VECTOR ANALYSIS

Vector Analysis is a concise language or mathematical shorthand which greatly facilitates the
analysis of electric and magnetic fields.
Scalar Quantity
A scalar is a quantity that is completely characterized by its magnitude.

Examples of scalars: distance, speed, mass, time, volume, etc. A simple extension of the idea of a scalar is a
scalar field- a function of position that is completely specified by its magnitude at all points in space.
Vector Quantity
A vector is a quantity that is completely characterized by its magnitude and direction.

Examples of vectors: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.

Vector field is defined as a function of position that is completely specified by its magnitude and direction at
all points in space.
Addition of Vectors

Note:
A vector may be represented graphically by a line with an arrow. The orientation of the line and the arrow
indicates the direction of the vector.
2.2 Rectangular or Cartesian Coordinate System
A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
The directions of the positive x, y, z axes are defined by the cartesian unit vectors, a x, ay, az
respectively.
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Resolution of a vector into component vectors and into unit vectors

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 Unit Vector, a
A unit vector, aA, has a magnitude of one “dimensionless” unit and acts in the same direction as A.
It is determined by dividing the vector A by its magnitude (absolute value).

𝑨
𝒂𝑨 =
|𝑨|

The Magnitude of A is determined from

|𝑨| = √𝑨𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑨𝒚 𝟐 + 𝑨𝒛 𝟐

Vector Multiplications
The Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors
A • B = |A||B|cos

where  is the angle between A and B.

It is to be noted that the dot product obeys the commutative law; that is
A•B=B•A
If A and B are perpendicular,  = 90, and
A•B=0
If A and B are expressed in Cartesian component form, then the dot product can be determined
from
A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

The dot product may be used to determine the angle formed between two vectors.
From eq. 1
𝑨∙𝑩
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( )
|𝑨||𝑩|
It is also possible, to find the component of a vector in a given direction using the dot product. For
example, the magnitude of the component of vector B in the direction of A, is defined by |B| cos .
From eq.1
𝑩. 𝑨
|𝑩|𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = ( ) = 𝑩 ∙ 𝒂𝑨
|𝑨|
The geometrical term projection is also used with the dot product. Thus, B • aA is the projection of B in the A
direction.
B

Ba A
B.aA
B . aA = |B||aA| cos Ba Since |aA| = 1
Then B . aA = |B|cos Ba
Note: The sign of the component is positive if 0  Ba < 90 and negative whenever 90  Ba < 180.
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 Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

|C| = | A x B | = |A||B| sin 

Where  is the angle between A and B (0    180).

In vector notation the relation is expressed

C = A x B = (|A||B| sin) an

Where an is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B.

The direction of C, an, is determined by the right-hand rule, whereby the fingers of the right hand
curled from A to B and the thumb points in the direction of C.

The vector product does not obey the commutative law. Thus
AxBBxA
Rather A x B = -(B x A)

If A and B are expressed in Cartesian component form, then the cross product may be evaluated by
expanding the determinant.
𝒂 𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝐂 = 𝐀 𝐱 𝐁 = | 𝑨 𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛 |
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛
Which yields
C = (AYBZ – AZBY)aX - (AXBZ – AZBX)aY + (AXBY – AYBX)aZ

OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The three most common coordinate systems are rectangular or cartesian (coordinates x,y,z),
cylindrical (coordinates ,,z), and spherical (coordinates r,,).
Transformation
Cartesian to Cylindrical Coordinates Cylindrical to Cartesian Coordinates

𝝆 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 x =  cos 
𝒚
𝝓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ) y =  sin 
𝒙
z=z z=z

Cartesian to Spherical Coordinates Spherical to Cartesian Coordinates

𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 x = r sin  cos 

𝜽= 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (√𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ) y = r sin  sin 
𝒚
𝝓= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( ) z = r cos 
𝒙
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 Cartesian to Cylindrical Component Vector Cartesian to Spherical Component Vector
From Acart = Axax + Ayay + Azaz From Acart = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
Transform to Acyl = Aa+ Aa + Azaz Transform to Asph = Arar+ Aa + Aa
Formula; Formula;
A = Acart • a Ar = Acart • ar
A = Acart • a A = Acart • a
Az = Acart • az A = Acart • a

Cylindrical to Cartesian Component Vector Spherical to Cartesian Component Vector

From Acyl = Aa+ Aa + Azaz From Asph = Arar+ Aa + Aa
Transform to Acart = Axax + Ayay + Azaz Transform to Acart = Axax + Ayay + Azaz
Formula; Formula;
Ax = Acyl • ax Ax = Asph • ax
Ay = Acyl • ay Ay = Asph • ay
Az = Acyl • az Az = Asph • az

Cylindrical to Spherical Component Vector Spherical to Cylindrical Component Vector

From Acyl = Aa+ Aa + Azaz From Asph = Arar+ Aa + Aa
Transform to Asph = Arar+ Aa + Aa Transform to Acyl = Aa+ Aa + Azaz
Formula; Formula;
Ar = Acyl • ar A = Asph • a
A = Acyl • a A = Asph • a
A = Acyl• a Az = Asph • az

Dot products of unit vectors in cylindrical and cartesian coordinate system

a a az
ax • cos  -sin  0
ay • sin  cos  0
az • 0 0 1
Dot products of unit vectors in spherical and cartesian coordinate system
ar a a
ax • sin  cos  cos  cos  -sin 
ay • sin  sin  cos  sin  cos 
az • cos  -sin  0
Dot products of unit vectors in cylindrical and spherical coordinate system
a a az
ar • sin  0 cos 
A • cos  0 -sin 
a • 0 1 0
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 DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME, SURFACE, AND LINE ELEMENTS
When the coordinates of point P are expanded to (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) or (+d, +d, z+dz) or (r+dr, +d,
+d) a differential volume dv is formed.
THE

VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION
The vector differentiation uses the vector differential operator del, defined in Cartesian coordinates as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
There are three types of vector differentiation—namely;
1. Gradient
2. Divergence
3. Curl
Gradient: grad = ,
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
grad φ = ∇φ = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
if (x,y,z) = Constant ( equation of surface )
then  = normal to the surface
Divergence: div = •,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
div A = ∇ ∙ A = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Curl: Curl = x,

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
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𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = ∇ 𝑥 𝐴 = | |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
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𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
 Example 1.
Given the two vectors , rA = - ax - 3ay + 4az and rB = 2ax + 2ay + 2az , and point C(1,3,4), find: (a)
RAB ;(b) |rA| ;(c) aA ; (d) aAB ; (e) a unit vector directed from C toward A.
Solution:
Where: rA or A is the vector A
rB or A is the vector B
a.) RAB = ? (the vector directed from A toward B)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴 = (2 − (−1))𝑎𝑥 + (2 − (−3))𝑎𝑦 + (2 − 4)𝑎𝑧 = 3𝑎𝑥 + 5𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧
b. ) |rA|=? (magnitude of A)
|𝑟𝐴 | = |𝐴| = √(−1)2 + (−3)2 + 42 = 5.099
c.) aA = ? (unit vector of A)
−𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑦 − 4𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝐴 = = −0.196𝑎𝑥 − 0.588𝑎𝑦 + 0.784𝑎𝑧
√26

d.) aAB = ? (unit vector directed from A toward B)

𝑅𝐴𝐵 3𝑎𝑥 + 5𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝐴𝐵 = = = 0.4867𝑎𝑥 + 0.811𝑎𝑦 − 0.324𝑎𝑧
|𝑅𝐴𝐵 | √38
e.) aCA = ? (unit vector directed from C toward A)
𝑅𝐶𝐴 −2𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝐶𝐴 = = = −0.316𝑎𝑥 − 0.9487𝑎𝑦
|𝑅𝐶𝐴 | √40

Example 2.
Given points A(2,5,-1), B(3,-2,4), and C(-2,3,1), find: (a) RAB . RAC; (b) the angle between RAB and
RAC; (c) The length of projection of RAB on RAC; (d) the vector projection of RAB on RAC.
Solution:
a.) RAB . RAC = ?
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴 = (3 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (−2 − 5)𝑎𝑦 + (4 − (−1))𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 − 7𝑎𝑦 + 5𝑎𝑧
𝑅𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 − 𝐴 = (−2 − 2)𝑎𝑥 + (3 − 5)𝑎𝑦 + (1 − (−1))𝑎𝑧 = −4𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝑅𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵𝑥 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑥 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵𝑦 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑦 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵𝑧 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝑧 = (1)(−4) + (−7)(−2) + (5)(2) = 20
b.) the angle between RAB and RAC, θ
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝑅𝐴𝐶 = |𝑅𝐴𝐵 ||𝑅𝐴𝐶 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
|𝑹𝑨𝑩 | = √𝟏𝟐 + 𝟕𝟐 + 𝟓𝟐 = √𝟕𝟓
|𝑹𝑨𝑪 | = √𝟒𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 = √𝟐𝟒
where:
𝑹𝑨𝑩 ∙ 𝑹𝑨𝑪 𝟐𝟎
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( ) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ( ) = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟖𝟕°
|𝑹𝑨𝑩 ||𝑹𝑨𝑪 | √𝟕𝟓√𝟐𝟒
c.) The length of projection of RAB on RAC
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝑅𝐴𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 ∙ 𝑎𝐴𝐶 = = 4.08
|𝑅𝐴𝐶 |
d.) The vector projection of RAB on RAC.
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐿)(𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = (𝐿)𝑎𝐴𝐶
−4𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑧
𝑉. 𝑃. = 4.08 ( ) = −3.33𝑎𝑥 − 1.67𝑎𝑦 + 1.67𝑎𝑧
√24
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 Example 3.
A triangle is defined by the three points A(2,-5,1), B(-3,2,4), and C(0,3,1). Find : (a) RBC x RBA;
(b) the area of the triangle; (c) a unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is located.
Solution:
a.) RBC x RBA
𝑅𝐵𝑐 = 𝐶 − 𝐵 = (0 − (−3))𝑎𝑥 + (3 − 2)𝑎𝑦 + (1 − 4)𝑎𝑧 = 3𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 − 3𝑎𝑧
𝑅𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = (2 − (−3))𝑎𝑥 + (−5 − 2)𝑎𝑦 + (1 − 4)𝑎𝑧 = 5𝑎𝑥 − 7𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑥𝑅𝐵𝐴 = | 3 1 −3| = (−3 − 21)𝑎𝑥 − (−9 + 15)𝑎𝑦 + (−21 − 5)𝑎𝑧 = −24𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎𝑦 − 26𝑎𝑧
5 −7 −3
b.) The area of the triangle ABC
𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑥𝑅𝐵𝐴 √242 + 62 + 262 35.889
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎∆ = = = = 17.944 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 2 2
c.) A unit vector perpendicular to the plane in which the triangle is located.
𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑥𝑅𝐵𝐴 −24𝑎𝑥 − 6𝑎𝑦 − 26𝑎𝑧
𝑎⊥ = ±𝑎𝑛 = ± =[ ] = ±(−0.669𝑎𝑥 − 0.167𝑎𝑦 − 0.7245𝑎𝑧 )
|𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑥𝑅𝐵𝐴 | 35.889

PROBLEM SET:
1. Find the vector directed from F(2,-4,1) to R(0,-2,0) in Cartesian coordinates and find the unit vector
along the vector.
Answer: -2ax + 2ay - az, -0.667ax +0.667ay – 0.333az
2. Given A = 2ax + 4ay - 3az and B = ax - ay , find A x B and A • B.
Answer: -3ax -3ay - 6az, -2
3. Given A = 2ax + 4ay and B = 6ay -4az, find the smallest angle between them using (a) the dot product;
(b) the cross product.
Answer: 41.9
4. Show that A= 4ax - 2ay - az and B = ax + 4ay - 4az are perpendicular.
5. Given F= (y-1) ax + 2xay , find the vector at (2,2,1) and its projection on B, where B = 5a x - ay + 2az.
𝟏
Answer: ax + 4ay,
√𝟑𝟎
6. Given A = ax + ay, B = ax + 2az, and C = 2ay + az. find (A x B) x C and compare it with A x (B x C).
Answer: - 2ay + 4 az, 2ax - 2ay +3 az
7. Using A, B, and C of problem 6, find A • B x C and compare it with A x B • C.
Answer: -5
8. Given A = 4ay + 10az and B = 2ax + 3ay, find the projection of A on B.
𝟏𝟐
Answer: ( )
√𝟏𝟑
9. Given A = (10/2) (ax + az) and B = 3(ax + ay), express the projection of B on A as a vector in the
direction of A.
Answer: 1.50(ax + az)
10. Find the angle between A = 10ay + 2az and B = - 4ay +0.5az using both the dot product and the cross
product.
Answer: (161.5)
11. Find the distance between (2,/6,0) and (1,,2), where the points are given in cylindrical coordinates.
Answer: 3.53
12. Find ax in spherical components at P(3,-4,5)
Answer: 0.424ar + 0.424a +0.8a
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13. Give the vector in Cartesian coordinates that extends from P(4,10 ,1 ) to Q( 7, 75,4)
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Answer: -2.13ax + 6.07ay + 3az

 14. Give the vector in cylindrical coordinates at M (5, 1, 2) that extends to N (2, 4, 6).
Answer: -2.35a + 3.53a+ 4az
15. How far is it from A(110, 60, - 20) to B(30, 125, 10)?
Answer: 105.4
16. Given points A(x = 2,y = 3, z = -1) and B ( = 4,  = -50, z = 2), find a unit vector in cylinder
coordinates: (a) at point B directed toward point A; (b) at point A directed toward point B.
Answer: -0.738a + 0.510a- 0.442az, -0.696a - 0.565a+ 0.442az,
17. Using the coordinate system named, give the vector at point A(2, -1,-3) that extends to B(1,3,4): (a)
Cartesian; (b) cylindrical; (c) spherical.
Answer: -ax + 4ay +7az , -2.68a + 3.13a+ 7az , -7.22ar – 2.034a + 3.13a

18. An electric field intensity is given as E =(100 cos ) ar / r3 . At the point whose spherical coordinates
are r = 2,  = 60,  = 20, find: (a) |E|; (b) a unit vector (in Cartesian coordinates) in the direction
of E.
Answer: 11.9 0.124ax + 0.278ay + 0.9526az
19. Points A(r = 100,=90 = 0) and B(r = 100, = 90,  = 5) are located on the surface of a 100-
m-radius sphere. (a) What is their separation using a path on the spherical surface? (b) What is their
separation, using-line path?
Answer: 8.726, 8.723

20. (x,y,z) = x2yz3

A = xz ax - y2 ay + 2x2y az
Determine  , • A,  x A.
𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 ) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 )
grad φ = ∇φ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
3 2 3 2 2
= (2𝑥𝑦𝑧 )𝑎𝑥 + (𝑥 𝑧 )𝑎𝑦 + (3𝑥 𝑦𝑧 )𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
div A = ∇ ∙ A = (xz) + (− y 2 ) + (2x 2 y) = 𝑧 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = ∇ 𝑥 𝐴 = | = (2𝑥 2 − 0)𝑎𝑥 − (4𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥)𝑎𝑦 + (0 − 0)𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
𝑥𝑧 −𝑦 2 2𝑥 2 𝑦
2
= 2𝑥 𝑎𝑥 − (4𝑦 − 1)𝑥𝑎𝑦

21. (x,y,z) = 2x2y3z4

Find grad  , div(grad), curl(grad) @ (1,1,1)
𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 ) 𝜕(2𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 4 )
grad φ = ∇φ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= (4𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 4 )𝑎𝑥 + (6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 )𝑎𝑦 + (8𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 3 )𝑎𝑧 = 4𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎𝑦 + 8𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
div (grad φ) = ∇ ∙ (∇φ) = (4𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 4 ) + (6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 ) + (8𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 3 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 4𝑦 3 𝑧 4 + 18𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 4 + 24𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 2 = 46
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(grad φ) = ∇ 𝑥 (∇φ) = | |
8

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Page

4𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 4 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 4 2 3
8𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 3

= (24𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 24𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 )𝑎𝑥 − (16𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 3 − 16𝑥𝑦 3 𝑧 3 )𝑎𝑦 + (12𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 4 − 12𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 4 )𝑎𝑧 = 0

 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
A dimension defines some physical characteristic. For example, length, mass, time, velocity and
force. The dimensions of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, and luminous intensity are
considered as the fundamental dimensions since other dimensions can be defined in terms of these six. Other
dimensions are then secondary dimensions. For example, area is a secondary dimension which can be expressed
in terms of the fundamental dimension of length squared (L2). As other examples, the fundamental dimensions
of velocity are Length and Time (L/T), and of force are Mass, Length and Time (ML/T 2).
A unit is a standard or reference by which a dimension can be expressed numerically. The units for
the fundamental dimensions are called fundamental or base units.
In International System (SI) the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, and candela are the base
units for the six fundamental dimensions.

The definitions for the fundamental units are:

1. Meter(m). Equal to the path length traveled by light in vacuum in a time t=1/299,792,458 second.
2. Kilogram(kg). Equal to mass of international prototype kilogram, a cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy
kept at Sevres, France. This standard kilogram is the only artifact among the SI base units.
3. Second(s). Equal to duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between
two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium 133.The second was formerly defined as 1/86,400 part
of a mean solar day.
4. Ampere(A). Equal to the electric current flowing in each in each of two infinitely long parallel wires in
vacuum separated by 1 meter which produces a force of 200 nanonewtons per meter of length.
5. Kelvin(K). Temperature equal to 1/273.16 of the triple point of water.(or triple point of water equals
273.16 kelvins)
6. Candela(cd). Luminous intensity equal to that of 1/600,000 square meter of a perfect radiator at the
temperature of freezing platinum at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere.
The units for other dimensions are called secondary or derived units.

1.4 METRIC PREFIXES

NUMERICAL VALUE PREFIX SYMBOL US MEANING
1018 exa E one quintillion
1015 peta P one quadrillion
1012 tera T one trillion
109 giga G one billion
106 mega M one million
103 kilo K one thousand
102 hecto h one hundred
10 deca da ten
10-1 deci d one tenth
10-2 centi c one hundredth
10-3 milli m one thousandth
10-6 micro  one million
10-9 nano n one billionth
10-12 pico p one trillionth
10-15 femto f one quadrillionth
10-18 atto a one quintillionth
9
Page
 1.5 GREEK ALPHABET
SPELLING SCRIPT CAPITAL SPELLING SCRIPT CAPITAL
alpha   nu  
beta   xi  
gamma   omicron  
delta   pi  
epsilon   rho  
zeta   sigma  
eta   tau  
theta   upsilon  
iota   phi  
kappa   chi  
lambda   psi  
mu   omega  
10
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 COULOMB’S LAW
Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum or free space
by a distance, which is large compared to their size is directly proportional to the charge on each, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Q1Q2 Q1Q2
F → F=K
R2 R2
where: Q1 & Q2 are the positive or negative quantities of charge, Coulomb ( C )
R is the separation, meter (m) and K is the proportionality constant
1
K=
4
where:  is the permittivity of the medium
 = or
o is the permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 Farad/m or 10-9 / 36 F/m
r is the relative permittivity or dielectric constant = 1 (in free space)
• If air is the medium,  = o
Subscripts will aid in identifying the force and in expressing its direction.
Q1Q2
Thus, F12 = a21
4 o R 2
The expression describes the forces on Q1 due to Q2, where the unit vectors a21 directed from Q2 to Q1.
The force expressed by Coulomb’s law is a mutual force, for each of the two charges experiences a
force of the same magnitude, although of opposite direction. We might equally well have written
Q1Q2 QQ
F12 = − F21 = a = − 1 2 2 a12
4 o R 2 21
4 o R
Example1.
Find the force on charge Q1, 20C due to charge Q2 = -300C, where Q1 is at (0,1,2) m and Q2 at (2,0,0) m.
Given: Q1 = 20C at P1(0,1,2)m & Q2 = -300C at P2(2,0,0)m
Solution: z
Q1Q2
F12 F12 = a 21
4 o R 2
Q1 R21 = P1 - P2
= (0-2)ax + (1-0)ay + (2-0)az
R21 = -2ax + ay + 2az
R
y |R21| = R = 3
-2a x +a y +2a z
a 21 =
3
Q2 a21 = -0.67ax + 0.33ay + 0.67az
x
( 20 C )( −300C )
F12 = −9 (-0.67ax + 0.33ay + 0.67az)
4 10
36  3
2
11

F12 = 4ax -2ay - 4az (N)

Page
 Example 2.
Point charge Q1 = 300C, located at P1(1, -1, -3)m, experiences a force F = 8ax - 8ay + 4az, N due to
point charge Q2 at P2(3, -3, -2)m. Determine Q2.
Given: Q1 = 300C at P1(1, -1, -3) & F12 = 8ax - 8ay + 4az, N
Q2 = ? at P2(3, -3, -2)
Solution:
Q1Q2
Eqn.1 F12 = a 21
4 o R 2
R21 = P1 - P2 = (1-3)ax + (-1+3)ay + (-3+2)az = -2ax + 2ay - az
|R21| = R = 3
−2 a x + 2 a y − a z
a21 = R21 =
| R21 | 3
substitute the given values to eqn. 1
( 300 )Q2  − 2a x + 2a y − a z 
8a x − 8a y + 4 a z =  
4 o 3 2  3 

Then, Q2 = -40C

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

We define the electric field intensity (E) as the vector force on a unit positive test charge.
Ft 1 Q1
Et 1 = = a1 t
Qt 4 o R 2
The units of E is Newtons per coulomb (N/C) or the equivalent, volts per meter (V/m).
Example 3.
Find E at A(0,0,3)m due to Q1= 0.35mC at P1(0,4,0)m and Q2= -0.55mC at P2(5,0,0)m.
Solution:
EAT = EA1 + EA2
Q1 Q2
E A1 = a1 A E A2 = a2 A
4 o R 2 4 o R 2
R1A = A- P1 = -4ay + 3az R2A = A- P2 = -5ax + 3az
|R1A| = R = 5 |R2A| = R = 34
− 4a y + 3a z − 5a y + 3a z
a1A = R1 A = a2A = R2 A =
| R1 A | 5 | R2 A | 34
0.35   − 4a y + 3a z  − 0.55   − 5a x + 3a z 
E A1 =   E A2 =  
4 o 5 2  5  4 o 34  34 
E A1 = −100 .8a y + 75 .6a z (V / m) E A2 = 124 .84 a x − 74 .905 a z (V / m)
Then EAT = EA1 + EA2

EAT = 124.84ax –100.8ay + 0.695az (V/m)

12
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 STANDARD CHARGE CONFIGURATION
INFINITE LINE CHARGE
If charge is distributed with uniform density l (C/m) along an infinite straight line, then the field is
given by 
z
l
E= ar
2 o r ar
L •
where: r P E
ar is the unit vector perpendicular to the infinite line charge. y
r is the distance between point and infinite line charge

x 
INFINITE PLANE CHARGE
If charge is distributed with uniform density s (C/m2) over an infinite plane, then the field is given by
s
E= an
2 o
E

P
an

 
 s

an
P

 E

Example 4:
On the line described by x=2m, y=-4m there is a uniform charge distribution of density L=20nC/m.
Determine the electric field E at P(-2,-1,4)m.
Solution:
𝝆𝑳
𝑬𝑷𝑳 = 𝒂
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝑳𝑷
𝑅𝐿𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝐿 = −4𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑦
|𝑅𝐿𝑃 | = 5
18𝑥20 −4𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑦
𝐸𝑃𝐿 = ( ) = −𝟓𝟕. 𝟔𝒂𝒙 + 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐𝒂𝒚 , 𝑽/𝒎
5 5
13
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 ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux, , is an imaginary line, each segment of which represents the direction of the electric
field at that point.(also known as Electric line of force)
Electric flux, , originates on positive charge and terminates on negative charge. In absence of
negative charge, the flux terminates at infinity. Also by definition, one coulomb of electric charge gives rise to
one coulomb of electric flux.

 = Q (C)

+Q -Q +Q

DENSITY OF ELECTRIC FLUX (D)

It is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the charge per unit area that would appear on one face of a
surface (thin metal plate) which is placed at a point in an electric field and oriented for maximum charge and
takes its direction from the lines of flux.
Q
| D |=
SA
If in the neighborhood of point P the lines of flux have the direction of the unit vector an and if an amount
of flux d crosses the differential area dS, which is normal to an, then the electric field density D at P is
d (C/m2)
D= an
dS
Gauss’s law
States that the total flux out of a closed surface is equal to the net charge within the surface.
 = Qenc.
Example 5:
Three point charges, Q1 = 30nC, Q2 = 150nC, and Q3 = -70nC, are enclosed by surface S. What net flux
crosses the closed surface S?
Solution:
 = Qenc. = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 30nC + 150nC - 70nC = 110nC

Example 6:
Charge in the form of a plane sheet with density s = 40 C/m2 is located at z= -0.5m. A uniform line
charge of L =-6C/m lies along y-axis. What net flux crosses the surface of a cube 2m on an edge, centered at
the origin?
Solution:
 = Qenc. = QL + QS =−12𝜇𝐶 + 160𝜇𝐶 = 1𝟒𝟖𝝁𝑪
𝑄𝐿 = ∫ 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜌𝐿 𝐿 = −6𝜇(2) = −12𝜇𝐶

𝑄𝑠 = ∫ 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜌𝑆 𝑆𝐴 = 40𝜇(22 ) = 160𝜇𝐶
14
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 RELATION BETWEEN FLUX DENSITY AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
D = oE

D due to a uniform infinite line charge, l (C/m)

l
D= ar
2r
D due to a uniform infinite plane charge, s (C/m2)
s
D= an
2
Example 7:
A uniform line charge with L = 5C/m lies along the x-axis. Find D at P(3,2,1)m.
Solution:
𝝆
𝑫𝑷𝑳 = 𝑳 𝒂𝑳𝑷
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑅𝐿𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝐿 = 2𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
|𝑅𝐿𝑃 | = √5
5 2𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝐷𝑃𝐿 = ( ) = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝒂𝒚 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟗𝒂𝒚 , 𝑽/𝒎
2𝜋√5 √5

1. Two identical uniform line charges lie along the x and y axes with charge densities l= 20C/m. Obtain
D at P(3,3,3)m.
Answer: 530ax + 530ay +1060az nC/m2
2. Given that D=10xax (C/m2), determine the flux crossing a 1m2 area that is normal to the x-axis at x = 3m.
Answer: 30 C
3. A uniform line charge with L= 3C/m lies along the x-axis. What flux crosses a spherical surface centered
at the origin with r = 3m?
Answer: 18 C
4. A uniform line charge with l= 5C/m lies along the x-axis. Find D at P(3,2,1)m.
Answer: 0.3184ay + 0.159az C/m2

WORK DONE IN MOVING A POINT CHARGE

Work is defined as a force acting over a distance. Therefore, a differential amount of work dW is
done by the applied force when the charged particles moves through a differential distance dl.
Now, work may be positive or negative, depending on the direction of dl, the vector displacement,
with respect to the applied force, Fa. And when dL and Fa are not in the same direction, the component of the
force in the direction of dL must be used. All this is simply expressed as

dW = Fa cos  dl
dW = Fa • aLdl
dW = Fa • dL
Thus, in an electric field the differential work done by an external agency is

dW = -QE • dL
W = -  QE • dL
15

With this as the defining expression for work in moving a charged particle in an electric field, a
positive value will mean that work had to be done by external agent in order to bring about the change in
Page

position; a negative result will mean that work was done by the field.
In the three coordinates systems the expressions for dL are:
 dL = dxax + dyay + dzaz (Cartesian)
dL = da + da + dzaz (Cylindrical)
dL = drar + rda + rsinda (Spherical)
The work done in moving a point charge Q from B to point A in a static electric field is the same for
any path chosen. Equivalently, the work done in moving the charge around any closed loop is zero.
 E•dL = 0 (static fields)

Such a vector field is called a conservative field.

Example 8:
Find the work done in moving a charge of 2C from (2, 0, 0)m to (0, 2, 0)m along the straight-line
path joining the two points, if the electric field is E = 2xax - 4yay (V/m).
Solution:
𝑾 = − ∫ 𝑸𝑬•𝒅𝑳

𝑊 = −2 ∫(2𝑥𝑎𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑎𝑦 )•(𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧 ) = −2 ∫(2𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑑𝑦)

from (2, 0, 0)m to (0, 2, 0)m
0 2 0 2
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑊 = −4 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 8 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = −4 | + 8 | = 8 + 16 = 𝟐𝟒𝑱
2 0 2 2 2 0

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL BETWEEN TWO POINTS

The potential of point A with respect to point B is defined as the work done in moving a unit
positive charge, Qu, from B to A.
𝑨
𝑾 𝑱
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = = − ∫ 𝑬•𝒅𝑳 → ( 𝒐𝒓 𝑽)
𝑸𝑼 𝑩 𝑪
Because E is a conservative field
VAB = VAC – VBC
or
VAB = VA – VB
Example 9:
Find the potential of A(1, , z), with respect to B(3, ’, z’), in cylindrical coordinates, where the electric field
due to a line charge on the z-axis is given by E = (50/) a (V/m).
Solution:
𝐴 𝐴 𝜌𝐴 =1
50 50
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸•𝑑𝐿 = − ∫ ( ) 𝑎𝜌 •𝑑𝐿 = − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜌 = − 50𝑙𝑛𝜌|13 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗𝑽
𝐵 𝐵 𝜌 𝜌𝐵 =3 𝜌
Example 10:
Given the field E= (-16/r2)ar V/m in spherical coordinates, find the potential of point A(2m, , /2) with
respect to B(4m,0,).
Solution:
𝐴 𝑟𝐴 =2
−16 1 2
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − ∫ 𝐸•𝑑𝐿 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − 16 ( )| = −𝟒𝑽
𝐵 𝑟𝐵 =4 𝑟2 𝑟 4
Note:
ar • (drar + rda + rsinda) = dr
16
Page

Example 11:
 A point charge of 6 nC is located at the origin in free space. Find VP if point P is located at P(0.2,-0.4,0.4) and:
Solution:
(a) V = 0 at infinity
(b) V = 20V at B(-0.5,1,-1) Answer:90V, 36V, 74V
Solution:
a. Vp = ? if Vα = 0V
Q
VP∝ = 𝒓𝑷𝑸 = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔
4πεo 𝑟𝑃𝑄
9(6)
VP∝ = = 90𝑉 VP∝ = VP − V∝
0.6
VP = VP∝ + V∝ = 𝟗𝟎 𝑽
b. Vp = ? if VB = 20 ; B(-0.5,1,-1)
Q 1 1
VPB = [ − ] 𝒓𝑷𝑸 = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔
4πεo 𝑟𝑃𝑄 𝑟𝐵𝑄
𝒓𝑩𝑸 = √𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓
1 1
VPB = 9(6) [ − ] = 54𝑉
0.6 1.5
VPB = VP − VB
VP = VPB + VB = 54 + 20 = 𝟕𝟒 𝑽

STANDARD CHARGE CONFIGURATION

In two special cases the integration is either unnecessary or easily carried out.
For the infinite linear charge distribution, the potential at point A with respect to Point B is given by
L 
= L ln rB − ln rA 
dr
  
A rA rA
VAB = − E • dL = − Er • dr = −
B rB 2 o rB r 2 0
L
VAB = ln rBL − ln rAL 
2 0

where:
L = linear charge density (C/m)
rAL is the distance between point A and line charge (perpendicular).
rBL is the distance between point B and line charge (perpendicular).
For the infinite plane/surface charge distribution, the potential at point A with respect to Point B is given
by
S S
   rB − rA 
A rA rA
VAB = − E • dL = − Er • dr = − dr =
B rB 2 o rB 2 0
S
V AB = rBS − rAS 
2 0

where:
S = surface charge density (C/m2)
rAS is the distance between point A and surface charge (normal).
17

rBS is the distance between point B surface charge (normal).

Page

Example 12:
 Assume a zero reference at infinity, and find the potential at P(0,0,10)m that is caused by this
charge distribution in free space:
(a) 20 nC at the origin
(b) 10 nC/m along the x = 0, z = 0, -1 < y < 1
(c) 10 nC/m along the x = 0, y = 0, -1 < z < 1

Solution:
a. Vp = ? if Vα = 0V

𝐐
𝐕𝐏∝ = 𝑟𝑃𝑄 = √102 = 10
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝑷𝑸
9(20)
VP∝ = = 18𝑉 VP∝ = VP − V∝
10
VP = VP∝ + V∝ = 𝟏𝟖 𝑽

b. 10 nC/m along the x = 0, z = 0, -1 < y < 1

1 L
VPL =
4 o r
L
PL
dL

dL = dy
𝑟𝑃𝑄 = √𝑦 2 + 102
1
𝑑𝑦
𝑉𝑃𝐿 = 9(10) ∫ = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟕𝑽
−1 √𝑦 + 102
2

c. 10 nC/m along the x=0, y=0, -1 < z < 1

1 L
VPL =
4 o r
L
PL
dL

dL = dz
𝑟𝑃𝑄 = √(10 − 𝑧)2
1
𝑑𝑧
𝑉𝑃𝐿 = 9(10) ∫ = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎𝟔𝑽
−1 √(10 − 𝑧)2

1. A line charge l = 400 pC/m lies along the x-axis and surface of zero potential passes through the point
(0, 5, 12) m in cartesian coordinates. Find the potential at (2,3,-4)m. Answer : 6.88 V

2. Find the potential at rA = 5m with respect to rB = 15m due to a point charge Q = 500 pC at the origin and
zero reference at infinity. Answer: 0.60V
18
Page
 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
Electric charges in motion constitute a current.
The unit of current is the ampere (A), defined as a rate of movement of charge passing a
given reference point (or crossing a given reference plane) of one coulomb per second.
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡

Current is thus defined as the motion of positive charges, even though conduction in metals
takes place through the motion of electrons.
In field theory we are usually interested in events occurring at a point rather than within some large
region, and we shall find the concept of current density, measured in amperes per square meter
(A/m2), more useful. Current density is a vector represented by J.

The increment of current ∆I crossing an incremental surface ∆S normal to the current density is

∆𝐼 = 𝐽𝑁 ∆𝑆

and in the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the surface,

∆𝐼 = 𝐉 ∙ ∆𝐒

Total current is obtained by integrating,

.
𝐼 = ∫ 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒
𝑆

Current density may be related to the velocity of volume charge density at a point. Consider the
element of charge ∆Q = 𝜌𝑉 Δ𝑣 = 𝜌𝑉 𝛥𝑆∆𝐿. To simplify the explanation, let us assume that the
charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to the coordinate axes, and that it possesses only
an x component of velocity. In the time interval ∆t, the element of charge has moved a distance ∆x,
as indicated in the figure below (b). We have therefore moved a charge ∆Q = 𝜌𝑉 𝛥𝑆∆𝑥 through a
reference plane perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time increment ∆t, and the resultant
current is
Δ𝑄 ∆𝑥
Δ𝐼 = = 𝜌𝑉 𝛥𝑆
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
As we take the limit with respect to time, we have
Δ𝐼 = 𝜌𝑉 𝛥𝑆𝑣𝑥

where vx represents the x component of the velocity v. In terms of current density, we find
Jx = 𝜌𝑉 𝑣𝑥
and in general
𝐉 = 𝛒𝐕 𝐯
19
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 An increment of charge, ∆Q = 𝜌𝑉 𝛥𝑆∆𝐿, which moves a distance 𝛥x in a time 𝛥t, produces a
component of current density in the limit of Jx = 𝜌𝑉 𝑣𝑥

Example No.1
Given the vector current density 𝐉 = 10𝜌2 𝑧𝑎𝜌 + 4𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙𝑎𝜙 𝑚A/ m2:
(a) find the current density at P( = 3, 𝜙 = 30, z = 2).
(b) determine the total current flowing outward through the circular band  = 3, 0 < 𝜙 < 2, 2
< z < 2.8. Ans. 180𝑎 + 9𝑎 𝑚A/m2 ; 3.26A
𝜌 𝜙
Solution:
a. 𝐉 = 10𝜌2 𝑧𝑎𝜌 + 4𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙𝑎𝜙 𝑚A/m2 @ P( = 3, 𝜙 = 30, z = 2).
𝐉 = (10)32 (2)𝑎𝜌 + 4(3)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (30°)𝑎𝜙 𝑚A/m2 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒂𝝆 − 𝟗𝒂𝝓 𝒎A/m2

b. I=?
.
𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒; 𝑑𝐒 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝜌
.
𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒 = ∬ (10𝜌2 𝑧𝑎𝜌 + 4𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙𝑎𝜙 ). (𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑎𝜌 ),mA
2.8
2.8 2𝜋 𝑧2
𝐼 = ∫2 ∫0 10𝜌3 𝑧𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑧 = 10𝜌3 | ∅|2𝜋
0 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟔𝑨 @ 𝜌 = 3
2 2

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT

Although we are supposed to be studying static fields at this time, the introduction of the
concept of current is logically followed by a discussion of the conservation of charge and the
continuity equation.
The principle of conservation of charge states simply that charges can be neither created
nor destroyed, although equal amounts of positive and negative charge may be simultaneously
created, obtained by separation, destroyed, or lost by recombination.
20

The continuity equation follows from this principle when we consider any region bounded
by a closed surface. The current through the closed surface is
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 .
𝐼 = ∮ 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒
𝑆

and this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of positive charge (or
perhaps an increase of negative charge) within the closed surface. If the charge inside the closed
surface is denoted by Qi, then the rate of decrease is –dQi/dt and the principle of conservation of
charge requires
.
𝑑𝑄𝑖
𝐼 = ∮ 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒 = −
𝑆 𝑑𝑡

The presence or absence of a negative sign depends on what current and charge we
consider. In circuit theory we usually associate the current flow into one terminal of a capacitor with
the time rate of increase of charge on that plate. The current (from above equation), however, is an
outward-flowing current.
. 𝑑𝑄
Equation 𝐼 = ∮𝑆 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒 = − 𝑖 is the integral form of the continuity equation, and the
𝑑𝑡
differential, or point, form is obtained by using the theorem to change the surface integral into a
volume integral:

We next represent the enclosed charge Qi by the volume integral of the charge density,

If we we agree to keep the surface constant, the derivative becomes a partial derivative and
may appear within the integral,

Since the expression is true for any volume, however small, it is true for an incremental volume,

from which we have our point form of the continuity equation,

Remembering the physical interpretation of divergence, this equation indicates that the
current, or charge per second, diverging from a small volume per unit volume is equal to the time
21

rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.

As a numerical example illustrating some of the concepts from the last two sections, let us consider
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a current density that is directed radially outward and decreases exponentially with time,
 Example No.2
Current density is given in cylindrical coordinates as 𝐉 = −106 𝑧1.5 𝑎𝑧 A/m2 in the region 0 ≤  ≤
20m, for   20m, J = 0.
(a) Find the total current crossing the surface z = 0.1m in the az direction.
6
(b) If the charge velocity is 2 x 10 m/s at z = 0.1m, find v there.
3
(c) If the volume charge density at z = 0.15m is -2000C/m , find the charge velocity there.
3
Ans. -39.7A; -15.8mC/m ; -29.0m/s
Given:
J = -106 z1.5 az A/m2 in the region 0 ≤  ≤ 20m,
J = 0 for   20m,
Solution:
a. I = ?
.
𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒 ; 𝑑𝐒 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙 𝑎𝑧
𝐼 = ∬(-106 z1.5 az ) ∙ (𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑧 )
20𝜇
2𝜋 20𝜇
𝜌2
𝐼=∫ ∫ (-106 z1.5 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙) = -106 z1.5 | ∅|2𝜋
0 = −𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟒𝝁𝑨
0 0 2 0
b. v = ?
J𝑋 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑣𝑥
J𝑍 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑣𝑍
J= Jxax+Jyay+Jzaz
𝐽𝑧 -106 z1.5
𝜌𝑣 = = = −𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟏𝒎𝑪/𝒎𝟑 @ z = 0.1m
𝑣𝑧 2𝑥106
c. 𝑣𝑍 = ?
J𝑧 -106 z1.5
𝑣𝑧 = = = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟓𝒎/𝒔 @ z = 0.15m
𝜌𝑣 −2000

Example No.3
2
Given the current density J = -104 (sin2x e-2y ax + cos2x e-2y ay) KA/m :
(a) find the total current crossing the plane y = 1 in the ay direction in the region 0 < x < 1, 0
< z < 2.
(b) Find the total current leaving the region 0 < x, y < 1, 2 < z < 3 by integrating J•dS over the
surface of the cube.
(c) Repeat part (b), but use the divergence theorem.
Answer: -1.23MA, 0, 0
Given:
2
J = -104 (sin2x e-2y ax + cos2x e-2y ay) KA/m
Solution:
a. I = ?
22

.
𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐒 ; 𝑑𝐒 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦
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𝐼 = ∬ −104 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑦 𝑎𝑦 ) ∙ (𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦 ), 𝐾𝐴

 2 1
𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 −104 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 , KA
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 1
𝐼 = −104 | 𝑒 −2𝑦 𝑧02 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑𝑴𝑨 @ y = 1
2 0
b.

Recall:
Divergence Theorem:
𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧
Rectangular C.S. ∇∙D = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐽𝑥 𝜕𝐽𝑦 𝜕𝐽𝑧
∇∙J= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕(𝜌𝐷𝜌 ) 1 𝜕𝐷𝜙 𝜕𝐷𝑧
Cylindrical C.S. ∇∙D = + +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕(𝜌𝐽𝜌 ) 1 𝜕𝐽𝜙 𝜕𝐽𝑧
∇∙J= + +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝐷𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 1 𝜕𝐷𝜃
Spherical C.S. ∇∙D = + +
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑧𝜃
1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝐽𝑟) 1 𝜕(𝐽𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 1 𝜕𝐽𝜃
∇∙J= + +
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑧𝜃
23
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 Example No.4
Let the current density be 𝐉 = 2ρcos 2 𝜙 aρ − ρsin 2𝜙 a 𝜙 ,A/m2 within the region 2.2 <  < 2.5,
0 < 𝜙 < 0.1 rad, 6 < z < 6.1. Find the total current I crossing the surface:
(a)  = 2.2, 0 < 𝜙 < 0.1, 6 < z <6.1 in the a direction;
(b) 𝜙 = 0.05, 2.2 <  < 2.5, 6 < z < 6.1, in the a 𝜙 direction.
(c) Evaluate •J at P( = 2.4, 𝜙 = 0.08, z = 6.05)
Answer: 97mA, -7mA, 2.0A/m3
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 Example No.5
Let
400𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐉= 𝑎 , 𝐴/𝑚2
𝑟2 + 4 𝑟
(a) Find the total current flowing through that portion of the spherical surface r = 0.8 bounded
by  = 0.1,  = 0.3, 0 < 𝜙 < 2.
(b) Find the average value of J over the defined area.
Answer: 77.4A, 53.0 ar A/m2
25
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 Example No.6
Let
25 20
𝐉 = aρ − 2 a 𝐴/𝑚2
𝜌 𝜌 + 0.01 𝑧
(a) Find the total current crossing the plane z = 0.2 in the a z direction for  < 0.4
𝜕𝜌
(b) Calculate 𝑣
𝜕𝑡
(c) Find the total outward current crossing the closed surface defined by  = 0.01,  = 0.4 &, z =
0, and z = 0.2.
(d) Show that the divergence theorem is satisfied for J and the surface specified in the part (c).
Answer: -178.0A, 0,0,0
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 Example No.7
A certain current density is given in cylindrical coordinates as
𝐉 = 100𝑒 −2𝑧 (ρ aρ + a 𝑧 ), 𝐴⁄𝑚2
Find the total current passing through each of these surfaces:
(a) z = 0, 0 ≤  ≤ 1, in the az direction
(b) z = 1, 0 ≤  ≤ 1, in the az direction
(c) closed cylinder defined by 0 ≤ z ≤ 1, 0 ≤  ≤ 1, in an outward direction.
27
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 In 1873 Professor James Clerk Maxwell of Cambridge University, England, assembled the
laws of Ampere, Faraday, and Gauss (for electric and magnetic fields) into a set of four equations
we call Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell unified electromagnetic theory. He added another term to
Ampere’s law to include a time-charging displacement current density ( D / t ).
These equations are both in integral and differential forms. The integral equations have
line, surface, and volume integrals. The differential equations involve divergence and curl and apply
at a point.

LAW INTEGRAL FORM DIFFERENTIAL FORM

 D  D
AMPERE  H • dL =   J +
S
 • ds = I total
t 
xH = J +
t
 B  B
FARADAY  E • dL = −   t  • ds = V
S
xE = −
t
GAUSS
For electric fields  D • ds = 
S V
 V dv = Q •D = 
GAUSS
For magnetic fields  B • ds = 0
S
• B = 0

For harmonic variation, the phasor forms of Maxwell’s integral and differential equations are

 H • dL = ( + j ) E • ds S
xH = ( + j ) E

 E • dL = − j  H • ds S
xE = − j H

 D • ds =   dv
S V
V •D = 

 B • ds = 0
S
• B = 0

Constitutive relations: D = E; B = H; J = E

28
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 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS

ELECTRIC FIELDS

Voltage and field V =  E • dL

Q1Q2
Coulomb’s force law F=
4 o R 2
Gauss’s law  D • ds =   V dv = Q
Constitutive relation D = E where  =ro
Q  A
Capacitance C= = o
V d
1 1 1 Q2
Capacitor energy WE = QV = CV 2 =
2 2 2 C
1 2
Energy density w = E
2

MAGNETIC FIELDS

Ampere’s law I =  H • dL =  J • ds
Lorentz motor law F = (I x B)L
 o I1 I 2
Force between wires of two-wire transmission line F = L
2d
Gauss’s law  B.ds = 0
 B 
Faraday’s law V =  E • dL = −    • ds
S
 t 
Constitutive relation B = H where =ro
 o N 2 A
Inductance L= =
I l
1 1 1 2
Inductor energy W = LI 2 = I =
2 2 2 L
1
Energy density w = H 2
29

2
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Page 30
 Advanced Mathematics
Complex Analytic Functions

Complex Number (x + yi or x + iy) is a combination of real (x) and imaginary(y) numbers. The square root of the a
negative number is called imaginary number where the imaginary unit denoted as “j” or “i” satisfying the relation 𝑖 =
√−1.
Form of jm where m is an integer either odd or even.
𝒎
𝒊𝒎 = (𝒊𝟐 ) ⁄𝟐 = ±𝟏; where m is even power of i
𝒎 (𝒎−𝟏)
𝒊 =𝒊 𝒊 = ±𝒊; where m is odd power of i
Arithmetic of Complex Number
1. Equality
a. If (x + yi) = 0, then x = 0 and y = 0
b. If (x1 + y1i) = (x2 + y2i), then x1 = x2 and y1 = y2
c. If (x1 + y1i) (x2 + y2i) = 0, then (x1 + y1i) = 0 and (x2 + y2i) = 0. Since the product is zero, therefore the
multiplicand and multiplier are also zero.
2. Addition
a. If (x1 + y1i) + (x2 + y2i) = (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)
3. Multiplication
a. If (x1 + y1i) (x2 + y2i) = (x1 x2 - y1 y2) + i(x1 y2 + x1 y2)
Forms Complex Numbers
1. Rectangular form:
z = x ± yi
where: x = real part or component
yi = imaginary part or imaginary component
2. Polar form:
z = r∠Ɵ
Where: r = magnitude or amplitude
Ɵ = argument or displacement in degrees
∠ = read as bar angle
3. Trigonometric form:
z = r(cosƟ ± i sinƟ) or rcjsƟ or r cisƟ

4. Exponential form:
z = re±iƟ
where: Ɵ = argument or displacement in radians
Square root of the complex number
To evaluate the square root of a given complex number:
In polar form
- Simply take the square root of the magnitude and multiply the direction by ½ .
In rectangular form
- Let that as (x + jy) = √𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, square both sides and simply then use theorem 2 of complex number, this is an
alternate method.

Problem No.3
Solve for angles θ and α of the following:
a. (cos2θ- sin2θ) + icos2α = 0;
Solution:
icos2α = 0 (cos2θ- sin2θ) = 0
α = arcos 0 cos 2θ = 0
31

α = 90º 2θ = arcos 0
θ = 45º
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 Problem no. 4
Solve for x and y of the following equation
a. (x + yi)2 = 2 +4i

Problem no. 5
Find the product and express the result in polar form
32
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 Matrices
33
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Page 34
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Page 36
 Laplace Transforms
Laplace transform is yet another operational tool for solving constant coefficients linear differential
equations.
The process of transforming a given function from real time domain to a new function in the
complex frequency domain. Let f(t) be the time domain or original function.

𝑠 = (∅ + 𝑗𝜔)

where:
F(s) = new function in the complex frequency domain
f(t) = function in time domain
s = complex frequency domain
t = time domain
e-st = kernel of transformation

Laplace Transform Theorems

37
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Page 39
 Table of Laplace Transform
40
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