MODULE 4: PRINCIPLE OF HYDRODYNAMICS

Introduction
Principles relating to fluids at rest can be obtained with no ambiguity by purely rational
methods. Some natural principles which are universally true are the basis of calculations. In
flowing fluid, however, the laws that govern the motion are complex and most of the time defies
mathematical expressions. Thanks to experimental data combined with mathematical theories
which solved countless engineering problems in the past.
Topic Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students must learn how to:
• Understand the conservation of matter, energy and momentum as they apply it to a flowing
fluid
• Be able to apply the continuity and energy equations to calculate related variations in
pressure, velocity and elevation in a simple ducted flow
A great deal can be learnt about flows by adopting the techniques and equations which
were developed by the hydrodynamicists. They are developed for the case of an “ideal” fluid. An
ideal fluid has no viscosity (i.e., it is inviscid), has no surface tension and is incompressible.
Viscosity and compressibility are the major reasons for the complexity of real fluid flows. Of
course, no such substance as an “ideal” fluid actually exists. Nevertheless, for certain types of
problem, the equations for “ideal” flows are remarkably accurate.
Classification of Flows
Flows can be classified in a number of ways. The system generally adopted is to consider
the flow as being characterized by two parameters – time and distance. The class into which any
particular flow falls is usually a reliable guide to the appropriate method of solution.
• Steady Uniform Flow
For such a flow the discharge is constant with time, and the cross section through which
the flow passes is of constant area. A typical example is that of constant flow through a
long straight pipe of uniform diameter.
• Steady Non-Uniform Flow
The discharge is constant with time, but the cross-sectional area varies with distance.
Examples are flow in a tapering pipe and flow with constant discharge in a river (the cross
section of a river usually varies from point to point).
• Unsteady Uniform Flow
 The cross section through the flow is constant, but the discharge varies with time. This is
a complex flow pattern. An example is that of unsteady flow in a long straight pipe of
uniform diameter, associated with the operation of a surge tower.
• Unsteady Non-Uniform Flow
The cross section and discharge vary with both time and distance. This is typified by the
passage of a flood wave in a natural channel, and is the most complex flow to analyze.
• Continuous Flow
By the principle of conservation of mass, continuous flow occurs when at any time, the
discharge Q at every section of the stream is the same.

Visualization of Flow Patterns

• Streamlines
A streamline is constructed by drawing a line which is tangential to the velocity vectors of
a connected series of fluid particles (bear in mind that velocity is a vector quantity, it
involves magnitude and direction). The streamline is thus a line representing the direction
of flow of the series of particles at a given instant.
 • Streamtubes
These represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded by a group of streamlines
which confine the flow.

• One-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when an incompressible fluid, the direction and magnitude of the velocity at
all points are identical.
• Two-Dimensional Flow
This occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and the streamline
patterns are identical in each plane.
• Flow Nets
These are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional flow, or even three-
dimensional flow.
Types of Flow
• Laminar Flow
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths of the individual particles do not cross or
intersect. By many careful experiments to commercial pipes of circular cross section, the
flow is laminar when the Reynolds’ number Re is less than 2100.
 • Turbulent Flow
The flow is said to be turbulent when its path lines are irregular curves and continuously
cross each other. Reynolds’ number greater than 2100 normally defines turbulent flow but
in highly controlled environment such as laboratories, laminar flow can be maintained up
to values of Re as high as 50,000. However, it is very unlikely that such condition can occur
in the practice.

Discharge (also called flow rate)

The amount of fluid passing a section of a stream in unit time is called the discharge. If v
is the mean velocity and A is the cross-sectional area, the discharge Q is defined by Q = Av which
is known as volume flow rate. Discharge is also expressed as mass flow rate and weight flow rate.

Where:
Q = discharge in m3/sec or ft3/sec
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2
v = mean velocity of flow in m/sec or ft/sec
ρ = mass density of fluid in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3
γ = unit weight of fluid in N/m3 or lb/ft3
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Compute the discharge of water through 75 mm pipe if the mean velocity is 2.5 m/sec.

2. The discharge of air through a 600-mm pipe is 4 m3/sec. Compute the mean velocity in
m/sec.

3. A pipe line consists of successive lengths of 380-mm, 300-mm, and 250-mm pipe. With a
continuous flow through the line of 250 Lit/sec of water, compute the mean velocity in
each size of pipe.

ENERGY AND HEAD OF FLOW

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
Energy is defined as ability to do work. Both energy and work are measured in Newton-
meter (or pounds-foot in English). Kinetic energy and potential energy are the two commonly
recognized forms of energy. In a flowing fluid, potential energy may in turn be subdivided into
energy due to position or elevation above a given datum, and energy due to pressure in the fluid.
Head is the amount of energy per Newton (or per pound) of fluid.
Kinetic Energy and Velocity Head
Kinetic energy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity. The kinetic
energy of a mass m having a velocity v is ½mv2. Since m = W/g,

Velocity Head of Circular Pipes

The velocity head of circular pipe of diameter D flowing full can be found as follows.

Elevation Energy and Elevation Head

In connection to the action of gravity, elevation energy is manifested in a fluid by virtue of
its position or elevation with respect to a horizontal datum plane.
Pressure Energy and Pressure Head
A mass of fluid acquires pressure energy when it is in contact with other masses having
some form of energy. Pressure energy therefore is an energy transmitted to the fluid by another
mass that possesses some energy.

Total Energy of Flow

The total energy or head in a fluid is the sum of kinetic and potential energies. Recall that
potential energies are pressure energy and elevation energy.

In symbol, the total head energy is

Where:
v = mean velocity of flow (m/sec in SI and ft/sec in English)
p = fluid pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI and lb/ft2 or psf in English)
z = position of fluid above or below the datum plane (m in SI and ft in English)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2 in SI and 32.2 ft/sec2 in English)
γ = Unit weight of fluid (N/m3 in SI and lb/ft3 in English)
Power and Efficiency
Power is the rate of doing work per unit of time. For a fluid of unit weight γ (N/m3) flowing
at the rate of Q (m3/sec) with a total energy of E (m), the power (Watt) is
Note:
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 Watts
1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec
1 Watt = 1 N-m/sec = 1 Joule/sec
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem
Applying the law of conservation of energy to fluids that may be considered
incompressible, Bernoulli’s theorem may be stated as follows:
Neglecting head lost, the total amount of energy per unit weight is constant at any point in
the path of flow.
Bernoulli’s Energy Equation
Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss
Without head losses, the total energy at point (1) is equal to the total energy at point (2).
No head lost is an ideal condition leading to theoretical values in the results.

Energy Equation Considering Head Loss

 The actual values can be found by considering head losses in the computation of flow
energy.

Energy Equation with Pump

In most cases, pump is used to raise water from lower elevation to higher elevation. In a
more technical term, the use of pump is basically to increase the energy of flow. The pump
consumes electrical energy (Pinput) and delivers flow energy (Poutput).
Energy Equation with Turbine
Turbines extract flow energy and converted it into mechanical energy which in turn
converted into electrical energy.

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Hydraulic grade line, also called hydraulic gradient and pressure gradient, is the graphical
representation of the potential head (pressure head + elevation head). It is the line to which liquid
rises in successive piezometer tubes. The line is always at a distance (p/γ + z) above the datum
plane.
Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to change in
pressure.
• HGL is parallel to EGL for uniform pipe cross section.
• For horizontal pipes with constant cross section, the drop in pressure gradient between two
points is equivalent to the head lost between these points.
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
Energy grade line is always above the hydraulic grade line by an amount equal to the
velocity head. Thus, the distance of energy gradient above the datum plane is always
(v2/2g + p/γ + z). Energy grade line therefore is the graphical representation of the total energy of
flow.
Characteristics of EGL
• EGL slopes downward in the direction of flow and will only rise with the presence of pump.
• The vertical drop of EGL between two points is the head lost between those points.
• EGL is parallel to HGL for uniform pipe cross section.
• EGL is always above the HGL by v2/2g.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
Illustration showing the behavior of EGL and HGL

References:
• Chadwick, et. Al., Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering (5th Edition)
• www.mathalino.com
• DIT Gillesania, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics (Revised Edition)
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Water flows through a 75mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 3 m/sec. Find the following:
a. volume flow rate in m3/sec and lit/sec
b. mass flow rate in kg/sec
c. weight flow rate in N/sec

2. A 100-mm diameter plunger is being pushed at 60 mm/sec into a tank filled with oil having
sp.gr. of 0.82. If the fluid is incompressible, how many N/s of oil is being forced out at a
30-mm diameter hole?
3. Determine the kinetic energy flux of 0.02 m3/s of oil (sp. gr. = 0.85) discharging through a
50-mm diameter nozzle.

4. A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.877 changes in size from 150 mm at section 1 and
450 mm at section 2. Section 1 is 3.6 m below section 2 and the pressures are 90 kPa and
60 kPa, respectively. If the discharge is 150 lit/sec, determine the head lost and the direction
of flow.
5. A horizontal pipe gradually reduces from 300 mm diameter section to 100 mm diameter
section. The pressure at the 300 mm section is 100 kPa at the 100 mm section is 70 kPa. If
the flow rate is 15 liters/sec of water, compute the head lost between the two sections.
6. Oil flows from a tank through 150m of 150mm diameter pipe and then discharges into air
as shown in the Figure. If the head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 600 mm, determine the
pressure needed at point 1 to cause 17 lit/sec of oil to flow.
7. The pump shown draws water from reservoir A at elevation 10 m and lifts it to reservoir B
at elevation 60 m. The loss of head from A to 1 is two times the velocity head in the 200
mm diameter pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is ten times the velocity head in the 150
mm diameter pipe. Determine the rated horsepower of the pump and the pressure heads at
1 and 2 in meters when the discharge is 0.03 m3/sec.
8. Water enters a motor through a 600-mm diameter pipe under a pressure of 14 kPa. It leaves
through a 900-mm diameter exhaust pipe with a pressure of 4 kPa. A vertical distance of
2.5 m separates the centers of the two pipes at the sections where the pressures are
measured. If 500 liters of water pass the motor each second, compute the power supplied
to the motor.
9. A nozzle inclined at an angle of 60⁰ with the horizontal issues a 50-mm diameter water
jet at the rate of 10 m/s. Neglecting air resistance, what is the area of the jet at the highest
point of the projectile?
10. Neglecting head loss, determine the manometer reading in the system shown when the
velocity of water flowing in the 75-mm diameter pipe is 0.6 m/s.