Classical 3

Classical Mechanics, Lecture 3
January 17, 2008

lecture by John Baez
notes by Alex Hoffnung
1 Conservation of Energy
Today we will talk about what conservation of energy is good for — how it can help us solve problems
in classical mechanics. If we have a particle q: R → Rn satisfying F = ma where F is conservative:
F (t) = − ∇V (q(t))
where V : Rn → R is called the potential, then energy is conserved. Let

1
E(t) = mq̇(t)2 + V (q(t)).
2
Then
d
E(t) = mq̇(t) · q̈(t) + ∇V (q(t)) · q̇(t)
dt
= F (q(t)) · q̇(t) + ∇V (q(t)) · q̇(t)
= 0
What good is this? It helps understand the motion of the particle: for any solution of Newton’s
second law
1
mq̇(t)2 + V (q(t)) + E
2
r
2
|| q̇(t) || = (E − V (q(t)))
m
so we know the particle’s speed given its position. This is especially powerful for a particle on the
line (n=1).
Example: A particle on a line. In this case, suppose the force depends only on position:
F (t) = f (q(t))
for f : R → R. Then automatically F is conservative:
f = −∇V
dV
= −
dx
where Z x
V (x) = f (s)ds.
x0
Note: we can add any constant to V . Also: the fact that any f is −∇V for some V is special to 1
dimension.
So we have: r
2
| q̇(t) | = (E − V (q(t)))
m
1
so r
2
q̇(t) = ± (E − V (q(t)))
m
For example:
graph of some f unction V (x) on plane with chosen energy value V = E
The particle’s position, say x, must have
V (x) ≤ E.
This is called the classically allowed region - in our example, [x0 , x1 ]. The set of x ∈ R where
V (x) > E is the classically forbidden.
A particle at a local maximum can go one of the two possible directions. If the potential increases
all the way up to V = E, the particle stops for moment and then Newton’s second law demands
that the particle goes back down the graph. In our example the particle must oscillate between x 0
and x1 , moving faster where V is smaller.
Example: A particle in R3 in a central force.
picture of a central f orce f ield

A central force depends only on position, so it’s given by f : R3 − {0} → R3 , but where f is
spherically symmetric:
x
f (x) = φ(|| x ||)
|| x ||
where φ: [0, ∞) → R. (We’ll worry about the origin in R3 when necessary.) We’ll write
|| q(t) || = r(t)
q(t)
= r̂(t)
|| q(t) ||
so Newton’s 2nd law says
mq̈(t) = φ(r(t))r̂(t).
Kepler started thinking about planetary motion - this is motion in a central force
k
φ(r) = −
r2
He noted that planets sweep out equal area in equal time:
picture of planet going around sun with area f rom t0 to t0 + ∆t and f rom t1 to t1 + ∆t
This is secretly “conservation of angular momentum”. This will let us understand motion in any
central force.
First, a central force is automatically conservative: if
x
f (x) = φ(|| x ||)x̂, (x̂ = )
|| x ||
then
f (x) = − ∇V (x)
where
V (x) = v(|| x ||)
2
for some v: (0, ∞) → R, namely any v with v 0 = −φ, e.g.:
Z r1
v(r) = − φ(s)ds.
r0
So we have conservation of energy

1
E(t) = mq̇(t)2 = v(r(t))
2
(where r(t) =|| q(t) ||) is constant. But we also have conservation of angular momentum
J: R → R3 given by
J(t) = q(t) × p(t).
Why is this conserved?
d
J(t) = q̇(t) × p(t) + q(t) × ṗ(t)
dt
= q̇(t) × mq̇(t) + q(t) × F (t)
= 0 + q(t) × f (q(t))
= q(t) × φ(r(t))q̂(t)
= 0.
In general: angular momentum is constant when the force points directly towards or away from the
origin.
For a particle in a central force, J(t) = mq(t) × q̇(t) is constant so q(t) and q̇(t) must lie in some
fixed plane, independent of t. So, choose coordinates so that it’s the xy plane. So now we have a
particle in R2 . Let’s describe its position using polar coordinates r(t), θ(t). In these coordinates:
1
E(t) = m(ṙ(t)2 + r2 θ̇(t)2 ) + v(r(t))
2
and J(t) is pointing in the z-direction and proportional to
j(t) = mr(t)2 θ̇(t)
E(t) and j(t) are both consntant - E and j. So:
j = mr2 θ̇
j
θ̇ =
mr2
So
1 j2
E = m(ṙ2 + ) + v(r(t)).
2 m2 r 2
This is isomorphic to a particle on (0, ∞) with position r(t) and velocity ṙ(t) and energy
1
E = mṙ(t)2 + Vef f (r(t))
2
where the effective potential is
1 j2
Vef f (r) = v(r) + .
2 mr2
picture of typical potential and ef f ective potential
j2
So the “effective” force is the force due to V plus a centrifugal force due to mr 2 .

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Classical Mechanics, Lecture 3

January 17, 2008

where V : Rn → R is called the potential, then energy is conserved. Let

for f : R → R. Then automatically F is conservative:

graph of some f unction V (x) on plane with chosen energy value V = E

The particle’s position, say x, must have

Example: A particle in R3 in a central force.

picture of a central f orce f ield

So we have conservation of energy

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