
SC-MRF. For that reason, the structural subtleties of the associations are changed as
well as are viewed as fire ensured. In light of the consequences of parametric
examinations, recommendations for the improvement of the fire resistance of SC-
MRFs are given. In all the transient thermal/structural examinations, the thermal issue
is explained by receiving the shut cavity choice, which permits reproducing the
radiative exchange of warmth between surfaces during fire. The viability of such a
methodology was approved through direct correlation with the arrangements of
Eurocode just as with existing trial information from fire tests on steel bars.
Maraveas C, in the article, “Local buckling of steel individuals enduring an

onslaught conditions: a surve depicted that the nearby clasping is a disappointment
mode regularly saw in slight walled structural steel components. Despite the fact that
its impact on their conduct at surrounding temperature conditions is very much
recorded and fused in current plan codes, this isn't the situation when such
components are presented to fire. Consequently this paper centers around the event of
nearby locking in steel individuals at raised temperatures by directing a careful audit
of the writing. Trial information (more than 400 altogether) assembled from 16
distinct sources are introduced for both hot-framed just as chilly shaped components
produced using diverse cross-sectional calculations (rolled or welded H-segments,
box segments, channels and so forth.).

Behrouz Behnam, in the paper, “A scenario based approach for deciding fire
resistance appraisals of sporadic steel structures", examines the reaction of
unpredictable steel structures under characteristic fires. As the seriousness and span of
regular fires rely upon numerous elements, a probabilistic-based methodology known
as two-level factorial plan is utilized, whereby conceivable fire situations are viewed
as dependent on the base and greatest estimations of the included elements. Two
seven-story customary steel structures with three range lengths of 5500 and 7000 mm
are intended to meet a 2.0-hr fire resistance rating dependent on the ISO834 fire. Two
kinds of anomalies, mishap and delicate story, are then forced on the standard
structures to make them unpredictable. The standard and sporadic structures are then
presented to the fire situations (32 altogether) to assess their fire resistance
evaluations. The outcomes show that while the customary structures can meet the
necessary fire resistance rating under the entirety of the fire situations, this isn't the
situation for the sporadic structures. It is indicated that the decrease in the fire
resistance evaluations of the difficulty and the delicate story structures can be as low
as 45% and 33% that of the necessary fire resistance appraisals, individually.
Harshad D Mahale, et al., in the article, “Behaviour of steel structure under

the impact of fire loading",enunciated that the presentation of steel structures in fire
relies on various factors, for example, material corruption at raised temperature and
limitation solidness of individuals encompassed by fire. So as to confront negligible
structural harm, restricted losses especially in skyscraper structures and to choose
reasonable fire opposing estimates structural reaction to fire should be comprehended.
Completing tests on genuine steel structure isn't generally possible as it requires time,
cash, space and controlled fire too thus the utilization of limited component
programming resembles ANSYS is the best option. The material properties that
influence the conduct of structural steel individuals presented to fire have been
audited in this work. Worldwide structural reaction of basic steel building is
concentrated by thinking about three distinct situations to have a comprehension of
collaboration of structural components.

Bilotta A. et al., in the article, “Tests on intumescent paints for fire protection
of existing steel structures", in the article, “Tests on intumescent paints for fire
protection of existing steel structures", recommended that intumescent coatings are
regularly utilized on steel structures to decrease the warming during a fire when the
structural, tasteful, and engineering estimation of the structural individuals ought to be
safeguarded. Without a doubt, i.c. structure a slim defensive layer on a superficial
level. At the point when they are presented to fire or unreasonable warmth, volume
extension and thickness decrease happen. Hence, the defensive layer ingests heat and
shields the structural part from harm or over the top distortion. To perform thorough
and practical examinations on ensured steel individuals, thermal properties all things
considered, ought to be known. By the by, the thermal properties of these frameworks
are not accessible, particularly for existing buildings. This paper shows exploratory
test on steel individuals secured with i.c., taken from a current structure, which is
thirty years of age. Intumescent coatings thickness estimation and attachment tests
were acted in situ, while heater tests were completed at the Laboratory of the Italian
National Fire Services. The tried steel individuals have different segment factors and
carry on two fire bends (Standard Fire and Smoldering Fire) during the tests in heater.
The heater tests were performed on steel individuals with unique intumescent coatings
(reference) and steel individuals secured by applying another intumescent coating
subsequent to expelling the current paint (reestablished) or just by applying it on the
current paint (repainted).

Chapter-3
METHODOLOGY
The following are some various design techniques for a structure's mechanical
reaction in a fire:
 Evaluation of members
 Parts of the structure are examined.
 An examination of the overall structure
A. Member Evaluation
Member Analysis, in which each member of the structure is evaluated by considering

it isolated from other members, with suitable boundary conditions replacing the
connection condition with other members.
B. Structure Examined
Elements of the structure will be directly considered in the evaluation using suitable
boundary conditions to indicate their relationship with other parts of the structure.
C. An Examination of the Overall Structure
A global structural analysis is one in which the whole structure is assessed. The
Eurocode provides the following design methods in the equation:
D. Environmental protection
to minimise the adverse effects on the environment through smoke and toxic gases as
well as from contaminated water used for extinguishing fire.

Chapter-4
CONCLUSION
Examples have been introduced of fire-resistant steels andstainless steels being used
uncoated to form new fire-resistantbuildingstructures.The fire-resistant steels and
stainless steelsare superiorin elevated-temperature strength to conventionalsteels, and
can be used with thinner fire-resistant coatings inoffice, warehouse, retail, and other
building applications withlarge amounts of combustiblematerials.Use of fire-
resistantsteels and stainless steels with no or reduced fire protection isexpected to
have a great impact on the construction cost, con-struction period,interior space
utilization,and architecturaldesign of these buildings. We will develop new
applications forfire-resistant and stainless steels, and will create the
environmentwhere fire-resistant steels and stainless steels can be more easilyused by
acquiringgeneral approvalof the MinisterofConstruction for building applications
where the fire-resistantsteels and stainless steels have been successfullyused.
By participating in a variety of fire protection tests that mainly takes the fire-resistant
protective materials of steel structure, the following conclusions can be obtained after
a large number of experimental data have been collected and the relevant norms and
engineering applications have been discussed. Whether it is the development of
norms, the implementation of the test method, or the effect considered in the design of
the building, first of all, fire characteristics should be distinguished in the possible fire
scene. For different fire occasions, the corresponding fire protection will be designed,
and the proper meaning of the fire endurance should be give. Then, the failure of the
component caused by the effect of water on the integrity of the component and the
strength of the components should be taken into consider. Then, the pad value of the
fire endurance caused by the burn-in of the materials and components should be
considered. When developing a fire resistance evaluation method standard, it is
necessary to introduce an assessment of the attenuation of the fire resistance caused
by the aging of the material, especially the fire protection of the structure, so that the
fire test conditions are more in line with the actual fire situation.

Such as steel-silicon beam and plate combination structure, steel grid structure, steel
pipe structure, and lattice components, etc. Although theoretically, the strength of the
steel is force to express the fire resistance limit when reaches a certain extent
(generally 50%, reach the critical temperature of steel), but because of the changes of
the standard structure design method and the different characteristics of the structure,
the refractory limits will be given the different limits, which needs to further develop
the basic test of fire resistance test, and then provide basic data for carrying out the
fire protection of steel structure fire protection material.
Concrete’s excellent fire resistance has been proven by many tests performed for over
60 years. The American Concrete Institute and various building codes have developed
prescriptive and analytical methods based on the fire tests on concrete components of
structures. These methods provide architects and engineer a relatively easy way to
select member proportions and reinforcement requirements for all but the very
unusual structures. For the very unusual structures, alternate methods are available to
adequately model or to test the complex behaviour of reinforced concrete components
subject to fire. Despite potential deficiencies in performance at elevated temperatures
arising from dehydration and thermal incompatibilities, concrete has a long-standing
and justified reputation as a fire-resistant material, notwithstanding a long-recognized
need for better means of testing and specifying endurance.

Chapter-5
REFERENCES
1. Collins Street Test (circa 1994) ByThe William Street.

2. French Car Park Fire Tests (1998-2001) A series of fire tests was conducted
by the European Coal and Steel Council
3. 3. NECK U (2002). Comprehensive fire protection with precast concrete
elements – the future situation in Europe, Proceedings of BIBM 17th
International Congress of the Precast Concrete Industry. Session 5,8 pp.
Ankara, Turkish Precast Concrete Association. (CD only).
4. Akaa O.U., Abu A., Spearpoint M., Giovinazzi S, 2016, A group-AHP
decision analysis for the selection of applied fire protection to steel structures.
Fire Safety Journal, 86, 95-105.
5. NARYANAN, N, and GOODCHILD, C H (2006) Concise Euro code 2, The
Concrete Centre, Camberley, UK.107 pp.
6. ISO/CD 23932. Fire safety engineering – General principles. (under
development).
7. DENOËL J–F (2006). Fire safety and concrete structures,
8. Association for Specialist Fire Protection, UK

Properties of concrete are influenced by many factors mainly due to mix

proportion of cement, sand, aggregates and water. Ratio of these materials control the
various concrete properties
Concrete is the most widely used construction material all over the world.
With innovations in science and technology in construction industry, the scope of
concrete as a structural material, has widened. Since the natural resources are
vanishing due to extensive use of them day by day, It is necessary to find alternative
for the natural resources used in concrete. Fine Aggregate is becoming scarce and
hence it’s cost is increasing day by day. There is need of finding an alternative for
fine aggregate used in concrete and crushed fourth class brick is one such alternative
which can take the place of Fine Aggregate in Concrete. Concrete is weak in tension
and flexure, most commonly it is reinforced using steel reinforcing bars. However
usage of steel of reinforcement is expensive. Considerable efforts have been made
worldwide to add various types of fibres to concrete so to make it more strong,
durable and economical. Synthetic fibre such as Glass fibre has certain physical and
mechanical characteristics that can be utilized effectively in the development of
reinforced concrete material in most cases.
Use of glass fibre can lead to improvement in the properties of cement

concrete. Glass fibre is a material consisting of extremely fine fibres of glass. It has
roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibres carbon fibre. It is much
cheaper than carbon fibre and less brittle when used in composites.
India is growing country and so the construction industry is going very fast.
The difficulty to get building materials in market is increasing day by day, especially
the concrete ingredients. We thought to replace one of ingredient with readily
available source and cheap in cost. Hence we thought to use the waste crushed fourth

class bricks to replace sand in concrete partially. The strength and durability of sand
mixed concrete depends on multiple factors where as we tried to use waste crushed
fourth class bricks to increase the durability and strength of concrete. We thought to
analyze deeply to demonstrate the usage of waste crushed fourth class bricks in this
project. We would like to demonstrate the strength and durability of mixed concrete
which can be made with low cost waste crushed fourth class bricks as sand and glass
fibre.
The following tests are performed on the concrete blocks reinforced with glass
fibre and partially replacing sand by waste crushed fourth class bricks:
1. Workability
2. Compressive strength
3. Split tensile strength
4 Flexural strength
1.2 Ingredients of Concrete
1.2.1 Aggregates
Aggregates generally occupy 65- 80% of a concrete’s volume. Aggregates are
inert fillers floating in the cement paste matrix for concretes of low strength. The

strength of aggregates do not contribute to the strength of concrete for low strength
concrete. The characteristics of aggregates impact performance of fresh and hardened
concrete.
Aggregate Classification
 Size:- Coarse Aggregates & Fine Aggregates.
 Specific Gravity:- Light Weight, Normal Weight and Heavy Weight
Aggregates.
 Availability:- Natural Gravel and Crushed Aggregates.
 Shape:- Round, Cubical, Angular, Elongated and Flaky Aggregates.
Fine Aggregate
 Sand and/or crushed stone.
 Size < 4.75 mm.
 Fine Aggregate content usually 35% to 45% by mass or volume of total

aggregate.
Fine aggregate are basically sands won from the land or the marine environment. Fine
aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles
passing through a 9.5mm sieve. As with coarse aggregates these can be from Primary,
Secondary or Recycled sources.
Coarse Aggregate
 Gravel and crushed stone.
 >4.75 mm.
 Typically between 9.5 and 37.5 mm.
Coarse aggregates are particles greater than 4.75mm, but generally range between
9.5mm to 37.5mm in diameter. They can either be from Primary, Secondary or
Recycled sources. Aggregates are either Land- or Marine-Won. Gravel is a coarse

marine-won aggregate; land-won coarse aggregates include gravel and crushed rock.
Gravels constitute the majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete.
Secondary aggregates are materials which are the by-products of extractive operations
and are derived from a very wide range of materials

Recycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in
granular sub bases, soil-cement, and in new concrete.
1.2.2 Cement
Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and
adheres to other materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but
is used to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement is used with fine
aggregate to produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel aggregates to
produce concrete.
Portland cement is by far the most common type of cement in general use
around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with
other materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination.
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-
specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand),
cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any
shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element.
Portland cement may be grey or white.
Chemical composition of Portland cement:

a) Tricalcium Silicate (50%) d) Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (10%)
b) Dicalcium Silicate (25%) e) Gypsum (5%)
c) Tricalcium Aluminate (10%)
Uses of Cement
1. Cement is a binding material, so obviously it is used to bind materials and
increase the strength.
2. It can be used to fill cracks formed.

3. It can be used to build buildings, sky scrapers, etc.

4. Now pre used cements are being crushed and been used again in form of
aggregate.
1.2.3 Glass Fibre
Glass Fibre (or glass fibre) is a material consisting of numerous extremely

fine Fibres of glass.
Physical Properties of Glass Fibre
Physical Properties Recommended values by the supplier

Specific gravity 2.68
Elastic Modulus (Gpa) 72
Tensile Strength (Mpa) 1700
Length (mm) 12
Uses of Glass fibres:

1. Glass fibres are available materials worldwide.
2. Glass fibres are widely used in the production of insulation materials.
3. Tanks: Glass fibre is extremely used for making FRP Tanks and vessels.
4. Pavement materials: Glass fibres are used to reinforce asphalt pavement.
Advantages
1. GFRC is light in weight
2. It enhance the strength of the concrete than normal concrete
3. It is has good bonding strength to the concrete
4. GFRC contributes the high flexural strength
Disadvantages
1. GFRC affects the W/C ratio
2. It affects the work ability of concrete
3. It is not easily mix
4. The figure exposed is not aesthetic hence additional finishing is required

5. Tedious work compare to normal concrete.
1.2.4 Crushed Fourth Class Bricks
These are the crushed over burnt bricks which are used as filling material for
foundations. These are normally used in load bearing walls.
Properties of Fourth Class Bricks:
1. The fourth class bricks are dark black or grey in colour.
2. These are over-burnt bricks with uneven shape.
3. Since it is cheaply available it will be economical.
4. It is used as filling material in foundations.
Comparison of Fine Aggregate with crushed fourth class brick

Crushed Fourth Class
Properties Fine Aggregate
Brick
They are the crushed over
It is basically Sand from
burnt waste bricks used as
Definition the land or marine
filling material in
environment
foundations
Silica sand, Clay, Carbon
Composition CaCO3 & SiO2
& Iron oxide
Size < 4.75mm < 4.75mm
Specific Gravity 2.7 2.08
Chapter-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. S.Keerthinarayana and R Srinivasan studied the strength and durability of

concrete by partial replacement of fine aggregate using crushed spent fire

bricks. They concluded that 25% replacement of crushed spent fire brick with
fine aggregate gives maximum compressive strength and the compressive
strength is marginally higher than the concrete with fine aggregate. The split
tensile strength and flexural strength of concrete with crushed spent fire brick
were higher than normal concrete. They concluded that Crushed spent fire
brick can be used effectively as fine aggregate in place of conventional river
sand in concrete production.
2. Md.Abid Alam, Imran Ahmad, Fazlur Rehman studied the properties of

glass fibre reinforced concrete. They concluded that workability of the
concrete is solely affected by addition of fibres, Harsh mixes are obtained as
the percentages of Fibres are increased. The compressive strength of concrete
mixes was observed to be increasing as the inclusion of Fibres increases. The
result shows that there is a significant improvement in the tensile strength of
concrete with the addition of glass Fibres. The compressive strength of
concrete shows a marginal increase on addition of fibres to concrete mixes.
The tensile strength of concrete also shows an increasing trend.
3. K Praveen, Dhanya Sathyan, K M Mini studied the performance of concrete

with over-burnt bricks aggregates and micro-silica admixture. They have used
over burnt bricks as coarse aggregates. They concluded that the quality of
concrete can be improved by conducting proper quality check for brick
aggregate. The optimum percentage of micro-silica as a replacement of
cement is 10% for M30 concrete. There is an increase in mechanical
properties of concrete when micro silica is added because of its high
pozzolanic nature to form calcium silicate hydrate. It can also act as a filler
material which increases density of the concrete and improves the durability.

Hence the use of waste over burnt bricks along with micro-silica promises a
sustainable way of construction by reducing the excess use of naturally
available coarse aggregate and cement.
4. George Rowland Otoko studied use of crushed clay bricks as aggregate in

concrete Test results showed that AC specimens of unused and recycled brick
aggregate outperformed specimens made with granite aggregates, mainly
because of the high porosity and roughness of the surface of crushed clay
brick aggregates, which can absorb more bitumen and provide better bonding
in asphalt concrete (AC). RBA has many environmental benefits that make
them suitable alternative aggregates in construction. This study has shown that
asphalt concrete produced using unused and recycled clay brick aggregates
performed better under load than AC made with granite aggregate, due to the
high porosity and roughness of the surfaces of the recycled brick aggregate.
Brick AC is lighter in weight than that of granite because of its lower relative
density. Thus, having the advantage of reduced energy required for mixing,
transporting and laying. Impact value has little effect on the properties of
HRA. Instead, porosity, surface roughness and sharp intersecting angles
produce better HRA. Also, rate of flow or deformation under load of HRA
made with granite aggregate is faster than that made with other aggregates due
to its lower porosity and surface smoothness. It is therefore concluded that use
of unused or recycled crushed clay brick as aggregate in bituminous mixtures
is a feasible option.
5. Gopinandan Dey and Joyanta Pal studied Use of Brick Aggregate in

Standard Concrete and Its Performance in Elevated Temperature. Crushed
bricks can be used satisfactorily to produce M25 and M30 concrete keeping
water cement ratio in the range of 0.35 to 0.40. Sufficient workability up to the
level of pumpable concrete can also be achieved by suitably using the super
plasticizer within a range of 0.8% to 1% by weight of cement. Flexural
strength also can be obtained as per the codal requirement and even more. For
mix design it is not required to make the aggregate SSD either by presoaking
or providing additional water for total water absorption, rather water

absorption for 3 minutes may be referred as the absorption for dry aggregate.
In high temperature the performance up to 6000 C is even better than ambient
temperature for an exposure period of 2 hours.
Chapter-3
OBJECTIVES
 To study the compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength
of 7 days and 28 days.
 To study the average compressive strength of conventional concrete and
concrete with partial replacement of sand by fourth class brick (0%, 5%, 10%,
15% & 20 %) and 1% glass fibre.

 To study the average split tensile strength of conventional concrete and

concrete with partial replacement of sand by fourth class brick (0%, 5%, 10%,
15% & 20 %) and 1% glass fibre.
 To study the average flexural strength of conventional concrete and concrete
with partial replacement of sand by fourth class brick (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% &
20 %) and 1% glass fibre..
 To examine whether crushed bricks can be used as a replacement to fine
aggregate.
 To use the waste fourth class brick as a part of concrete and thereby reducing
the waste from the environment and helping in waste management.
Experimental programme include the basic test carried out to the check the physical
properties of cement and sand like normal consistency, initial setting time, final
setting time, sieve analysis and also cube compressive strength.
Chapter-4
TEST CONDUCTED
 Sieve analysis
 Specific gravity for coarse aggregate
 Specific gravity for fine aggregate
 Specific gravity of crushed fourth class brick.
 Specific gravity of cement
 Slump test
 Compressive strength test
 Split tensile test

 Flexural strength test
4.1 Sieve Analysis:

The name given to the operation of dividing a sample of aggregates into
various fraction, each consisting of particles of the same size. The sieve analysis is
conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate, which
we call gradation.
IS Sieves
The aggregate used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size
80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm,
6.3mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600micron, 300micron and 150micron.
In the IS and AST standards, the sieve sizes are given in times of the number
of openings per inch is equal to the square of the number of sieves. In the IS460-1962,
the sieves are designed by size of the aperture in mm.
4.2 Slump Cone Test:

The test is carried out using a mould known as a slump cone. The cone is
placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three
stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times with a rod of standard dimensions.
The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards with twisting motion, so as not to
disturb the concrete cone.
Concrete subsides. This subsidence is termed as slump, and is measured to the

nearest 5 mm if the slump is <100 mm and measured to the nearest 10 mm if the
slump is >100 mm.
Types of slump
4.3 Compressive Strength Test:

To calculate the compressive strength of concrete cubes the universal testing

machine (UTM) having capacity of 2000 KN was used.
Compressive strength test, mechanical test measuring the maximum amount of

compressive load a material can bear before fracturing. The test piece, usually in the
form of a cube is compressed between the platens of a compression-testing machine
by a gradually applied load.
Compression testing machine
Procedure of Concrete Compression Test.

1. Taking measurement: Take the measurement of concrete specimens (which are
sent to laboratory for testing). Calculate the cross sectional area (unit should
be on mm2) and put down on paper. Do the same for each specimen.
2. Start machine: Turn on the machine. Place one concrete specimen in the
centre of loading area.
3. Lowering piston: Lower the piston against the top of concrete specimen by
pushing the lever..
4. Applying load: Now the piston is on top of specimen. It is the time to apply
load. Pull the lever into holding position. Start the compression test by
pressing the zero button on the display board.

5. Test is complete: Observe the concrete specimen. When it begins to break,

stop applying load.
6. Recording: Record the ultimate load on paper displaying on machine's display
screen.
7. Calculate concrete compressive strength: The result we got from testing
machine is the ultimate load to break the concrete specimen. The load unit is
generally in lb. We have to convert it in Newton (N). Our purpose is, to know
the concrete compressive strength.
Compressive strength = Ultimate load (N) / cross sectional area (mm2) in N/mm2.
4.4 Split Tensile Test

It is the standard test, to determine the tensile strength of concrete in an
indirect way. This test could be performed in accordance with IS: 5816-1970. A
standard test cylinder of concrete specimen (300 mm X 150mm diameter) is placed
horizontally between the loading surfaces of Compression Testing Machine. The
compression load is applied diametrically and uniformly along the length of cylinder
Split tensile testing machine

Assuming concrete specimen behaves as an elastic body, a uniform lateral
tensile stress of ft acting along the vertical plane causes the failure of the specimen,
which can be calculated from the formula as,

2P
f t=
π DL
P = Compressive load at failure

L = Length of cylinder
D = Diameter of cylinder
The above test result represents the "Splitting Tensile Strength" of concrete
that varies from 1/8th to 1/12th of the cube compressive strength.
Procedure of Splitting Tensile Test:

1. Take the wet specimen from water after curing and allow it to dry.
2. Draw diametrical lines on the two ends of the specimen to ensure that they are
on the same axial place.
3. Note the weight and dimension of the specimen.
4. Set the compression testing machine for the required range.
5. Align the specimen so that the lines marked on the ends are vertical and
centered over the bottom plate.
6. Apply the load.
7. Note down the breaking load (P)
4.5 Flexural Strength Test

The test could be performed in accordance with as per BS 188: Part 118: 1983.
A simple plain concrete beam is loaded at one-third span points. Normal standard size
of specimen is 100X100X500 mm.
Flexural strength (f) is computed from the standard flexure formula,
Pl
f=
bd 2
P = Compressive load at failure
L = Beam span between supports
d = Depth of beam
b = Width of beam

Fle
x ura
l
testing machine
Chapter-5
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Concrete is a mixture of binding materials, fine aggregate, coarse aggregates

and water. Before performing this investigation, to know properties of materials such
as fineness, normal consistency, initial setting time, final setting time, specific gravity,
etc of cement, fineness modulus, bulk density, bulking, specific gravity of fine
aggregate and fineness modulus, bulk density, specific gravity of coarse aggregates
which are used in the concrete are essential.
5.1 Materials

5.1.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (43 grade) of coromandel king brand manufactured
from a single batch will be used throughout the course of project
Properties of cement
Sl. No Properties Results
1. Specific gravity 3.1
2. Normal consistency 32%
3. Initial setting time 35 min
4. Final setting time 480 min
The details regarding the observations & calculation are given in Appendix-B

5.1.2 Fine Aggregate:

The aggregate consists of well grade fine aggregate (shapes sand) that passes a
4.75mm sieve & salt free source is used the sand is saluted from locally available
river-beds & which is free from organic other deleterious matter the moisture content
of the aggregate should be considered in the calculated of required water
Properties of fine aggregate
Properties Result
Specific gravity 2.7
Bulk density (compacted condition) 1914 Kg/m3
Bulk density (Loose condition) 1476 Kg/m3
Fineness modulus 2.8 %
5.1.3 Coarse aggregate

The Crushed coarse aggregate of 20mm & downsize rounded obtained from
the local crushing plant is used in the present study
Properties of Coarse aggregate
Specific gravity of 13.962.87

%
C.A
Fineness modulus 3.98 %
Bulk density 1615 kg/m3
Flakiness Index 15.21 %
Crushing Strength
Abrasion Value 8.7 %

Impact Strength 9.16 %
Elongation Index 28.26 %
5.1.4 Glass fibre

1. The glass Fibre is collected from Buddha Building Technology, Thane.
2. Length of fibre is 12 mm.
5.1.5 Water
Portable water will be used in the investigation for mixing & curing
5.1.6 Crushed fourth class brick

The Chemical composition of crushed fourth class brick is
1. Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight

2. Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight
3. Lime – 2 to 5% by weight
4. Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight
5. Magnesia – less than 1% by
weight

5.2 Mix Proportions
Five mixture proportions were made with M30 grade. First were conventional
concrete mix (normal concrete) and the next proportions mix is with replacing 5%,
10%, 15% and 20% of Fine Aggregate with crushed fourth class brick and keeping
1% of glass fibre constant. Mix proportions are given in table as per Indian standard
specification IS: 10262-2007 to obtain 7 and 28 days compressive strength, split
tensile strength and flexural strength. Hand mixing was done for the concrete mixers.
The mix design is given in Appendix-A.
Mix proportion M30

Mix proportion for M30 grade is done by partial replacement of fine aggregate
by crushed fourth class bricks with addition of glass fibre.
For per Cubes
Crushed Crushed
Coarse Fine fourth fourth Glass Glass
Mix Cement Water
aggregate aggregat class class fibre fibre
No. (kg) (ltr)
(kg) e (kg) bricks bricks (%) (kg)
(%) (kg)
M1 1.55 4.57 2.86 0 0 0 0 0.775
M2 1.55 4.57 2.72 5 0.143 1 0.09 0.775
M3 1.55 4.57 2.58 10 0.287 1 0.09 0.775
M4 1.55 4.57 2.43 15 0.430 1 0.09 0.775

M5 1.55 4.57 2.29 20 0.574 1 0.09 0.775

Mix proportion for M30 grade is done by partial replacement of fine aggregate by
crushed fourth class bricks with addition of glass fibre.
For per Cylinder
Crushed Crushed
Mix Cement Water
No. (kg) (ltr)
(%) (kg)
M1 2.41 7.1 4.464 0 0 0 0 1.205
M2 2.41 7.1 4.220 5 0.222 1 0.09 1.205
M3 2.41 7.1 4.005 10 0.445 1 0.09 1.205
M4 2.41 7.1 3.782 15 0.666 1 0.09 1.205
M5 2.41 7.1 3.560 20 0.890 1 0.09 1.205

Mix proportion for M30 grade is done by partial replacement of fine aggregate by
crushed fourth class bricks with addition of glass fibre.
For per Prism
Crushed Crushed
Mix Cement Water
No. (kg) (ltr)
(%) (kg)
M1 2.41 7.1 4.464 0 0 0 0 1.205
M2 2.41 7.1 4.220 5 0.222 1 0.09 1.205
M3 2.41 7.1 4.005 10 0.445 1 0.09 1.205
M4 2.41 7.1 3.782 15 0.666 1 0.09 1.205
M5 2.41 7.1 3.560 20 0.890 1 0.09 1.205

Chapter-6
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
6.1 Preparation of test specimen

Hand mixing is done, slump test was conducted for each mix to assess, the
workability concrete cubes (150mmx150mmx150mm) for determining compressive
strength, cylinder(150mm diameter, 300mm depth) for determining split tensile
strength beams (100mmx100mmx500mm) for determining flexural strength.
Specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of casting and were kept in a curing tank
for water curing for next 3days, 7days and 28 days. The specimens to be tested were
taken from the curing tank on 3 rd , 7th and 28th day of curing for compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength.
6.2 Testing of specimens

Test specimens used for the investigation of cubes, cylinder and prism
specimens. The dimension of the cubes used is 150mmx150mmx150mm, the
dimension of the cylinder is 150mm diameter and depth of about 300mm and the
dimension of prism is 500mmx150mmx150mm have been used. All the specimens
used for investigation are of uniform size.

Chapter-7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7.1 Compressive strength

Total 30 cubes specimens of size 150mm were used for compression test the
test results are summarized in tables below each value is the mean of three test results
Compressive strength (CS) =

Max . load P
Area
=
A ( )
Where
W = max load on cube
A = Effected area
7.2 Split tensile strength:

Total 30 standard concrete cylinders of size 150mm diameter & 300mm depth
were tested for the indirect tensile strength the test results are shown in table below.
( 2P
Split tensile Strength = (f ) = Π DL
t
)
Where W = Max load on cylinder
L = Length of cylinder
D = Diameter of cylinder
7.3 Flexural strength:

A total of 30 beams of size 150x 150 x 500mm were tested for flexural
strength in all the tested specimen fracture occurred within the central one third of the
beam
Flexural strength (f) = (PL/bd2)
Where, W = max load on prism
L = Length of prism
B = Width of prism
D = Depth of the prism

Table 7.1: Results of Compressive strength (N/mm2) of cubes
% of crushed %Glass fibre 7 Days 28 Days

fourth class (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
brick
0 0 18.2 30.07
5 1 16.94 31.69
10 1 21.86 31.86
15 1 15.87 35.93
20 1 15.83 35.31
Line Chart
Compressive strength of cube at the rate of 7 and 28 days at different percentages of
crushed fourth class bricks 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 1% of glass fibre.
7 days 28 days
Compressive strength of cube at the rate of 7 and 28 days
Table 7.2: Results of Split tensile strength (N/mm2) of cylinder

% of crushed % of Glass 7 Days 28 Days

fourth class fibre (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
brick
0 0 1.35 2.37
5 1 1.46 2.52
10 1 1.57 2.53
15 1 1.72 2.57
20 1 1.55 2.52
Line Chart
Split tensile strength of cylinder at the rate of 7 and 28 days at different percentages of
crushed fourth class bricks 0%,5%,10% and 15% and 1% of glass fibre.
7 Days 28 Days
Split tensile strength of cylinder at the rate of 7 and 28 days
Table 7.3: Results of Flexural strength (N/mm2) of prism

% of crushed %Glass fibre 7 Days 28 Days
fourth class
brick (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
0 0 2.75 3.25
5 1 4.5 5
10 1 4.83 5.3
15 1 4.5 5.16
20 1 4.33 4.67
Line Chart
Flexural strength of prism at the rate of 7 and 28 days at different percentages
of crushed fourth class bricks 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 1% of glass fibre
7Days 28 Days
Flexure strength of prism at the rate of 7 and 28 days
Comparison of compressive strength of different mix w.r.t conventional concrete

Sl. no % of crushed fourth class % of glass % increase in compressive
brick fibre strength w.r.t 0% for 28 days
1. 5 1 5.11

2. 10 1 5.62
3. 15 1 16.31
4. 20 1 14.84
Line chart for change in compressive strength for 28 days w.r.t 0%
Comparison of split tensile strength of different mix w.r.t conventional concrete

Sl. % of crushed fourth class % of glass % increase in split tensile
no brick fibre strength w.r.t 0% for 28 days
1. 5 1 5.95
2. 10 1 6.32
3. 15 1 7.78
4. 20 1 5.95
Line chart for change in split tensile strength for 28 days w.r.t 0%

Comparison of flexural strength of different mix w.r.t conventional concrete

Sl. % of crushed fourth % of glass % increase in flexural strength
No class brick fibre w.r.t 0% for 28 days
1. 5 1 35
2. 10 1 38.67
3. 15 1 37.02
4. 20 1 30.41
Line chart for change in flexural strength for 28 days w.r.t 0%
Chapter-8

CONCLUSIONS
1. The average compressive strength of the conventional concrete is 30.07

N/mm2.
2. The average Split tensile strength of the conventional concrete is 2.37
N/mm2.
3. The average Flexural strength of the conventional concrete is 3.25 N/mm2.
4. Results show that 15% replacement of FA by CFCB along with 1% GF
gives more strength i.e. 35.93N/mm2 compressive strength, 2.57 N/mm2
split tensile strength and 5.16 N/mm2 flexural strength compared to 30.07
N/mm2 Compressive strength, 2.37 N/mm2 split tensile strength and 3.25
N/mm2 flexural strength of conventional concrete.
5. There is 7.78 % increase in split tensile strength and 37.02 % increase in
flexural strength for 15% replacement of FA by CFCB
6. Crushed fourth class bricks used as replacement of normal sand with glass
Fibre gives high durability, and increases the life span of structure.
Chapter-9
REFERENCES
1. S.Keerthinarayana and R Srinivasan, Study on strength and durability of

concrete by partial replacement of fine aggregate using crushed spent fire
bricks, Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, t. LVI (LX), f. 2, 2010.
2. Md.Abid Alam, Imran Ahmad, Fazlur Rehman, Experimental Study on

Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete, International Journal of
Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) – Volume 24 Number 6- June
2015.
3. K Praveen, Dhanya Sathyan, K M Mini, Study on performance of concrete

with over-burnt bricks aggregates and micro-silica admixture, IOP Conf.
Series: Materials Science and Engineering 149 (2016) 012061
doi:10.1088/1757-899X/149/1/012061.
4. George Rowland Otoko, Use Of Crushed Clay Bricks As Aggregate In

Concrete. International Journal of Engineering and Technology Research Vol.
2, No. 4, April 2014, pp. 1 - 9, ISSN: 2327 - 0349 (Online) Available online at
www.ijeatr.org
5. Gopinandan Dey and Joyanta Pal, Use of Brick Aggregate in Standard

Concrete and Its Performance in Elevated Temperature, IACSIT International
Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 4, August 2013
PHOTOGRAPHS

Concrete mixing with glass fibre and Crushed Fourth Class bricks

Casting of Specimen
De-moulding of Specimens

Curing of Specimens
Testing of Cube
Testing of Cylinder

Testing of Prism
APPENDIX-A
Mix Design
Stipulations for Proportioning:
a) Grade designation – M30

b) Type of Cement – OPC 43 grade
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate – 20 mm
d) Minimum Cement Content – 320 Kg/m3
e) Max W/C ratio – 0.5
f) Workability – 100 mm (slump)
g) Maximum Cement Content – 450 Kg/m3

Test data for Materials:
a) Cement used – OPC 43 grade

b) Specific gravity of cement – 3.1
c) Specific gravity of Fine aggregate – 2.7
d) Specific gravity of Coarse aggregate – 2.87
1. Target Strength –
FIck = Fck + 1.65(S) (S=5, From Table-1, IS-10262:1998)

FIck = 30 + 1.65(5)
FIck = 36.6 N/mm2
2. W/C ratio –
M30 = 0.5 (From IS-456:2000, Table-5)
3. Water Content –
Max water content = 186 liters for 50 mm slump

[For every increase in 25 mm slump, Increase water content by 3%]
Therefore,
Water content = 186 + 6% = 197.16 liters
4. Cement Content –
W
= 0.5
C
197.16
= 0.5
C
C = 394.32 Kg/m3
5. Selection of Aggregates –
W
For = 0.5
C
C.A = 60%
F.A = 40%
6. Mix Calculation
a. Volume of Concrete = 1 m3
Massof Cement 1
b. Volume of Cement = X
Sp . Gr . f Cement 1000
394 1
= X
3.1 1000
= 0.1272 m3
Massof Water 1
c. Volume of Water = X
Sp . Gr . f Water 1000
197.16 1
= X
1 1000
= 0.19716 m3
d. Volume of Aggregates = Volume of Concrete – Volume of Cement – Volume

of Water
= 1 – 0.1272 – 0.19716
= 0.67564 m3
Mass of C.A = Volume of Aggregates X Volume of C.A X Sp.Gr of C.A X 1000

= 0.67564 X 0.6 X 2.87 X1000
= 1163.45 Kg/m3
Mass of F.A = Volume of Aggregates X Volume of F.A X Sp.Gr of F.A X 1000
= 0.67564 X 0.4 X 2.7 X1000
= 729.69 Kg/m3
For 1 cubic meter:
Cement = 394.32 Kg
Fine Aggregate = 729.69 Kg
Coarse Aggregate = 1163.45 Kg
Water = 197.16 liters

Mix Proportion:
C: FA: CA = 1: 1.85: 2.95
APPENDIX-B
Preliminary Test
1 . Normal Consistency of Cement
Procedure:
1. Take 400 g of cement and place it in the enameled tray.

2. Mix about 26% water by weight of dry cement thoroughly to get a cement paste.
Total time taken to obtain thoroughly mixed water cement paste i.e. “Gauging
time” should not be more than 3 to 5 minutes.
3. Fill the vicat mould, resting upon a glass plate, with this cement paste.
4. After filling the mould completely, smoothen the surface of the paste, making it
level with top of the mould.

5. Place the whole assembly (i.e. mould + cement paste + glass plate) under the rod
bearing plunger.
6. Lower the plunger gently so as to touch the surface of the test block and quickly
release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
7. Measure the depth of penetration and record it.
8. Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water content and follow the
steps (2 to 7) as described above, until the depth of penetration becomes 33 to 35
mm.
Tabular Column:
Trial Weight of Cement (in % of Water Penetration
No. grams) (in mm)
1
400 26 14
2 400 28 11
3 400 30 8
4 400 32 5
Result:
Normal Consistency of Cement is 32%
2 . Initial & Final Setting Time of Cement
Procedure:
1. Before commencing setting time test, do the consistency test to obtain the water
required to give the paste normal consistency (P).
2. Take 400 g of cement and prepare a neat cement paste with 0.85P of water by
weight of cement.
3. Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5 minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant
when the water is added to the cement. Record this time (t1).
4. Fill the vicat mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as
above.
5. Fill the mould completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level
with the top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is called test block.

6. Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate,
under the rod bearing the needle.
7. Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block
and quick release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
8. In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this
procedure i.e. quickly releasing the needle after every 5 minutes till the needle
fails to pierce the block for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
Note this time (t2).
9. Initial Setting time is calculated is using the formula
Initial setting time=t2-t1
Tabular Column:
Trial Weight of cement (in grams) Time (in Minutes) Penetration (in
No. mm)
1. 400 0 0
2. 400 5 0
3. 400 10 0
4. 400 15 0
5. 400 20 0
6. 400 25 2
7. 400 30 4
8. 400 35 6
Result:
Initial setting time of cement = 35 min

Final setting time of cement = 8 to 10 Hours
3 . Fineness of cement test
Procedure:
1. Attach a pan under the 90 micron sieve to collect the cement passing the sieve.
2. Weigh approximately 10 g of cement and place it on the sieve. Fit the lid over the
sieve.
3. Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movement until no more fine
material passes through it.
4. Remove and weigh the residue. Express its mass as a percentage of the quantity
first placed in the sieve.
5. Repeat the steps 3 to 5 with a fresh sample.
Tabular Column:
Trial Weight of Cement Weight of cement retained on 90 micron Sieve

No. (in grams) (in grams)
1. 100 4.9
2. 100 5
3. 100 5.1
Weight of cement retained on 90 micron Sieve

% of residue = X 100
Weight of Cement
Result:
Fineness of Cement = 5 %
4 . Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate
Procedure:
1. Arrange the sieves in descending order and put the arrangement on mechanical
shaker.
2. Weigh 5 kg of coarse aggregate and pass it through the sieve.
3. After proper sieving, record the sample weights retained on each sieve.
4. Find out the cumulative weight of retained particles as well as cumulative %
retained on each sieve.
5. Finally add all cumulative percentage values and divide the result with 100.
Then we get the value of fineness modulus.
Tabular column:
Tria Sieve Weight % weight Cumulative Cumulative
l No. size(mm) retained retained % weight % passing
(kg) retained(X) (100-X)
1. 80 0 - - -
2. 63 0 - - -
3. 50 0 - - -
4. 40 0 - - -
5. 31.5 0 - - -
6. 25 0.025 0.50 0.5 99.5
7. 20 1.47 29.4 29.9 70.1
8. 16 2.2 44 23.9 26.1
9. 12.5 1.055 21.1 95 5
10. 10 0.23 4.6 99.6 0.4
11. 6.3 0.020 0.4 100 0
12. 4.75 0 - 100 0
13. Pan 0 - 100 0
∑C =348.9
∑ C+500
Fineness Modulus = 100
Result:
Fineness modulus = 8.48
5 . Sieve analysis of fine aggregate
1. Arrange the sieves in descending order and put the arrangement on mechanical
shaker.
2. Weigh 2 kg of fine aggregate and pass it through the sieve
3. After proper sieving, record the sample weights retained on each sieve
4. Find out the cumulative weight of retained particles as well as cumulative %
retained on each sieve.
5. Finally add all cumulative percentage values and divide the result with 100.
Then we get the value of fineness modulus.
Tabular column:
Tria Sieve Weight % weight Cumulative Cumulative
l No. size(mm) retained retained % weight % passing
(kg) retained(X) (100-X)
1. 4.75 0.24 12 12 88
2. 2.36 0.28 14 26 74
3. 1.18 0.6 30 56 44
4. 0.6 0.6 30 86 14
5. 0.3 0.28 14 100 0
6. 0.15 0 0 100 0
7. 0.075 0 0 100 0
8. PAN 0 0 100 0
∑C = 280
∑C
Fineness Modulus = 100
Result:
Fineness modulus = 2.8
6 . Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate

Procedure:
1. Take 3kg of coarse aggregate sample and wash thoroughly to remove the dust
from the surface.
2. Immerse the sample in water about at 22-320C for a period of 24 hours.
3. Remove the coarse aggregate sample in saturated surface dry condition and
note down the weight (W1).
4. Take empty weight of basket suspended in water (W2).
5. Place the weighed aggregate in basket and dip in water with the help of spring
balance and not (W3).
6. Calculate the specific gravity of coarse aggregates using the formula
W1
G = W 1−(W 3−W 2)
Observations:
1. Mass of Saturated surface dry sample in air, (W1) = 3 Kg
2. Mass of empty basket in water, (W2) = 0.66 Kg
3. Mass of basket + sample in water, (W3) = 2.61 Kg
Result:
Specific gravity of C.A = 2.87
7 . Specific Gravity of Fine aggregate
Procedure:
1. Clean the pycnometer and take its empty weight (W1).
2. Take about one-third of sample of height of pycnometer and place it in the
pycnometer and weigh (W2).
3. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
4. Wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weigh (W3)
5. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level and weigh (W4).
6. Calculate the specific gravity of Fine aggregate using the formula
W 2−W 1
G = (W 2−W 1)−(W 3−W 4)
Observations:
1. Empty weight of pycnometer, (W1) = 0.67 Kg

2. Empty Weight of Pycnometer + 1/3rd of F.A, (W2) = 1.13 Kg

3. Weight of pycnometer + aggregate + Water, (W3) = 1.83 Kg
4. Weight of pycnometer + Water, (W4) = 1.54 Kg
Result:
Specific Gravity of Fine aggregate = 2.7
8 . Specific Gravity of Crushed bricks
Procedure:
1. Clean the pycnometer and take its empty weight (W1).
2. Take about one-third of sample of height of pycnometer and place it in the

3. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
4. Wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weigh (W3).
5. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level and weigh (W4).
6. Calculate the specific gravity of Crushed brick using the formula
W 2−W 1
G = (W 2−W 1)−(W 3−W 4)
Observations:
1. Empty weight of pycnometer, (W1) = 0.67 Kg
2. Empty Weight of Pycnometer + 1/3rd of F.A, (W2) = 0.92 Kg
3. Weight of pycnometer + aggregate + Water, (W3) = 1.66 Kg
4. Weight of pycnometer + Water, (W4) = 1.53 Kg
Result:
Specific Gravity of Crushed brick aggregate = 2.08

9 . Specific Gravity of Cement

Procedure:
1. Clean the Density bottle and take its empty weight (W1).
2. Take about one-third of sample of height of density bottle and place it in the
3. Pour kerosene into it until it is full.
4. Wipe out the outer surface of density bottle and weigh (W3).
5. Refill the density bottle with kerosene to the same level and weigh (W4).
6. Calculate the specific gravity of cement using the formula
W 5 X (W 3−W 1)
G=
( W 5+ W 3−W 4 ) X (W 4−W 1)
Observations:
1. Empty weight of density bottle, W1 = 9.5 grams
2. Weight of density bottle + Water, W2 = 62 grams
3. Weight of density bottle + Kerosene, W3 = 50.5 grams
4. Weight of density bottle + cement + kerosene, W4 = 62 grams
5. Weight of density bottle + 1/3rd of Cement, W5 = 15.5 grams
W 5 X (W 3−W 1)
6. Specific Gravity =
( W 5+ W 3−W 4 ) X (W 4−W 1)
Result:
Specific Gravity of Fine aggregate = 3.1
10 . Bulk density of Fine aggregate

Procedure:
1. Take the weight of empty measure (W1).
2. Fill the measure with aggregates sample for about one third height and tam
evenly with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod

3. Add a similar quantity of aggregate as second layer and tamp it evenly with 25
strokes.
4. Fill the measure with a third layer of aggregate up to over following and tamp
it with 25 strokes
5. Strike off the surplus aggregate using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
6. Take the weight (W2)
7. Empty the measure and fill it again to over flowing by means of a shovel, the
aggregate being discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of
the measure.
8. Level the surface of the measure and weight it (W3).
Observation:
1. Empty weight of measure, (W1) = 4.21 Kg
2. Weight of measure + Compacted aggregates, (W2) = 13.78 Kg

3. Weight of measure + Loosely filled aggregates, (W3) = 11.59 Kg
4. Volume of the measure = 0.005 m3
Weight of aggregate
5. Bulk density =
Volume of measure
Specific Gravity−Bulk density
6. % of voids = X 100
Specific gravity
Result:
1. Bulk density of compacted fine aggregate = 1914 Kg/m3
2. Bulk density of loosely filled fine aggregate = 1476 Kg/m3

3. % voids in compacted fine aggregate = 29.1 %
4. % voids in loosely filled fine aggregate = 45.3%
11 . Bulk density of coarse aggregate
Procedure:
1. Take the weight of empty measure (W1).
2. Fill the measure with aggregates sample for about one third height and tam
evenly with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod
3. Add a similar quantity of aggregate as second layer and tamp it evenly with 25
strokes.
4. Fill the measure with a third layer of aggregate up to over following and tamp
it with 25 strokes
5. Strike off the surplus aggregate using the tamping rod as a straight edge.
6. Take the weight (W2)
7. Empty the measure and fill it again to over flowing by means of a shovel, the
aggregate being discharged from a height not exceeding 5 cm above the top of
the measure.
8. Level the surface of the measure and weight it (W3).
Observation:
1. Empty weight of measure, (W1) = 8.705 Kg
2. Weight of measure + Compacted aggregates, (W2) = 32.93 Kg
3. Weight of measure + Loosely filled aggregates, (W3) = 30.74 Kg
4. Volume of the measure = 0.015 m3
Weight of aggregate
5. Bulk density =
Volume of measure
Specific Gravity−Bulk density
6. % of voids = X 100
Specific gravity
Result:
1. Bulk density of compacted Coarse aggregate = 1615 Kg/m3
2. Bulk density of loosely filled Coarse aggregate = 1469 Kg/m3
3. % voids in compacted Coarse aggregate = 43.7 %
4. % voids in loosely filled Coarse aggregate = 48.81 %
12 . Water absorption test on bricks

Procedure:
1. Take the dry weight of bricks (W1)
2. Keep it in water for 24 hours.

3. Take out the bricks from water and wipe its surface and keep it in sun for 5
minutes and take the weight (W2)
4. Calculate the % of water observation of bricks using the formula
W 2−W 1
% of water absorption = X 100
W1
Tabular Column:
Sl. No. Dry Weight (Kg) Saturated Weight (Kg)
Brick 1 1.99 2.3
Brick 2 2.09 2.39
Result:
% Water absorption of brick = 14.96 %.
13 . Elongation index and Flakiness index
Procedure:
1. The sample is sieved through IS sieve specified in Table shown
2. A minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction is taken and weighed.
3. In order to separate elongated materials, each fraction is then gauged

individually for length in the length gauge.
4. In order to separate flaky materials, each fraction is then gauged individually
for thickness in thickness gauge.
5. The pieces of aggregate from each fraction tested which could not pass
through the specified gauge length with its long sides elongated are collected
separately to find the total weight of aggregate retained on the length gauge
from each fraction.
6. The pieces of aggregate from each fraction tested which pass through the
specified gauge thickness with its thickness are collected separately to find the
total weight of aggregate retained on the thickness gauge from each fraction.

7. The total amount of elongated material retained by the length gauge is

weighed
8. The total amount of flaky material passed through the thickness gauge is
weighed.
Tabular Column:
Size of Sieve Length Gauge Weight of Weight in each

fraction fraction
Passing Retained consisting of at retained on
least 200 length gauge
pieces
63 50 0 0
50 40 81 0 0
40 31.5 58.5 0 0
31.5 25 0 0
25 20 40.5 1.37 0.165
20 16 32.4 2.4 0.75
16 12.5 25.6 1.1 0.365
12.5 10 20.2 0.33 0.19
10 6.3 14.7 0 0
W2 = 5.2 W3 = 1.47
W3
Elongation Index = W 2 X100
Size of Sieve Thickness Weight of Weight in each

Gauge fraction fraction
Passing Retained consisting of at retained on
least 200 length gauge
pieces
63 50 33.9 0 0
50 40 27 0 0
40 31.5 19.5 0 0
31.5 25 16.95 0 0
25 20 13.5 1.37 0.136
20 16 10.8 2.4 0.34
16 12.5 8.55 1.1 0.245

12.5 10 6.75 0.33 0.07
10 6.3 4.89 0 0
W2= 5.2 W4 = 0.791
W4
Flakiness Index = X100
W2
Result:
Elongation Index = 28.26%
Flakiness Index = 15.21%
14 . Impact Test on Coarse Aggregate
Procedure:
1. Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The aggregates
passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the
test material.
2. Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.
3. Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the
tamping rod.
4. Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
5. Strike off the surplus aggregates.
6. Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the
test sample in it
7. Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample.
Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second between
successive falls.
8. Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm IS
sieves.
Observation:
1. Weight of hammer = 14 Kg
2. Height of fall = 375 mm

3. Empty Weight of Mould = 1.595 kg
4. Weight of aggregate + Mould = 2.25 kg
5. Weight of Aggregate = 0.655 Kg
6. Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve = 0.06 kg
Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 Sieve
7. Impact value = X 100
Weight of aggregate
Result:
Impact Value = 9.16 %
15 . Crushing Strength Test on Coarse aggregate

Procedure:
1. Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W1)
2. Put the sample in 3 layers ,each layer being subjected to 25 strokes using the
tamping rod (W2)
3. Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the compression
testing machine.
4. Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T
5. Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.
6. Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss of
fines.
7. Weigh the fraction passing through the 2.36 IS sieve (W3)
Observation:
1. Applied Load = 392.4 KN

2. Empty Weight of Mould = 10.74 kg
3. Weight of aggregate + Mould = 13.89 kg
4. Weight of Aggregate = 3.15 Kg
Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 Sieve
6. Impact value =
Weight of aggregate
X 100

Result:
Impact Value = 13.9 %
16 . Los Angeles Abrasion Test

Procedure:
1. Take 5 kg of sample.
2. Place the aggregates and abrasive charge in the cylinder and fix the cover.
3. Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 – 33 revolutions per minute for 500
revolutions.
4. The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.
5. The sample retained on 1.70 mm is weighed.
Observation:
1. Weight of Aggregate = 5 Kg
Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70 mm Sieve
3. Crushing value = X 100
Weight of aggregate
Result:
Crushing Value = 6.6 %


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STUDY ON FIRE RESISTANCE IN BUILDING: CONCRETE AND STEEL

It is important to recognize that the key feature for implementing the

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE-RESISTANT STEELS AND STAINLESS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

features higher corrosion resistance than SUS304. Combining excellent

Fig. l Temperature dependence of yield strength of steels

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Fig .2 Elevated –temperature strength of stainless steel

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.2 FIRE-SAFE DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BUILDINGS

Buildings constructed of fire-resistant or stainless steels do not meet some of

Fig. 3 shows the fire-resistant design flow specified in the

guidelines. The fire-resistant design flow is based on the “Comprehensive

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Fig. 3 Fire-resistant design flow

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.3 CONCRETE PROVIDES COMPRESSIVE FIRE

1.3.1 Structural Fire Protection Measures Must Fulfil Three Aims:

 Personal protection to preserve life and health;

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1.3.2 Using Concrete In Buildings And Structures Offers Exceptional Levels Of

1.3.3 Cementitious Spray-Fire Proofing:

Fireproofing’s rendering something (structures, materials, etc.) proof against

Figure 1.3: Construction worker applying spray resistive material

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Dafni Pantousa et al., in the journal, "Numerical Assessment of the Fire

Maraveas C, in the article, “Local buckling of steel individuals enduring an

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Harshad D Mahale, et al., in the article, “Behaviour of steel structure under

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 An examination of the overall structure

Member Analysis, in which each member of the structure is evaluated by considering

C. An Examination of the Overall Structure

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Collins Street Test (circa 1994) ByThe William Street.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Properties of concrete are influenced by many factors mainly due to mix

Use of glass fibre can lead to improvement in the properties of cement

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3. Split tensile strength

1.2 Ingredients of Concrete

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

 Sand and/or crushed stone.

 Size < 4.75 mm.

 Fine Aggregate content usually 35% to 45% by mass or volume of total

 Typically between 9.5 and 37.5 mm.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Chemical composition of Portland cement:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3. It can be used to build buildings, sky scrapers, etc.

1.2.3 Glass Fibre

Glass Fibre (or glass fibre) is a material consisting of numerous extremely

Physical Properties of Glass Fibre

Physical Properties Recommended values by the supplier

Uses of Glass fibres: