Digital Modulation and Detection: Wha Sook Jeon

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Digital Modulation and Detection

Wha Sook Jeon


Mobile Computing & Communication Lab.
Signal Space Analysis

2
Signal and System Model (1)
 System sends K = log 2 M bits every T seconds
 Each bit sequence of length K comprises a message mi ={b1, … , bK}
 The message i has the probability pi of being selected for transmission
( ∑iM=1 pi = 1 )
 Each message is mapped to a unique analog signal si (t), is transmitted
over the channel during the time interval [0, T], and has energy
T
ESi = ∫ si2 (t ) dt , i = 1,  , M
0
 The transmitted signal is sent through an AWGN channel (a white
Gaussian noise process n(t) of power spectral density N0/2)
 Received signal r(t)=s(t)+n(t)
 The receiver should determine the best estimate of the transmitted
signal and outputs the best estimate of the transmitted message
mˆ = {bˆ1 ,  , bˆK }

3
Signal and System Model (2)
 Goal of the receiver design
− minimizing the probability of message estimation error
M
Pe = ∑ p (mˆ ≠ mi | mi sent) p (mi sent)
i =1

Communication system model

4
Geometric Representation of Signals (1)
 By representing the signals geometrically, we can solve for the
optimal receiver design in AWGN based on a minimum distance
criterion
 Basis function representation
− Any set of M real energy signals S = {s1 (t ), , sM (t )} can be
represented as a liner combination of N (≤ M) real orthonormal
basis functions {φ1 (t ),, φ N (t )} according to Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization procedure
N
: Modulation
si (t ) = ∑ sijφ j (t ), 0≤t <T
j =1

− Orthonormal basis function: ∫ φi (t )φ j (t )dt = 1 if i = j


T

0
0 if i ≠ j
− Real coefficient representing the projection of si(t) onto φ j (t )
T
sij = ∫ si (t )φ j (t )dt : Demodulation
0

5
Geometric Representation of Signals (2)
 Basis set of linear pathband modulation technique
− φ (t ) = 2 cos(2πf t ), φ2 (t ) =
2
sin( 2πf c t )
1 c
T T
− With fcT >> 1 for orthonormality
 Transmitted signal
2 2
si (t ) = si1 cos(2πf c t ) + si 2 sin( 2πf c t )
T T
 The basis set can include a bandpass pulse-shaping filter g(t) to
improve the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal
si (t ) = si1 g (t ) cos(2πf c t ) + si 2 g (t ) sin(2πf c t )

 The pulse shape g(t) must maintain the orthonormal property of basis
functions
T T
∫ g (t ) cos (2πf c t )dt = 1, ∫ g 2 (t ) cos(2πf c t ) sin( 2πf c t )dt = 0
2 2
0 0

6
Geometric Representation of Signals (3)
 Signal space representation
− Signal constellation point of the signal si(t)
■ s i = ( si1 ,  siN ) ∈ R N
■ the vector of coefficients in the basis representation of si(t),
that is, si (t ) = ∑ sijφ j (t )
N
j =1
■ One-to-one correspondence
between si(t) and si
− The distance between two signal
constellation points si and sk
N
si − sk = ∑ (s
j =1
ij − skj ) 2

T
= ∫
0
( si (t ) − sk (t )) 2 dt

Signal space of MQAM or MPSK is


two-dimensional 7
Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics (1)
 Given the channel output r(t)=si(t)+n(t), 0 ≤ t < T, the receiver
determines which constellation point (or message) is sent over time
interval [0, T )

8
Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics (2)
 In this receiver structure
− r (t ) = si (t ) + n(t )
= ∑ j =1 sijφ j (t ) + ∑ j =1 n jφ j (t ) + nr (t )
N N

= ∑ j =1 ( sij + n j )φ j (t ) + nr (t ) = ∑ j =1 rjφ j (t ) + nr (t )
N N

T T
− sij = ∫0 si (t )φ j (t )dt , n j = ∫0 n(t )φ j (t )dt
− nr(t) is the “remainder” noise which is orthogonal to signal
space

9
Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics (3)

(r1 , r2 , nr )

r = (r1 , r2 )
[r (t ) = r1φ1 (t ) + r1φ1 (t ) + nrφnr (t )]

10
Receiver Structure and Sufficient Statistics (3)
 Goal of receiver design is to minimize the error probability
Pe = p (mˆ ≠ mi | r (t )) = 1 − p (mˆ = mi | r (t ))
 Maximizing
p ( si sent | r (t )) = p (( si1 ,  , siN ) sent | (ri1 ,  , riN ) , nr (t ))
p (( si1 ,  , siN ) sent, (ri1 ,  , riN ) , nr (t ))
=
p ((ri1 ,  , riN ) , nr (t ))
p (( si1 ,  , siN ) sent, (ri1 ,  , riN )) p (nr (t ))
=
p ((ri1 ,  , riN )) p (nr (t ))
= p (( si1 ,  , siN ) sent | (ri1 ,  , riN ))
 r =(r1, …, rN) is a sufficient statistic for r(t) in optimal detection
of transmitted message

11
Decision Region
 Optimal receiver selects m ˆ = mi corresponding to constellation si
that satisfies p( si sent | r ) ≥ p( s j sent | r ) for all j ≠ i
 Design region: Z i = {r : p( si sent | r ) > p( s j sent | r ) ∀ j ≠ i}

12
Maximum Likelihood Decision Criteria (1)
 Optimal receiver selects m ˆ = mi corresponding to constellation si
that maximizes
p (r | si ) p ( si )
p ( si | r ) =
p(r )

p (r | si ) p ( si )
arg max = arg max p (r | si ) p ( si )
si p(r ) si

= arg max p (r | si ) Let p(si)=1/M


si

 Likelihood function: L( si ) = p (r | si )
 A maximum likelihood receiver outputs m ˆ = micorresponding to
constellation si that maximizes L(si)

13
Maximum Likelihood Decision Criteria (2)
 Conditional distribution of r
− Since n(t) is a Gaussian random process, r(t)=si(t)+n(t) is also a
Gaussian random process and n(t) has a zero mean.
− rj = sij + n j
µ r |s = E[rj | sij ] = E[ sij + n j | sij ] = sij
j i

σ 2 r |s = E[(rj − µ r |s ) 2 ] = E[( sij + n j − sij ) 2 | sij ] = E[n j 2 ] = N 0 2


j i j ij

cov[rj rk | si ] = E[(rj − µ r j )(rk − µ rk ) | si ]


= E[n j nk ]
N 2 j=k
= 0
 0 j≠k

− rj is a Gaussian random variable that is independent of rk ( j ≠ k )


with mean sij and variance N0/2.

14
Maximum Likelihood Decision Criteria (3)

 Likelihood function L(si): conditional distribution of r


N
1  1 N 
p (r | si ) = ∏ p (rj | sij ) =
π N /2
exp − ∑ (rj − sij ) 
2

j =1 ( N 0 )  N0 j =1 

 Log likelihood function


N
1 1
l ( si ) = − ∑ (rj − sij ) = − r − si
2 2

N0 j =1 N0

minimizing

15
Maximum Likelihood Decision Criteria (4)

 A maximum likelihood receiver outputs mˆ = mi corresponding


to constellation si that satisfies
N
arg min ∑ (rj − sij ) 2 = arg min r − si
2

si si
j =1

 Decision Region
Z i = {r : r − si < r − s j ∀ j = 1,  , M , j ≠ i}

 Constellation point si is determined from the decision Zi that


contains r

16
Union Bound of Error Probability (1)
 Aik: the event that r − sk < r − si given that the constellation point si
was sent
 If the event Aik occurs, the constellation will be decoded in error.
M  M


Pe (mi sent) = p  Aik  ≤ ∑ p (Aik )
 k =1  k =1
 k ≠i  k ≠i

a one-dimensional
sk − si p ( Aik ) = p ( r − sk < r − si | si sent)
Gaussian r.v.
= p ( ( si + n) − sk < ( si + n) − si )
= p ( n − ( sk − si ) < n )

The probability that n is closer to the


vector sk-si than to the origin

17
Union Bound of Error Probability (2)
 The event Aik occurs if n > d ik 2 , where d ik = si − sk

 d ik  ∞ 1  − v2   d ik 
 p ( Aik ) = p n >  = ∫d / 2 exp   dv = Q 
 2  πN 0  N0   2N 
ik
 0 

M  d ik 
Pe (mi sent) ≤ ∑ Q 
 2N 
k =1
k ≠i
 0 

 M
1 M M  d ik 
Pe = ∑ p (mi ) Pe (mi sent) ≤ ∑ ∑ Q 
M i =1  2N 
i =1 k =1
k ≠i
 0 

18
Approximation of Error Probability
 The minimum distance of constellation: dmin
 d min 
− Pe ≤ ( M − 1)Q 
 : looser bound
 2 N 0 
 The number of neighbors at the minimum distance: M d min

−  d min 
Pe ≈ M d min Q 
 2N 
 0 

− (
In case of binary modulation (M=2): Pb = Q d min 2N 0 )
 Gray code: mistaking a constellation point for one of its nearest
neighbors results in a single bit error
− P ≈ Pe
b
log 2 M

19
Amplitude and Phase Modulation

20
Amplitude and Phase Modulation (1)

 Over the time interval Ts, K (log2M) bits are encoded in the amplitude
and/or phase of the transmitted signal
− Signal: s(t ) = sI (t ) cos(2π f ct ) − sQ (t ) sin(2π f ct )
− In signal space:
s (t ) = si1 (t )φ1 (t ) + si 2 (t )φ2 (t )
φ1 (t ) = g (t ) cos(2π f c t + φ0 )
φ2 (t ) = − g (t ) sin(2π f c t + φ0 )
 There are three main types of amplitude/phase modulation:
− Pulse Amplitude Modulation (MPAM) : Uses amplitude only
− Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) : Uses phase only
− Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM)

21
Amplitude and Phase Modulation (2)

Amplitude/Phase
Modulator

22
Amplitude and Phase Modulation (3)

Amplitude/Phase
Demodulator

 Coherent detection (φ = φ0 )

 if φ − φ0 = ∆φ ≠ 0, r1 = si1 cos(∆φ ) + si 2 sin( ∆φ ) + n1 and


r2 = − si1 sin( ∆φ ) + si 2 cos(∆φ ) + n2 => performance degradation
 Synchronization or timing recovery:
the sampling function is synchronized to the start of every symbol period.
23
Amplitude and Phase Modulation (4)

 Pulse Amplitude Modulation


 Phase-Shift Keying
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 Differential Modulation
 Modulator with Quadrature Offset

24
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (MPAM) (1)

 Encodes all of the information into the signal amplitude (Ai)


 Transmitted signal over time:
− { }
s (t ) = Re Ai g (t )e j 2π fct = Ai g (t ) cos(2π f c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts 〉〉 1 / f c
 Signal constellation: { Ai = (2i − 1 − M )d , i = 1, 2, ..., M }
− Parameterization distance d is typically a function of a signal energy
− Minimum distance : d min = min i , j Ai − A j = 2d
− Constellation mapping is usually done by Gray encoding
 Amplitude of each transmitted signal has M different values
Gray
− Each pulse conveys K = log2M bits per symbol time Ts Coding

25
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (MPAM) (2)

 Over each symbol period, the MPAM signal associated with the ith
constellation has energy Es = T si2 (t )dt = T Ai2 g 2 (t ) cos 2 (2π f c t )dt = Ai2
∫ ∫
s s

i 0 0

M
1
− Average energy: Es =
M
∑A
i =1
i
2

 Decision region associated with signal amplitude Ai = (2i − 1 − M )d

(− ∞, Ai + d ) i = 1,

Z i = [ Ai − d , Ai + d ) 2 ≤ i ≤ M − 1,
[ A − d , ∞ ) i=M
 i

26
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (MPAM) (3)

Coherent MPAM demodulator

27
Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) (1)
 Encodes information in the phase of the transmitted signal
 Transmitted signal over one symbol time:
{
si (t ) = Re A g (t )e j 2π (i −1) / M e j 2πfct }
 2π (i − 1)
= A g (t ) cos 2π f c t +
 M 
 2π (i − 1)  2π (i − 1)
= A g (t ) cos  cos 2 π f t − A g (t ) sin  M  sin 2π f c t
 M 
c

 Constellation points: ( si1 , si 2 )


si1 = A cos[2π (i − 1) / M ], si 2 = A sin[2π (i − 1) / M ] for i = 1,..., M
 Minimum distance:d min = 2 A sin(π / M ), where A is typically function of
signal energy
 All possible signals have equal energy A2
 Constellation mapping usually uses Grady encoding

28
Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) (2)

Gray Coding for MPSK

29
Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) (3)

 Decision Regions for MPSK


{
Z i = re jθ : 2π (i − 3 2 ) M < θ < 2π (i − 1 2 ) M }

30
Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) (4)

Coherent Demodulator for BPSK

31
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM) (1)

 Information bits are encoded in both amplitude and phase of the


transmitted signal
 MPSK and MPAM have only one degree-of-freedom, but MQAM has
two degree-of-freedom. Thus, MQAM is more spectral-efficient
 Transmitted signal:
{
S i (t ) = Re Ai e jθi g (t )e j 2π fct }
= Ai cos(θ i ) g (t ) cos(2π f c t ) − Ai sin(θ i ) g (t ) sin (2π f c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts

Ts
Signal energy in si(t): Esi = ∫ si2 (t )dt = Ai2
0

 Distance between constellation points:


d ij = si − s j = (s i1 − s j1 ) + (si 2 − s j 2 )
2 2

32
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM) (2)

 For square signal constellation,


− Values on (2i-1-L)d
for i = 1, …, L
− dmin= 2d
 Good constellation mapping
can be hard to find for QAM
signal

4-QAM and 16-QAM constellations

33
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (MQAM) (3)

Decision Regions
for 16-QAM

34
Differential Modulation (1)
 Information in MPSK and MQAM signals is carried in the signal phase
− MPSK and MQAM require coherent detection
− Phase recovery mechanism required in receiver
− Coherent demodulation
■ makes receiver complex
■ is hard in rapidly fading channel
■ is more susceptible to phase drift of the carrier
 The principle of differential modulation is to use the previous symbol as
a phase reference for current symbol for avoiding the need for a coherent
phase modulation
− Differential BPSK (DPSK)
■ 0-bit: no change in phase, 1-bit: a phase change of π
− Differential QPSK (DQPSK)
■ 00: no change in phase, 01: a phase change of π/2
■ 10: a phase change of - π/2, 11: a phase change of π

35
Differential Modulation (2)
 Phase Comparator
− Transmitted signal: s(k ) = Ae j (θ ( k )+φ0 )
− Received signal at time k: r (k ) = r1 (k ) + jr2 (k ) = Ae j (θ ( k )+φ −φ ) + n(k ) 0

− Received signal at time (k-1):


r (k − 1) = r1 (k − 1) + jr2 (k − 1) = Ae j (θ ( k −1) +φ0 −φ ) + n(k − 1)
− Phase difference
r (k ) r * (k − 1) = A2 e j (θ ( k ) −θ ( k −1) ) + Ae j (θ ( k ) +φ0 −φ ) n* (k − 1)
+ A e − j (θ ( k −1) +φ0 −φ )n(k ) + n(k ) n* (k − 1)
Phase difference in the absence of noise (n(k) = n(k-1) = 0)

 modulation with memory


 less sensitive to random drift in the carrier phase
 With non-zero Doppler frequency, previous symbol is not good for
phase reference
36
Differential Modulation (3)
DPSK demodulator

37
Modulation with Quadrature Offset (1)

 Linearly modulated signal may cause transition to symbol which


makes phase change up to π, and signal amplitude to cross zero point
− Abrupt phase transition and amplitude variations can be distorted
by non-linear filters and amplifiers
 To avoid the above problem
− Offsetting the quadrature branch pulse g(t) half a symbol period
− Phase can change maximum π/2

38
Modulation with Quadrature Offset (2)

Modulator with
quadrature offset

39
Pulse Shaping (1)

 Bandwidth of the baseband and passband modulated signal is a


function of the bandwidth of the pulse shape g(t).
 The effective received pulse: p(t ) = g (t ) ∗ c(t ) ∗ g * (−t )
− c(t): the channel impulse response
− g*(-t): the matched filter
− In AWGN channel (c(t)=δ(t)), p(t ) = g (t ) ∗ g * (−t )
 To avoid ISI between the received pulses, p(t) must satisfy Nyquist
criterion, which requires the pulse to equal zero at the ideal sampling
point associated with past or future symbols.
 Pulse shapes that satisfy the Nyquist criterion
− Rectangular pulse
− Cosine pulse
− Raised Cosine pulse

40
Pulse Shaping (2)
 Raised Cosine Pulse
− These pulses are designed in the frequency domain
 1− β
 Ts 0≤ f ≤
 2Ts
P( f ) = 
 Ts 1 − sin π Ts 
 f −
1 

1− β
≤ f ≤
1+ β
 2 β  2Ts  2Ts 2Ts
 

where β is a rolloff factor

− The pulse p(t) in the time domain:

sin π t / Ts cos βπ t / Ts
p (t ) = ×
π t / Ts 1 − 4 β 2t 2 / Ts2

41
Pulse Shaping (3)

Raised Cosine Pulse


in frequency domain

P(f)

42
Pulse Shaping (4)

Raised Cosine Pulse


in time domain

p(t)

43
Error Probability of Digital Modulation over
AWGN Channel

 BPSK and QPSK


 MPSK
 MPAM and MQAM

44
Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio (SNR)

 In an AWGN channel
− j 2πf t
Modulated (transmitted) signal: s (t ) = Re{u (t )e c }
− Received signal: r (t ) = s (t ) + n(t )
− n(t): a white Gaussian random process with mean zero and power spectral
density N0/2
 SNR
− Ratio of the received signal power Pr to the power of the noise within the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal
− P
SNR = r =
Es
=
Eb
N 0 B N 0 BTs N 0 BTb
− In system with interference
Pr
■ SINR =
N 0 B + PI

45
Bit/Symbol Errors

 For pulse shaping with Ts=1/B (e.g., raised cosine pulse with β=1), SNR=Es/N0
 For general pulse, Ts= k/B and SNR = Es N 0 ×1 k
 Define
− SNR per symbol: γ s = Es N 0
− SNR per bit: γ b = Eb N 0
 We are interested in bit error probability Pb as a function of γ b
 Approach
− First, compute the symbol error probability Ps as a function of γ s
− Then, obtain bit error probability as a function of SNR per bit using assumptions.
■ The symbol energy is divided equally among all bits,
■ Gray encoding is used
− These assumptions for M-ary signaling lead to the approximations
γs and
γb ≈ Pb ≈
Ps
log 2 M log 2 M

46
Error Probability for BPSK

 For binary modulation (M=2),


−  d 

Pb = Q  min
 2N 
 0 

d min = s1 − s0 = 2 A,
Tb Tb
Eb = ∫ s (t )dt = ∫ A2 g 2 (t ) cos 2 (2πf c t )dt =A2
2
1
0 0


 2 Eb
Pb = Ps = Q

(
 = Q 2γ b
 )
 N0 

47
Error probability for QPSK
 The QPSK system is equivalent to the system consisting of BPSK modulation on
both the in-phase and quadrature components of the signal.
 The bit error probability on each component is the same as for BPSK
− Pb = Q( 2γ b )
[
 The symbol error probability is Ps = 1 − 1 − Q( 2γ b ) ]
2

 Since the transmitted symbol energy Es is split between each branch, the signal
energy per branch is ( Es 2)
 The symbol error probability is the probability that either branch has a error
P = 1 − [1 − Q ( γ )]
− 2
s s

 For the same Eb N 0 and therefore the same average probability of bit error, QPSK
system transmits data at twice the bit rate of a BPSK system for the same channel
bandwidth.
[ ( )]
− Ps = 1 − 1 − Q γ s
2
( ) (
≈ 2Q γ s = 2Q 2γ b )
( )
Ps ≈ 2Q γ s

48
Error Probability for MPSK

 Signal-space diagram  When using the union bound of


for 8PSK error probability and the nearest
neighbor approximation,
φ2
Es
(
Ps ≈ M d min Q d min 2N0 )
 For MPSK,

Es
φ1 d min = 2 Es sin(π M ) ,
M d min = 2

(
Ps = 2Q 2γ s sin(π M ) )
49
Error Probability for MPAM
 The constellation for MPAM is Ai = (2i − 1 − M )d , i = 1,2,..., M
 Since each of the M-2 inner constellation points has two nearest neighbor at distance
2d, Ps ( si ) = p ( n > d ), i = 2,..., M − 1
 For outer constellation points, there is only one nearest neighbor.
M
 The average energy per symbol for MPAM is Es = ∑ Ai 2 = 1 ( M 2 − 1)d 2
1
M i =1 3
 The symbol error probability Ps in terms of the average energy as

M −2
( ) ( )
M
1 2
Ps =
M
∑ Ps (si ) =
i =1 M
× 2 × Q 2d 2N0 +
M
× Q 2d 2N0

2( M − 1)  6γ 
Ps = Q s 
M  M −1 
2
 

50
Error Probability for MQAM
 MQAM system can be viewed as two MPAM systems with signal constellations of
size L = M transmitted over the in-phase and quadrature signal components, each
with half the energy of the original MQAM system.
 The constellation points in the in-phase and quadrature branches take values
Ai = (2i − 1 − L)d , i = 1,2,..., L
 The symbol error probability for each branch is
2( M − 1)  3γ s 
Ps ,branch = Q
M  M −1 
 
 The probability of symbol error the for MQAM system is Ps = 1 − (1 − Ps ,branch ) 2
 If we take a conservative approach and set the number of nearest neighbors to be
four,

 3γ 
Ps ≈ 4 × Q s 
 M −1 
 

51
Summary in Error Probability for Coherent Modulation (1)

 Many of the exact or approximation values for Ps derived for coherent modulation
are in the following form:
(
Ps (γ s ) ≈ α M Q β M γ s )
− αM : the number of nearest neighbors at the minimum distance dmin
− βM : a constant that relates the minimum distance to average symbol energy
 Performance specifications are generally most concerned with the bit error rate as a
function of the bit energy.
Pb (γ b ) ≈ αˆ M Q βˆM γ b 
 
− With Gray coding and high SNR, αˆ M = α M log 2 M and βˆM = β M × log 2 M

52
Summary in Error Probability for Coherent Modulation (2)

Modulation Ps (γ s ) Pb (γ b )
BPSK (
Pb = Q 2γ b )
QPSK ( )
Ps ≈ 2Q γ s (
Pb ≈ Q 2γ b )
MPAM 2(M − 1)  6γ s 
 2(M − 1)  6γ b log 2 M 
Ps = Q Pb ≈ Q 
 
 M −1  M 2 −1
2
M M log 2 M  

 π  2   π 
MPSK Ps ≈ 2Q 2γ s sin    Pb ≈ Q 2γ b log 2 M sin   
 M  log 2 M   M 

MQAM
 3γ s  4  3γ b log 2 M 
Ps ≈ 4Q  Pb ≈ Q 

M − 1  log 2 M  M −1 
 

53
Flat Fading Channel

 Outage Probability
 Average Probability of Error

54
Performance Criteria (1)

 In a fading environment, the received signal power varies


randomly over distance or time due to shadowing and/or multipath
fading.
− In fading γ s is a random variable with distribution f γ s (γ ) , and therefore Ps (γ s )
is also random.
 Performance criteria
− The outage probability, Pout , defined as the probability that γ s falls below a
given value corresponding to the maximum allowable Ps
− The average error probability, Ps , averaged over the distribution of γ s

55
Performance Criteria (2)
 When the fading coherence time is on the order of a symbol time (Ts ≈ Tc )
− The signal fading level is roughly constant over a symbol period
− The error correction coding techniques can recover from a few bit errors
− An average error probability is a reasonably good figure
 When the signal fading is changing slowly (Ts << Tc )
− A deep fade affects simultaneously many symbols
− Large error bursts that cannot be corrected for with coding of reasonable
complexity
− Outage probability
− When the channel is modeled as a combination of fast and slow fading (e.g.,
log-normal shadowing with fast Rayleigh fading), outage and average error
probability is often combined
 When Ts >> Tc , the fading will be averaged out by the matched
filter in the demodulator
− For very fast fading, performance is the same as in AWGN

56
Outage Probability (1)

Ts
γs Outage
γ0

 Probability that γ s is below a target γ 0, which is the minimum


SNR required for acceptable performance.
− P = p(γ < γ ) = γ p (γ )dγ

0

out s 0
0
γs

57
Outage Probability (2)

 In Rayleigh fading with mean zero and variance σ 2 (dB)


− The received signal power is exponentially distributed with average 2σ 2
− The received SNR γ s also has an exponential distribution with average γ
s
■ Es 2 σ 2 Ts
γs = =
N0 N0 1
■ The probability density function of γ s : pγ s (γ ) = e −γ / γ s
− Outage probability γs
γ0
1
Pout = ∫γ
0 s
e − γ / γ s dγ s = 1 − e − γ 0 / γ s

− Average SNR
−γ0

γs =
ln(1 − Pout )

58
Average Error Probability
 The averaged probability of error is computed by integrating the error
probability in AWGN over the fading distributions.

Ps = ∫ Ps (γ ) pγ s (γ )dγ
( )
0
− An error probability in AWGN with SNR γ : Ps (γ ) ≈ α M Q β M γ s
 In Rayleigh fading,
α M  
( )γ

1 0.5β M γ s  ≈ αM
Ps = ∫ α M Q β M γ ⋅ e −γ / γ s
dγ = 1−
2  1 + 0.5β M γ s  2β M γ s
0 s  
− BPSK: Pb (γ b ) = Q( 2γ b )

1  γb 
Pb = 1 − 
2 1+ γ b 
 

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Average Pb for MQAM in Rayleigh Fading and AWGN

60

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