Microbiology: fundamentals

Course: CHE 18104 – Biochemical Engineering

8th Semester BTech (Chemical Engg.)
IIT (ISM), Dhanbad

Winter Semester (2021 – 2022)

Instructor: Dr. D. Krishna Sandilya

 What is microbiology?

Microbiology is the study of living organisms of
microscopic size, which include bacteria, fungi, algae,
protozoa and also infectious agents such as viruses.

The study is concerned with the form, structure,
reproduction, physiology, metabolism and the
classification.

Microbiology also deals with
(i) The study of the distribution of microorganisms in the nature.
(ii)Their relationship to each other and to the other living organisms.
(iii)
Their effects on human beings, other animals, and plants.
(iv)Their abilities to make chemical and physical changes to the
environment.
(v) Their reactions to physical and chemical agents.
 What do microorganisms do?

Certain microorganisms are beneficial and some
are detrimental to the welfare of human beings.
Microorganisms are used in the
1. Preparation of yoghurt, cheese and wine.
2. Production of antibiotics like penicillin, tetramycin etc.
3. Manufacture of alcohol, vaccines, hormones, and steroids.
4. Treatment of the industrial and domestic wastewater and
wastes

Certain microbes can

1. Cause diseases and spoil food.
2. Deteriorate materials like iron pipes, lenses, and wood
pilings.
 What is a Cell?

Most of the microorganisms are unicellular, i.e., they have a
single cell and all the life processes are performed by it.

In the higher forms of life, i.e., multicellular organisms, cells

are in plenty and are arranged in tissues and organs
performing specific functions.

Irrespective of the cell complexity of an organism, the cell is

the basic structural unit of life.

All the living cells are fundamentally similar.

Features
of living
cells
 Common characteristics of
all living systems

The ability to reproduce.

The ability to ingest or assimilate food substances and

metabolize them for energy and the growth.

The ability to excrete waste products.

The ability to react to the changes in their environment,

sometimes called irritability.

The susceptibility to the sudden changes in the genetic

constitution, known as the mutation.
 Scope of microbiology

We can study microorganisms in great detail and observe

their life processes while they are actively metabolizing,
growing, reproducing, aging and dying.

By modifying their environment, we can alter

(i) metabolic activities,
(ii) regulate growth, and
(iii) even change some details of their genetic pattern
– all without destroying the organisms.
 Microbial Diversity

Living cells can be found almost everywhere that water is in the liquid
state.

The right temperature, pH, and moisture levels vary from one organism
to another.

Some cells can grow at –20oC (in a brine to prevent freezing);

While others can grow best at 120oC (where water is under high enough
pressure to prevent boiling).

Optimum temperature for cells to grow:

Temperature Such Cells are known as

Below 20oC Psychrophiles
Between 20oC and 50oC Mesophiles
Greater than 50oC Thermophiles
 Microbial Diversity (contd.)
pH

Many organisms have pH optima far from neutrality:
 some prefer values down to 1 or 2
 while others may grow well at pH 9

Some organisms can grow at low pH and high temperatures.

Water

Most organisms can grow only where water activity is high;

Others can grow on barely moist solid surfaces or
in solutions with high salt concentrations (halophiles)

Pink colored Lake Hillier in Australia is because of the microorganism
Dunaliella salina.
 Microbial Diversity (contd.)
 Cells that require oxygen for growth and metabolism are termed
aerobic.

 Other organisms are inhibited by the presence of oxygen and grow only
anaerobically.

Some
Some organisms can switch the metabolic pathways to allow them to
under either circumstance. Such organisms are facultative.

Some cyanobacteria can grow in an environment with only a little

moisture and a few dissolved minerals.

These bacteria are photosynthetic and can convert CO2 from the
atmosphere into the organic compounds necessary for life.

They can also convert N2 into NH3 for use in making the essential
building blocks of life.
 Microbial Diversity (contd.)
 Not only do organisms occupy a wide variety of habitats, but they also
come in a wide range of sizes and shapes.
 Some cells may change shape in response to changes in their local
environment.
Shape of Name plural
microorganism
Spherical or coccus cocci
elliptical
Cylindrical bacillus or rod bacilli
Spiral spirillum spirilla
 Microbial Diversity (contd.)

Thus, organisms can be found in the most extreme

environments and have evolved a wondrous array of shape,
sizes and metabolic capabilities.

This great diversity provides the engineer with an immense

variety of potential tools.

We have barely begun to learn how to exploit these tools.

Primary subdivisions of cellular organisms
 Primary subdivisions of cellular organisms
Group Cell structure Properties Constituent
groups
Eucaryotes Eucaryotic Multicellular; Plants (seed plants,
extensive ferns, mosses)
differentiation of
cells and tissues Animals
(vertebrates,
invertebrates)

Unicellular, Protists (algae, fungi,

coenocytic or protozoa)
mycelial; little or no
tissue differentiation
Eubacteria Procaryotic Cell chemistry similar Most bacteria
to eucaryotes
Archaebacteria Procaryotic Distinctive cell Methanogens,
chemistry halophiles,
thermoacidophiles
Eucaryote & Procaryote Cells
 Structure of Cells
Procaryotic Cells or Procaryotes

 Lack a well–defined nucleus, or a membrane–enclosed nucleus.

Possess a simple structure and are relatively small.

Usually exist alone, no association with other cells.

Size varies between 0.5 – 3.0 micrometers in equivalent radius.

They grow rapidly and are widespread in the biosphere.

 Typical doubling times of one-half to several hours.

They can accept a wide variety of nutrients including carbohydrates,

hydrocarbons, proteins and CO2.
 Structure of Cells
Procaryotic Cells or Procaryotes
Examples: E. coli (cylindrical);
Staphylococci (spherical)
Rhodospirillum (spiral)

Naming Cells: Binary nomenclature (dual name) is used for

microorganisms.
A genus is a group of related species, while a species includes organisms
that are substantially alike. A common organism that is well studied is
Escherichia coli.

Escherichia is the genus and coli is the species.

When writing a report or paper, it is common practice to give the full name
when the organism is first mentioned, but in subsequent discussion to
abbreviate the genus to the first letter. In this case we would use E. coli.
 Structure of Cells
Procaryotic Cells or Procaryotes
 Components of Procaryotic Cells
 Cell Wall: It is a rigid wall surrounding the cell, which approximately
measures 200 Å. The function of cell wall is to lend structural strength to
the cell thus preserving its integrity.
 Cell Membrane (plasma membrane): It is present just inner to the cell
wall and has a thickness of about 70 Å. The cell membrane plays a vital
role in controlling the ingress and egress of the nutrients.
 Nuclear zone (nucleoid): It is a large, ill-defined structure. It acts as a
dominant control centre for the cell operation.
 Ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis): These are grainy dark spots
inside the cell. They function as the sites for biochemical reactions.
 Cytoplasm: This is a fluid material occupying the rest of the space in the
cell.
Flagellum: A protein that arises from the cell membrane (useful for
motility).
Pilus: Rigid protein projection from the cell.
Capsule: Coating or outside cell wall, usually a polysaccharide.
 Structure of Cells
Eucaryotic Cells or Eucaryotes
 Cells which possess a membrane–enclosed nucleus.

Cells of the higher organisms belong to this category.

The human body is composed of about 1014 eucaryotic cells.

 Fungi (yeasts and molds), algae, protozoa, and animal and plant cells.

Internal structure of eucaryotic cell is more complex and there is a

substantial degree of spatial organization and differentiation.

Eucaryotes are 5 – 10 times larger than procaryotes in diameter (yeast

about 5 μm, animal cells about 10 μm and plant cells about 20 μm).

 The eucaryotic cell has well-defined sub-cellular organelles.

 Structure of Cells
Eucaryotic Cells or Eucaryotes
 Components of Eucaryotic Cells
 Plasma membrane: Also called unit membrane and possesses
adhesive properties thus binding the like cells to form specialized
tissues or organs. The plasma is made of proteins and phospholipids
that form a bi-layer structure.

Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a complex, convoluted membrane

system that leads from the cell membrane into the cell and extends
throughout the cytoplasm.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes on the inner

surfaces and is the site of protein synthesis and modification of
protein structure after synthesis.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is more involved with synthesis

of lipids like triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, etc.
 Components of Eucaryotic Cells
Nucleus: It is the largest cellular organelle that is surrounded by a
double-layered nuclear envelope. The nucleus is composed of
chromosomes as nuclear material (DNA molecules with some
closely associated small proteins), thus acting as the repository of
genetic material.
Many chromosomes contain small amounts of RNA and basic
proteins called histones attached to the DNA.
Each chromosome contains a single linear DNA molecule on which
the histones are attached.

The nucleolus is an area in the nucleus that stains differently and

is the site of ribosome synthesis.

Nucleus is the control center of the cell, thus controlling the

catalytic activity at the ribosomes.
 Components of Eucaryotic Cells

Cell wall: The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose fibers

embedded in pectin aggregates, which impart strength to the cell
wall. Animal cells do not have a cell wall but only a cytoplasmic
membrane.
For this reason, animal cells are very shear – sensitive and fragile.
This factor significantly complicates the design of large – scale
bioreactors for animal cells.

Ribosomes: These are the sites for the biochemical reactions and
much of the ribosomes are embedded in the surface of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The major function of the ribosomes is to
synthesize proteins. These are also called the sites of protein
synthesis.
 Components of Eucaryotic Cells
Mitochondria: These are rod – like or filamentous structures
occupying about one – fifth of the total cell volume. The major
function of mitochondria is to catalyze the reactions and produce
enormous amounts of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). These are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
A mitochondrion has its own DNA and protein–synthesizing
machinery and reproduces independently.

Chloroplasts are relatively large, chlorophyll-containing, green

organelles that are responsible for photosynthesis, in
photosynthetic eucaryotes such as algae and plant cells.

Vacuoles, Golgi complex and lysosomes: These are the remaining

organelles and in general, serve to isolate chemical reactions or
certain chemical compounds from the cytoplasm.
 References

1. M. L. Shuler and F. Kargi, Bioprocess Engineering : Basic Concepts,

Second edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2002.

2. S. T. A. Inamdar, Biochemical Engineering : Principles and Concepts, Third

edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2012.

3. D. L. Nelson and M. M. Cox, Lehninger Prnciples of Biochemistry, Fourth

edition, W. H. Freeman and Company, 2005.

26