Ocansey, 2021

© University of Cape Coast https://ir.ucc.edu.
gh/xmlui
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION THROUGH SOCIAL
STUDIES EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS IN SELECTED SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE CENTRAL
REGION
JENNIFER OCANSEY
2021
Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

© University of Cape Coast https://ir.ucc.edu.gh/xmlui
PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION THROUGH SOCIAL
STUDIES EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS IN SELECTED SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE CENTRAL
REGION
BY
JENNIFER OCANSEY
Thesis submitted to the Department of Business and Social Sciences

Education of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Education,
University of Cape Coast, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of Master of Philosophy degree in Curriculum and Teaching
JUNE 2021
ii

DECLARATION
Candidate’s Declaration
I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own original research and
that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or
elsewhere.
Candidate‟s Signature………………………….. Date………………………
Name: Jennifer Ocansey
Supervisor’s Declaration
I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the thesis were`
supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid
down by the University of Cape Coast.
Supervisor‟s Signature……………………… Date…………………………
Name: Dr. Bernard Yaw Sekyi Acquah
ii

ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to explore Senior High School teachers‟ and
students‟ perception of the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship
Education. Cross-sectional descriptive survey design was adopted for the
study. In all, 60 teachers and 400 students were selected for the study using the
proportionate stratified random sampling. A 4-point Likert scale was used to
collect data from the respondents. Means and standard deviation were used to
answer the research questions and Mann Whitney U test was used to test the
research hypothesis. The study revealed that Social Studies was perceived to
play a major role in promoting Citizenship Education. There was no
statistically significant difference in the perceptions of teachers and students
on the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. The study
also found out that teachers use learner centred approaches such as discussion
method, inquiry method and role play method in teaching Social Studies. It
was however revealed that teachers encounter challenges such as general
unwillingness of students to take the subject serious, limited time allocated to
the subject and syllabus overload. It was recommended that the National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment should consider redesigning Senior
High School Social Studies syllabus to reduce the content of the syllabus to
allow more room for exploring the essential aspects of the subject. It was also
recommended that the Ghana Education Service should give equal priority to
the Social Studies subject just as they give to the other core subjects so
students would attach equal importance to the subject.
iii

KEY WORD
Perception
iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
supervisor, Dr. Bernard Yaw Sekyi Acquah of the Department Business and
Social Sciences Education for his able guidance and support to me throughout
this work.
I am also grateful to my family and friends for their support and
guidance throughout this study. I also extend my appreciation to the
respondents for their time and objective responses.

DEDICATION
To my mother, Millicent Adwoa Adutwumwaah Kwarteng
vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DECLARATION ii
ABSTRACT iii
KEY WORD iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
DEDICATION vi
LIST OF TABLES x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study 2
Statement of the Problem 7
Purpose of the Study 9
Research Objectives 9
Research Questions 9
Research Hypothesis 10
Significance of the Study 10
Delimitation of the Study 11
Limitation of the Study 12
Definition of Term 12
Organization of the Rest of the Study 12
CHAPTER TWO 13
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 13
Introduction 13
Theoretical Review 13
Functionalist Theory of Education 13
vii

Theories of Citizenship 17
Conceptual Review 21
The Concept, Goals, and Objectives of Social Studies 21
The Concept of Citizenship Education 28
Citizenship Education and Social Studies 31
Methods and techniques of teaching Social Studies to Promote Citizenship
Education 33
Challenges of Promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies
Education 44
Empirical Review 45
Chapter Summary 56
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction 58
Research Design 58
Study Area 59
Population 60
Sample and Sampling Procedure 61
Data Collection Instrument 64
Validity and Reliability of Instrument 66
Data Collection Procedures 68
Data Processing and Analysis 69
Ethical Considerations 71
Chapter Summary 72
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction 73
viii

Demography of Respondents 73
Discussion of Main Results 79
Teachers Perceptions of the Role Social Studies Education Plays in
Promoting Citizenship Education 79
Students‟ Perceptions of the Role Social Studies Education Plays in
Teachers Use of the Effective Teaching Methods That Promote
Citizenship Education 91
Challenges of Promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies 96
Education 96
Chapter Summary 98
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction 100
Summary of the Study 100
Research Hypothesis 101
Key Findings 102
Other Findings 102
Conclusion 103
Recommendations 104
Suggestions for Further Research 105
REFERENCES 106
APPENDICES 120
ix

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 List of Selected Senior High Schools 61
2 Sample Size Distribution 63
3 Reliability Co-efficient for each of the Sub-scales
on the Questionnaire for Teachers 67
4. Reliability Co-efficient for each of the Sub-scales
on the Questionnaire for Students 67
5 Demographic Characteristics of Teachers 74
6 Educational Qualifications of Teachers 76
7 Demographic Characteristics of Students 78
8 Teachers‟ Perceptions of the Role Social Studies
Plays in Promoting Citizenship Education 80
9 Students‟ perceptions of the Role Social Studies Plays in
10 Normality Test for Teachers‟ and Students‟ perception of
the Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting Citizenship Education 89
11 Differences between Teachers‟ and Students‟ Perception of
the Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting Citizenship
Education 90
12 Teacher‟s Use of Effective Teaching Methods
that Promote Citizenship Education 92
13 Other Teaching Methods Utilized by Teachers 93
14 Students Perception of Teacher's Use of Effective Teaching
Methods that Promote Citizenship Education 94

15 Other Teaching Methods Stated by Students 95
16 Teacher‟s Perception of the Challenges of Promoting
Social Studies through Citizenship Education 96
xi

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Social Studies is an instructional subject that incorporates sociologies
and humanities to promote civic competence (Hoge, 2002). It provides a
coordinated and systematic study with the primary role to assist the youth in
becoming productive members of a socially different, popularity-based
society. Thus, through the Social Studies subject, students are provided with
citizenship education. Citizenship education is defined as educating children
from early childhood to become clear-thinking and enlightened citizens who
participate in decisions concerning society (Mhlauli, 2012). With this premise,
it is expected that students who pass through Senior High School education are
to exhibit the traits of good Citizenship within the society.
It has been indicated, however, that there has been a persistent decline
of such traits among the youths. This claim has been backed by some
researchers such as Campbell (2006) and Touya (2007). Watson, Hollister,
Stroud and Babcock (2011) also asserted that there has been a persistent and
growing concern about the seemingly global decline of youth civic
engagement. Watson et al. stated further that, when compared to previous
generations, the youths of today exhibit growing apathy, a loss of interest in
civic and political affairs, avoidance of electoral and other democratic
responsibilities and little investment in community wellbeing. Thus, it appears
that the goal of Social Studies education in providing students with civic
education has not been fully realized among the youth. Hence, the investigator
deemed it expedient to assess the perceived role of the Social Studies subject

in promoting citizenship education at the Senior High School level through the
perspectives of the teachers and students.
Background to the Study
All over the world, education systems respond to the necessities,
aspirations, and demands of societies, that is, if they are amenable to adapt to
the changing trends of these societies. This means an education system can
render itself fruitless if it fails to pass the test of change and adaptability
needed in society. This was observed in Ghana in earlier years after the
colonial era because the colonial system mostly provided Ghana with a type of
workforce, mainly scribal and administrative personnel, which failed to meet
the needs of the fast-changing Ghanaian society (Dzobo, 1972). This failure
was because the products of the colonial education system lacked the needed
expertise to work and the willingness to take up agriculture and manual work
found in the Ghanaian society. It is only when an individual is trained to
embrace what the society can offer that the said individual could be referred to
as a good citizen. Therefore, to rectify the ineffectiveness of the inherited
system, Living-Stone (1986) postulated that it is salient to restructure the
education and training systems to meet both rural and urban demands.
Ghana has since made several changes to the structure and curricula of
her formal education system. One of these changes is the evolution of Social
Studies, as a single discipline of study in the school curriculum in Ghana
(Bekoe, 2013). This evolution has been from a collection of specific History
and Geography topics, which used to characterise the early Social Studies
curriculum, into an issue centred (trans-disciplinary) subject. Social Studies
has become a more visible school subject, and the conception of learning

Social Studies has evolved from doing and knowing to experiencing and
making meaning.
The tacit and piecemeal curriculum that has long characterised the
Social Studies classroom seems to be gradually giving way to a more coherent
and integrated set of objectives, benchmarks, and performance indicators. For
instance, in 1998, Social Studies in Ghana underwent an evolution with its
introduction in the Senior Secondary Schools (SSS), now Senior High School
(SHS). This was occasioned by the recommendation of the 1994 Educational
Review Committee, which asked for the introduction of Social Studies to
replace Life Skills at the SSS level to provide the basis for the continuation of
learning, in the discipline, from the JSS to the SSS level. This Committee
succeeded in transforming Social Studies from an amalgam of discrete
traditional Social Science disciplines, which is used to be, to one that is issue
centered and problem-solving in nature.
The evolution of the Social Studies curriculum over the years has been
accompanied by changes in the general aims of the subject into more precise
and integrated aims. In 2007, the Curriculum Research and Development
Division (CRDD) of Ministry of Education, Ghana, stipulated the general aims
of the Social Studies subject to be: to understand the interrelationships
between the social and the physical environment and their impact on the
development of Ghana; appreciate the impact of history on current and future
development efforts of the country; appreciate the various components of the
environment and how these could be maintained to ensure sustainable
development; recognize the major challenges Ghana face and be able to
develop basic knowledge and skills for dealing with such challenges;

understand the dynamics of development in the world and their impact on
development in Ghana; develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for
personal growth, peaceful co-existence, and respect for peoples of other
nations; and develop a sense of national consciousness and national identity
(Ministry of Education, 2007 p. ii).
However, in 2010, the CRDD of Ministry of Education, Ghana, revised
these aims into six (6) coherent aims: develop the ability to adapt to the
developing and ever-changing Ghanaian society, acquire positive attitudes and
values towards individual and societal issues, develop critical and analytical
skills in assessing issues for objective decision-making, develop national
consciousness and unity, use inquiry and problem-solving skills for solving
personal and societal problems and lastly become responsible citizens capable
and willing to contribute to societal advancement. (Ministry of Education,
2010 p.ii)
Though there are different perceptions and approaches to the Social
Studies Curriculum (Ayaaba, Eshun & Bordoh, 2014), it appears that the
introduction of the revised aims of the Social Studies subject by CRDD (2010)
has created unanimity among Social Studies instructors that the primary
purpose of the subject is citizenship education. This supports the assertion by
Risinger (1997) that “for all the arguments, convention speeches and journal
articles, it seems clear that citizenship education lies at the heart of Social
Studies” (p. 223). In other words, the Social Studies curriculum offers
individuals holistic education that enables them to fit and function effectively
in the society by contributing their quota towards the social, political, and

economic betterment of society. Citizenship education, therefore, represents
the historically dominant justification for learning Social Studies.
Citizenship education is the type of education that fosters democratic
attitudes, skills, and knowledge to engage and work on critical public issues
and make democracy a way of life (Dahal, 2002). Citizenship education
continues to be on the radar of the contemporary curriculum of the school to
educate the youth on civic rights and responsibilities. The Ministry of
Education and Sports (MOES, 2007) is of the view that citizenship education
aims at producing competent, reflective, concerned and participatory citizens
who will contribute to the development of their communities and country in
the spirit of patriotism and democracy (p. ii). MOES (2007) further states that
citizenship education exposes pupils to the persistent contemporary issues
hindering the development of the nation and the desired attitudes, values, and
skills needed to solve these problems.
The people of Ghana differ in many respects, including ethnic,
cultural, religious, linguistic, political, and economic orientations. Citizenship
education through Social Studies education in the Ghanaian educational
system should, therefore, afford students the opportunity to critically examine
and understand not only their cultural identifications and attachments but more
importantly, allow students to maintain their cultural identities and
attachments while at the same time, endorsing and respecting other cultures
and identities (Waghid, 2010). This is a sure way of fostering national unity,
cohesion, and identity.
According to Atbasi (2007), it has been stated by teachers that the
classrooms are too crowded, the content is too detailed, and these create

barriers while using learner-centred teaching methods like investigation and
observation. Although previous studies conducted reveal that “Social Studies
should be taught as a holistic subject, which should reflect a behavioral change
in students and not facts from other social sciences and that Social Studies
teachers should stress on teaching of skills more than the factual content
(Eshun & Mensah, 2013a), most teachers resort to the traditional teacher-
centred approach to teaching because of the classroom and curriculum
challenges.
Furthermore, the main role of the Social Studies teacher is to
emphasise the development of relevant knowledge, positive attitudes, value,
and problem-solving skills of students.” This calls for the need of harmonising
all Social Studies curricular documents to reflect problem-solving (Quashigah,
Kankam, Bekoe, Eshun and Bordoh, 2015). This notwithstanding, so many
Social Studies teachers only teach by lecturing and expect rote memorisation
from their students. This happens often because of the “overwhelming amount
of material contained in a typical state Social Studies curriculum framework”
(Vogler & Virtue, 2007)
Therefore, it is perceived that Social Studies as a subject is capable of
providing the kind of moral education, knowledge, expertise, and accepted
values needed for the development of a sustainable democratic Ghanaian
society. It is worth noting that this faith in Social Studies co-exists with the
recognition that all other forms of education, and not only Social Studies, are
capable of contributing to citizenship education. However, as Banks (1990)
points out, it is only Social Studies that has an explicit focus on citizenship
education. With this viewpoint, it is vital to find out teachers‟ and students‟

perception of how the teaching and learning of Social Studies achieve its aim
of citizenship education.
Statement of the Problem
The impact of education is evidenced in the after-school lives of the
youth. Thus, within the school setting, the youth are educated, among others,
to appreciate and engage in all civic activities such as voting during elections,
influencing public policy, and working with others to improve the living
conditions of their environment. Social Studies as a subject has been
developed and introduced into the Senior High Schools in Ghana to provide
such education to the youth (MOES, 2007). The objectives of the subject as
stipulated in the Social Studies curriculum are geared towards providing the
youth with citizenship education. The challenge is for the school to help the
youth develop reflective attachments to their nation and a sense of kinship
with citizens in all parts of the world (Banks, 1990). It is with this same view
that the CRDD of Ministry of Education, Ghana (2010) states, among others,
that the Social Studies curriculum is intended to produce students who have
acquired positive attitudes and values towards individual and societal issues,
developed critical and analytical skills in assessing issues for objective
decision-making and become responsible citizens in the society.
The need for citizenship education has received much attention due to
certain challenges faced by some countries. This results from an alarming
decline in youth participation in civic activities. Galston (2004), Campbell
(2006), and Touya (2007) have indicated that presently there is a drop in
people‟s engagement in civic and political activities in many countries
worldwide. In the same vein, Watson et al. (2011) asserted that there had been

an insistent and growing concern about the seemingly global decline of youth
civic engagement. The resulting „diagnosis‟ for youth worldwide, when
compared to previous generations, is that they exhibit growing apathy, a loss
of interest in civic and political affairs, and avoidance of electoral and other
democratic responsibilities and little investment in community wellbeing.
These assertions point out that citizenship education, which is to
enable students to participate actively and responsibly in civic activities in
society, is missing out on its vital role. While this creates a sense of despair, it
has contributed to a new surge in research. According to Kankam (2013), the
way teachers perceive the importance of citizenship education has a bearing
on their commitment to its impartation on learners. It therefore, follows also
that the way students perceive the importance of citizenship education has a
similar bearing on their commitment to imbibing the principles and values the
subject presents. Therefore, to promote citizenship education through Social
Studies education, the perception of teachers and students on the role the
subject plays is critical. These notwithstanding, some studies have been
conducted in the area of citizenship education, but these studies were more
focused on tutors and trainee teachers in the colleges of education in
Ghana with few of them concentrating on the Junior high schools (Kankam,
2015; Kankam, Bekoe, Ayaaba, Bordoh & Eshun, 2014; Dwamena-Boateng,
2012). Thus, it appears, no concrete attempts have been made to conduct a
study on teachers and students‟ perceptions of how Social Studies education
promotes citizenship education in Senior High Schools.

Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to find out Social Studies teachers‟
and students‟ perceptions of the role Social Studies education plays in
promoting citizenship education.
Research Objectives
The specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Find out teachers‟ perceptions of the role Social Studies plays in
promoting Citizenship Education.
2. Find out students‟ perceptions of the role Social Studies plays in
3. Find out how often teachers use the effective teaching methods that
promote Citizenship Education.
4. Find out from students how often teachers use the effective teaching
methods that promotes Citizenship Education.
5. Investigate the challenges of promoting Citizenship Education through
the teaching of Social Studies.
6. Find out whether there are differences in the perceptions of teachers
and students regarding the role Social Studies plays in promoting
Citizenship Education.
Research Questions
The following research questions and hypothesis were formulated to guide the
study:
1. What are the perceptions of teachers on the role Social Studies plays in
promoting Citizenship Education?

2. What are the perceptions of students on the role Social Studies plays in
3. How often do teachers use the effective teaching methods that promote
Citizenship Education?
4. How often do students perceive the use of the effective teaching
methods that promote Citizenship Education by teachers?
5. What challenges do teachers face in promoting Citizenship Education
through Social Studies education?
Research Hypothesis
H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the perceptions of
teachers and students regarding the role Social Studies plays in promoting
H1: There is a statistically significant difference in in the perceptions of
teachers and students regarding the role Social Studies plays in promoting
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study will be relevant to policymakers,
administrators, and education planners who want to identify the importance of
Social Studies in the Ghanaian school curricula as well as the areas where
assistance is needed in the teaching and learning of citizenship education
through Social Studies. This is based on the fact that the findings of the study
will reflect the views of both teachers and students on the role of Social
Studies in promoting citizenship education. This will help educational
planners and policymakers to put in place the needed measures and policies to
10

curb any unfavorable drifts towards inculcating the values of citizenship
among students.
The findings of the study will add up to the existing efforts that are
being made to promote Citizenship Education not only in Ghana but also in
other African countries that are trying to foster democracy and good citizenry
practices. Also, the participation of teachers in the study would make them
think about identifying and clarifying their understanding of the major goal of
Social Studies and as such help in determining ways for improving the
teaching of the subject in their schools to help achieve the major goal of Social
Studies.
Furthermore, it is hoped that the study will help enlighten Social
Studies teachers on the effective pedagogical techniques that are grounded in
the disciplines of Social Studies for the development of citizenship education
in their students, as well as the acquisition of decision-making skills and the
adoption of democratic practices. Also, the results of the study will serve as a
yardstick for further investigation into citizenship issues in other subject areas.
Delimitation of the Study
There are quite several issues at stake when it comes to the Social
Studies as a subject of study. One can talk about issues in the teaching and
learning of the subject, teacher competence, qualification and others. This
study concentrates on the perception of teachers and students on how Social
Studies as a subject help promote citizenship education. It would have been
appropriate to conduct such a study in the entire country but the study focused
on selected Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana.
11

Limitation of the Study
This study had some limitations, like any other research. The
instrument used for the study was a self-report measure, therefore responses
from teachers and students may not reflect the actual situation on the ground.
This may affect the results of the study. To mitigate this, the researcher
assured the respondents of confidentiality and anonymity so that they could be
as truthful as possible in responding to the questionnaire.
Definition of Term
Perception: Perception is the way teachers and students understand the
importance of Social Studies education in promoting Citizenship education in
Ghana.
Organization of the Rest of the Study
Following this introduction, the rest of the study is organized into four
main chapters. Chapter two focused on a review of related literature under
three main subcategories: Theoretical review, Conceptual review, and
Empirical review. Chapter three dealt with the research methodology of the
study which comprised research design, population, sample and sampling
procedure, research instrument, pilot test, data collection procedure, data
analysis technique. Chapter four concerned itself with the analysis and
discussion of both students' and teachers' perceptions of the role of Social
Studies education in promoting citizenship education. Finally, the summary of
the study, making conclusions based on the findings of the study as well as
making recommendations based on the research questions formulated, and
suggestions for further research was captured in the last Chapter, Chapter five.
12

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Literature relating to the present study were reviewed under the
following broad headings: Theoretical, Conceptual, and Empirical Review.
The theoretical review covered two main theories, namely: Functionalist
Theory of Education and theories of Citizenship. The Conceptual review
captured: the concept, goals and objectives of Social Studies, the concept of
citizenship education, methods and techniques of teaching Social Studies and
challenges of promoting citizenship education through Social Studies
education. Other research works that had a bearing on the study were
discussed under the empirical review.
Theoretical Review
Functionalist Theory of Education
According to Pope (1975), the functionalist theory of education was
propounded by Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist. The theory focuses on
how the needs of society are served by education through the encouragement
of social cohesion and skills development. According to Functionalists,
schools have a role of preparing students to participate in society‟s institutions.
Researches of functionalist‟s theory regarding education have been guided by
two related questions:
1. The first question asks „what are the functions of education for society
as a whole?‟ Given the functionalist view of the needs of the social
system, this question leads, for example, to an assessment of the
13

contribution made by education to the maintenance of value consensus
and social solidarity.
2. The second question asks „what are the functional relationships
between education and other parts of the social system?‟ This leads to
an examination of the relationship between education and the
economic system, and a consideration of how this relationship helps to
integrate the society as a whole.
The French sociologist Emile Durkheim saw the major function of
education as the transmission of society‟s norms and values. Society can
survive if these norms and values exist among its members in a sufficient
degree of homogeneity. Education perpetuates and reinforces this
homogeneity by fixing in the child [student] from the beginning the essential
similarities which collective life demands. Without these „essential
similarities‟, cooperation, social solidarity, and therefore social life itself
would be impossible.
The functionalists argue that the essence of education is to contribute
to the well-being of the society by creating some form of social solidarity
among the receivers of the education and ultimately the citizens of the society.
Therefore, to place citizenship education through Social Studies under the lens
of functionalist proponents, the contribution of Social Studies to society
becomes an issue of interest.
As mentioned earlier, according to the National Council for Social
Studies (1994) the Social Studies subject is the integrated study of the social
science and humanities to promote civic competence. Therefore, the role of
Social Studies is to help develop individuals to possess the right attributes and
14

values to become good citizens in society. The argument is that, if Social
Studies fails in its mandate to contribute to society by way of instilling the
values of citizenship within students, then Social Studies education has no
function towards society. Thus, the ultimate view of the functionalist theory is
how Social Studies contributes to the society and this has been underscored by
Lindquist (1995) who asserted that Social Studies is an integration of
knowledge, skills and processes that provides powerful learning in the
humanities and social sciences to help children learn to be good problem
solvers and wise decision-makers in the society. Thus within the context of
this study, functionalist theory demands that the teaching and learning of
Social Studies should provide students with acceptable attitudes, skills and
values that will help them function as effective and efficient citizens in the
society.
A vital task for all societies is the welding of a mass of individuals into
a united whole; in other words, the creation of social solidarity. This involves
a commitment to society, a sense of belonging and a feeling that the social unit
is more important than the individual. Education, and in particular the teaching
of Social Studies provides this link between the individual and society. For
instance, if the history of their society is brought alive to children [students],
they will come to see that they are part of something larger than themselves
and they will develop a sense of commitment to the social group.
Durkheim believed that school rules should be strictly enforced,
punishment should reflect the seriousness of the damage done to the social
group by the offense, and it should be made clear to the transgressors why
15

they were being punished. Through the reward and punishment system the
child [student] learns what is right or wrong.
He added that membership of the family is based on kinship
relationships; membership of the peer group on personal choice but
membership of society as a whole is based on neither of these principles.
Individuals must learn to cooperate with those who are neither their kin nor
their friends and the school provides a context where these skills can be
learned. In school, the child [student] interacts with other members of the
school community in terms of a fixed set of rules. This experience prepares
him or her for interacting with members of society as a whole in terms of
society‟s rules.
The American sociologist Talcott Persons outlined what has become
the accepted functionalist view of education. Writing in the late 1950s,
Persons argues that after primary socialization within the family, the school
takes over as the next socializing agency: school acts as a bridge between the
family and society as a whole preparing child [students] for their adult roles.
Within the family, the child is judged and treated largely in terms of
particularistic standards. Parents treat the child as their particular child rather
than judging her or him in terms of standards or yardsticks which can be
applied to every individual. Yet in the wider society, the individual is treated
and judged in terms of universalistic standards that are applied to all members,
regardless of their kinship ties.
Within the family the child‟s status is ascribed: it is fixed by birth.
However, in advanced industrial society, status in adult life is largely
achieved: for example, individuals achieve their occupational status. Thus the
16

child must move from the particularistic standards and ascribed status of the
family to the universalistic standards and achieve the status of adult society.
The school prepares young people for this transition. It establishes
universalistic standards by which all pupils achieve their status. Their conduct
is assessed against the yardstick of the school rules and their achievement is
measured by performance in the examination. The same standards are applied
to all students regardless of ascribed characteristics such as sex, race, family
background or class of origin. Schools operate on meritocratic principles.
Status is achieved on the basis of merit (or worth).
The functionalist theory has however been criticized. Critics state that
as a theory it assumes education is fair and that it rewards the best and ignores
social inequalities that may restrict attainment. Societies we live in are
characterised by several social inequalities such as gender factor, economic
status and political interventions. Therefore, to operationalize a concept
without due recourse to existing inequalities may invite discrepancies.
Theories of Citizenship
There are various theories on Citizenship that give different
interpretations of the concept. Sherrod, Flanagan and Youniss (2002), state
that Citizenship is the exercise of rights and responsibilities within
communities at local, national and global levels, making an informed decision
and taking thoughtful and responsible actions locally and globally. The paper
was also of the view that young people are citizens of today and not citizens in
waiting. Furthermore, the paper saw Citizenship as making informed choices
and decisions and about taking actions individually and as part of collective
processes.
17

In relation to this study, an attempt was made to review three of the
four main theories of Citizenship identified by Van Gunsteren (1998) which
appear to diverge in terms of orientation and practice. Among the main
theories of Citizenship identified by Van Gunsteren (1998), the
communitarian, civic-republican, and neo-republican theories are reviewed
because they appear to have a direct bearing on this study.
The communitarian theory, as identified by Van Gunsteren (1998)
views citizenship as a concept wider than just the matter of rights and stresses
that being a citizen involves belonging to a historically developed community.
The implication is that in Citizenship, the communitarian theory emphasizes
participation and identity (Preece & Mosweunyane 2004). In this theory, a
citizen is accorded the needed Citizenship if they stay within the limits of what
is acceptable within the community. The community symbolizes unity and the
neglect of community implies confusion and disunity. The community is
accorded with respect as it offers a cultural resource that unifies peoples‟
relationships. This type of Citizenship encourages voluntarism, self-reliance
and a commitment to each other (Preece & Mosweneunyane, 2004).
Osler and Starkey (2005) contributed to this by stating that Citizenship
is a feeling of status but is evidenced in practice. The feeling is a sense of
belonging to a community and citizenship education can support students‟
sense of belonging to a range of communities (local, ethnic, and national,
diasporic, global) and thereby support their multiple identities. Osler (2005)
emphasized that citizenship education curriculum needs to be underpinned by
human rights and cited evidence which suggests that a well-conceived human
rights-based citizenship curriculum has the potential to contribute to
18

community cohesion, civic courage and greater solidarity with others, within
and beyond our national borders.
The second theory, being the civic-republican theory of Citizenship
considers a single community, which is the republic community at the hub of
political life. This theory lays emphasis on civil society. Republican virtues of
courage, devotion, military discipline and statesmanship are cherished in this
theory. It has been contended that a vibrant civil society leads to a more
dynamic state through the promotion of active social action which privileges
the state by not challenging the status quo (Putnam, 2000). Kerr (1999)
emphasized that citizenship education furnishes students with adequate
knowledge and understanding of national history and the structures and
process of government and political life and then involves students learning by
doing through active, participative experiences in the school or local
community and beyond.
The last citizenship theory identified by Van Gunsteren (1998) is the
neo-republican idea of Citizenship which merges the theories of
communitarian, republican, and liberal. This theory asserts that Citizenship is
created and recreated by citizens in action. The conception is that the duty of a
citizen is to change a community of fate into a public that can be willed by all
who are involved as citizens. Citizens according to Van Gunsteren (1998)
have to possess competencies, a repertoire of skills, goodwill, consensus on
norms and values, tolerance and respect and good judgment.
Reviewing the theories of Citizenship, it has become clear that there
are a lot of conceptions that will guide Citizenship in schools. The researcher
supports the theories proposed by Van Gunsteren (1998) on Citizenship, and
19

also agrees with the idea that people do not become democrats by default and
as such must be taught [educated] to behave like democrats to believe in the
virtues of, at least, localised democratic national and continental structures
(Abdi, 2008).
However, the neo-republican theory appears to be more suited to this
study. This is because it attempts to combine all the other three theories on
Citizenship and as well places emphasis on competence, skill development,
goodwill, consensus on norms and values which need to be taught in the
education settings (schools). Hence, the justification for the choice of the neo-
republican theory in this study.
Furthermore, Galston (2001) posited seven important relationships
between knowledge and Citizenship. According to him:
1. Civic knowledge helps citizens to understand their interests as
individuals and members of groups. The more knowledge we have the
better we can understand the impact of public policies.
2. Civic knowledge increases the ideological consistency of views across
issues and time.
3. Unless citizens possess basic levels of civic knowledge, it is difficult to
understand political events or integrate new information into an
existing framework.
4. General knowledge can alter our views on specific public issues.
5. The more knowledge of civic affairs, the likely they are to experience
generalized mistrust of or alienation from civic life.
6. Civic knowledge promotes support for democratic values.
7. Civic knowledge promotes political participation‟‟ (p. 223-244).
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From the above relationships, it is discernible that if students are to
make reflective decisions and participate fully in their civic communities, they
must build knowledge in order to understand how things work within the
society in which they live. It is therefore clear that a rich store of knowledge is
an essential base to Citizenship.
Conceptual Review
The Concept, Goals, and Objectives of Social Studies
The Social Studies programme has been perceived differently and
described in various ways by many writers over the years. Writers such as
Banks (1990) and Bar, Barth and Shermis (1977) perceive Social Studies as a
single subject and a singular noun. Wesley (1950) and the Committee on
Social Studies (1976) as cited in Kankam (2016) perceive Social Studies as
several subjects and therefore described as a plural noun. However, the writers
in the field of Social Studies perceive the subject as an integrated subject
because it integrates the social science subjects such as history, geography,
and civics for the purpose of citizenship education (Tamakloe, 1994). It
appears tutors and students of Social Studies have different perceptions of the
Social Studies programme, and therefore are likely to approach the subject
according to how they perceive it.
Banks (1990) gave a comprehensive description of Social Studies
related to its nature when he added that: “The Social Studies is that part of the
Elementary and High School Curriculum which has the primary responsibility
for helping students to develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
needed to participate in the civic life of their local communities, the nation and
the world. While the other curriculum areas also help students to attain some
21

of the skills needed to participate in a democratic society, the Social Studies is
the only curriculum area which has the development of civic competencies
and skills as its primary goals” (p.3).
To Banks, learners need knowledge of the contemporary world in
which they live and its historical antecedent to fully develop as mature
citizens. This definition has been described by Tamakloe (1994) as “an
incisive and in-depth description of Social Studies” because it contains
essential ideas that shed more light on the nature of the subject (Cobbold,
2013). The definition also puts emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge and
skills as well as the development of desirable attitudes and values as
prerequisites to civic competence, which is the fundamental purpose of Social
Studies. The author mentioned the local community, the nation and the world
as the social environments in which the citizen functions progressively
implicating the concentric nature of the Social Studies curriculum. It is
important to add that, Banks‟ statement “Social Studies is that part of the
Elementary and High School Curriculum” seems to have outlived its time. It
was true at the time when the subject was introduced into the curriculum of
these schools but today, Social Studies is studied in colleges and universities
even to the post-graduate levels in Ghana and other countries.
The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) defined the
subject as the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to
promote civic competence (1994, p.105). The African Social and
Environmental Studies Programme (ASESP, 1994) provided a similar
definition to the subject as “the integration of social sciences and humanities
22

to promote and practice effective problem solving, promoting citizenship skills
in social, political and economic issues” (p.5).
Lindquist (1995) also defined Social Studies as an integration of
knowledge, skills, and processes that provide powerful learning in the
humanities and social sciences for the purpose of helping children learn to be
good problem solvers and wise decision-makers. (p. 1). These definitions of
Social Studies [NCSS (1994), ASESP (1994) and Lindquist (1995)] present
essentially the same understanding of the subject. The definitions identify the
content (subject matter) of Social Studies, that is, essential information, ideas,
skills and inquiry procedures drawn from the group of disciplines called social
sciences. Concepts, principles, generalisations and processes from the social
sciences serve as the resources from which the Social Studies curriculum
draws, blend and integrates to provide students with meaningful learning
experiences.
Most Social Studies educators agree with this assertion. For instance,
Matorella (1994) stated that “the field of Social Studies gains a significant
portion of its identity from the disciplines of the social sciences and that the
methods of inquiry used in the social sciences are important sources of Social
Studies subject matter” (Cobbold, 2013). However, it should not be taken that
Social Studies is just an approach to teaching in which the content, findings
and methods of the social sciences are merely simplified and reorganized for
instructional purposes. It is rather a field of study in its own right though it
derives its existence from an amalgamation of a number of disciplines.
Another notable point about these definitions [NCSS (1994), ASESP
(1994), and Lindquist (1995) is the purpose of Social Studies instruction. The
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definitions indicate that Social Studies aims at producing good citizens. The
NCSS stated Social Studies aims “to promote civic competence, the ASESP
talked about the “promotion of citizenship skills” and Lindquist also indicated
that good citizens are good problem solvers and wise decision-makers.
Drawing from these definitions, it can be simply admitted that the primary
purpose of Social Studies is citizenship education.
According to Salia-Bao (1990), Social Studies education initially
started in the United State of America where the Social Studies movement was
formed as a result of the influence of John Dewey. John Dewey was an
American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas
influenced education and social reforms. John Dewey‟s influence resulted in
the formation of progressive education called the Pragmatists (Salia-Bao,
1990). They stressed the progressive philosophy which was based on child-
centred education, inquiry, and discovery learning. It is on record that
countries in Africa were under the colonies of Britain, France, Portugal and
Belgium. And that every colony was imposed on by their colonizers‟
education system. It appears that to some extent, this created uncoordinated
needs and interests of the colonizers and the colonies. In Africa, when most
countries were securing independence in the 1960s, there was a need for new
leaders and educationists to make changes in the education setting. Social
Studies became part of the school curricula after several conferences held in
the United States of America, Britain and Africa (Mombasa, Kenya).
In the 1940s Social Studies programme as a field of study was
introduced into the curriculum of the teacher training colleges in Ghana
(Tamakloe, 1988; Kankam, 2001). The teaching of Social Studies during this
24

period experimented at the Presbyterian Training College (Akropong), Wesley
College (Kumasi) and Achimota Training College (Accra). This experiment,
according to Agyemang-Fokuo (1994) was, however, not allowed to blossom
due to both teachers‟ and students‟ negative perceptions and attitudes towards
the Social Studies program.
By the early 1950s, the single subjects (i.e. studying subjects like history,
economics and geography separately) had taken over the integrated Social
Studies (i.e. drawing concepts, ideas, knowledge, and views from different
subject areas like history and geography to solve problems or explain issues)
in the teacher training colleges. The reasons advanced for the resumption of
the single subjects approach according to Tamakloe (1988), was the fact that
social science graduates of the University of Ghana, who were to handle
Social Studies in the teacher training colleges could not cope with the
integrated approach, for they specialized in single subjects.
Also, the students in the teacher training colleges welcomed the single-
subject approach because they perceived it as an opportunity to either improve
upon their grades in the single-subjects such as history, geography and
economics in School Certificate or General Certificate of Education (G.C.E.)
Ordinary Level (OL) or get a firm foundation to try their hands at GCE “O”
Level examinations (Agyemang-Fokuo, 1994). However, in the late 1960s,
another development propelled the reintroduction of integrated Social Studies
in the teacher training colleges in Ghana. This was when some graduate and
non-graduate teachers who had been sent to Wales and Bristol to study the
“Environmental studies approach” and the “Integrated Social Studies”
returned to Ghana. By 1971, about 14 of the teachers with positive perceptions
25

about Social Studies had been posted to the teacher training colleges to
spearhead the development of the integrated programme, which they had
studied abroad (Tamakloe, 1988).
After training the first three batches of Social Studies teachers at the
teacher training colleges for the programme, it was realized that there was a
glut of teachers because there was no corresponding expansion of the junior
secondary schools in terms of numbers. The result was that Social Studies had
to be abandoned in the training colleges in the 1981/82 academic year
(Tamakloe, 2008). There was no need for training specialist Social Studies
teachers who could not be absorbed into the education system. This state of
affairs in the training colleges of Ghana, together with the fact that Social
Studies was not examined externally for certification, both at the teacher
training colleges and secondary school levels, made tutors and students
develop a half-hearted attitude to the study and development of Social Studies.
However, by 1998, the teaching of Social Studies had become a core subject at
the Senior High School level. Thus, by the end of the twentieth century, Social
Studies had been firmly established as a subject examinable for certification at
the basic, senior secondary and tertiary levels of education in Ghana (Cobbold,
2013).
The National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) cited in Parker (2001)
stated that the primary purpose of Social Studies is to help young people
develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public
good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an
interdependent world. Martorella (1994) on his part stipulates that the
enduring goal of Social Studies is to produce reflective, competent, concerned,
26

and participatory citizens who are both willing and capable of contributing
positively toward the progress of a democratic life of their societies.
This is in line with Banks (1990) as he points out that the major goal of
Social Studies is to prepare citizens who can make reflective decisions and
participate successfully in the civic life of their communities and the nation.
The Ministry of Education teaching syllabus for Social Studies in Senior High
School (2010) in Ghana identified the following as the general aims of Social
Studies: develop the ability to adapt to the developing and ever-changing
Ghanaian society, acquire positive attitudes and values towards individual and
societal issues, develop critical and analytical skills in assessing issues for
objective decision-making, develop national consciousness and unity, use
inquiry and problem-solving skills for solving personal and societal problems
and lastly become responsible citizens capable and willing to contribute to
societal advancement.
The objectives of Social Studies are related to the following concerns:
the ability to adapt to the developing and ever-changing Ghanaian society due
to the fast-growing population of the world with its emerging issues, therefore,
it is very imperative to prepare citizens to adapt to such changes with relative
ease and also broaden their perspectives and understanding of the community,
state, nation, and the world. The second and third objectives are to help
students relate to and understand the subject matter content of history and the
social sciences, including knowledge, skills and values that are pertinent in
solving personal and societal issues. The fourth and fifth objectives are to
equip students with relevant information about the nation in which they live
and what happens in the world around them. The last objective is to provide
27

students with an understanding of what it means to live in a complex and
pluralistic society, encourage students to participate in the affairs of society
and work toward establishing a “good” society thereby promoting the ideals of
democracy which is central to national development.
According to CRDD (2010), these objectives are concerned with
equipping the student with an integrated body of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes that will help the student develop a broader perspective of Ghana and
the world at large. The subject probes the past and provides knowledge for the
student to understand his/her society and be able to solve personal and societal
problems. These underscore the importance of citizenship education that
promotes democratic principles and which demands that learners are educated
on the ideals of democracy that require citizens of great character and civility.
The Concept of Citizenship Education
The concept of „citizenship education‟ is generally said to encompass
the preparation of young people for their roles and responsibilities as citizens.
Patrick (1986) explains Citizenship education as the knowledge of the
constitutions, the principles, values, history and application to contemporary
life”. Aggarwal (1982) also linked Citizenship education to the development
of ideas, habits, behaviors and useful attitudes in the individual which enable
him/her to be a useful member of society.
Different terminologies have been used to refer to citizenship
education such as education for Citizenship, education about Citizenship,
education in Citizenship, education for democratic citizenship, civic
education, civics, and global Citizenship.
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Kerr (1990) has stressed on education about Citizenship, education
through Citizenship and education for Citizenship. According to Kerr,
education about Citizenship dwells on furnishing students with adequate
knowledge and understanding of national history and the structures and
process of government and political life. Education through Citizenship
involves students learning by doing through active, participative experiences
in the school or local community and beyond. This learning experience
strengthens the knowledge component. On the other hand, education for
Citizenship encompasses the other two strands and involves equipping
students with a set of tools (knowledge and understanding, skills and
aptitudes, values and dispositions) that enable them to participate actively and
sensibly in the roles and responsibilities they encounter in their adult lives.
This strand links citizenship education with the whole educational experiences
of students. These concepts have been used to distinguish between a narrow
(minimal) and a broad (maximal) citizenship education.
Kerr (1999) and Nelson and Kerr (2005) termed the narrow sense of
citizenship education as education about Citizenship. Kerr (1999) argues that
the narrow concept of citizenship education is sometimes termed as civic
education which is content-led, teacher-based, whole-class teaching, and
examination-based assessment. The broad concept of citizenship education is
frequently used in democratic states and geared towards education for
Citizenship. It consists of knowledge, values and skills and focuses on
preparing students for active responsible participation in school and outside
school. Unlike the narrow concept which is teacher-centred, the broad sense of
citizenship education is basically functional on interactive teaching, which
29

involves the teacher-learner teaching methods such as discussion, debate and
the creation of an inviting atmosphere for students‟ interaction with teachers.
The Information Network on Education in Europe (Eurydice) identifies
citizenship education as „„school education for young people, which seeks to
ensure that they become active and responsible citizens capable of
contributing to the development and well-being of the society in which they
live‟‟ (Eurydice, 2005, p.10). It is clear that citizenship education can be
conceptualised as a broad process that takes place in school and beyond. It is
not just limited to transmitting knowledge to the student but is also concerned
with the inculcation of skills and values with the view of making students
function effectively as responsible citizens. Also, citizenship education in its
broad sense can be simplified as the type of education or instructions which
equip the learner with relevant knowledge, positive attitudes and requisite
skills to enable him/her perform his/her role as a credible member of society.
Relevant knowledge is a type of knowledge that is useful in dealing
with a particular problem at a period of time. People are knowledgeable in so
many fields, but if the knowledge gained is not functional or put to use in the
right way, it becomes inert knowledge. In the same vein, positive attitudes are
very essential ingredients needed to ensure peaceful co-existence and harmony
and among people.
According to Adams, Andoh & Quarshie (2013) …the nation will do
better in her strive for development if most of her citizens possess the relevant
knowledge, the right attitude and are skillful in one field or the other and also
demonstrate positive attitudes at the workplace. Skillful manpower is a pre-
requisite for every nation that wishes to develop but skillful manpower
30

without positive attitudes to work is likely to result in counter production
because vices like corruption, bribery, abuse of power, lateness to work
absenteeism among others will pop their ugly heads.
Citizenship education as a discipline covers the child‟s role as an
effective and participatory member of the democratic, political community.
Therefore, it is evident that citizenship education emphasizes civic
responsibilities and service rendering. It also builds and prepares the student to
become a responsible citizen who will be willing and capable of contributing
his or her quota meaningfully towards national development.
Citizenship education as a discipline was introduced in the school
curriculum at the upper primary level (P4-P6) to make children appreciate
basic concepts and values that underlie a democratic political community and
constitutional order to enable them uphold and defend the Constitution of
Ghana at all times. The subject does not end at primary 6 but continues from
Junior High school to Senior High School as Social Studies to expose students
to the persistent contemporary issues hindering the development of the nation
and the desired attitudes, values, and skills needed to solve these problems.
Citizenship Education and Social Studies
Several scholars and authors emphasise the crucial role of Social
Studies in developing citizenship education (Dean 2005; Dinkelman, 1999).
Barr, Barth and Shemis (1977), for instance, state that Social Studies is the
integration of experience and knowledge concerning human relations for the
purpose of citizenship education. Dinkelman (1999) states that the field of
Social Studies is bound together by the aim of democratic citizenship
31

education. These assertions point to the silent role Social Studies plays in
citizenship education.
Barth (1983) defines Social Studies as the integration of social sciences
and humanities for the purpose of instruction in citizenship education.
Martorella (1985) adds that the purpose of Social Studies is to develop
reflective, competent, and concerned citizens. He explains that reflective
individuals are critical thinkers who make decisions and solve problems on the
basis of the best evidence available. Competent citizens, he says, possess a
repertoire of skills to aid them in decision making and problem-solving. Thus,
the reflective, concerned and competent citizen is prepared to function
effectively in today‟s world and that of the future. This view is further
supported by Michael et al. (2003) who stated that Social Studies is more
related to the promotion of citizenship education in school.
Aggarwal (2001), stressing the purpose of Social Studies points out
that Social Studies which deals directly with man and the society in which he
lives, carries special responsibility for preparing young children to become
well informed, constructive participants in society and capable of developing
healthy social relationships. Michalls as cited in Aggarwal (2001, p. 15) also
contends that “… the central function of Social Studies education is identical
with the central purpose of education – development of democratic
citizenship”.
In addition, Martorella (1985, p. 12 - 13) states that „„the basic purpose
of Social Studies education is to develop reflective, competent, and concerned
citizens‟‟. He adds that the focus of Social Studies is to develop the head, the
hand and the heart. Martorella further explains that “the head represents
32

reflexion, the hand represents competencies and the heart concern.” This
implies that the main concern of Social Studies is to help learners develop the
abilities and skills to meet the challenges that confront them. Thus far, it is
evident from the discussion that the main focus of Social Studies is citizenship
education and this is reflected in the teaching of Social Studies in most
countries including Ghana. The next section looked at the instructional
methods used to teach Social Studies to achieve its basic purpose of
citizenship education.
Methods and techniques of teaching Social Studies to Promote Citizenship
Education
Effective citizenship education demands the adoption of an appropriate
teaching-learning interaction. Loughran (2007) says teaching methodology is
essentially concerned with how best to bring about the desired learning by
some educational activity. Mezieobi (2008) imputes the mal-functioning of the
Social Studies curriculum, among other factors, to the inappropriate utilisation
of methodologies germane to effective teaching and learning of the subject.
Therefore, to ensure that Social Studies is effectively taught in schools, the
way it should be, and in cognizance of the fact that Social Studies is a “skills”
subject” [“Skills” here, refers to process skills or rather problem-solving skills,
creative skills, analytical skills or reflective skills], the teaching methods
employed should involve the active participation of the learner in the teaching-
learning process. Eshun and Mensah (2013a) assert that “Social Studies should
be taught as a holistic subject, which should reflect a behavioral change in
students and not facts from other social sciences. Social Studies teachers
should stress on teaching of skills more than the factual content. Thus, the
33

main role of the Social Studies teacher is to emphasise the development of
relevant knowledge, positive attitudes, value and problem-solving skills of
students.
Research has shown that students learn more from student-centred
approaches. A study conducted by Mensah & Frimpong (2020) revealed that
majority of Social Studies teachers in Senior High School representing 97.2
percent are of the strong view that Social Studies teachers should use different
methods when teaching the content of the course and that can improve
students‟ attitude towards the subject.
Eshun and Mensah (2013b) add that “teaching Social Studies is
supposed to be done with student-centred techniques and strategies.” The
authors further stressed that brainstorming, role-playing, simulation,
discussion and debate are some of the major techniques that make information
more meaningful to students; therefore, they retain it for longer periods of
time. According to Aggarwal (1982), good methods of teaching Social Studies
should aim at the inculcation of the love of work, developing the desire to
work efficiently to the best of one‟s ability, providing numerous opportunities
for participation by the learner and developing the capacity for clear thinking
among others. Also, Cuthrell and Yates (2007) found that Social Studies
content should be in-depth with lessons and activities. Banks (1990) adds up
by saying; skillful teaching in Social Studies is paramount and without it
effective learning cannot take place. This implies that teachers are not
supposed to depend only on the passive transmission approach as the
dominant teaching methodology; rather, there should be an interaction
between instructors and the students during the instructional process.
34

However, Groth (2006) points out that in Ghana, citizenship education
revolves around British pedagogical styles; lecture and recitation characterise
pedagogy in the Ghanaian classrooms. As scholars have revealed, the lecture –
recitation approach hinders the development of citizenship education skills
(Levistik & Groth, 2006). To add, a comparative research study conducted by
Torney-Purta and Amedeo Pilotti (2004) in 15 Latin American and Caribbean
countries in the early 1990 revealed that teachers used the teacher-centred type
of teaching. The research suggested that teachers were the primary reason for
the weakness of citizenship education, generally characterised by traditional
authoritarian teaching. Therefore, for the purpose of Social Studies to be
achieved, joint teacher- class activity should be used to ensure effective and
efficient teaching and ultimately the accomplishment of the defined objectives
of the subject. Methods which ought to be commonly used in Social Studies
include the following: inquiry, problem-solving, simulation games, role play,
discussion, lecture, fieldwork and project work.
1. Inquiry Method
This is an activity-oriented, thought-provoking creative method in
which students, out of curiosity and on their own, or under the guidance of the
teacher, probe, investigate, and interpret relevant issues and problems with a
view to providing solution through reflective thinking and rational decision-
making. In the utilisation of the inquiry method, the teacher or student may
introduce a problem which may be difficult, controversial and investigation
oriented. In order to guide inquiry through a clear definition of the problem,
students are made to ask a number of questions related to the identified
problem Meziobi (2008).
35

Alternatively, the teacher should pose questions that would elicit
answers or statements from the students and guide the inquiry. In the inquiry
method, the following may be inevitable:
i. The students, perhaps, under the guidance of the teacher, provide
possible cause or explanations of the problem as well as their tentative
or alternative solutions to the problems;
ii. Students are made to collect relevant and available data;
iii. The collected data or information are presented to the class by the
students for their analysis;
iv. The students are guided to draw tentative conclusions as the conclusion
may be altered with time depending on the availability of more
information;
v. Tentative generalisation may be drawn from the tentative conclusions.
As evident in this method, rather than the teacher becoming the
knowledge encyclopedia or the giver of knowledge to the students, the
students, practically or particularly in a free-ranging inquiry, which is
usually student-initiated, strike out on their own, as individual or in a
group, to seek solutions to problems while the teacher merely functions as
“a facilitator of learning or a collaborator in learning, rather than a
dispenser of knowledge” Meziobi (2008).
2. Problem-Solving Method
Social Studies is problem-solving oriented hence the name of this
method. This is a teaching-learning method in which students, either
individually or collectively or in a group activity, attempt to solve problems
through the utilisation of the trial-and-error approach (Craddock, O‟Halloran,
36

Mcpherson, Hean, & Hammick, 2013). In this method, the students actively
participate in the learning experiences. In the process of finding solutions to
problems, the students, who learn through their mistakes or successes, become
creative and develop reflective or critical thinking. Teaching by problem-
solving method entails that students should select problems that are relevant to
their needs, the object of study and the priority or press needs of the society, to
reflect the changing times and needs (Shernoff, Sinha, Bressler & Ginsburg,
2017). The scholars added that in the problem-solving method, the teacher
may do the following:
i. The teacher may introduce and clarify the problem in which case the
teacher presents problematic situations, or (the Social Studies teacher)
could introduce a discussion that would lead the students into
identifying the problems.
ii. Students are then left on their own to provide tentative suggestions or
solutions to the problems through their working individually, in pairs,
or groups.
iii. The students collect data (or information) and analyse the data in the
light of expected results.
With the actual results conclusions and generations may be reached.
The initial problem may be completely solved or partially solved in which
case data would be sought to ensure that problems are considerably reduced.
In the utilisation of the problem-solving teaching/learning method, the student
is actively and directly involved in defining his own learning task, setting his
goals, collecting, rearranging and evaluating the necessary data to help him
solve the problem (Mezieobi, 2008).
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3. Simulation Games
This is a type of contrived experience which schools must expose
students to in the absence of concrete learning experience before abstract
concepts can be internalized (Ausubel, 2012). The simulation game is a game-
like activity or situation in which more or less accurate aspects or real-life
situation is replicated or recreated. What is being simulated must prominently
feature the elements of the real phenomena that are of particular interest to the
simulators or the class. The simulation game is a teaching method and,
therefore, a part and parcel of an effective Social Studies curriculum
(Habgood, & Ainsworth, 2011). It should be viewed more as an educative
experience or a way of learning than as a game played for mere entertainment.
A Social Studies teacher can devise simulation games built around definite
problem situations in and outside the classroom and the local community.
The teacher made simulation games are easier in terms of time saved in
hunting for games which is appropriate to instructional objectives, and more
interesting as it is adapted to suit the needs and interest of the students. It
inculcates in students the habit or skill of sorting out problems with a view to
finding ways and means of solving the problems. It captivates the interest of
the students and motivates them to learn as interest is a necessary ingredient of
effective learning. (Uchegbu & Ikwuazom, 2001; Chukwuemeka, 2014).
4. Role-Playing
Role-playing, which is a dramatized experience, is an enactment or
reenactment of social problematic real-life situations involving morals and
values in which decisions are made (Zevin, 2013). Role-playing is not
synonymous with a play though some similarities may exist between the two.
38

A play, for example, is organised around a definite pattern, for example, the
preparation of scripts ahead of enactment which will be memorised and
recalled. Unlike a play, role-playing does not rely on any set-out structure as
there is no advance scripting for the players. Here a player simply accepts a
role, interprets it the way he wants and feels and creates a role by translating
his interpretation of the role into action. While performing the role if there is
any scripting in the role, it is spontaneously created by the player himself in
the process of role-playing. There is no trial performance of the role (pre-
roleplaying) in advance of the actual act of role-playing.
Role-playing helps to practicalise the subject matter of Social Studies
by involving human elements in the study. It allows a student to better
appreciate what Social Studies is all about and facilitates a reflection of the
problems of man and his relationship with society (Chukwuemeka, 2014).
Role-playing does not only concretize but also adds meaning to social
situations that would otherwise not have been so clear to students. It also
makes them sensitive or aware of societal social problems which they are to
contend with in adulthood. The projection of one‟s self into another‟s roles
and situations in role-playing makes one better understand the problems of
others, other viewpoints or perspectives, and possibly gain insight into why
people behave the way they do. Such understanding is essential in today‟s
society as it makes for improved interpersonal relationships.
5. Discussion Method
Discussion method is viewed as an organised, pre-determined
procedure of teaching, and not as part or element of another method that
surfaces in the course of the utilisation of other teaching methods. It is a
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consensus learning strategy in which participants put heads together and
contributes worthwhile ideas or personal views that aid them to arrive at a
conclusion on the topic of discussion. In a discussion setting, the teacher
should be an integral part of the discussion group placing himself somewhere
in the discussion circle in such a way that the conventional teacher-standing-
in-front of the class and the students-setting facing the teacher arrangement is
erased.
The picture of the discussion group should be likened to a situation
where a visitor would not, at first sight, grasp an identity of who the teacher is.
The physical setting of the discussion would be such that each of the
discussants would easily see each other‟s faces as the discussion progresses.
Sitting in a circle would be the most appropriate arrangement provided the
number of students in the class is manageable. But where there is an explosion
of the student population in the classroom, such that the circle sitting
arrangement becomes inoperative due to lack of space, the teacher should
organize the students into manageable discussion groups. In a discussion in
which only the teacher is knowledgeable or versed in the subject matter but
where some members of the discussion group have developed discussion skills
like the teacher through participation in previous discussions, they should also
be allowed to lead the discussion (Mezieobi, 2008).
6. Lecture Method
The lecture method is the oldest and the most traditional method of
teaching. This method is the most frequently used as a means of instruction
and has dominated formal education in Ghana over the years. With this
method, the teacher is seen as the sole giver of knowledge in the class and
40

learners made to listen attentively while the teacher deposits the knowledge in
their minds. Some educationists refer to this method as the banking method of
teaching (Mensah, 2020). According to Merryfield & Muyanda-Mutebi
(1991), several kinds of research in Africa indicate that Social Studies teachers
use the same expository, teacher-centred methods of teaching history, and
geography. This assertion was confirmed by Agyeman-Fokuo (1994) when he
stated that the lecture method, which places emphasis on rote learning, is the
main method of teaching Social Studies in many colleges in Ghana. Vella
(1992), sees the lecture method as a formal presentation of content by the
educator for the subsequent learning and recall in examination by students.
Lyule (1995) adds that the lecture method is the oral presentation of
instructional material. Quinn (2000) also states that as a method of instruction,
the lecture method is informed by transmission models of instruction whose
prime purpose is to transmit knowledge to students. With this method, the
teacher is active and responsible for the transmission of a specified body of
knowledge while students are passive receivers of knowledge.
From these assertions, it can be deduced that the purpose of the lecture
is to transfer a specified body of knowledge to a large group of students in a
short period of time. It is used primarily to cover a certain amount of content
as it permits the greatest amount of materials to be presented.
7. Fieldwork
Fieldwork may be explained as the teaching and learning which takes
place outside the classroom or laboratories, usually planned and organised to
take place within the school, the environs of the school, the local community,
or outside the local community. Hayford (1992) states that field trips are
41

planned excursions to sites beyond the classroom for the purpose of obtaining
information and provides an opportunity for first-hand observation of
phenomena. Tamakloe (1991) also recognises that the nature of the learning
experience should enable the student to collect information in his immediate
and wider environment. Hayford and Tamakloe see fieldwork as one of the
effective tools for the teaching and learning of Social Studies. Their views on
fieldwork (field trip) sought to encourage teachers to move away from
situations where students and teachers are completely fixed in the four walls of
the classroom.
Fieldwork as a teaching method has been described by different
scholars in varying terms. For instance, Kilpatrick uses the term field trips,
excursions, study trips and educated walks (1965). Though Kilpatrick uses the
term excursions, it does not mean field trip is supposed to be sightseeing but
“educated walks” which means the purpose of fieldwork is for students to gain
educational knowledge. Fieldwork activities can be organised under three
stages: pre-fieldwork activities, this involves the necessary preparations made
before the actual trip; fieldwork activities involve the activities that will take
place during the trip and post fieldwork activities which are the activities that
concern the aftermath of the trip. The duration of fieldwork depends on the
specific objectives outlined by the teacher. Fieldwork is advantageous because
it provides the student with the technique of problem-solving and critical
thinking, group work procedure, the location and interpretation of information
from books and other sources. Field trips are undertaken for educational
purposes and basically organised by the school through teachers. Fieldtrips if
well planned and executed can be of geographical, historical, cultural, social,
42

economic, political and religious significance to both teachers and students.
Anderson & Piscitelli (2002) observed that field trip activities have long-
lasting consequences for students, typically involving memories of specific
social context as well as specific content. Thus, if fieldwork activities become
more prominent Social Studies teaching would also be successful.
8. Project Method
The project method is one of the approaches to teaching Social Studies.
The project which had its origin in the professionalization of occupation was
introduced in the curriculum so that students could learn at school to work
independently and combine theory with practice (Mensah, 2020). According
to Knoll (1997), this method is considered a means by which students develop
independence and responsibility and practice social and democratic modes of
behavior. In Social Studies teaching, the project method may involve a local
study whereby students may be assigned (individually or in groups) to
investigate and write a report on a particular situation in their immediate
environs. Some of the areas to investigate within their immediate environs
may include systems of inheritance, festivals, funeral rites, marriage
ceremonies just to name a few. Each group writes a report on their findings
and presents the report in class.
The project method has a number of advantages. One of the advantages
of project work is that it caters for students who have different abilities.
Students may be put in groups under this method, by so doing, the highly
skilled students can help the lesser skilled ones during the project. For
instance, the student who is a good writer can help to revise and edit the one
who is weak in writing essays and the learning process is therefore integrated
43

(Peterson, 1999). Also, in project work, students develop skills of analysing
and formulating hypotheses; through this, students come to a logical
understanding of the problem at hand and recommend solutions to solve these
problems.
Education
Both developed and developing countries encounter many challenges
in the implementation of the Social Studies curriculum. These challenges have
occurred because of the interplay and influence of their broad contextual and
more detailed structural factors (Kerr, 1999: Kankam, 2012). A study
conducted by Kece (2014) revealed that the subject lacks adequate physical
condition (practical aspects) and weekly course hours. This means, the Social
Studies subject has little or no practical aspects and the contact hours per week
is not enough and this makes it difficult for teachers to complete the topics
outlined in the syllabus.
One main reason teacher has to cover so much information is because
of high stakes testing. Researchers have found that “teachers under the
pressure of high stakes testing tend to increase their dependency on teacher-
centred instructional practices (e.g. lecture) and the superficial coverage of
content-driven textbooks” (Vogler & Virtue, 2007). High stakes testing has
caused teachers to move away from student centred approaches “such as
discussion, role-play, research papers, and cooperative learning” because they
need to learn “just the facts” because that is what the tests cover (Vogler &
Virtue, 2007).
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In addition, Nworgu (2007) and Ibaim (2007) in their respective
studies established that most Social Studies teachers are not sufficiently
informed about the demands, implications, and objectives of the subject and
this in a way affects the worth and relevance of instruction delivered to the
students. Kerr and Cleaver (2004) also pointed out another challenge to be the
fact that teachers require expert training in citizenship. According to Aggarwal
(2001), if the Social Studies subject is to assist learners to understand this
complex world in which they live, in order that they may better adapt
themselves to it, and to prepare themselves for intelligent and constructive
citizenship, we must provide well-trained teachers of Social Studies at all
stages. Therefore, situations where anyone at all is drafted into the classroom
to teach Social Studies should be unaccepted. He further suggested that the
Social Studies teacher should have sound academic knowledge in addition to
good professional training. Thus, for the goal of Social Studies to be achieved,
teachers who are the final implementers of the curriculum need to go through
the required training.
Empirical Review
This section takes a look at studies that have been conducted by other
researchers which are related to this study.
In exploring the perspectives of education stakeholders in the Solomon
Islands on Citizenship Education in the Social Studies curriculum, Fito‟o
(2009) examined the knowledge, values, and skills of Citizenship Education
that are relevant and contextual to the Solomon Islands.
The study investigated more fully the linkages between the Social
Studies curriculum and Citizenship Education and scrutinized the
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Conceptualisations of Citizenship Education in the Solomon Islands context
and their implications on the curriculum. The researcher further explored the
extent to which the Social Studies curriculum educates students about
themselves, their diverse neighbors, and how to live as good and active
citizens in a complex and dynamic national social environment.
Using a case study involving 21 Solomon Islands participants
(education officials, teachers, and students), the researcher concluded that
people may be from a different land, culture, or custom but if they
demonstrate acceptable behaviors they will be accepted and highly regarded
among local people. The significant factor is for people to respect and uphold
the values of the culture and customs of the people they live amongst, that is
the solution for mutual relationship and unity.
In contrast, a person may be a member of the ethnic group, but if
he/she fails to live up to the standards of culture and custom, that person will
be dealt with accordingly or reprimanded. Often in the traditional Melanesian
cultures, people who are reprimanded for violation of cultural values only
reconcile with the community when they change their behavior and attitudes
towards others and the environment. As such, good values and other character
traits are significant characteristics for people‟s way of life and they are part of
the responsibilities and obligations of a citizen.
The researcher also concluded that in the current Social Studies
curriculum of the Solomon Islands there are concepts taught that reflect the
values, knowledge, and content of citizenship which is promoted in other
countries. The teaching of values includes the teaching about families and
communities, the environment, and the history of the Solomon Islands and its
46

political system. However, according to the data, those values do not provide
appropriate qualities to enhance good and active citizens. Based on
interviewees‟ responses, the study reported that teaching content was
inadequate to meet the challenges and social changes found in the Solomon
Islands society today. Respondents reported that there were family,
community, tribal and ethnic divisions among people, a lack of cooperation
and tolerance to one another, and a lack of respect for people, the
environment, and state institutions.
It has been found that the important values and knowledge that should
influence students to be good and active citizens in Citizenship Education has
not been included in the Social Studies curriculum. Much of what is learned in
the Social Studies curriculum is pure theories relating to history and learning
is only for the memorizing of facts for examination purposes. Even if
citizenship values, knowledge, and skills are included, the effective learning
and understanding of concepts to change children‟s behavior would never be
achieved because of the irrelevance and non-contextual goals and purpose of
the current Social Studies curriculum. The respondents expressed their
concern over the weakening content, goals, and purpose of the curriculum in
conjunction with the current changes within society.
Phipps (2010) conducted a study that explored Senior High School
Social Studies Teachers‟ Beliefs about the Concept of Citizenship. The study
used multiple data sources to explore and describe teachers‟ beliefs about
citizenship and education for citizenship. Four teachers in a college
preparatory urban public secondary school participated. Data sources included
a survey instrument, a series of teacher interviews, a series of classroom
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observations, and examination of documents. All data were analyzed using
hand-coding.
Among others, the study found that, teachers‟ levels of personal
political engagement seemed consistent with their conceptions of citizenship,
the relative openness of the climate in their classroom, and the degree to which
their students would discuss controversial issues in the classroom. The study
concluded that none of the participating teachers consistently thought about
Social Studies itself as a unified field driven by the goal of developing
thoughtful citizens in a democratic society. Each of the teachers cited
differences between Social Studies disciplines (e.g., economics, history,
sociology) as important in their decisions about curriculum. The participating
teachers emphasized different goals for Social Studies in the schools.
Dwamena-Boateng (2012) conducted a study on how social studies
promotes citizenship education: perspectives of students and tutors of colleges
of education in Ghana. The purpose of the study was to examine the views of
social studies tutors and students of selected Colleges of Education on how the
teaching and learning of social studies could promote Citizenship Education.
The study employed the survey design. A questionnaire with a five-point
Likert scale was used to collect data from the respondents.
Findings of the study indicated that tutors and students agree in like
manner to the fact the Citizenship Education [Social Studies] prepares the
young ones to participate in public life and to play active roles in societal
issues and that Social Studies as appreciated by both tutors and students of the
same area develops young ones to become critical thinkers who are likely to
solve societal problems. Also, the study pointed out that tutors and students
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understood Social Studies as an integration of human relations for the purpose
of Citizenship Education.
Kankam (2013) conducted a study to determine teachers‟ perceptions
of the importance of teaching Citizenship Education to primary school
children. This study was carried out in twelve (12) purposively selected
private and public schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis. To determine
teachers‟ perception, the researcher administered a questionnaire designed for
the purpose of primary school teachers in Cape Coast Metropolis. Data
gathered were analyzed using simple percentage, mean and standard deviation.
Findings revealed that teachers in the area of study had realized the
importance of teaching citizenship at primary school. Based on this finding, it
was recommended among other things that deliberate effort should be made
by teachers to impart the knowledge they had acquired in citizenship
education to the children they teach. It was also recommended that primary
school teachers should be well motivated in cash or kind by all stakeholders in
education to ensure effective citizenship education delivery at the primary
school level.
Similarly, in investigating the perceptions of Omani student-teachers
on citizenship and citizenship education, AlMaamari and Menter (2013)
conducted a study in which ten (10) students comprising five (5) males and (5)
females were interviewed. Data were analysed qualitatively using analytic
induction and interpretive analytic framework. According to the researchers,
there are varied range of views on citizenship and citizenship education. The
results of the study indicated that:
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1. Seven of the student-teachers identified citizenship education as a sense of
belonging whilst three of them defined it as a set of rights and duties and
as participation in state affairs. The student-teachers who identified with it
being a sense of belonging indicated that a good citizen ought to show
such belongingness in several ways such as loyalty to one‟s country and
respect for the laws of that country. Those who defined citizenship
education as a set of right and duties actually valued duties more than
rights and stressed that a citizen is always indebted to the government as a
result of the several services such as education and healthcare provided to
the citizen.
2. Social Studies remains the main approach used to promote citizenship
education. Majority of the respondents stated that citizenship education is
an essential area which aims at influencing student-teachers from diverse
backgrounds to inculcate the spirit of citizenship. Although majority of the
respondents agreed that citizenship education is a cross-circular theme,
they found strong relationship between Social Studies and civic/citizenship
education. They claimed that Social Studies was the school subject that
embraces citizenship. They concluded that although citizenship education
is a broad area that can be delivered by several subjects, yet Social Studies
is one of the most appropriate subjects for introducing citizenship.
Porter (2014) however examined the influence that political, societal,
and educational trends and characteristics have on citizenship education within
official curriculum documents. The Social Studies curricular documents of
1971, 1991, 1999, and 2008 were analysed in order to determine the type of
citizen and citizenship education that was promoted during those years. The
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analysis considered only the official curriculum documents for the period in
question, as opposed to actual classroom practice. The curricular documents
were analyzed in light of prevailing currents and countercurrents in Canada
during the period from 1970 to 2014 and a typology of citizenship education
ranging from traditional to social activist and re-constructionist.
The interpretations and conclusions of the study highlighted a history
of competing and complementary currents and countercurrents within the
documents and a movement in citizenship education from less active roles for
students to increasingly socially and globally aware citizens which continually
rests on democratic values. The documents also highlighted the influence of
regional development concerning the role of participation and the natural
environment in citizenship education in Saskatchewan. A content analysis was
employed to identify and analyse the occurrences of specific messages
(citizenship) embedded in texts. The unit of study is syntactical considering
the focus is on discrete units of language associated with citizenship.
Four themes that Osborne (1997) identified through the course of his
analysis of citizenship education within Social Studies were used to organize
and guide the textual content analysis. The four themes identified by Osborne
(1997) plus one additional contemporary theme identified by Sears and
Hughes (1996) were used to identify the prevailing character of citizenship
within the curriculum documents.
Porter (2014) concluded that Citizenship Education has always been
and will continue to be an essential part of education and finds a comfortable
fit in the space of Social Studies because of its focus on integral components
like history, identity, politics, and societal issues. Each of the documents
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presented a number of links to what might be considered competing ideologies
and theories within politics, society, and education. All of the documents
accepted a relative core set of views concerning a good citizen: democratic
ideals are the basis of citizens‟ value systems, citizens are able to and expected
to participate responsibly in society, citizens have the ability to analyse and
solve problems, citizens are lifelong learners, citizens are aware of and
appreciate the relationship of humans with nature, and appreciate that history
has connections to the present. What is missing is the diverse nature of
belonging that the most recent notions of citizenship argue is necessary for a
plural society. Although the diverse and plural nature of the country is cited on
multiple occasions, students are still encouraged to find belonging in their
communities through acceptance of diversity not because of it.
In the same year, Kankam, Bekoe, Ayaaba, Bordoh, and Eshun (2014)
conducted a study to determine the curriculum conceptions of the scope of the
content of Social Studies in the colleges of education in Ghana. The research
methods chosen for this study were both qualitative and quantitative (mixed
method). Triangulation was used to test the consistency of findings obtained
through different instruments used. The population for this study included all
final year teacher-trainees offering the general programme for Diploma in
Basic Education (DBE) certificate in the three Colleges of Education in the
Western Region of the Republic of Ghana. Non-probability sampling method
(purposive and convenience sampling techniques) was used to select the
sample of districts, colleges and respondents for the study. One hundred and
fifty (150) final year teacher-trainees were sampled from the three Colleges of
Education in the Western Region of the Republic of Ghana, namely, Enchi
52

College of Education; Holy Child College of Education and Wiawso College
of Education. Eighteen (18) final year teacher trainees: six from each of the
three Colleges of Education were also guided through focus group discussion.
The researchers used the following in gathering the data: A
questionnaire made up of fourteen (14) close-ended three-point Likert scale
structured items were administered to one hundred and fifty (150) final year
teacher-trainees from three Colleges of Education, and a focus group
discussion checklists made up of fifteen (15) items were administered to
eighteen (18) trainees (three groups of six trainees).
The quantitative data entry and analysis were done by using the SPSS
software package. The data was edited, coded, and analyzed into tables,
frequencies, percentages with interpretations. Pearson's Correlation
Coefficient (r) or technically called Pearson Product Moment Correlation
(PPMC) co-efficient was used to determine whether a significant relationship
exists in teacher-trainees‟ conceptions of Social Studies from the colleges
used. The qualitative data was analysed by the use of the interpretative
technique based on the themes arrived at during the data collection. The
themes were related to the research question and interpreted on the number of
issues raised by respondents on the focus group discussions of final year
teacher trainees.
The study revealed that the scope of the content of the College of
Education Social Studies course structure does not reflect the tools needed by
the individual to solve personal and societal problems as compared to the JHS
syllabus. Final year teacher-trainees‟ knowledge base about the scope of the
content of Social Studies as a problem solving was inadequate. It was
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recommended that at least two credit hours course should be designed and
mounted on the then Junior High School (JHS) Social Studies syllabus for
students in Colleges of Education as part of their programme of study. This
would help mentees to become familiar with the content of the syllabus,
making it easy in their selection of valid content, the setting of appropriate
objectives in their teaching and even the mode of using appropriate assessment
tools
Kankam (2015) conducted another study to explore the views of Social
Studies tutors in the colleges of education in Ghana with regard to the
meaning and teaching methods that are most appropriate to teach Citizenship
Education. The views of 36 tutors of Social Studies from eight colleges of
education were surveyed through the multi-stage sampling technique, and
eight respondents were interviewed to further understand the groups‟
perception of Citizenship Education. The study employed quantitative data
analysis and was fed into Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS)
version 16.00. The major findings were that (i) tutors generally agreed on the
components of Citizenship Education, (ii) tutors generally agreed on the
characteristics of a good citizen. (iii) There was general agreement among the
tutors that various classroom activities were important in the teaching of
Citizenship Education and were being taught effectively. It was recommended
that a policy be put in place by government for Social Studies teachers to have
regular in-service training on current issues in Citizenship Education. And that
Citizenship Education should be introduced as a programme on its own in
schools, colleges and universities and examined externally.
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Kankam concluded that the way people perceive things determine their
level of commitment to those things and how they talk about them. Once
tutors say their views on Citizenship Education effective teaching will take
place. He further concluded that the tutors are providing opportunities for
trainees to practice good citizenship skills in their college environment, and by
doing so, it is hoped they will continue to demonstrate citizenship skills when
they leave the colleges and become citizens at large. The practices of
Citizenship Education in the colleges as voiced out by the tutors gave
impressions to the outside world on what is actually happening in the colleges.
With this, people will get to know the type of Citizenship Education students
are faced within schools and what alternatives or modifications can be
suggested for improvement.
Bordoh, Eshun, Kwarteng, Osman, Brew and Bakar (2018) conducted
a study on professional qualification of teachers in teaching and learning of
Social Studies concepts in the Senior High Schools in Ghana. According to the
researchers, the Social Studies syllabus for second cycle educational
institutions in Ghana is made of several concepts that are taught and learnt and
that the caliber and attitude of Social Studies teachers are likely to impede the
learning of the subject by students. This justified the need to assess the
professional qualification of the teachers.
The study was conducted in three public Senior High Schools in the
Sefwi Wiawso District in the Western Region of Ghana. The study involved
the participation of ten (10) Social Studies teachers and data were collected
through interviews. The District, schools and respondents of the study were
selected using purposive and convenience sampling technique. The Data was
55

analysed using descriptive and interpretive techniques based on the themes
that emerged from data collection.
The results of the study indicated that only 50% of the respondents
possessed the professional qualification needed to teach Social Studies. The
study reiterated the need to engage teachers who are professionally qualified
to teach the Social Studies subject and that content knowledge alone is not
sufficient to arm teachers against the hurdles that come along with teaching
the subject. The researchers also argued that Social Studies being an integrated
subject comprising two or more Social Sciences such as Geography and
History will be best taught by teachers who have training in at least two or
more Social Science disciplines.
Chapter Summary
The impact of Citizenship Education on the youth (students) has been a
discussion among many researchers. The role of Citizenship Education has
been recognized as a medium through which one develops knowledge, skills
and attributes needed to be a good citizen of a society. Citizenship Education
has therefore been an integral part of academic curricula across levels of
education in many countries. This is because according to the functionalist
theory of education, the role of schools is to prepare students to participate in
institutions of society. However, in the Senior High School curriculum in
Ghana, Citizenship Education has not found a distinct place but has been
integrated into the Social Studies curriculum. This implies that Social Studies
education ought to promote Citizenship Education among students in the
Senior High Schools.
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According to the literature, the role of Social studies in promoting
citizenship education is inconclusive. While some scholars argue that Social
Studies education promotes Citizenship Education others are of the view that
the current Social Studies curriculum is not adequate to promote Citizenship
Education. Despite these divergent views, there has been a common stand
among researchers that the goals of Social Studies education remains helping
students develop the ability to adapt to the developing and ever-changing
society, acquire positive attitudes and values towards individual and societal
issues, develop critical and analytical skills in assessing issues for objective
decision-making and develop national consciousness and unity, use inquiry
and problem-solving skills for solving personal and societal problems and
lastly become responsible citizens capable and willing to contribute to societal
advancement.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
This chapter presents the research methods employed by the researcher
for the study. It describes the designs, population of the study, sample and
sampling techniques, research instruments, validity, and reliability of the
instruments, ethical considerations, procedure for data collection and
procedure for data analysis.
Research Design
This study was guided by the positivist paradigm of research which
underpins quantitative research methods. This paradigm outlines the facts that
knowledge stems from human experience and that statistical analyses can be
conducted out of quantifiable data. This paradigm limits the role of the
researcher to data collection and interpretation in an objective way. The
philosophical view of the researcher was to combine deductive logic with a
precise empirical study of individual perception to discover the role Social
Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. Cross-sectional descriptive
survey design was used to achieve the objectives of the study. The cross-
sectional approach was adopted because the researcher sought to study the
respondents at one specific point in time. The descriptive survey design
specifies the nature of a phenomenon and tries to find answers to the research
questions. According to Aggarwal (2008), descriptive research is devoted to
the gathering of information about prevailing conditions or situations for the
purpose of description and interpretation. This type of research design is not
merely amassing and tabulating facts but includes proper analyses,
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interpretation, comparisons, identification of trends and relationships. The
major purpose of descriptive research is a description of the state of affairs as
it exists at present. The survey design makes inquiries into the status-quo and
attempt to measure what exists without questioning why it exists (Ary, Jacobs,
& Razavieh, 1996). This design provides opportunities for a researcher to gain
insight into the current status of a phenomenon concerning variables or
conditions in a given situation. A descriptive survey design was used because
it allowed the researcher to take much information on a large number of
people within a short period; it is relatively quick to conduct and administer. It
also allows researchers to identify the proportions of people in particular
groups and controls the effects of subjects participating twice.
Study Area
Since the study placed emphasis on the role Social Studies Education
plays in promoting Citizenship Education in the Central Region, this section
gives a brief introduction of the area of study in terms of its description,
geographical location, history, and contemporary developments.
Central Region is one of the sixteen administrative regions of Ghana. It is
bordered by the Ashanti and Eastern regions to the north, Western region to
the west, Greater Accra region to the east, and to the south by the Gulf of
Guinea. The region has a population of 2,201,863 (2010 Census), with 17
districts. The Central region was chosen for the study because it is renowned
for its many elite higher educational institutions. The Region is a hub of
education, with some of the best schools in the country. These schools include
Junior and Senior High Schools, Colleges of Education and Universities. The
region is said to have recorded the establishment of the first degree-awarding
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teacher education institution that is the University of Cape Coast, one of the
best Universities in Ghana. Also, the region has within it sixty-seven (67)
Senior High Schools with a number of the best (category A) Senior High
Schools which attracts quite several students across the nation. Thus, it
provided the researcher with a fair representation of students from all over the
nation.
Population
The target population for the study comprised all Social Studies
teachers and students of public Senior High Schools in the Central Region. In
all, there are 67 public Senior High Schools, according to the Ghana Education
Service Selection Register (2019).
The accessible population consisted of Form Two gold track and Form
Three Social Studies students and teachers. The Form Two gold track and
Form Three Social Studies students were chosen for the study because the
Social Studies students at the two levels were assumed to have studied more of
the concepts and theories of Citizenship Education and might have practiced
them both on campus and in the wider community. Their respective teachers
were chosen with the view that they may have covered many areas of the
Social Studies syllabus and therefore were better informed about issues in
Social Studies in general and Citizenship Education in particular.
The total population of Form Two gold track Social Studies students
was 22, 848 and Form Three Social Studies students was 37487 (Ghana
Education Service, Central Region Field data, 2020). The total number of
Social Studies teachers from the selected Senior High Schools was 60. The
population distribution of both students and teachers are indicated in Table 1.
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Table 1: Population Distribution of Teachers and Students
Category School Students Teachers
A St. Augustine‟s College 994 5
Holy Child School 626 5
B Ghana National College 1381 5
Methodist High School 942 5
University Practice Senior High 761 5
C Moree Comm. Senior High 448 5
Komenda Senior High/Tech 773 5
Eguafo-Abrem Senior High 812 5
Jukwa Senior High 506 5
Kwegyir Aggrey Senior High/Tech 786 5
Oguaa Senior High/Tech 633 5
Total 8662 60
Source: Ghana Education Service, Central Region 2019.
Sample and Sampling Procedure
Some scholars in Social Science have confirmed that for a sample to be
representative in a study, it must be a right proportion of the population
(Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2005). This establishes the fact that samples of
the study population are taken when it is not feasible to carry out whole
population study. Thus, by observing the characteristics of a sample, one can
make certain inferences about the characteristics of the population from which
it is drawn.
Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the
schools for the study. Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that
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involves the division of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata.
In stratified random sampling or stratification, the strata are formed based on
members' shared attributes or characteristics such as income or educational
attainment (Nickolas, 2019).
All the public Senior High Schools were categorized according to their
level of academic performance and existing infrastructure (Ghana Education
Service Selection Register (2019). This yielded three strata, namely: Category
A, Category B, and Category C schools. Category A consisted of 6 Senior
High Schools; Category B consisted of 21 Senior High Schools, and Category
C, 40 Senior High Schools. A simple random sampling was then used to select
the number of schools in each category proportionate to the total number of
schools in the respective categories for the study. This resulted in the selection
of 1 Senior High School in Category A, 3 Senior High Schools in Category B
and 6 Senior High Schools in Category C. However, considering the single-
sex nature of all the Senior High Schools in Category A, the researcher found
it expedient to select one more Senior High School in Category A to ensure
fair representation in terms of gender in the study. Therefore, the total number
of Senior High Schools used for the study was eleven (11).
The table for determining sample size from a population by Krejcie
and Morgan (1970) was used to determine the number of students to be
selected for the study. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) postulate that “as the
population increases the sample size increases, at a diminishing rate and
remains constant at slightly more than 380 cases” (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970:
610). The total number of Social Studies students (form 2 and 3) from the
selected Senior High Schools was 8,662 (Ghana Education Service, 2019).
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The total number of their respective teachers was 60. Thus the census method
was used for the teachers because their population was not large.
Krejcie and Morgan (1970) revealed that for a population of 9000, a
sample size of 368 is quite representative. With the total population of
students, it was considered prudent to use a round figure of 400 as the sample
size which would be a little more than the sample size determined by Krejcie
and Morgan (1970). However, 399 valid questionnaires were retrieved from
the students after data collection. The distribution of the sample of the students
can be viewed from Table 2.
Table 2: Distribution of Sample Size of Form 2 and 3 Students for the Study
N S
School F2 F3 F2 F3
St. Augustine‟s 332 662 15 30
Holy Child 222 404 10 19
Ghana National 457 924 21 43
Methodist High 277 665 13 31
UPHS 320 441 15 20
Moree Comm. 322 126 15 6
Komenda Snr. High 423 350 19 16
Eguafo Abrem 347 465 16 21
Jukwa Snr. High 255 251 12 12
Kwegyir Aggrey 228 558 11 26
Oguaa Snr. /High 283 350 13 16
Total 3466 5196 160 240
Source: Field data (2020)
63

Data Collection Instrument
Instruments refer to the tools or means by which researchers attempt to
measure variables or items of interest in the data collection process. In the
words of Bhandarkar & Wilkinson (2010), the Instrument for data collection is
a tool that is used by the researcher for the collection of data in social science
research. A questionnaire was developed to collect data for the study. This
instrument was used because, it is [said] to be appropriate for survey works
and provides the respondents‟ ample time to give well thought out answers
(Kothari, 2004). Kothari added that questionnaires can be used when the
sample size is large and thus the results can be more dependable and reliable.
Also, the questionnaire is advantageous whenever the sample size is large
enough to make it uneconomical for reasons of time or funds to interview
every subject in the study (Osuala, 2005).
Again, the questionnaire was employed because it is less expensive
and also affords the respondents a greater level of anonymity as there is no
personal interaction between the respondents and the investigator. Despite
these strengths, one weakness of these instruments is that: if respondents do
not understand some of the items on the questionnaire, there may be no
opportunity for them to be clarified.
The researcher developed two set of questionnaires, one for teachers
and one for students. The questionnaires were made up of a four-point Likert
scale item from Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly
Disagree (SD). The Likert Scale was found to be the most suitable tool for the
measurement of perception (views). This is because it enables respondents to
indicate the degree of their acceptance of a given statement (Best & Khan,
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1996). It is easy to construct, administer and score (Borg & Gall, 1983).
Respondents were required to respond by ticking the extent to which they
agreed or disagreed with the items on the Likert scale. There were four
sections in the questionnaire for teachers: Section A; Section B; Section C and
Section D. Section A contained four items used to elicit the demographical
characteristics of the teachers. The data requested for were gender, age,
qualification and teaching experience. Section B sought information on the
perception of teachers on the role Social Studies plays in promoting
Citizenship Education and consisted of 10 items. Section C sought information
on how often teachers use the effective teaching methods that promote
citizenship education and contained 3 items. Section D sought information on
the challenges of promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies
education and consisted of 8 items.
The questionnaire for students was also in four sections, sections A, B,
C, and D. The demographic characteristics requested in section A were
gender, age and form (level). Section B sought information on the perceptions
of students on the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship
Education and consisted of 10 items. Section C sought information on how
often students perceive teachers‟ use of the effective teaching methods that
promote Citizenship Education and contained 4 items. Section D sought
information on the challenges of promoting Citizenship Education through
Social Studies education and consisted of 8 items. The items on the
questionnaire were formulated based on the demands of the research
questions.
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Validity and Reliability of Instrument
The instrument was subjected to validity and reliability tests. The
questionnaires were given to my supervisor to check the content and construct
validity. The suggestions given by the supervisor were used to effect the
necessary changes to improve the quality of the instruments. A pilot test of the
questionnaire was conducted using respondents from three Senior High
Schools in the Ashanti Region because of similarities in the distribution of
public Senior High Schools as well as characteristics of students and teachers
as a result of computer placements.
According to Baker (1994), a sample size of 10% - 20% of the actual
sampling frame is reasonable to consider in a pilot test. Thus, 10 Social
Studies teachers and 40 students were involved in the pilot test representing at
least 10% of the sample size for the main study. The reliability of the
instrument was estimated on a scale with the help of the Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS, version 22.0) programme, on the computer. The
Cronbach‟s Alpha value was considered reliable as their reliability values
exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.70. The reliability co-efficient
before the main data collection supported the view of Sekaran (2000) who
suggested that „alpha value less than 0.60 is considered to be poor, those in
0.70 range, acceptable and those over 0.80 high. The results for the reliability
tests are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
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Table 3: Reliability Coefficient for each of the Subscales on the Questionnaire
for Teachers
Research Questions No. of items Cronbach‟s
Alpha
What are the perceptions of teachers on the role 10 .866
Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship
Education?
How often do teachers use the effective teaching 3 .836
methods that promote Citizenship Education?
What challenges do teachers face in promoting 8 .815
Citizenship Education through Social Studies
education?
Overall Reliability Coefficient 21 .798
Source: Field data, 2020
Table 4: Reliability Coefficient for each of the Subscales on the Questionnaire
for Students
Research Questions No. of items Cronbach‟s

Alpha
What are the perceptions of students on the role 10 .749
Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship
Education?
How often do students perceive the use of 3 .768
effective teaching methods to promote
Citizenship Education by teachers?
What challenges do teachers face in promoting 8 .815
Citizenship Education through Social Studies
education?
Overall Reliability Coefficient 21 .789
67

Data Collection Procedures
The administration of the questionnaire was preceded by a letter of
introduction from the Head, Department of Business and Social Sciences
Education (DoBSSE) of the University of Cape Coast to be presented to the
heads of the selected Senior High Schools. The presentation of the
introductory letter enabled the researcher to obtain permission to collect data
from the teachers and students.
However, due to the limited time teachers had to teach, three research
assistants were used to help in the administration of the questionnaire. The
researcher and the research assistants did not get the opportunity to administer
the questionnaire in person in all the selected Senior High Schools. Out of the
11 selected Senior High Schools, the researcher and research assistants had the
opportunity to administer the questionnaire personally in only 5 schools. This
was because visitors were restricted from entering the Senior High Schools
due to the laid down protocols to help reduce the spread of the pandemic
(coronavirus) at hand.
The assistant headmasters/mistresses nominated a teacher each from
the seven schools to administer the questionnaire on the researcher‟s behalf.
The researcher, together with the research assistants, met the nominated
teachers and briefed them on how to administer the questionnaire.
Respondents from the 5 schools were briefed on how to respond to the items
and were supervised by the researcher and research assistants to complete the
questionnaire. A minimum of 15 minutes was given to the respondents to
complete the questionnaire after which the researcher together with the
research assistants collected the completed questionnaire.
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Data Processing and Analysis
To address the research questions that were formulated to guide the
study, the data obtained from respondents were filtered to remove any
irrelevant responses and then coded. Afterwards, they were analyzed using the
Statistical Package and Service Solution (SPSS, version 22.0). Both
descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data to show the
direction of the responses. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyse
the demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Research question one sought to determine the perceptions of teachers
on the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. It was
measured on a four-point Likert scale and coded as 1 (strongly disagree), 2
(disagree), 3(agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Then, it was analysed using mean
and standard deviation. The mean was used to determine the degree to which
they perceived the role of Social Studies in promoting citizenship Education.
The standard deviation provided information on the congruence of the
responses given by the teachers. A mean value above 2.5 indicated that
teachers agreed that the items on the questionnaire represented the role Social
Studies education plays in promoting Citizenship Education and a mean value
below 2.5 indicated that teachers disagreed that the items on the questionnaire
represented the role Social Studies education plays in promoting Citizenship
Education.
Research question two sought to determine the perceptions of students
on the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. It was
measured on a four-point Likert scale and coded the same way as research
question one. It was analysed using mean and standard deviation. Also, a
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mean value above 2.5 indicated that students agreed that the items on the
questionnaire were the role Social Studies education plays in Citizenship
Education, and a mean value below 2.5 indicated that students disagreed that
the items on the questionnaire were the role Social Studies education plays in
Research question three sought to determine how often teachers use the
effective teaching methods that promote Citizenship Education. It was
measured on a four-point Likert scale and coded as 1 (not at all), 2((seldom), 3
(often) and 4 (very often). It was analysed using mean and standard deviation,
and frequencies and percentages. A mean value above 2.5 indicated that
teachers often used the effective teaching methods during the instructional
periods and a mean value below 2.5 indicated that teachers did not often use
the effective teaching methods during the instructional periods.
Research question four also sought to find out students‟ perceptions of
teachers the use of the effective teaching methods that promote Citizenship
Education. It was measured on a four-point Likert scale and coded as 1 (not at
all), 2((seldom), 3 (often) and 4 (very often). It was analysed using mean and
standard deviation, and frequencies and percentages. A mean value above 2.5
indicated that students perceived teachers often used the effective teaching
methods during the instructional periods and a mean value below 2.5 indicated
that students perceived teachers did not often use the effective teaching
methods during the instructional periods.
Research question five focused on the challenges encountered by
teachers in promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies education.
The data was measured on a four-point Likert scale and coded the same way
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as research questions one and two. It was analysed using mean and standard
deviation. A mean value above 2.5 indicated that teachers agreed that the
items on the questionnaire were the challenges they encounter in Social
Studies education. A mean value below 2.5 indicated that the items on the
questionnaire were not challenges they encounter.
The research hypothesis sought to find out whether there was a
statistically significant difference in the perceptions of Senior High School
students and Social Studies teachers on the role Social Studies plays in
promoting Citizenship Education. This hypothesis had two variables that is
perceptions of teachers and students as the dependent variable and status
(Senior High School students and teachers) as the independent variable. To get
the role of Social Studies variable, the data on research question one was
transformed into a single variable known as perceptions of teachers and
students. Afterward the difference between perceptions of students and
teachers on the role Social Studies education plays in promoting Citizenship
Education was analysed using the Mann Whitney U test at a significant level
of 0.05.
Ethical Considerations
According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, (2009) research ethics
relates to questions about how to formulate and clarify a research topic, design
research and gain access, collect data, process and store data, analyze data and
write up research findings morally and responsibly. Ethical issues in the field
are inevitable when the work involves others, whether they are colleagues,
respondents, assistants, or people in positions of authority (Perecman, &
Curran, 2006).
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Ethical issues are highly relevant and require due considerations.
According to Babbie and Mouton (2006), ethical standards require that
researchers do not put participants in a situation where they might be at risk of
harm as a result of their participation. The trustworthiness of a quantitative
study is judged by whether the researcher conforms to standards for acceptable
and competent practices and whether they meet criteria for ethical conduct
(Rossman & Rallis, 2003). To ensure this, the researcher obtained consent
from respondents and permission to administer the questionnaire, assured
respondents‟ confidentiality of their responses, and informed them about the
purpose of the research.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented a detailed explanation of the methods that were
employed in this study. The descriptive survey design was adopted for the
study. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to select
the schools and the sample determined by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) was
used to determine the sample size for the students. The census technique was
used for the teachers because their population was not large. In all, 60 teachers
and 400 students were used for the actual study, and 10 teachers, 40 students
were used for the pilot test.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
The primary purpose of the study was to find out Social Studies
teachers‟ and students‟ perception on the integral role Social Studies education
plays in promoting Citizenship Education in Senior High Schools in the
Central Region. A quantitative approach was employed and a questionnaire
administered to the respondents. The key respondents were form 2 and 3
students and Social Studies teachers. A total of 60 teachers, 160 form 2 and
240 form 3 students were involved in the study. This chapter presents the
results of analysis from the data retrieved from the respondents.
The discussion presented in this chapter is in two sections. The first
part presents the results on demographic characteristics of the respondents.
The second part presents the discussion of main data to address the research
questions and hypothesis.
Demography of Respondents
This part of the report presents and discusses the background data of
the respondents for the study. The respondents were classified into two
categories: Social Studies teachers and students. As part of the study, the
teachers were requested to provide information on four of their characteristics:
gender, age, programme studied and how long they had been teaching the
subject. The students as well were requested to provide information on three
of their characteristics: gender, age and form. These characteristics were
necessary to provide the researcher with a better understanding as to the type
of teachers and students involved in the study in relation to their level of
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maturity, teaching experience, educational qualification and the level of
seriousness they attach to the subject. The results of the characteristics of the
respondents were presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7.
Table 5: Characteristics of Respondents (Teachers)
Variable Sub-scale n %
Gender Male 38 63.3
Female 22 36.7
Age (in years) 25 - 29 27 45.0
30 – 34 19 31.7
35 – 39 6 10.0
40 - 44 6 10.0
45 - 49 2 3.3
Years in teaching 1 -5 48 80.0
6 - 10 8 13.3
11 - 15 3 5.0
16 - 20 1 1.7

Table 5 presents the gender, age and teaching experience of teachers. It
can be inferred that male Social Studies teachers outnumbered (n =38, 63.3%)
the female teachers (n = 22, 36.7%) in the study. In terms of age, a majority
the teachers (n = 27, 45.0%) involved in the study were within the range of 25-
29 years, followed by those in the 30-34 year range (n =19, 31.7%). Few
teachers (n = 6, 10%) were within the ranges of 35-39 years and 40-44 years,
with only 2 representing 3.3% in the 45-49 year range. From the analyses, it
can be deduced that majority of the teachers have more years to spend in the
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teaching profession and therefore are likely to have more years at their
disposal to improve the teaching of Social Studies to promote Citizenship
Education. Research has revealed that the longer people work in their
profession, the better the tasks they perform (Ditchfield, 2002). Relating this
to teaching of Social Studies it implies that the longer the young teachers can
focus on the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education, the
better they are likely to transmit that to future students.
Also, Table 5 shows that most (n = 48, 80.0%) of the teachers involved
in the study had taught the subject in the Senior High School for at least a
year, but less than six years. Only a few (n =12, 20.0%) had taught for more
than ten years. This implies that most of the teachers had less than six years
teaching experience while a few have more than ten years teaching. This could
be due to recent mass recruitments of fresh graduate teachers by government
due to the free Senior High School policy currently introduced in Ghana which
has increased the enrolment of Senior High School students each year. It can
be deduced that highly experienced Social Studies teachers constitute a small
percentage of the teachers in Senior High Schools in the Central Region. It is
believed that the experiences teachers acquire in the teaching profession make
them well-grounded in their area of specialisation. This supports the assertion
that there is the need for teachers of Citizenship Education [Social Studies] to
have practical experience that puts them in a good position to approach
Citizenship Education [Social Studies] confidently and skillfully, Davies et al
(1999).
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Table 6: Educational Qualification of Teachers

Variable Sub-scale n %
Programme Studied B. Ed Social Studies 35 58.3
B. A Social Studies 5 8.3

M. Ed Social Studies 1 1.7
B. Ed Special Education 1 1.7
B. Ed Social Science 4 6.7
B. A Social Science 3 5.0
BSC. Psychology 2 3.3
B. A Geography Education 1 1.7
B. A Social Studies in education 4 6.7
PGDE 1 1.7
B.A Sociology and 2 3.3

Social Work
BSC Computer Science 1 1.7

Source: Field data. 2020.
Table 6 presents the educational qualification of Social Studies
teachers involved in the study. It can be seen from the Table that 35 (58.3%)
of the teachers had a Bachelor of Education in Social Studies; 1 (1.7%) had a
Bachelor of Education degree in Special Education whereas 4 (6.7%) had a
Bachelor of Education degree in Social Science. Also, 1 (1.7%) had a
Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography Education and 4 (6.7%) had Bachelor
of Arts degree in Social Studies Education. Therefore, 45 (75%) out of the 60
teachers had Bachelor of Education degrees. Also, 1 (1.6%) out of the 60
teachers had a Master of Education degree in Social Studies and only 1 (1.6%)
had Post Graduate Diploma in Education. In total, 47 (78.3%) teachers had
Education degrees. However, only 36 (60%) teachers had qualifications in
teaching Social Studies.
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The remaining 13 (21.7%) teachers had a Bachelor of Arts and
Bachelor of Science degrees. Also, 5 (38.5%) out of the 13 teachers without
education qualification had Bachelor of Arts degree in Social Studies, 3
(23.1%) teachers had Bachelor of Arts degree in Social Science, and 2
(15.3%) teachers had Bachelor of Arts degree in Sociology and Social Work.
Again, 2 (15.3%) teachers had a Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology
with only 1 (7.7%) teacher having a Bachelor of Science degree in Computer
Science.
According to Aggarwal (2001), there is a need to provide well trained
Social Studies teachers at all stages to assist learners to grasp better the
concepts of the subject and especially its role of promoting citizenship.
Therefore, situations, where anyone at all is drafted into the classroom to teach
Social Studies, should be discouraged. In the Ghanaian setting, teachers of
Social Studies in the Senior High School ought to have at least Bachelor of
Education degree in Social Studies. The results in Table 6 reveal that although
60% of the teachers had Education degree in Social Studies, 40 % did not
qualify to teach Social Studies. Bordoh, Eshun, Kwarteng, Osman, Brew and
Bakar (2018) stated that content knowledge alone is not sufficient to arm
teachers against the hurdles that come along with teaching the subject and that
there is a need to engage teachers who are professionally qualified to teach the
Social Studies subject. It is therefore likely that the lack of pedagogical
knowledge by the 40% of teachers without qualification to teach the subject
can affect the teaching and learning of Social Studies and ultimately impede
the achievement of the goals of Social Studies Education.
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Table 7: Demographic Characteristics of Students

Variable Sub-scale N %
Gender Male 177 44.4
Female 222 55.6
Age(in years) 14-16 57 14.3
17-19 312 78.2

20+ 30 7.5
Level Form 2 159 39.8
Form 3 240 60.2
Table 7 shows the gender, age and form of respondents (students). The
female students dominated (n = 222, 55.6%) the study. As indicated in Table
7, 177 of the respondents were male students representing 44.4%. The
dominance of the female students in the study is likely due to recent policy
changes with regards to the promotion of girl child education in Ghana. Before
now, males were given an upper hand in terms of education than females. This
situation is perceived to have been caused by how the former traditional
parents determined the place of the girl child in the society where they were
supposed to be in the kitchen. At the same time, their male colleagues remain
in the classroom. One of the recent changes concerning girl child education in
Ghana is the Campaign for Female Education (Camfed). This is a non-
governmental organisation in Ghana to provide multiple educational
opportunities for girls and empower them to become leaders of change in
society.
In terms of age, the majority (n = 312, 78.2%) of the respondents
(students) were within the range of 17-19 years, followed by those in the age
range of 14-16 years (n = 57, 14.3), few (n = 30, 7.5%) of the students were 20
78

years and above. Also, majority (n =240, 60.2%) of the students were in Form
3 while the remaining (n = 159, 39.8%) were in Form 2.
Discussion of Main Results
This section presents the discussion of the main results based on the
research questions and hypothesis that were formulated to guide the study. The
result on each research question is presented in a table form followed by its
discussion. The data on the research questions were collected on a four point-
Likert scale; strongly agree (4), agree (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree
(1). The research questions were analysed using mean and standard deviation.
A mean above 2.5 was considered as an agreement to the statement and a
mean below 2.5 was considered as a disagreement to the statements provided.
The hypothesis was tested using Mann Whitney U test at a significance level
of 0.05.
Teachers Perceptions of the Role Social Studies Education Plays in
Promoting Citizenship Education
Research question one: what are the perceptions of teachers on the
role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education?
The significance of this research question was to know from the
perspective of teachers, whether Social Studies education plays a role in
enhancing Citizenship Education. Teachers were required to respond to ten
statements by indicating their level of agreement (mean = 2.5 to 4.0) or
disagreement (mean = 1.0 to 2.4) to the statements. The results are presented
in Table 8.
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Table 8: Teachers’ Perceptions on the Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting
Citizenship Education
Statement N M SD
Social Studies
develops ideas, beliefs, values, desirable behavior 60 3.85 .360
and attitude of students
inculcates certain basic skills and tools in solving 60 3.65 .481
societal problems
offers the younger generation moral, social, 60 3.65 .481
intellectual and knowledge about cultural heritage
provides understanding of the socio-economic 60 3.62 .490
problems of the country, how they rise and how they
are being solved
prepares the young for their roles and responsibilities 60 3.60 .527
in the society
provides the knowledge of the constitution, its 60 3.52 .537
principles, values, history and application to
contemporary life
provides students with sufficient knowledge and 60 3.47 .650
understanding of national history and politics
develops skills of participation in both private and 60 3.37 .610
public spheres
makes the conscious attempt to provide knowledge 60 3.27 .607
and respect for political institutions
creates knowledge and appreciation of the principles 60 3.27 .516
underlying sound and enduring government and
society
Mean of means/Average Standard Deviation 3.53 .526
Table 8 shows the perception of Social Studies teachers on the role
Social Studies education plays in promoting Citizenship Education. From the
Table, it can be seen that most (M = 3.85, SD =.360) of the teachers agreed
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that the subject develops ideas, beliefs, values, desirable behavior and attitude
of students. The heart of citizenship lies in the ability to develop ideas, values
and beliefs associated with one‟s community or nation. As one begins to
understand and appreciate the values and beliefs that underpin the structure,
growth and development of a nation, the stronger the bond and loyalty the
individual has with his or her nation. As indicated by the teachers, the Social
Studies syllabus provides the bedrock upon which students are able to begin
the development of such loyalty and bonding as they imbibe the beliefs and
values of the society and desirable behavior expected of them. Aggarwal
(1982) stated that Citizenship Education [Social Studies education] should
lead to the development of ideas, habits, behaviors and useful attitudes in the
individual which enables him or her to be a useful member of society. This
underlines one of the objectives stipulated in the (2010) Social Studies
teaching syllabus for Senior High School in Ghana; to acquire positive
attitudes and values towards individual and societal issues and to develop
national consciousness and unity.
Teachers also agreed that the subject inculcates certain basic skills and
tools that help in solving societal problems (M = 3.65, SD = .481). Citizenship
demands that one does not sit on the fence when it comes to problems that
emerge in society. One of the roles of every good citizen is to develop the skill
that facilitates the assessment of problems, develop plausible solutions and
identify effective solutions to those societal problems. As argued by Lindquist
(1995), Social Studies is an integration of knowledge, skills and processes that
provides powerful learning in the humanities and social sciences to help
children learn to be good problem solvers and wise decision-makers in the
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society. Martorella (1985) added that competent citizens possess a repertoire
of skills to aid them in decision making and problem-solving. According to the
MOES (2007) stated that Citizenship Education [Social Studies education]
exposes pupils to the persistent contemporary issues hindering the
development of the nation and the desired attitudes, values, and skills needed
to solve these problems. The Ministry of Education (2010) therefore stated one
of the goals of Social Studies as teaching problem-solving skills requisite for
solving personal and societal problems and lastly become responsible citizens
capable and willing to contribute to societal advancement.
Regarding offering the younger generation (students) moral, social,
intellectual and knowledge about cultural heritage, the teachers agreed that
Social Studies education provides content that fosters that goal (M = 3.65, SD
= .481). Culture, as is commonly defined, refers to the way of life of a people.
The way of life of a society can be passed down from generation to
generation. Citizenship requires that one identifies with the society‟s way of
life. Fito‟o (2009) argued that individuals may be from different backgrounds
and may differ in perceptions relating to culture, however when they
demonstrate acceptable behaviors, they will be accepted and highly regarded
among local people. The researcher further asserts that the significant factor is
for people to respect and uphold the values of the culture and customs of the
people they live amongst and that are the solution for mutual relationship and
unity. Citizenship Education through Social Studies education in the Ghanaian
educational system should, therefore, afford students the opportunity to
critically examine and understand not only their cultural identifications and
attachments but more importantly, enabling them maintain their cultural
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identities and attachments while at the same time endorsing and respecting
other cultures and identities (Waghid, 2010).
Again, the teachers indicated that the subject provides an
understanding of the socio-economic problems of the country, how they rise
and how they are being solved (M =3.62, SD =.490). Every society desires to
have a successful economy. Nonetheless, every economy is confronted with
challenges. Good citizens ought to understand and appreciate how the
economy works and the challenges that come along with it. One of the
questions that the functionalist theory poses is how education and social
systems like the economic system are related and how this relationship helps
to integrate the society as a whole. The African Social and Environmental
Studies Programme (ASESP, 1994) indicated that Social Studies provides
integration of social sciences and humanities to promote economic issues. This
indication is affirmed by the responses of the teachers.
Teachers further agreed that the subject prepares the young for their
roles and responsibilities in society (M = 3.60, SD =.527). One of the integral
roles of education is to prepare students for their future roles and
responsibilities in society. This is supported by the functionalist theory that
draws a relationship between education and society and argues that education
is responsible for equipping students with traits necessary to operate in
society. Writing in the late 1950s, Persons argued that after primary
socialization within the family, the school takes over as the next socializing
agency: school acts as a bridge between the family and society as a whole
preparing child [students] for their adult roles. The concept of „Citizenship
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Education‟ is generally said to encompass the preparation of young people for
their roles and responsibilities as citizens.
The teachers also affirmed that Social Studies provides knowledge of
the constitution, its principles, values, history and application to contemporary
life (M = 3.52, SD = .537). Patrick (1986) explains Citizenship Education as
„„the knowledge of the constitutions, the principles, values, history and
application to contemporary life”. Citizenship Education as a discipline is
introduced in the school curriculum at the upper primary level ( P4-P6) to
make children appreciate basic concepts and values that underlie a democratic
political community and constitutional order to enable them to uphold and
defend the Constitution of Ghana at all times. The subject does not end at
primary 6; it continues from Junior High school to Senior High School as
Social Studies to expose students to the persistent contemporary issues
hindering the development of the nation. Dinkelman (1999) stated that the
field of Social Studies is bound together by the aim of democratic Citizenship
Education. According to Banks (1990), learners require knowledge of the
contemporary world in which they live. This emphasizes the acquisition of
knowledge and skills as well as the development of desirable attitudes and
values as prerequisites to civic competence.
Teachers indicated again that the subject provides students with
sufficient knowledge and understanding of national history and politics (M =
3.47, SD = .650). National history and politics form the basis of every society.
It is therefore important for young ones to be able to learn and appreciate the
political climate that characterises one‟s nation and its underlying history.
According to Bekoe (2013), Social Studies has evolved from a single
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discipline of study into an integrated subject that encompasses, among others
the history of a people. The results in Table 8 indicate that teachers appreciate
the role of Social Studies in providing students with a historical background
regarding their identity as a people. The Curriculum Research and
Development Division (CRDD) (2007) stipulated the general aims of the
Social Studies subject to be to appreciate the impact of history on current and
future development efforts of the country. Education, and in particular the
teaching of history [Social Studies], provides this link between the individual
and society. If the history of their society is brought alive to children
[students], they will come to see that they are part of something larger than
themselves and they will develop a sense of commitment to the social group.
With the development of skills of participation in both private and
public spheres, the teachers agreed Social Studies prepares students to
participate in all spheres of life (M = 3.37, SD = .610). Citizenship Education
is the type of education that fosters democratic attitudes, skills, and knowledge
to engage and work on important public issues. It also motivates students to
engage in all civic activities such as voting in elections, influencing public
policy, and working with others to improve the living conditions of their
environment. The teachers agreed that the role of Social Studies is to prepare
students to engage in all societal activities. This acknowledgement by the
teachers creates the impression that they are most likely to help students be
able to develop the sense of involvement in all public activities and to engage
in private endeavors that contribute positively to the society as well.
Teachers indicated that Social Studies makes the conscious attempt to
provide knowledge and respect for political institutions (M = 3.27, SD = .607).
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Lastly, teachers affirmed that the subject creates knowledge and appreciation
of the principles underlying sound and enduring government and society (M =
3.27, SD = .516). Kerr (1990) emphasized that Citizenship Education
furnishes students with adequate knowledge and understanding of national
history and the structures and process of government and political life and then
involves students learning by doing through active, participative experiences
in the school or local community and beyond. According to Kerr, education
about citizenship dwells on furnishing students with adequate knowledge and
understanding of national history and the structures and process of government
and political life. This assertion is supported by the teachers and is likely to
translate into the teaching of the Social Studies subject.
Generally, the teachers agreed that Social Studies exhibits traits of
Citizenship Education and plays a role in helping students develop the spirit of
citizenship. This is supported by the mean of means (3.53) indicating an
agreement to the fact that Social Studies Education plays a role in promoting
Citizenship Education. This is also supported by Fito‟o (2009) who stated that
in like manner, the current Social Studies curriculum of the Solomon Islands
there are concepts taught that reflect the values, knowledge, and content of
citizenship which is promoted in other countries. Again, Kankam (2013)
revealed that teachers had realized the importance of teaching citizenship at
primary school. Based on this finding, it was recommended among other
things that deliberate effort should be made by teachers to impart the
knowledge they have acquired in Citizenship Education to the children they
teach. Also, Kankam (2015) concluded that the tutors are providing
opportunities for trainees to practice good citizenship skills in their college
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environment, and by doing so, it is hoped they will continue to demonstrate
citizenship skills when they leave the colleges and become citizens at large.
Students’ Perceptions of the Role Social Studies Education Plays in
Promoting Citizenship Education
Research question two: what are the perceptions of students on the
role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. The significance
of this research question was to know from the perspective of students as well,
whether Social Studies education plays a role in enhancing Citizenship
Education. Like research question one, students were required to respond to
ten statements by indicating their level of agreement (mean = 2.5 to 4.0) or
disagreement (mean = 1.0 to 2.4) to the statements. The results are
summarised in Table 9.
Table 9: Students’ Perceptions of the Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting

Statement N M SD
Social Studies
prepares me for my roles and responsibilities in the 399 3.65 .573
society
helps me develop ideas, beliefs, values, desirable 399 3.59 .585
behavior and accepted attitudes of my society
makes a deliberate effort to provide me with the moral, 399 3.54 .656
social, intellectual and knowledge about cultural
heritage
provides me with the knowledge of the constitution, its 399 3.49 .601
principles, values, history and application
contemporary life
provides me with sufficient knowledge and 399 3.48 .629
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provides me with understanding of the socio-economic 399 3.40 .716

are being solved
inculcates certain basic skills and tools in solving my 399 3.38 .681
societal problems
makes the conscious attempt to provide me with 399 3.33 .698
knowledge and respect for political institutions
helps me develop skills of participation in both private 399 3.18 .746
and public spheres
provides me with the knowledge and appreciation of 399 3.11 .751
the principles underlying sound and enduring
government and society
Mean of means/ Average Standard Deviation 3.41 .664
Table 9 shows the perception of students of the role of Social Studies
in promoting Citizenship Education. Students indicated that Social Studies
prepares them for their roles and responsibilities in society (M = 3.65, SD =
.573). Also, students agreed (M = 3.59, SD = .585) that the subject helps them
to develop ideas, beliefs, values, desirable behavior and accepted attitudes of
my society. On making a deliberate effort to provide students with the moral,
social, intellectual and knowledge about cultural heritage, the students
affirmed that Social Studies plays such an integral role (M = 3.54, SD =.656).
It is clear from the table that Social Studies provides students with knowledge
of the constitution, its principles, values, history and application contemporary
life (M = 3.49, SD =.601). Students agreed (M = 3.48, SD =.629) that the
subject provides them with sufficient knowledge and understanding of
national history and politics. Also, students indicated the subject gives them an
understanding of the socio-economic problems of the country, how they rise
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and how they are being solved (M = 3.40, SD = .716). Again, students
confirmed that (M = 3.38, SD = .681) the subject inculcates certain basic skills
and tools that help them to solve societal problems. Students also agreed (M
=3.33, SD = .698) that Social Studies makes the conscious attempt to provide
them with knowledge and respect for political institutions. With the role of
helping students develop skills of participation in both private and public
spheres, students agreed that Social Studies contributes to playing such a role
(M = 3.18, SD = .746). Students also indicated (M = 3.11, SD =.751) that the
subject provides them with the knowledge and appreciation of the principles
underlying sound and enduring government and society.
Generally, the students, just as the teachers agreed that Social Studies
plays a role in promoting Citizenship Education. However, to confirm
similarities in perceptions of teachers and students on the role Social Studies
plays in promoting Citizenship Education, a hypothesis was tested to
determine whether there is any statistically significant difference in their
perceptions.
H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the
perceptions of teachers and students’ regarding the role Social Studies
plays in promoting Citizenship Education.
A normality test was conducted to determine whether the sample data
was drawn from a normally distributed population. The test of normality is
presented in Table 10.
Table 10: Normality Test for Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of the
Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting Citizenship Education
Shapiro-Wilk
All perceptions Statistic df Sig
.945 459 .000
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The Sig value of .000 indicated that the distribution was not normal and
therefore, a non-parametric tool was appropriate to conduct the test. Based on
the data, the Mann-Whitney U test was chosen. The results of the test are
presented in Table 11.
Table 11 - Differences between Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of the
Role Social Studies Plays in Promoting Citizenship Education
Status M IQ U Z p
Teachers 35 6.75 10459.500 -1.583 .113
Students 35 6.00
P >.05
Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to compare the perceptions of
teachers and students‟ regarding the role Social Studies plays in promoting
Citizenship Education. The results show that there is no statistically significant
difference in teachers‟ (median = 35.00, IQ = 6.75) and students‟ (median =
35.00, IQ = 6.00) perception of the role Social Studies plays in promoting
Citizenship Education, U = 10459.500, p > 0.05 (2 tailed). Hence, the null
hypothesis has failed to be rejected. This means that the teachers and students
had no difference in their perceptions of the role Social Studies plays in
This finding validates the assertion of Kankam (2013) that the way
teachers perceive the importance of Citizenship Education [Social Studies] has
a bearing on their commitment to its impartation on learners and also follows
that the way students perceive the importance of Citizenship Education [Social
Studies] has a similar bearing on their commitment to imbibe the principles
and values the subject presents. The results in Table 11 indicate that the way
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the Social Studies teachers appreciate the concepts of the subject as a means of
promoting Citizenship Education has been transmitted to the students such that
both parties have same perceptions regarding the integral role of the subject.
Also, Dwamena-Boateng (2012) concluded in his study that tutors and
students alike agree to the fact the Citizenship Education [Social Studies]
prepares the young ones to participate in public life and to play active roles in
societal issues and that Social Studies as understood by both tutors and
students of the same area develops young ones to become critical thinkers who
are likely to solve societal problems. The researcher also asserts that both
tutors and students view Social Studies as a means to develop good citizens as
it promotes understanding, civic participation and co-operation. These
assertions by Dwamen-Boateng can be confirmed by the finding presented in
Table 11.
Teachers Use of the Effective Teaching Methods That Promote
Research question three: how often do teachers use the effective
teaching methods that promote Citizenship Education? The essence of this
research question was to determine how often teachers use the effective
methods that facilitates the promotion of Citizenship Education during the
instructional process. Teachers were required to respond to three statements by
indicating their level of usage (mean = 2.5 to 4.0) or non-usage (mean = 1.0 to
2.4) of the teaching methods and also were given the opportunity to state other
teaching methods they use in teaching. The results are presented in Tables 12
and 13.
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Table 12: Teachers’ Use of the Effective Teaching Methods That Promote
Teaching Method N M SD
Discussion method 60 3.77 .427
Inquiry method 60 3.13 .747
Problem-solving 60 2.98 .792
Mean of means/Average Standard Deviation 3.29 0.66

From Table 12, it can be deduced that most of the teachers use the
discussion method very often during the instructional period (M = 3.77, SD =
.427). This teaching method scored the highest mean among the teaching
methods that were assessed. Also, teachers indicated that they often use the
inquiry method in teaching (M= 3.13, SD = .747). Again, teachers also
revealed that they use the problem-solving method in teaching (M = 2.98, SD
= .792). Loughran (2007) says teaching methodology is essentially concerned
with how best to bring about the desired learning by some educational activity.
The findings in Table 12 indicate that generally, some appropriate teaching
methods are often employed by the Social Studies teachers in teaching the
subject to the students. This is supported by the mean of means score of 3.29.
This finding does not support the assertion by Mezieobi (2008) that the
Social Studies curriculum has failed to live up to its mandate as a result of the
utilisation of inappropriate teaching methods germane to effective teaching
and learning of the subject. The results in Table 12, however, confirms the
assertions by Mensah & Frimpong (2020) who revealed that majority of Social
Studies teachers in Senior High School representing 97.2 per cent are of the
firm view that Social Studies teachers should use different methods when
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teaching the content of the course and that can improve students‟ attitude
towards the subject. Eshun and Mensah (2013b) as well added that “teaching
Social Studies is supposed to be done with student-centred techniques and
strategies” of which the findings in this study equally confirms. The teachers
were also requested to state other teaching strategies they utilize other than
those stipulated on the questionnaire. Fourty-Seven teachers indicated that
they use other teaching methods; the indications of 47 (78.3%) teachers out of
60 are presented in Table 13.
Table 13: Other Teaching Methods Utilized by Teachers
Other teaching methods f %

presentations 16 26.7
lecture method 5 8.3
project work 2 3.3
group discussions 3 5.0
question and answer 8 13.3
peer teaching 3 5.0
demonstration 3 5.0
brainstorming 7 11.7
Total 47 78.3
The results in Table 13 show that 16 (26.7%) teachers stated they use
presentation as a teaching method; 5 (8.3%) teachers stated the use of lecture
method and 2 (3.3%) teachers stated the use of project work. Group discussion
and question and answer were stated by 3 (5.0%) and 8 (13.3) teachers,
respectively. Peer teaching was stated by 3 (5.0%) teachers. With regards to
demonstration and brainstorming, 3 (5.0%) and 7 (11.7) of teachers
respectively indicated they use such teaching methods. A study of the table 13
reveals that 42 (70%) out of 47 teachers indicated the use of student-centred

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approaches rather than the traditional lecture method of teaching. This finding
does not support the assertion by Groth (2006) that in Ghana, Citizenship
Education [Social Studies] revolves around lecture and recitation, which
characterise pedagogy in the Ghanaian classrooms.
Research question four: The researcher also inquired from students
how often teachers use the effective methods that promote Citizenship
Education during the instructional process. Students were required to respond
to four statements by indicating how often teachers used (mean = 2.5 to 4.0) or
did not use (mean = 1.0 to 2.4) the effective teaching methods that promote
Citizenship Education. The results are presented in Table 14.
Table 14: Students’ Response on How Often Teachers Use the Effective
Teaching
Methods that Promote Citizenship Education
Statement N Mean Std. Deviation
My teacher
encourages me to ask questions and assists 399 3.30 .834
me to find answers to those questions (inquiry
method)
creates groups in class and encourages us to 399 3.15 1.03
discuss the lesson (discussion method)
encourages me to identify problems within 399 3.09 .914
society and to generate possible solutions to
those problems
(Problem-solving)
Mean of means/ Average Standard Deviation 3.18 .926
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Table 14 shows the perception of students on teachers‟ level of usage
of the effective teaching methods that help promote Citizenship Education.
From the table, students indicated that their teachers encourage them to ask
questions and assist them to find answers to those questions (M = 3.30, SD =
.834). Students also agreed that their teachers create groups in class and
encourage them to participate in the discussion of the lesson (M =3.15, SD
=1.03). Again, students agreed that teachers encourage them to identify
problems within the society and to generate possible solutions to those
problems (M = 3.09, SD = .914). Just as the teachers, the students indicated
that generally, some appropriate teaching methods are often utilized by the
Social Studies teachers in teaching the subject. This is supported by the mean
of means score of 3.18.
The students as well were requested to state other teaching methods
that were utilized by their Social Studies teachers. Only 7 (1.8%) out of 399
students responded to this statement, the results of the 7students are shown in
Table 15.
Table 15: Other Teaching Methods Stated by Students

Other teaching strategies Frequency % of respondents
presentations 1 .3
lecture method 4 1.0
project work 2 .5
Total 7 1.8
From the results shown in Table 15, only 1 (0.3%) student indicated
presentation method as a teaching strategy employed by the Social Studies
teachers. 4 (1.0%) and 2 (0.5%) students indicated the use of lecture method
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and project work respectively by the Social Studies teachers. This finding as
well shows that only 1.0% of the students indicated the use of the traditional
lecture method by the Social Studies teachers.
Education
Research question five: what are the challenges of promoting
Citizenship Education through Social Studies education? This research
question was to find out the difficulties in the teaching and learning of Social
Studies. Teachers were required to respond to eight statements by indicating
their level of agreement (mean = 2.5 to 4.0) or disagreement (mean = 1.0 to
2.4) to the statements. The results obtained are summarised in Table 16.
Table 16: Teacher’s Perceptions of Challenges of Promoting Social Studies
through Citizenship Education
Statements N M SD
Teachers require expert knowledge in teaching
60 3.63 .610
Social Studies
Inadequate funding for social studies programme 60 3.47 .566
General unwillingness of the students to take the
60 3.37 .801
subject serious
Insufficient instructional materials for the subject 60 3.33 .705
Inadequate time allocation for the subject 60 3.18 .813
The school time table is overloaded 60 3.05 .909
Ineffective utilisation of instructional materials 60 2.87 .812
The social studies syllabus is overloaded 60 2.87 .812
Mean of means/Average Standard Deviation 3.22 .754

The majority (M = 3.63, SD = .610) of teachers were of the view that
teachers in the field require expert knowledge in teaching the subject. Also,
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teachers confirmed (M = 3.47, SD = .566) that inadequate funding for social
studies programmes is one of the challenges they encounter in teaching the
subject to achieve its main purpose. More so, teachers affirmed (M =3.37, SD
= .80) unwillingness of the students to take the subject serious is one of the
difficulties in teaching the subject. Also, teachers agreed (M = 3.33, SD =
.705) that insufficient instructional materials for the subject is a challenge.
Teachers pointed (M = 3.18, SD = .813) out that inadequate time
allocation for the subject is another difficulty they encounter in implementing
the curriculum requirements of the subject. Teachers also indicated (M =3.05,
SD =.909) that the time table in their schools is overloaded with some other
subject and activities. Again, effective utilisation of instructional materials is
seen to be a challenge from the responses of teachers (M = 2.87, SD = .812).
Also, teachers agreed (M =2.87, SD = .812) that the social studies syllabus is
overloaded. Generally, teachers agreed that there were challenges in
promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies. This is supported by
the mean of means score of 3.22.
This finding supports the assertions of Kerr (1999) and Kankam (2012)
that challenges in promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies
have occurred because of the interplay and influence of their broad contextual
and more detailed structural factors. A study conducted by Kece (2014) also
revealed that the subject lacks adequate physical condition (practical aspects)
and weekly course hours. This means, the Social Studies subject has little or
no practical aspects and the contact hours per week is not enough and this
makes it difficult for teachers to complete the topics outlined in the syllabus.
According to Atbasi (2007), it has been stated by teachers that the classrooms
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are too crowded, the content is too detailed, and these create barriers while
using learner-centred teaching methods like investigation and observation.
Also, Nworgu (2007) and Ibaim (2007) in their respective studies
established that most Social Studies teachers are not sufficiently informed
about the demands, implications, and objectives of the subject and this in a
way affects the worth and relevance of instruction delivered to the students.
Kerr and Cleaver (2004) also point out another challenge to be the fact that
teachers require expert training in citizenship. According to Aggarwal (2001),
if the Social Studies subject is to assist learners to understand this complex
world in which they live, so that they may better adapt themselves to it, and to
prepare themselves for intelligent and constructive citizenship, we must
provide well-trained teachers of Social Studies at all stages.
Chapter Summary
The discussions in this chapter focused on the results of the survey and
analysed same in line with the research questions and hypothesis. The findings
of the study indicated that teachers agreed that Social Studies plays an
important role in promoting Citizenship Education. This was perhaps due to
the fact that the teachers appreciated the concepts of the subject and its role in
producing good citizens. In like manner the students agreed that Citizenship
Education is promoted through the teaching and learning of Social Studies.
The findings further indicated that there was no statistically significant
difference in the perceptions of teachers and students‟ regarding the role
Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education. This can be
attributed to the fact that the teachers have been able to transmit the concepts
of the subject that they themselves have come to appreciate to the students.
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The study also revealed that both teacher and students recognized the use of
effective teaching methods (student-centred learning strategies) in the teaching
and learning of the subject. However, the teachers further indicated that there
are some challenges that impede the goal of Social Studies in promoting
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
There have been concerns about the decline in the traits of citizenship
among the youths of today. These concerns have led to arguments regarding
the extent to which the youths (students) have been taken through the training
and education of citizenship. Although in the Senior High School curriculum
in Ghana, there is no sole subject as Citizenship Education, the Social Studies
subject has been perceived to be a means of promoting Citizenship Education.
Therefore, this study was directed towards finding out the perceptions of
Social Studies teachers and students in selected Senior High Schools in the
central region of Ghana regarding the role of Social Studies in promoting
Summary of the Study
The aim of the study was to find out whether teachers of Social Studies
and students in the Senior High Schools regarded the Social Studies subject as
a tool to promote Citizenship Education. The study sought to answer the
following research questions:
1. What are the perceptions of teachers on the role Social Studies plays in
2. What are the perceptions of students on the role Social Studies plays in
3. How often do teachers use the effective teaching methods that promote
Citizenship Education?
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4. How often do students perceive the use of the effective teaching
methods that promote Citizenship Education by teachers?
5. What challenges do teachers face in promoting Citizenship Education
through Social Studies education?
The study also sought to determine the following hypothesis:
Research Hypothesis
H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the perceptions of
H1: There is a statistically significant difference in in the perceptions of
The research questions were addressed by employing a descriptive
survey design and a proportionate stratified sampling technique to determine
the sample frame. A total of 60 Social Studies teachers and 399 students from
selected Senior High Schools participated in the study. Copies of a 4-point
Likert scale questionnaire were administered to the respondents. The
respondents were requested to determine their level of agreement or
disagreement regarding the role Social Studies plays in promoting several
citizenship traits. The respondents were also requested to determine how often
Social Studies teachers‟ used certain appropriate teaching methods for
teaching the subject, the challenges of promoting Citizenship Education
through Social Studies education. The data were analysed using descriptive
and inferential statistics. Mean, and standard deviation were used to analyse
research questions one, two and five. In addition to mean and standard
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deviation, frequencies and percentages were used to analyse research
questions three and four. The research hypothesis was tested using a Mann
Whitney U test.
Key Findings
After a detailed discussion of the results, the following key findings
were obtained:
1. The Senior High School Social Studies teachers and students agreed
that Social Studies education plays a role in promoting Citizenship
Education.
2. Senior High School Social Studies teachers often use learner-centred
strategies in teaching the Social Studies subject which was confirmed
by the students.
3. The Senior High School teachers agreed that there were challenges in
promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies such as time
table overload, syllabus overload, general unwillingness of students to
take the subject serious and insufficient instructional materials.
4. There was no statistically significant difference in the perceptions of
Senior High School Social Studies teachers and students regarding the
role of Social Studies education in promoting Citizenship Education.
Other Findings
1. (Senior High School) Social Studies teachers require expert knowledge
in teaching the subject to achieve its aims and objectives.
2. Inadequate teaching and learning resources is one of the challenges
that impede the teaching and learning of the subject to achieve its
purpose.
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Conclusion
The Social Studies subject is essential and plays an integral role in
helping youths (students) develop traits of citizenship within society. This
study can confirm this as both Senior High School Social Studies teachers and
students agreed to the fact that Social Studies education has a role in
The study further established that there was no significant difference in
the perceptions of the teachers and students regarding the role of Social
Studies in promoting Citizenship Education. These indicate that the teachers
appreciated the concepts of the subject and have been able to transmit it to the
students and therefore are likely to transmit same in future students.
Both the Social Studies teachers and students also agreed that learner-
centred approaches were often used in the teaching of the subject. This
suggests that the students will be able to acquire the necessary skills,
knowledge and values that ought to be achieved through the learning of the
subject.
Finally, the Social Studies teachers indicated that there were challenges
in promoting Citizenship Education through the Social Studies subject. These
challenges include general unwillingness of the students to take the subject
seriously, insufficient instructional materials and inadequate funding. These
challenges pose a threat to the consistency of the teachers in delivering quality
education and may eventually affect how students appreciate the concepts and
values of the Social Studies subject.
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Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher made the following
recommendations:
1. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA)
should consider redesigning the Senior High School Social Studies
syllabus to reduce the content of the syllabus to allow more room for
exploring the essential aspects of the subject.
2. Regarding the general unwillingness of students to take the subject
seriously, the Ghana Education Service should give equal priority to
the Social Studies subject just as they give to the other core subject so
students would attach equal importance to the subject.
3. Also, regarding the inadequate periods offered the Social Studies
subject, ample support should be given to the subject to help promote
Citizenship Education. This can be done by increasing the number of
periods on the school time-table and providing the necessary
instructional materials.
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Suggestions for Further Research
The perceptions of the teachers and students were determined by the
use of a quantitative approach and were conducted among selected schools in
the Central region. Further research could be on:
1. Conducting a longitudinal study to assess the extent to which the
Social Studies subject contributes to Citizenship Education between
the time the students arrive in form 1 and the time of completion.
2. Finding out the perceptions of all Social Studies teachers and students
in Central Region on how the subject promotes Citizenship Education.
3. Employing a mixed method approach in finding out the perceptions of
Social Studies teachers and students in selected Senior High Schools in
Ghana.
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119

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
EDUCATION
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
Dear respondent, the purpose of this questionnaire is to find out the integral
role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education in senior high
schools in the Central Region. I humbly ask for your maximum cooperation
and assure you that every information you provide here will be treated with
utmost confidentiality. You are therefore requested to read through the items
and respond to them as objectively as possible. Thank you for being part of
this study.
SECTION A
Personal Data of Participant
Please, tick the appropriate box and write where applicable
1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. Age: 25-29 [ ] 30-34 [ ] 35 -39 [ ] 40-44 [ ] 45-49 [ ] 50+ [ ]
Professional Qualification
3. Program Studied ……………………………………………………………
4. How long have you been teaching social studies
…………………………………………………………………………………
120

SECTION B
PERCEPTION OF THE ROLE SOCIAL STUDIES PLAYS IN
PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The statements below represent levels of agreement or disagreement on
perception of teachers on the role social studies plays in promoting citizenship
education.
Please tick the columns that represent your view on the statement. SA=
Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree
No. Statement SA A D SD
Social Studies
5 Develops ideas, beliefs, values, desirable

behavior and attitude of students
6 Provides students with sufficient knowledge
and understanding of national history and
politics
7 Inculcates certain basic skills and tools in
solving societal problems
8 Provides the knowledge of the constitution, its
contemporary life
9 Prepares the young for their roles and
responsibilities in the society
10 Makes the conscious attempt to provide
knowledge and respect for political institutions
11 Offers the younger generation moral, social,
intellectual and knowledge about cultural
heritage
12 Develops skills of participation in both private
and public spheres
13 Provides understanding of the socio-economic
problems of the country, how they rise and
how they are being solved
14 Creates a knowledge and appreciation of the

principles underlying sound and enduring
government and society
121

SECTION C
EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS THAT PROMOTE
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The teaching methods below represent some of the appropriate methods used
in the teaching of social studies to promote citizenship education. Please tick
the Column that represents your level of usage or non-usage of the teaching
methods.
No. Teaching methods Very Often Seldom Not at all

Often
15 Inquiry method
16 Role Playing method
17 Discussion method
18. Which other methods do you use to teach social studies, please,
specify…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
122

SECTION D
CHALLENGES OF PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
THROUGH SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
The statements below represent levels of agreement or disagreement on the
challenges of promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies
education.
Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree.
No. Statement: SA A D SD
19 Teachers require expert knowledge in teaching
Social Studies
20 The school time table is overloaded
21 Inadequate funding for social studies programs
22 Insufficient instructional materials for the
subject
23 Ineffective utilization of instructional materials
24 General unwillingness of the students to take
the subject serious
25 Inadequate time allocation for the subject
26 The social studies syllabus is overloaded
27. Others please, specify

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
THANK YOU
123

APPENDIX B
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION STUDIES
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
EDUCATION
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS
Dear respondent, the purpose of this questionnaire is to find out the integral
role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship Education in senior high
schools in the Central Region. I humbly ask for your maximum cooperation
and assure you that every information you provide here will be treated with
utmost confidentiality. You are therefore requested to read through the items
and respond to them as objectively as possible. Thank you for being part of
this study.
SECTION A
Personal Data of Participant
Please, tick the appropriate box and write where applicable
1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]
2. Age: 14 -16 [ ] 17 - 19 [ ] 20+ [ ]
3. Level: Form 2 [ ] Form 3 [ ]
124

SECTION B
PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS ON THE ROLE SOCIAL STUDIES
PLAYS IN PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The statements below represent levels of agreement or disagreement on
perception of teachers on the role social studies plays in promoting citizenship
education. Please tick the columns that represent your view on the
statement. SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly
Disagree.
Social Studies
4 helps me develop ideas, beliefs, values, desirable
behavior and accepted attitudes of my society
5 provides me with sufficient knowledge and
6 inculcates certain basic skills and tools in solving my
societal problems
7 provides me with the knowledge of the constitution, its
contemporary life
8 prepares me for my roles and responsibilities in the
society.
9 provides me with knowledge and respect for political
institutions
10 provides me with the moral, social, intellectual and
knowledge about cultural heritage
11 helps me develop skills of participation in both private
and public spheres
12 provides me with understanding of the socio-economic
are being solved
13 provides me with the knowledge and appreciation of
the principles underlying sound and enduring
government in the society
125

SECTION C
EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS THAT PROMOTE
CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The statements below represent attributes of appropriate teaching methods
used in the teaching of social studies to promote citizenship education. Please
tick the Column that represents your teacher‟s level of usage or non-usage of
these teaching methods.
No. Statement Very Often Often Seldom Not at

My teacher all
14 encourages me to ask
questions and assists me to
find answers to those
questions.
15 encourages me to identify
problems within the society
and to generate possible
solutions to those problems.
16 creates groups in class and
encourages us to discuss the
lesson
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
126

SECTION D
CHALLENGES OF PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
THROUGH SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
The statements below represent levels of agreement or disagreement on the
challenges of promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies
education.
Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D= Disagree, SD= Strongly Disagree
18 My teacher requires expert knowledge in teaching
citizenship education
19 My school time table is overloaded
20 There is inadequate funding for social studies

programs in my school
21 There are insufficient instructional materials for
the subject in my school
22 There is ineffective utilization of instructional
materials in my school
23 There is general unwillingness on the part of
students to take the subject serious
24 There is inadequate time allocation for the subject
in my school
25 The social studies syllabus is overloaded

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
THANK YOU
127

APPENDIX C
128

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© University of Cape Coast https://ir.ucc.edu.

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION THROUGH SOCIAL

STUDIES EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS AND

STUDENTS IN SELECTED SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE CENTRAL

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

PROMOTING CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION THROUGH SOCIAL

STUDIES EDUCATION: PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS AND

STUDENTS IN SELECTED SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE CENTRAL

Thesis submitted to the Department of Business and Social Sciences

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

Candidate‟s Signature………………………….. Date………………………

Name: Jennifer Ocansey

supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid

down by the University of Cape Coast.

Supervisor‟s Signature……………………… Date…………………………

Name: Dr. Bernard Yaw Sekyi Acquah

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

students‟ perception of the role Social Studies plays in promoting Citizenship

Education. Cross-sectional descriptive survey design was adopted for the

proportionate stratified random sampling. A 4-point Likert scale was used to

play a major role in promoting Citizenship Education. There was no

statistically significant difference in the perceptions of teachers and students

was however revealed that teachers encounter challenges such as general

unwillingness of students to take the subject serious, limited time allocated to

Council for Curriculum and Assessment should consider redesigning Senior

students would attach equal importance to the subject.

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

I am also grateful to my family and friends for their support and

guidance throughout this study. I also extend my appreciation to the

respondents for their time and objective responses.

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

To my mother, Millicent Adwoa Adutwumwaah Kwarteng

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study 2

Statement of the Problem 7

Purpose of the Study 9

Significance of the Study 10

Delimitation of the Study 11

Limitation of the Study 12

Organization of the Rest of the Study 12

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 13

Functionalist Theory of Education 13

Digitized by Sam Jonah Library

The Concept, Goals, and Objectives of Social Studies 21

The Concept of Citizenship Education 28

Citizenship Education and Social Studies 31

Methods and techniques of teaching Social Studies to Promote Citizenship

Challenges of Promoting Citizenship Education through Social Studies

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS

Sample and Sampling Procedure 61

Data Collection Instrument 64

Validity and Reliability of Instrument 66

Data Collection Procedures 68