Eda 852 Politics of Educational Management

EDA 852 POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: EDA 852
COURSE TITLE: POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
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BLURB (COURSE DESCRIPTIO N)
EDA 852 Politics of Educational Management is a 2 unit course to be

taken in the first year of the masters degree programme in Educational
Management at the National Open University of Nigeria. It will be taken
as a core course by all students registered for the programme.
The course is made up of fifteen study units and a course guide. It

introduces students to the basic conceptual issues in politics and
educational management. The influence of politics on decision making
in educational management is also discussed to get learners appreciate
the fact that politics characterize the decision making process in
education management. Finally, contemporary political issues such as
funding and equality of educational opportunities are discussed to inform
learners of the need to keep abreast with national or even international
issues in educational management. Learners will be able to build on this
foundation as they pursue their studies in the educational management
programme.
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COURSE GUIDE
EDA 852
POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Course Developer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Department of Educational Foundats and
Management,
Ambrose Alli University,
Ekpoma, Nigeria.
Unit Writer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Department of Educational Foundations and
Management,
Ekpoma, Nigeria.
Course Editor: Prof. N.A. Nwagwu

Faculty of Education
University of Benin
Benin City
Programme overseer Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
Course Coordinator: Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

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EDA852: POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Introduction to the Course
3.2 A Guide Through the Course
3.2.1 Course Aims and Objectives
3.2.2 Course Materials and Structure
3.2.3 How to Get the Most from the Course
3.3 Course Delivery
3.3.1 Facilitation
3.3.2 Tutorials
3.3.3 Counselling
3.4 Assessment
3.4.1 Self Assessment Exercises
3.4.2 Tutor-Marked Assignments
3.4.3 Final Examination
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This course guide is an access device designed to introduce you to the

course materials, and to show you how to use it. Additionally, this
course guide functions as a reference tool for you to consult whenever
you have questions about the course. Such questions may include how to
plan available time; when to submit assignments and the support service
available.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Course Guide, it is expected that you will be able to
- state he aim and objectives of a course guide;
- outline the structure and contents of the course, EDA 852;
- describe how the course should be studied;
- provide information on available support services;
- provide information on how the course will be assessed;
- design and write your own personal course guide for this course
and other courses in your M.Ed programme.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Introduction to the Course
Welcome to EDA 852: Politics of Educational Management which is a

two credit unit course offered in the first year to students of the
postgraduate degree programme in Educational Management. There are
no prerequisites for studying this fifteen study Units course that has been
developed with appropriate local examples suitable for the Nigerian
audience.
This Course Guide is for distance learners registered for the M.Ed
Educational Management Programme of the National Open University
of Nigeria (NOUN). The guide is one of the several resource tools
available to help you successfully complete this course and ultimately
your programme.
In this guide, you will find very useful information about the course.
Such information includes the aims, objectives, course description,
course materials, and available support services. Other information on
assignments and examination, guideline on how to plan your time for
study are also available.
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I strongly recommend that you go through this Course Guide and

complete the feedback form at the end before you begin your study of
the course. The feedback form must be submitted to your tutorial
facilitator along with your first assignment. This guide also provides
answers to several of your questions. However, do not hesitate to contact
your study centre if you have further questions.
I wish you all the best in your learning experience and successful
completion of this course.
3.2 A Guide Through the Course
3.2.1 Course Aim and Objectives
There are objectives to be achieved in each study unit of the course. You
should read them before studying each unit. On completion of this
course, you should be able to:
- explain conceptual issues in politics and educational
management;
- examine the influence of politics on decision making in
educational management.
- discuss contemporary issues in educational management.
- apply political principles in policy formulation and
implementation.
- describe theoretical framework in policy making process
- acquire skills and knowledge in influencing the behaviour of
other people to your own advantage.
3.2.2 Course Materials and Structure
Course Summary
Module 1 introduces you to the conceptual issues in politics and

educational management. Module 2 examines the influence of politics on
decision making in educational management and module 3 deals with
contemporary political issues in educational management. There are
fifteen study Units in this course. Each study unit consists of one week
work and should take you about three hours to complete. It includes
specific objectives, guidance for study, reading materials and self
assessment exercises. Together with tutor-marked assignments, these
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exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the
individual study Units and of the course.
Study Plan
Look at table 1 below; It is a presentation of the course and how long it
should take you to complete each study unit and the accompanying
assignments.
UNIT TITLE OF STUDY UNIT WEEKS/ ASSIGNMENT REMARKS
ACTIVITY
Course Guide 1
Module I Conceptual Issues in Politics and
Educational Management
1 Meaning of Politics and some 2 Identify some interest groups in the
political terminologies school system
2 The Politics of Nationhood 3 What are the ideals of politics
3 The meaning of Education 4 Describe the Nigerian educational
system
4 Concept of Educational 5 Discuss the functional task areas of
Management the school administrator.
5 The Influence of Politics on 6 Discuss the role of politics in TMA 1 to be
Educational Management educational management. submitted at the end of
the week
Module 2 The Influence of Politics on
Decision Making in Educational
Management
6 Educational Policy making 7 Describe the educational policy
process making process.
7 The role of Interest Groups in 8 Advance reasons why you think it is
Policy making process important to consider the opinion
of
workers unions in the education
industry in formulation of
8. Examination of Past and Present 9 educational policies.
Educational Policies in Nigeria Outline the major educational
policies made by missionaries
9. Decision making and policy 10 and
Formulation the British colonial government.
10. Devolution of Functions in 11 Explain the decision making process TMA 2 to be
Educational Management submitted at the end of
Discuss the role of Federal, the week.
States
and Local governments in the
Nigerian education system.
Module 3 Contemporary Political Issues in 7
Educational Management
11 Contemporary Political Issues of 12
Discuss the factors to be considered
Funding Education and the UBE. in preparing budget to implement

UBE in your local government area.
12. Contemporary Political Issues of 13 Do you support the agitation for the TMA 3 to be
government take-over/handover of return of schools to original owners? submitted at the end of
schools. the week.
13. Contemporary Political Issue of 14 Highlight government s deliberate
Equality of Educational policies to remedy educational
opportunities. imbalance in Nigeria.
14. Contemporary Issues of Open and 15 What factors will you consider for
distance learning (ODL) and the successful implementation of
Private Education Institutions. ODL Programmes in Nigeria?
15. Issue of implementation of the 16 Discuss the problems of TMA 4 to be
National Policy on Education. implementing the national policy submitted at the end of
on the week.
Revision 17 education.
Examination 18
*You are to use this overview to plan your personal timetable for the
course.
3.2.3 How to Get the Most from this Course
In distance learning, the Study Units replace the university lecturer. The
advantage is that you can read and work through the course materials at
your pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as
reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. Just as a lecturer
might give you in-class exercise, your Study Units provide exercises for
you to do at appropriate times.
Each of the Study Units has common features which are designed to aid
your learning. The first feature is an introduction to the subject matter of
the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with other units and the
course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives
let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have
completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study.
When you have finished the unit, you should go back and check whether
you have achieved the objectives. Self Assessment Exercises are
interspersed throughout each study unit and answers are given at the end
of the course.
These exercise are designed to help you recall what you have studied and
to evaluate your learning by yourself. You should do each Self
Assessment Exercise as you come to it in the study unit. The summary at
the end of each unit also helps you to recall all the main topics discussed
in the main content of each unit. There are also tutor-marked questions at
the end of each unit. Working on these questions will help you to
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achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the assignments
which you will submit and the final examination.
It should take you about three hours to complete a study unit, the
exercises and assignments. When you have completed the first study unit
take note of how long it took you and use this information to draw up a
timetable to guide your study for the rest of your course. The wide
margins on the left and right side of the pages of your course book are
meant for you to make notes of the main ideas or key points which you
can use when revising the course. If you make use of all these features,
you will significantly increase your chances of passing the course.
3.3 Course Delivery
As an open and distance learner, you learn through several ways. You
learn when you interact with the content in your course material in the
same way as a student interacts with the teacher in a conventional
institution. You also learn when you are guided through the course;
however you are not taught the course. Instead, your course material is
your teacher, and as such you will not be able to get answers to any
questions which may arise from your study material. It is for this reason
that, in addition to the course material which you have received, the
delivery of this course is supported by tutorial, facilitation, and
counselling support services. Although these services are not
compulsory, you are encouraged to take maximum advantage of them.
3.3.1 Tutorial Sessions
The total number of tutorial hours for this course is 8 hours. Tutorials
sessions form a part of your learning process as you have an opportunity
to receive answers to questions or clarifications which you may have.
Also, you may contact you tutorial facilitator by phone or mail.
On your part, you will be expected to prepare ahead of time by studying

the relevant Study Units. Write your questions so as to gain maximum
benefit from tutorial sessions. Information about the location and time
schedule for facilitation will be available at your study centre.
Tutorial sessions are a flexible arrangement between you and your

tutorial facilitator. You will need to contact your study centre to arrange
the time schedule for the sessions. This is the reason why you need to
obtain your tutorial facilitator s phone number and email addresses.
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Tutorial sessions are optional. However, the benefits of participating in

them provide you a forum for interaction and peer group discussions
which will minimize the isolation you may experience as a distance
learner.
3.3.2 Facilitation
Facilitation is learning that takes place both within and outside tutorial
sessions. Your tutorial facilitator guides your learning by doing the
following:
• provide answers to your questions during tutorial sessions, on

phone or by email;
• coordinate group discussions;
• provide feedback on your assignments;
• pose questions to confirm learning outcomes;
• coordinate, mark and record your assignment/examination score;
and
• monitor your progress.
The language of instruction for this course is English. The course

material is available in print or CD formats, and also on the university
website.
One your part, you will be expected to prepare ahead of time by studying
the relevant Study Units, write your questions so as to gain maximum
benefit from facilitation.
Information about the location and time schedule for facilitation will be
available at your study centre. Time of facilitation is a flexible
arrangement between you and your tutorial facilitator. You should
contact your tutorial facilitator if:
• You do not understand any part of the Study Units.

• You have difficulty with the Self Assessment Exercises.
• You have a question or a problem with an assignment, with your
tutorial facilitator s comments on an assignment or with the
grading of an assignment.
3.3.3 Counselling
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Counselling forms a part of your learning because it is provided to make

your learning experience easier. Counselling is available to you at two
levels, academic and personal counseling. Student counselors are
available at the study centre to provide guidance for personal issues that
may affect your studies. Your study centre manager and tutorial
facilitators can assist you with questions on academic matters such as
course materials, facilitation, grade and so on. Make sure that you have
the phone numbers and email addresses of your study centre and the
various individuals.
3.4 Assessment
There are three components of assessment for this course: Self

Assessment Exercises and assignments at the end of each study unit; the
Tutor-Marked Assignments; and a written examination. In doing these
assignments, you are expected to use the information gathered during
your study of the course. Below are detailed explanations on how to do
each assignment.
3.4.1 Self Assessment Exercises (SAEs)
There are Self Assessment Exercises spread out through your course
material. You should attempt each exercise immediately after reading the
section that precedes it. Possible answers to the exercise are provided at
the end of the course book, however, you should check the answers
only after you must have attempted the exercise. The exercises are for
you to evaluate your learning; they are not to be submitted. There are
also questions spread through each study unit. You are required to
attempt these questions after you have read a study unit. Again, the
questions are to help you assess your knowledge of the contents of the
unit. You are not required to submit the answers for SAEs.
3.4.2 Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)
There are four Tutor-Marked Assignments for this course. The

assignments are designed to cover all areas treated in the course. You
will be given your assignments and the dates for submission at your
study centre. You are required to attempt all four Tutor-Marked
Assignments. You will be assessed on all four, but the best three
performance will be used for your continuous assessment.
Each assignment carries 10% and together will count for 30% of you
total score for the course. The assignments must be submitted to your
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tutorial facilitators for formal assessment on or before the stipulated

dates for submission. The work that you submit to your tutorial
facilitator for assessment will count for 30% of your total course score.
Guidelines for Writing Tutor-Marked Assignments
1. On the cover page of your assignment, write the course code

and title, assignment number (TMA 1, TMA 2) and date of
submission, your name and matriculation number. It should
look like this:
Course Code:
Course Title:
Tutor-Marked Assignment Number:
Topic of Assignment:
Date of Submission:
Name:
Matriculation Number:
School and Programme:
2. You should endeavour to be concise and to the point in your

answers and adhere to word limit where given. Your answer
should be based on your course material, further readings and
experience. However, do not copy from any of these materials.
If you do, you will be penalized. Remember to give relevant
examples and illustrations.
3. Use ruled foolscap sized paper for writing answers. Make and
keep a copy of your assignments.
4. Your answers should be hand-written by you. Leave a margin

of about 1.5 inches of the left side and about 5 lines before the
answers to the next question for your tutorial facilitator s
comments.
3.4.3 Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for EDA 852 will be of two hours duration, and
will carry 70% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of
questions which reflect the kinds of Self Assessment Exercises and
questions in the Tutor-Marked Assignments which you have previously
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encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. You should use the
time between finishing the last unit and taking the examination to revise
the entire course. You will find it useful to review your answers to Self
Assessment Exercises and Tutor-Marked Assignments before the
examination. For you to be eligible to sit for the final examination, you
must have done the following:
1. You should have submitted all the four Tutor-Marked

Assignments for the course.
2. You should have registered to sit for the examination. The

deadline for examination registration will be available at your
study centre. Failure to submit your assignments or to register
for the examination (even if you sit for the examination)
means that you will not have a score for the course.
Course Marking Scheme
The following table lays out the marks that constitute the total course
score.
Assessment Marks
Assignments 1 -4 (four submitted, Each assignment carries 10%, but
but the best three of all the only the best 3 assignments (30%)
assignments will be selected to will constitute CA score
form CA)
Final examination 70% of overall course score
Total 100% of course score
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, all the features of this course guide have been designed to
facilitate your learning in order that you achieve the aims and objectives
of the course. They include the aims and objectives, course summary,
course overview, Self Assessment Exercise and study questions. You
should ensure that you make maximum use of them in your study to
achieve maximum results.
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5.0 SUMMARY
EDA 852 Politics of Educational Management provides you with a

conceptual framework upon which you develop mastery in influencing
the behaviour of people to your own advantage. The course is aimed at
equipping you with analytical skills for examining the influence of
politics on policy formulation, review and implementation. Upon
completing the course, you should be able to influence the decisions of
all stakeholders in education (students, teachers, administrators, parents,
employers of labours, and government) to you own advantage.
I wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both
interesting and useful.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
(1) State the aim and objectives of this course.
(2) Outline the information on available support services for

this course and give a concise description of how this
course should be studied.
(3) Design and write your own personal course Guide for this
course.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Your course materials is the main text for this course. However, you are
encouraged to consult other sources as provided for you in list of
references and further reading below;
Bibliography
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Adeyemi, J.K. (1998). Cost in Education in M. Nwadiani. Educational

Management for Sub-Sahara Africa. (Pp. 66-80). Benin City: Nigerian
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Agbebaku, P.E. (2000). Topics in Political Science. Benin City: Sylva

Publishing Inc.
Ailoge, J. and Anegbode, J. (2001). Issues in Nigerian Government and

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System, Enugu: SNAAP Press.
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th
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Babalola, J.B. (1993). Diagnosis of Educational Policies and Reforms.

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Boudon, R. (1973). Education, Opportunity and Social Inequality. New
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Burger, R.H. (1993). Information Policy: A Framework for Evaluation

and Policy Research. Norwood New Jersy: Ablex
Coleman, J.S. (1968). The Concept of Equality of Educational

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Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1987). Egalitarianism and Inequalities in Nigeria

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Jimoh, B.O. (2006). Introduction to Educational Administration in J.A.

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Science and Problem Solving. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale
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zyklus.html
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the Formulation, Approval, Implementation and Operation of A National
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Nwagwu, N.A. (2002). The Politics of Education Policies in Nigeria.

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education in Nigeria. (Pp134-156). Ibadan: NAEAP Publications
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in N.A. Nwagwu, M.E. Ijeoma and C.C. Nwagwu (Eds.) Organization
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Administration of Education: Perspectives and Practices, (Pp.156-176).

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Provision and Management of Education in Nigeria (PP 123-129), Jos:
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Babalola; M. Fabunmi and A.O. Ayeni. Management of Primary and
Secondary Education in Nigeria. (Pp. 313-324). Ibadan: NAEAP
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Management. Ibadan: Macmillian Nigeria Publishers Ltd.
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Adjustment, Revitalisation and Expansion. Washington, D.C.: The
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Universal Basic Education. Human Development Africa Region
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Administration. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd
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UNESCO
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Educational Service Lecture Series Publication.
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EDA 852: POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANEGEM ENT
BY
DR. V.O. IGBINEWEKA
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AL FOUNDATINS AND

MANAGEMENT
AMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY, EKPOMA, EDO STATE.
EMAIL: igbinewekavict orogie2004@yahoo.com

GSM NUMBERS: 08056410212, 07033246631
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EDA 852
POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Course Developer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Department of Educational Foundats and
Management,
Ekpoma, Nigeria.
Unit Writer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Department of Educational Foundations and
Management,
Ekpoma, Nigeria.
Course Editor: Prof. N.A. Nwagwu

Faculty of Education
University of Benin
Benin City
Programme overseer Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

Course Coordinator: Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

21
MODULE ONE: CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN POLITICS AND

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
UNIT 1 MEANING OF POLITICS AND SOME

POLITICAL TERMINOLOGIES
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Meaning of Politics
3.2 Some Political Terminologies
3.2.1 Political Socialization
3.2.2 Interest/Pressure Groups
3.2.3 Interest Articulation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
UNIT 2 THE POLITICS OF NATIONHOOD
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Concept of the Politics of Nationhood
3.2 Importance of Political Education
3.3 An Appraisal of the Nigerian Political Climate
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
UNIT 3 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Meaning, Scope and Purpose of Education
3.2 The Educational System
3.3 Basic Features of the Educational System
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4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
UNIT 4 CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Educational Management
3.2 Functional Areas of Educational Management
3.3 Purpose of Educational Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
UNIT 5 THE ROLE OF POLITICS IN EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Impact of Politics on Educational Management
3.2 The Role Education Plays in Political System Development
3.3 Political Factors and Educational Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
MODULE TWO: THE INFLUENCE OF POLITICS ON DECISION

MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
UNIT 1 DECISION MAKING AND POLICY

FORMULATION
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
23
3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Decision Making Process
3.2 Decision Making Determinants
3.3 Decision Making and Policy Plan
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Readings
UNIT 2 EDUCATIONAL POLICY MAKING PROCESS
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Concept of Educational Policy
3.2 The Educational Policy Making Process
3.3 Educational Policy Making Models
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
UNIT 3 THE ROLE OF INTEREST GROUPS IN POLICY

MAKING PROCESS
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Students and Parents Role in Education Policy making Process
3.2 Teachers Unions and Education Policy Making Process
3.3 The Role of Civil Servants in Education Policy Making Process
3.4 The Role of Political Parties in Education Policy Making Process
3.5 The Role of Religious and Ethnic Groups in Education Policy
Making Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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UNIT 4 EXAMINATION OF PAST AND PRESENT

EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN NIGERIA
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Educational Policies by Missionaries
3.2 Educational Policies by Colonial Government
3.3 Educational Policies by the Nigerian Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
UNIT 5 DEVOLUTION OF FUNCTIONS IN

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Constitutional Provisions for Educational Management in Nigeria
3.2 Local Government s Role in Education Management
3.3 State Government s Role in Education Management
3.4 Federal Government s Role in Education Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
MODULE THREE: CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES IN

UNIT 1 CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUE OF

FUNDING EDUCATION AND THE UBE IN
NIGERIA
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
25
3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Concept of Funding Education
3.2 Sources and Stakeholders in the Funding of Education
3.3 Determinants of UBE Implementation in Nigeria
3.4 UBE Cost Sharing Amongst the Tiers of Government
3.5 The Challenge of Inadequate Funding of Education
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
UNIT 2 CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES OF

GOVERNMENT TAKE-OVER/HAND-OVER OF
SCHOOLS
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The history of Government take-over of Schools in Nigeria
3.2 Reasons for the Government take-over of Schools
3.3 The Effect of Government takeover of Schools
3.4 Controversy over Government Return of Schools to Original
Owners
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of Equality of Educational Opportunities
3.2 Reasons for Educational Imbalance in Nigeria
3.3 Government Policy to Remedy Educational Imbalance
3.4 Challenge of Gender Imbalance in Education Participation
3.5 Politics of Location of New Educational Institutions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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UNIT 4 THE CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES OF

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING (ODL) AND
PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of ODL
3.2 Characteristics of ODL
3.3 Factors that affect ODL Implementation
3.4 Concept of Private Educational Institutions
3.5 Arguments For/Against Private Participation in Educational
Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
UNIT 5 ISSUE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF THE

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (NPE)
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 The Philosophy and Goals of Education in Nigeria
3.2 Terms of Reference for NPE Implementation Committee
3.3. Challenge of Implementing the National Policy on Education
3.4. Reviews and Editions of the NPE
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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MODULE 1 CONCEPTUAL ISSUES IN POLITICS AND

Unit 1- Meaning of Politics and some Political Terminologies

Unit 2- The Politics of Nationhood
Unit 3- The Meaning of Education
Unit 4- Concept of Educational Management
Unit 5- The Influence of Politics on Educational Management
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UNIT 1 MEANING OF POLITICS AND SOME

POLITICAL TERMINOLOGIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.2 Some Political Terminologies
3.2.2 Interest/Pressure Group
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
It is often said that everybody is a political animal. This is

because there is politics in everything we do. There is politics in
the decisions we take at home, in government, in educational
management and even in religion. It is therefore important that we
understand the meaning of politics and some political
terminologies.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

§ explain the meaning of politics
§ identify some political terminologies
§ discuss what political socialization means
§ explain the meaning of interest/pressure groups
§ discuss what interest articulation means
3.0 Main Contents
This encompasses the activities involved in getting and using

power in public life, and being able to influence decisions that
affect a country or a society. It includes matters concerned with
getting or using power within a particular group or organization.
29
Politics describes a system of political affairs. Politics is therefore

an act whereby someone uses his/her power or authority to
influence the decision of others to his/her advantage. Authority in
this context means the power or right a person has to give orders
to people. Influence on the other hand is the power that somebody
has to make people behave the way he/she wants them to behave.
Another element of politics is interest. Politics is a kind of game
play that involves activities which people enter into to pursue
groups, personal or selfish interest(s).
Political values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour are acquired by

the citizens of a given society through political socialization.
Political socialization is a long developmental process through
which the citizens acquire the beliefs, feelings and information
that help them comprehend, evaluate and relate to the political
world around them. The agents of political socialization include
the family, peer groups, school, social clubs, political parties,
mass media etc
The Family
The family is the nucleus of the society and it is the first point of
contact between the new born-citizens and the political system. It
is the family that teaches the child his political system, mother s
tongue, initial religious beliefs and some societal norms. As he
grows, he starts to learn from his parents the symbols of the
community, the political parties and political figures favoured by
his parents and those they dislike. The place of the family as an
agent of political socialization is so diffused and pervasive that
one can know the political learning or preference of a particular
family by listening to their children.
Some critics of the family as an agent of political socialization see

it as an agent of introduction rather than educating the children.
At this early stage of growth, the child is more or less a duplicate
of the parents political orientation.
The School
The place of the school as an agent of political socialization can

not be over-emphasized as it is a critical socializing structure in
30
the modern state. The school has within its curriculum subjects
like history, geography, and social studies etc which teach the
students the different aspect of social life and by this a
comprehensive cultural transmission takes place. Having been
exposed to the various areas and knowledge of the political
system the student can now subject to critical evaluation the
values he has been taught in the family. The teacher stands a very
good chance to indoctrinate the student but yet the student may
still emerge independent of the preferences of his teachers since
the child is now growing in maturity and also his exposition to
numerous literatures.
A typical classroom is made up of children from different

religious, social and family background. They enter into all forms
of relationships and these inter relationship may either strengthen
or weaken their previously held political perception.
Civic Clubs
People collaborate in order to realize their various interests

because it is easier that way. Therefore they form or join clubs,
associations, unions, religious groups etc. All these groups of
different forms and colouration exist in all political systems and
they perform socializing functions knowingly or unknowingly.
For example, many parents insist on sending their children to their
religious denomination schools so that they can be taught their
religious tenets. The Catholic Church for instance preaches
against abortion, divorce and other moral vices. It advocates good
moral virtues which are necessary for the survival of the political
system. Other clubs like Hitler Youth, Girls Guide, Boys Brigade,
Boys Scout, Political Party Youth Wing, Koomsomol of the
former USSR are formed by both the governments and citizens to
transmit political culture.
Mass Media
This is a powerful tool of political socialization. With powerful

and sophisticated electronic gadgets at its disposal, its power of
informing and educating the people is very efficient and effective.
The media gives the day by day happenings in the nation and with
globalization what is also happening all over the world. The
people are in contact with their leaders, the issues facing the
nation, as well as the different positions on the issues. In
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contemporary politics, political parties float mass media outfits to

enable government and opposition transmit their messages to the
people.
Political Parties
The political party is also an important agent of political

socialization because it influences a large number of the people to
be involved in the political life of the state. With its manifestos,
the party educates the people and makes them to be aware of the
range of choices available to them. Within and through the
political party, the people are instilled with expectations, hope and
love for the political system.
3.2.2 Interest/ Pressure Groups
The persistence or survival of any political system depends on the

information or supports it gets from the citizenry. This support is
provided by some people with common interest or ideology in the
system that forms themselves into groups. The groups are formed
to advance specific demands and may, disappear as soon as their
demands are achieved. An interest group is an organized body of
individuals that consciously come together to agitate, defend or
articulate some kind of interests common to them in the system.
For example, some people come together in government, military,
school, business, or even in religious organizations to agitate for
or against whenever they feel their existence or interest is being
threatened or not adequately catered for.
Agitations expressed by interest groups are not of much use if

they are not articulated or transformed into concrete policy
alternatives suitable for rational decision making. Interest
articulation is the method or process by which pressure groups
press their demands. Such pressures are normally geared towards
influencing public policies in their own favour or in direction that
would benefit them. This art of interest articulation is a sine qua
non in any political system. The advantage of allowing interests
or opinions to be articulated can not be over-emphasized.
Allowing articulation of opinion or interest in any political system
shows how democratic the system is. When individuals or groups
are permitted to air the views or opinions, however bad, the
32
necessary vent is given to potently prevent or discourage

clandestine activities. Conversely, bottle-up feelings that are not
expressed in groups could lead to dissatisfaction and consequently
to the eruption of violence in the society.
Self Assessment Exercises
1. How would you explain the concept of politics

2. Identify some interest groups in the school system
3. List any five (5) agents of political socialization
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have understood politics to mean the use of

power to influence decisions that affect other people. The use of
this power as you have seen depends on proper understanding of
the basic elements of politics. The game of politics is very
interesting when these terms are understood or applied in seeking
to influence the decision of others to ones advantage.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you learnt the meaning of politics and some terms
used in the game of politics. It has served to introduce you to the
meaning of political socialization, interest/pressure group and
interest articulation. The next unit will teach you the politics of
nationhood.
1. What is Politics?
2. Write explanatory notes on the following terms:
(a) political socialization
(b) interest/pressure groups
(c) interest articulation
33
Ailoje, J. and Anegbode, J. (2001). Issues in Nigerian

Government and Politics. Akure: Sylva Publishing Inc.
Agbebaku, P.E. (2000). Topics in Political Science. Benin City:

Sylva Publishing Inc.
Easton, D. (1965). A Framework for Political Analysis. New

Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Key, V.O. (1978). Politics and Pressure Groups. New Jersey:

Prentice Hall Inc.
Lasswell, H.D. (1936). Politics: Who Gets What, When & How?
New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book & Co.
34
UNIT 2 THE POLITICS OF NATIONHOOD
CONTENTS
8.0 Introduction
9.0 Objectives
10.0 Main contents
11.0 Conclusion
12.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Are you a politically active person? Do you know how to use

your power to influence the decision of others to your advantage
in your place of work or family or club? In this unit, you will
learn the concept of nationhood and importance of political
education. You will also be guided to appraise the Nigerian
political environment.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

§ discuss the concept of the politics of nationhood
§ highlight the importance of political education
§ appraise the Nigerian political environment
3.0 Main Contents
Man created society because he needed it to survive on the face of

the earth, so it can be said that society takes care of half of his life
while his individuality accounts for the rest. Society means other
human beings that he has voluntarily agreed to associate with and
this agreement is mutual to all members of the society. The
association being voluntary and in total freedom, has seen
35
aggrieved people leaving their original societies and migrate to

other societies of the people of like philosophies.
The structure of society is one in which all members depend on

each other to find true fulfillment. Every individual expects some
service benefit from other individuals in the society especially in
areas they are deficient or less endowed. This interdependence of
members of a society is the source of their enduring togetherness
and unity in the face of adversities. What hurts the entire society
hurts its individual members and by the same token, what hurts
the individual affects the entire society to the degree of the
usefulness of that individual to his society. The fate and fortune of
the individual is therefore inseparable from that of the society in
which he lives. As a consequence, all actions and activities of
individuals, separately and collectively, privately or in public
have direct consequences on the structure and well being of the
entire society. There is no private affair of the individual which
does not affect the life of some other persons who share the same
piece of earth with him. How much then of self interest can we
say is not common interest and by the same token, we can only
achieve effective self protection only when we have considered
and protected the interest of other people in the society.
A nation of individualists, sectionalists, tribalists and religious

demagogues is an underdeveloped and uncivilized society,
because it has not exploited fully, its human resource potentials. It
is not a fully developed society because it has not attained the
objective of the creation of society which is said to be the
exploitation of the individuals playing diverse but complementary
roles, according to their natural endowments to the benefit of each
other- this is the foundation on which true democracy is anchored.
It is everybody s responsibility to support the education of

children to cherish freedom and to accept responsibility for
preserving and extending it. The kind of critical thinking that is
encouraged must rest on a solid base of factual knowledge. First,
citizens must know the fundamental ideas central to the political
vision. Second, citizens must know how democratic ideas have
metamorphosed into institutions and practices- the history of the
origins, growth and adventures of democratic societies. How have
these societies fared? Who has defended them and why? Who has
36
sought their undoing and why? What conditions- economic,

social, cultural, religious and military-have helped to shape
democratic practice? What conditions made it difficult-
sometimes even impossible- for such societies to take root?
Thirdly, citizens in our society need to understand the current
condition of the world and how it got that way, and to be prepared
to act upon the challenges to democracy in our own day. What are
the roots of our present dangers and of the choices before us? For
intelligent citizenship, we need a through grasp of the daily
workings of our society, as well as the societies of our friends, of
our adversaries, and of the developed world.
Teaching about democracy is not an easy task. Making electoral

choices, understanding the importance of the rule of law, working
in co-operation in order to improve society, showing tolerance
towards political opponents, judging information provided by the
media, knowing how to become active participants in social and
political life, and a host of other things must be learned if
democracy is to survive and prosper. This is because such values
are neither revealed truths nor natural habits. There is no evidence
that we are born with them. Devotion to human dignity and
freedom, to rights, to social economic justice, to civility and truth,
to tolerance and diversity, to mutual assistance, to personal and
civic responsibility, to self restraint and self-respect-all these must
be taught, learned and practiced. They should not be taken for
granted or regarded as merely one set of option against which any
other may be accepted as equally worthy.
Helping students master the skills and knowledge as well as

develop the attitudes required for effective democracy demands
skillful teaching and comprehensive educational programmes.
Effective education for democracy programmes is based on
certain philosophical and methodological underpinnings.
Philosophically, all such programmes recognize the fundamental
worth and dignity of all human beings. As such, they require
school environments. Therefore, from the earliest school age,
students must be taught to think for themselves as well as feel
responsibility for others. School and classrooms environment that
are authoritarian- focusing on obedience as opposed to learning,
restricting the development of students self expression, etc. are
not likely to prepare democratic citizens. Rather they are likely to
retard the development of democracy by reinforcing the existing
political culture.
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The beginning of anti democracy is the disenfranchisement of

some members of a society or citizens of a Nation. The first step
to such disenfranchisement is the usurpation or appropriation of
their right to make political decisions based on their own
judgment and inclinations. It is the stumbling block on the path to
the development of true democracy in Nigeria today. We are
running a society in which few people want to arrogate to
themselves the right to make political and social decisions on
behalf of the people especially in the issue of choice of
leadership. In the process, they have proceeded to disenfranchise
the average Nigerians. Disenfranchisement is accomplished each
time the electoral process is not allowed to run its constitutional
course.
Money is used to induce people to catch their votes for candidates

to the extent that the average Nigerian now expects to be paid to
make a political choice. In a party primary election, an entire
ward refused to commence the process of voting because they
have not received their share of monies sent by the candidates.
Nobody seems to notice the absurdity in a situation in which the
same group of electorates receive monies from all the candidates,
ostensibly to vote for them in an election they have only one vote
each. The versions of resolutions of such predicaments have to be
witnessed than imagined, but the effect on the people is definite.
It has convinced them according to Walson-Jack (2000) that the
entire undertaking is a travesty of political leadership. They are
convinced that no good government will emerge from the exercise
so they make a festival of the occasion and try to forget it like a
bad dream. The general inclination is to believe that our political
aspirants are in the race to loot public treasury and their
extravagance during electioneering campaign is an indication that
they will be generous with the dispensation of public funds while
in office. Public funds they say are inexhaustible and are for
sharing among party faithful, relations, friends and self
enrichment of political office holders. Up till this day according to
Walson-Jack (2000) no political party or any of their officers have
taken any step to state that these popular views of politics are not
correct. Knowing that they are true of political actions on the
field, they have not made any deliberate effort to correct their
political aspirants and educate party members as to their correct
38
democratic role. The citizens are left as ever before impoverished

of the right political awareness. The hope of the dawn of a new
political culture is not as bright as we all anticipated. There is not
much positive teaching going on at the grassroots towards true
democracy.
Self Assessment Exercise
1. Advance any three reasons why it is important to teach people

political education
2. What are the ideals of politics
3. Analyze the Nigerian political environment
4.0 Conclusion
This unit conceptualized politics of nationhood and emphasized

the importance of political education. The ideals of politics were
highlighted against which the Nigerian political environment was
appraised.
5.0 Summary
You have learnt from this unit what the politics of nationhood is
all about. The importance of providing political education was
emphasized. The appraisal of the Nigerian political climate
revealed among others that money, greed and selfishness pervert
the political process.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
1. Advance any three reasons why it is important to teach people

political education
2. What are the ideals of politics?
3. Analyze the Nigerian political environment
39
Alele- Williams, G. (1988). The politics of Administering a

Nigerian University in A.U. Kadiri (Ed.) 25 Years of
Centralized University Education in Nigeria. (Pp.17-31)
Lagos: National Universities Commission.
Nwoko, D. (1992). The Impoverished Generation. Asaba : New

culture Publications.
Terence, J.J. (1972). Professions and Power. London: The

Macmillian Press.
Walson-Jack, N. (2000). Education for Democracy. Lagos: A

Central Educational Service Lecture Series Publication.
40
UNIT 3 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
CONTENTS
10.0 Introduction
11.0 Objectives
12.0 Main Contents
3.1 Meaning, Scope and Purpose of Education
3.2 The Educational System
3.3 Basic Features of the Educational System
13.0 Conclusion
14.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
It is very good and commendable that you are interested in

education. In this unit therefore, the meaning, scope and purpose
of education will be discussed. The education system as a concept
will be explained and the basic features of the educational system
discussed.
2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, it is hoped that students will be able to:
§ explain the meaning, scope and purpose of education

§ discuss what the educational system means
§ highlight the basic features of the educational system
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Meaning, Scope and purpose of Education
3.1.1 Meaning of Education
Education as an activity is as old as man across cultures. It is

therefore a concept that people have severally defined according
to their own perceptions. According to Emenike (2004), education
is the acquisition of knowledge that tends to train and develop the
individual. Education embraces not only school experiences but
41
also indirect or incidental influences which help us to learn, such

influences and activities affect our character, behaviours and
perceptions. Education as perceived by Kneller (1963); Phenics
(1964); Farrant (1964); Hirst (1966) and Cermin (1978) is a
process of learning to live as useful and acceptable members of
society. As a social institution, Emile Durkheim (1956: 28)
defined education as:
The influence exercised by adult generations on those that
are yet ready for social life. Its object is to arouse and to
develop in the child a certain number of physical,
intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him
by both the political society as a whole and the special
milieu for which is specifically destined.
The matters arising from this definition are twofold. The first is
that education is the process by which individuals are selected and
assigned social roles while the second shows that the level of
development in a society is dependent on the type (or quality) of
education given to its members. All in all, education is a
continuous learning process through which members of a society
acquire requisite knowledge and skills to facilitate effective
performance of assigned social responsibilities.
3.1.2 Scope of Education
The scope of education covers formal, informal and non-formal

modes of learning.
Formal Education
Formal education, referred to as school education is organized in

primary, secondary and tertiary institutions of learning. Rules and
regulations formulated and administered by the Ministry of
Education characterize this type of education that first started in
Western or developed societies. Policies are drawn up to guide
and direct while laws are made by government to control the
operations of education. In this type of education, rules and
regulations are made to guide the type of buildings, facilities,
equipment required in the schools, the entry qualifications of
students, their ages, the curricula, the rules guiding the students
movement, the qualifications of the teachers, their workloads,
their conditions of service and the students certification and
graduation. There is usually quality control mechanism. This
42
formal education which was introduced to Nigeria by the

Christian Missionaries in 1842 A.D has since grown steadily and
in recent time speedily. Indeed from a single primary school in
Badagry in 1842 to 41,000 primary schools, about 6,400
secondary schools, about 89 colleges and 83 universities in 2006
(FRN, 2009).
Informal Education
This is the education received from the family, peer group, the
environment, resulting in the acquisition of the knowledge of
local animals, trees, leaves, songs, traditions and so on. It is life
long education which is and continues to be acquired as
knowledge, attitude, skills, and insights from daily experiences in
the environment. The learner without being conscious of what he
is doing learns from observation and imitation. There is no
systematic learning method nor is there a syllabus.
Non-Formal Education
Non-formal education is an organized educational activity outside

the framework of the formal school. It is designed to provide
selected types of learning to particular groups in the population
particularly the adults. The education includes such out of school
programmes as literacy and basic education, technical and
vocational training, community development, family planning and
agricultural extension services. Others include the education and
training programmes of trade unions, industries, professional
associations, the military, the government, the church, the press,
legal bodies and so on. It takes many forms such as seminars,
short courses examination. It provides a wide range of learning
services which are beyond the scope of formal education. It is a
means of extending the skills and knowledge gained in formal
education and of course a counter balancing tool for correcting
some of the distortions or lapses in formal education (Aghenta,
1993).
3.1.3 Purpose of Education
A national educational investment, the educational effort of a

people, whether or not it is articulated in the form of a policy,
should have certain basic aims and objectives. For Nigeria, the
White Paper of March 1977 enunciated these fairly well. Some
43
people have been thinking about what the aims and objectives of
Education in the country should be and have come up with what
may represent a paraphrasing of the policy declarations, though
with more emphasis on a more active role for the recipient, and
for all citizens.
§ The cardinal aim of education should be the total development

of the individual, so that he or she can fully exploit his or her
potential as human being, playing his or her full role in society
as a citizen. Since education is a great investment by society
on its members, the citizens must reciprocate by using the
education so received for services to the people, enjoining the
good and forbidding the evil.
§ Education policy must seek to provide education that will
equip all recipients with the necessary attitude, knowledge and
skills to contribute to national and human development and to
engender in them qualities of decency, fair play and good
citizenship, as well as the stimulus for the continuous search
for improvement and excellence.
§ The education policy must seek to discover the gifted in the
society. Human advancement through spectacular break-
through has been achieved only through the work of geniuses.
Since it is known that giftedness can succumb to the ravages
of adverse environments, every effort must be made to ensure
that any trace of the genius is given every facility for full
expression.
§ Education must produce those who can survive through being
able to fend for themselves in this world and to help others to
survive through generating work and solving problems.
Education should not lead to the production of a long line of
unemployed school leavers (economic misfits and social
parasites). In other words, policy should generate and expand
gainful employment opportunities for everyone, thereby
generating wealth and narrowing the gap between men and
women, the rich and the poor, urban and rural dwellers, and
between urban opulence and urban ghettoes. This social order
is important for survival.
§ Education policy must have as one of its cardinal objectives
accelerated economic and technological development in the
country, in environment of stability and discipline, and with a
preserved and healthy social structure emphasizing intrinsic
values, self reliance and nationalism. Nigerians must take
pride in originality and productivity and must reject mental
44
subservience to other peoples values. Education should

confer on the individual and on the people the simple,
common-sense acceptance of concept of the common good,
including such things as love of the country, personal
discipline, hard work, peaceful co-existence, dangers of
overpopulation, and conservation; and be able to recognize,
for example, the absurdity of fighting over urban plots, while
the desert and erosion eat up hundreds of thousands of acres of
usable land annually.
§ Education policy should rapidly transform the country into a
truly united, democratic and dynamic nation, socially stable
and technologically equipped to take its place as a nation
among nations.
§ The educational system to be pursued should, to the extent the
nation can afford, be accessible to all qualified citizens, whose
sojourn through it will prove useful to them and to the society.
The system must enjoy the confidence of the people
themselves and to the society. The system must enjoy the
confidence of the people, including its formulators and
operators, who would demonstrate this confidence by proudly
admitting their own children into it at all levels. It must be a
system the people will recognize as their own, belonging to
them, like a mosque or Church or a Club, as a symbol of their
individual and national aspirations and therefore in the growth
and sustenance of which they will readily participate. An
educational system which places the people at one end
receiving and the Government at the other end giving, is not
the most viable proposition.
§ Apart from the societal objectives, the educational system has
deep responsibility unto itself, and a harmonious atmosphere
needs to be maintained in the entire system. Teachers must be
trained to acquire competence and develop the right attitude
and orientation towards their students. The administration of
education must be competent at all levels with projects
conceived and executive in a businesslike environment.
3.2 The Educational system
Educational system is a concept that has been ill-defined by

educators, educational administrators, learners and the public. To
many people, educational system is synonymous with formal
education. This concept is rather very narrow. Educational system
is much more than formal education. Unfortunately, educational
45
policy statements and practices of most developing nations are

tailored towards this narrow view of educational system. For this
reason, very many crucial aspects of learning are taken for
granted in the process of supplying education to the people.
According to Coombs (1968:53)
The phrase educational system means not merely the
several levels and types of formal education (primary,
secondary, post-secondary, general and specialized) but
also all those system programmes and processes of
education and training that lie outside formal education
Currently, voices of criticism have been heard on formal

education as the sole and a reliable process of knowing. If
education is the transmission of ideas of value for the
development of the whole man in relation to the dynamic needs of
the society; the fact that formalization of education has time
dimension, formal education in the form of schooling can not
provide the continuous ideas of value. Hence there are other
complementary forms of learning.
Educational system therefore is taken to mean not only formal

schooling but all those processes, agencies including individuals
that play different roles which are mutually inclusive in the
provision of opportunities geared towards learning in any society.
Thus, educational system implies formal, informal and non-
formal processes of learning. It includes formal school education,
in-service training, on-the-job education provided by
apprenticeship centers, industries and firms, labour union
activities, government agencies for farmers and other rural
dwellers; forms of learning provided for migrant nomads and
fishermen, legal institutions, the press and mass media (radio,
T.V. etc) orientation courses of whatever type, social rights of
passage and even educational efforts provided by churches and
political parties. From this definition, what is central and common
to all educational systems across space and time is learning.
1. What do you think education should do for people and the

society?
2. What are the main components of the Nigerian educational
system?
46
4.0 Conclusion
This unit explained the meaning, scope and purpose of education

as well as what the education system means. The characteristics
of educational system were outlined and discussed so that you can
appreciate the uniqueness of educational organizations.
5.0 Summary
You have learnt that knowledge and skills for effective

performance of social roles can be acquired through formal,
informal and non-formal learning modes. You have also learnt
that the totality of all identifiable learning modes makes up the
educational system with distinct features.
1. What do we expect education to do for us as individuals

and society?
2. Describe the Nigerian educational system?
3. What features distinguish educational organizations from
other types of organizations?
Aghenta, J.A.. (2000). Educational Planning. A Turning Point in

Education and Development in Nigeria. Inaugural Lecture
Series 58. University of Benin.
Aminu, J.M. (1986). Quality and Stress in Nigerian Education.

Maiduguri: Northern Nigerian Publishing Company.
Nwadiani, M. (1992). Dialectics of Educational System in A.A.

Akiri and M. Nwadiani (Eds.) Comparative Education (Pp.20-
41). Ekiadolor: Nigeria Educational Research Association NCE
Series
Nwadiani, M. (1998). Educational Management for Sub-Sahara

Africa. Benin City: Monose Amalgamates.
47
UNIT 4 CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.2 Functional Areas of Educational Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
This unit conceptualized the meaning of educational management
and discussed the functional task areas. There is no doubt that this
will provide the necessary guidance to education programmes
implementers to effectively perform their roles. The purpose of
educational management was also emphasized.
2.0 Objectives

§ define educational management
§ highlight the functional task areas in educational management
§ discuss the purpose of educational management
3.0 Main Contents
Educational management is essentially concerned with

educational planning and administration. Educational planning is
the exercise of foresight in determining the policies, priorities and
cost of an educational system. Educational administration on the
other hand focuses on the arrangement and usage of available
resources to achieve the desired objectives of an educational
system. The meaning of educational management therefore
becomes very clear when the two concepts are married together.
In this context, educational management can be conceptualized to
mean a deliberate and systematic process of making plans to
48
source, assemble, allocate and use resources to achieve the aims

and objectives of the educational system. The scope goes beyond
the school system to include micro and macroeconomics in the
national economy.
3.2 Functional Task Areas in Educational Management
You have already learnt that educational management entails the

utilization of available resources by management to achieve the
school system pre-defined goals. In doing this, the school
management with the school head or administrator providing
leadership perform the following functions.
Instructional Functions: The management of school

instructional programmes constitutes one of the most important
functions of the principal because the ultimate goal of educational
administration is the improvement of teaching and learning. The
principal collaborates with the teachers, students and inspector in
the selection and implementation of relevant and appropriate
school activities that would enhance the instructional programmes
of the school. According to Ukeje, Akabogu and Ndu (1992), the
principal designs efficient work schedules, assign reasonable
workloads to teachers and ensure the utilization of available
professional and material resources. With the assistance of the
teachers, the students are allocated into classes to form the best
learning groups. In the same vein, the principal provides avenue
for extra-curricular activities (sports and debates) and other
auxiliary services so as to ensure total development of the
students.
Staff or Personnel Services: This function, often referred to as

school personnel function, involves the selection and placement
of staff, staff motivation, development and evaluation. In the
words of Aderounmu and Ehiametalor (1985), it is the
establishment and maintenance of school climate. This function
demands that the principal be concerned with the professional and
personal problems of his staff in order to guide against negative
spill-over effects. The principal must realize that the success of
the school programme and that of the overall education goal
depends on the quality, dedication and performance of available
staff.
49
Student Services : The students are at the center of the

educational process. Therefore all the activities that go on in the
school are aimed at developing their total personality to the
fullest. This demands that the principal implements good
instructional programmes and provide opportunities for students
to develop responsible attitudes and acquire good moral training
that will prepare them for their future lives (Ozigi, 1982). The
principal shows considerable concern for students, look into their
teaching and learning situation, provide opportunities for their
character development, endeavour to understand and solve their
personal problems, and cater for their well-being and happiness.
Besides, the principal should have cumulative records for all the
students and also develop a method of reporting to the parents the
progress of their wards in school. Pupil services may be
categorized into admission and classification, guidance and
counseling, social and recreational activities and the maintenance
of school discipline (Jimoh, 2006).
Financial and Physical Resource Management: This function

often referred to, as School business administration is another
important function of the school principal. Although the
responsibility of providing appropriate material and financial
resources to public schools in Nigeria is on government, yet the
effective use of these resources for the accomplishment of the
educational purpose rest on the school principal. School
buildings, equipment and supplies cost a great deal of money.
Therefore, they should be adequately maintained and cared for.
The storage and distribution of school supplies and equipment
must be given adequate attention. The principal must have a
sound system of accountability for school supplies and school
records kept and preserved (Ehiametalor, 1995).
As the chief accounting officer of the school, the principal ensures

that a good accounting system based on sound accounting
principles is maintained in all his financial transactions. He works
with the bursar to draw up the budget for the school. If he is
involved in any type of revenue collection like school fees,
examination levies, PTA levies etc., he ensures that receipts are
issued for such monies collected and records of all items of
expenditure. Although this schedule is that of the bursar, the
principal has to supervise all financial transactions of the school.
50
School Community Relations: The school as an institution is a

social system designed to serve the need of the society. No school
can operate in a social vacuum, outside the society, it is designed
to serve. The school derives its existence and sustenance from the
community that supplies the input used in the school. The school
in turn process and refines the input which it sends back as output
to the community to develop and advance it for the betterment of
the larger society. This dependence on the community makes it
difficult for the school to function effectively without the support
of the community. Based on this symbiotic relationship, the
school principal according to Jimoh (2006) should on regular
basis, liaise with the community to acquaint it with the school
vision, values and programmes in order to enlist its support.
School community relation is the reaching out of the school

administrator to the various publics that make up the school
system. The school principal has a dual responsibility, one to the
general public and the other to the internal operation of his
organization. This means that school community relations starts
from the relationship with staff and students spread outwards to
parents and then to the wider public which the school serves. As a
manager, the principal should recognize, strengthen and use this
bond in a way that will enhance the realization of the school goals
(Ozigi, 1982).

The success of any system of education is predicated on proper
planning, effective administration and adequate financing.
Administration is a function of the organization structure, control,
proprietorship, inspection and supervision put in place to actualize
the aim of education. The purpose of educational management
among others include
(a) ensure adequate and effective planning of all

educational services;
(b) provide efficient administrative and management
control for the maintenance and improvement of the
system;
(c) ensure quality control through regular and
continuous supervision of instructional and other
educational services and;
(d) provide adequate and balanced financial support for
all educational services.
51

1. Assuming you are a school headmaster, outline your duties to
justify the salary that you receive
2. What does educational management mean to you?
3. Why do you think educational management is important in
schools?
4.0 Conclusion
You have learnt that educational management is basically

concerned with the effective and efficient utilization of
educational resources to achieve the aim of education. The
functional task areas of the school head include among others
providing superintendentship over fund, curriculum, instruction,
facilities, staff and student administration, and community
relations.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the meaning of education was explained. The purpose

of educational management was stated to guide stakeholders
perform their roles in the education business. Finally, the
functional task areas in education management were identified
and discussed.
1. Define the concept of educational management

2. Discuss the functional task areas of the school
administrator.
3. State the purpose of educational management
Aderounmu, W.O. and Ehiametor, E.T. (1985). Introduction to

Administrative of Schools in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers
Publishers Ltd
Ehiametalor, E.T. (1995). Data Management in School and Other

Issues. Benin City: NERA Publication.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on

Education. Lagos: NERDC.
52
Jimoh, B.O. (2006). Introduction to Educational Administration in

J.A. Aghenta and E.O. Omoregie (Eds.) Fundamentals of
Educational Management (Pp1-18). Agbor: Krisbec
Publications
Nwadiani, M. (1998). Educational Management for Sub-Sahara

Africa. Benin City: Monose Amalgamates.
Ozigi, A.O. (1982). A Handbook on School Administration and

Management. Ibadan: Macmillian Nigeria Publishers Ltd.
Ukeje, B.O., Akabogu, G.C. and Ndu, A. (1992). Educational

Administration. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd
53
UNIT 5 THE ROLE OF POLITICS IN EDUCATIONAL

MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Impact of Politics in Educational Management
3.2 The Role Education Plays in Political System
Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference
1.0 Introduction
This unit discussed the role of politics in educational

management. The impact of politics on educational management;
the role effective management of education plays in political
system development and; political factors and education
management will be specifically discussed. Do you think that
after going through this unit, you will be more effective in the
performance of managerial functions?
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students are expected to

1. discuss the role of politics in educational management
2. explain the role education plays in political system
development
3. discuss how some political factors impact on educational
management
54
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Impact of Politics on Educational Management
Politics is all about the formulation of visions and finding ways to

achieve them. This entails setting goals and mobilizing the
resources it takes to attain them (Hernes, 2002).
The effect of the political system on education is of concern

because the potential impact of the school on politics is
significant. In other words, the relationship between the two is a
reciprocal one and the extent to which political development takes
place depends on the compatibility between the two systems. The
type of political system is important in determining the nature of
its impact on the schooling process. In many ways, the differences
in education between capitalist and socialist regimes, developed
and less developed countries and rural and urban societies are due
to the effects of the political system in practice.
Politics is the authoritative allocation of the values of society

(Easton, 1965). Values refer to the cherished beliefs and resources
of society such as egalitarianism, religion, education, money and
the likes. Lasswell (1936) defined politics as having to do with
the distribution of stakes within a society. Stakes means jobs,
money, prestige, influence, status or even acceptance of ideas.
The educational system plays a unique role in political
socialization for the society. The distribution of education itself is
a stake, the micro political system of the school and the notion of
an educator as a political man (or woman) is all politics of
education. Almost all people in society care about the quantity
and quality of education and especially how it is distributed. Like
other stakes, there cannot be enough education to satisfy everyone
(e.g. not enough mathematics, language etc teachers) so educators
must make choices about who gets what and what of the resources
available for education.
Sroufe (1977) pointed out that within a given school system or

school building a micro political system exists that determines the
distribution of education (teachers, curricular) to students and the
struggle to gain influence with regards to these allocative
decisions is constant. The United Nations Educational and
Scientific Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has categorized
Nigeria as one of the countries that are unlikely to meet the 2015
55
deadline set by the global body as the year for Education For All
(EFA). This however is traceable to the declining budgetary
allocation education has been receiving. Could it be that
education is not lobbying to get enough allocation? In fact,
government is being accused of paying lip service to EFA
programme. The government on its own part has reaffirmed its
commitment to expand access to basic education and; this is
manifested in the launching of Universal Basic Education (UBE)
scheme which is regarded as one of the populist programmes
designed by the present democratic dispensation. The UBE is
regarded as the highest provider of democracy dividend.
However, this is not without some constraints like finance and the
global economic crises. The big five donor countries real
commitments to education declined dramatically throughout the
nineties (Ajao, 2002).
Coleman (1965:3) argued that the educational system can be

viewed as the major determinant of all aspects of change . As a
conserver of the political system and a contributor to political
development, education has been regarded as serving three main
functions:
(a) Education is the main agent for the political

socialization of the young into the national political
culture. The possibility for political socialization
through the schools is much greater in less
developed than developed societies because in less
developed societies the political culture and a sense
of nationalism may even have to be created through
the school;
(b) Education is the primary agent for the selection and
training of political elites. Fagerlind and Saha
(1989) pointed out that in all societies, whether
developed or less developed, capitalist or socialist,
industrialized or agriculturally based, the stability,
survival and effectiveness of the political system
depends on those who constitute the elite and hold
positions of power. They can make or mar any
system including the educational system. Lungu
(1986) in his study pointed out that during the
period 1969 through 1982, the Zambian government
made three attempts to remove British practices in
the Zambian educational system only to have the
56
entrenched elites block these radical reforms in

favour of a slower incremental change. The
situation in Nigeria is not quite different. The
implementation of the universal basic education
programmes has been enmeshed in controversies
such as how to harness the disparate policy outlines
of the federal government; corruption and
ineffective implementation of projects; lack of
efficient monitoring mechanism and falsification of
enrolment figures by states in order to get more
allocation of funds. The elite class should be held
responsible for these ills because they are the ones
in positions of authority that dictate and influence
policy decision.
(c) Education is the main contributor to political
integration and the building of national political
consciousness. Formal education or schools main
task is to break down local or regional identities and
replace them with national identities and loyalties
through the use of national symbols such as the flag,
the national anthem, and the constitution.
3.2 The Role Education Plays in Political System Development
The success of any democracy depends on citizens who truly

believe that every individual is entitled to respect and dignity;
citizens who practice the responsibilities of citizenship in their
daily lives; and parents who pass on these habits of the hearts to
their children by their example. The point here is that any
meaningful effort at building and sustaining our democracy must
begin with the education of the citizenry. There is no doubt that
education is always the means whereby citizens get their bearings
and learn to live with and among one another. Education always
reflects a society s view of what excellent, worthy and necessary.
Education is a vital component of any democracy, the object
being to produce citizens who are independent, and analytical in
their outlook, yet deeply familiar with precepts and practices of
democracy.
The education of people should be taken very seriously because

as the Chinese people say: if you are planning for a year, sow
rice. If you are planning for a decade, plant trees. If you are
planning for a lifetime, educate a person . Even Albert Einstein is
57
reported to have said, Education is that which remains, if one has

forgotten everything he learned in school .
The best way to strengthen democracy both in Nigeria and

st
elsewhere and to meet the challenges of the 21 century is to
guarantee universal quality education for all children. This is
necessary for the combating of fear, ignorance and the prejudices
that undermine freedom across the globe today in the form of
ethnicity, religion and racism.
As President Clinton of the United States of America stressed in a

speech on the importance of education to building democracy:
Education is essential to creating a worldwide middle
class. It is essential to global prosperity. It is essential to
fulfilling the most basic needs of the human body and the
st
human spirit. That is why the 21 century must be the.
As the years pass by, our society becomes more complex. We are
becoming an increasingly diverse people, drawn from many
tribal, linguistic and religious origins. Our cultural heritage as
Nigerians is as diverse as we are, with multiple sources of vitality
and pride. But our political heritage is destined by God to be one-
the vision of a common life in liberty, justice and equality. To
protect that vision, there must be education for all citizens, to
enable every man and woman judge for him or herself what will
secure or endanger his or her freedom.
In democracy created of the people, by the people, and for the

people, is essential that public opinion be enlightened, informed,
and engaged. The importance of an educated citizenry for the
health of a newly found democracy like ours is recognized in the
declaration of Thomas Jefferson that:
every government degenerates when trusted to the ruler of
the people alone. The people themselves are its only safe
depositories. And to render even them safe, their minds
must be improved to a certain degree.
Diverse peoples in various parts of the world commonly

understand that if there would be government of the people, by
the people, for the people , then there must be education of the
people in the principles, practices, and commitments of
democracy. Education for democracy is the natural consequence
of resurgence of democracy whether in the world or in Nigeria.
58
Both established democracies and new ones depend upon good

education for democratic citizenship for their maintenance and
improvement. Both peoples in pursuit of democracy and those in
debt to ancestral founders of it recognize that schools must teach
young citizens the principles and practices of democracy, if they
would develop and sustain its institutions .
Education for democracy can be rationalized on three grounds.

The first is that attitude towards politics and governments are
learned, not innate. As Thomas Jefferson, the US President and
author of the Declaration of Independence said, the
qualifications for self-government in society are not innate. They
are result of habit and long training. The second reason is that
non-democratic values may be strongly rooted in a society s
culture. Only conscious and concerted effort can change attitudes
and practices that are potentially harmful to democracy. A vivid
example is the culture in Nigeria to use threats in raising children.
We threaten children in teaching them to do something or not to
do something, rather than explaining to them so that they
understand themselves. This kind of teaching explains why the
military rulers who governed us in the past did not try to explain
things to the citizens, but instead used threats to control us. This is
part of our culture; one that we should change. Education is the
key to achieving that change.
Governments, no matter how well functioning, how honest, how

transparent, cannot by themselves create citizens. Only civil
society, which exists in the space between government and the
economy, can do that work. Indeed, all the institutions that shapes
our private and public lives- family, church, mosque, school,
government, media- share responsibility for encouraging
democratic values in our children. Our initial focus would be on
the nation s schools and their teaching.
An important feature of tertiary education institutions

(particularly universities) has been their political significance.
This has been firstly in terms of their perceived importance as
national symbols, historically reflecting the prestige and
intellectual independence achieved by the former colonies at the
time of independence. Secondly, with only a small cadre of
highly-educated people in leadership positions, there has always
59
been a strong inter-relationship between the tertiary institutions

and those in governments (and even in opposition). This has
operated both on a personal basis, as individuals transfer regularly
between the universities and government positions, and also on an
institutional basis. As institutions with a mandate to lead
intellectual debate and to critique, universities can be a strong
source of dissent or unwanted criticisms. Specific examples have
been chronicled by a number of writers (e.g Mwiria, 1992;
Sawyerr, 1994). However, the significance of this uneasy
relationship cannot be overemphasized. It makes the balance
required for the state supervision model of tertiary education
management (as opposed to state control) particularly difficult to
achieve, and means that trust, transparency and widespread
information regarding all transactions and initiatives are critical
for the success of reform measures.
As in many developing or transitional economies, the power of

the student body in Ghana for example to disrupt or destabilize,
and to generate pressure on the Government has been regularly
demonstrated. In 1992, Eisemon wrote in a World Bank
discussion paper universities in many countries, particularly
their students, have a long tradition of political dissent and
participation in the political process. Students represent incipient
political elite with claims to an influential, independent role in the
political systems that are often recognized, implicitly, in
negotiations between student groups and ministers (and heads of
state) about campus and other grievances. In these situations,
university students are not passive objects of reform, but key
political actors in the reform process. Congregated on campuses,
they are easily mobilized. The location of many universities in
capital cities in close proximity to government institutions makes
student protest politically difficult to ignore (Eisemon, 1992,).
Attention has been drawn elsewhere (e.g. Watson, 1995) to
instances where governments have been overthrown as a direct
result of disturbances initiated by student unrest.
Electoral cycles will very likely remain as important factors in

determining the rate and pace of reform implementation.
Controversial reforms are unlikely to be introduced in the periods
preceding elections in order to avoid the risk of possible political
backlash. This reduces the time-span for the introduction of
change that will greatly constrain the extent to which reform of
this highly-volatile sector can be undertaken. It may be the case
60
that such political constrain will diminish to a certain extent as the

political process stabilizes, but unrest and protest are likely to be
significant.
More importantly, to the extent that tertiary education policy may

appear as party platforms (especially given the level of political
involvement on the campuses), the danger of policy commitments
pledging financially non-viable change for political gain seems
likely to increase. This would be highly detrimental to the tertiary
education system. Every effort should therefore be made by all
those likely to be affected by tertiary education policy to explore
and make public the educational and equity issues underlying
policy decisions.
1. Do you believe students have any power to change the pattern

of government? If yes, in what ways?
2. Discuss how politics and educational management affect one
another.
4.0 Conclusion
You have learnt in this unit that the relationship between politics
and education is inseparable. It is therefore important that you
appreciate the important role politics play in the management of
educational institutions. Political factors such as the power of the
students and significance of education as a potent tool for
socialization impact on management of education.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the role of politics in education management was

discussed. The role education plays in political system
development was also discussed. What you have also learnt in this
unit is how political factors such as power of the student and
political significance of education impacts on educational
management.
61
1. Discuss the role of politics in educational management

2. Do you think that education plays any role in political
system development?
3. Explain how political factors such as electoral cycles,
political significance of education and power of students
impact on educational management.
Girdwood, A. (1999). Tertiary Education Policy in Ghana: An

Assessment, 1988- 1998. Education 20261. The World Bank.
Olubor, R.O. (2004). Politics and Policies of Education in N.A.

Nwagwu, M.E. Ijeoma and C.C. Nwagwu (Eds.) Organization
and Administration of Education: Perspectives and Practices,
(Pp.156-176). Benin City: Festa Printing Press Ltd.
Walson-Jack, N. (2000). Education for Democracy. Lagos:

Central Education Services
62
MODULE 2 THE INFLUENCE OF POLITICS ON

DECISION MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT
Unit 1- Decision Making and Policy Formulation

Unit 2- Educational Policy Making Process
Unit 3- The Role of Interest Groups in Policy making Process
Unit 4- Examination of Past and Present Educational Policies in
Nigeria.
Unit 5- Devolution of Functions in Education Management
63
UNIT 1 EDUCATIONAL POLICY MAKING PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Do you know that policies are principles and rules of action for
achieving specific organizational goals? The rule tells us what to
do while the principle explains why that rule must be obeyed. In
this unit, you will be exposed to the meaning of educational
policy, the educational policy making process and some models
that guide educational policy making process.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, learners should be able to:

§ explain the meaning of educational policy
§ discuss the educational policy making process
§ describe some educational policy making models
3.0 Main Contents
Educational policy is basically a statement (written or unwritten)

that contains principles, rules and regulations that seek to provide
answers to the following questions:
§ How will people be educated?
§ Where will the people be educated?
§ What skills and knowledge will the educated people acquire?
§ Where will the educated people be employed?
§ How will the education of the people be financed?
64
§ Who will teach the people?

§ What job(s) will the educated people do?
§ To what extent will the people be educated?
§ How will learning and teaching aids be produced and
accessed?
Educational policies are very important for the achievement of the

goals of the educational system. Put simply, educational policies
are the agreed ways the educational system should be operated or
managed. It is also important to state that educational policies are
necessary in order to ensure that direction is given to any action
taken on education. Nobody can just on his/her own take action
on any aspect of education without recourse to the agreed ways
(policies) of operating the system.
The educational policy making process is a cycle that is made up

of seven recurring activities. These activities according to Haddad
(1994) include policy formulation, evaluation, adoption,
application, assessment, adjustment and analysis. The policy
process starts with formulation usually done in two phases. The
first phase has to do with the analysis of existing situation while
the second phase is concerned with the generation of policy
options. The evaluation of the policy options follows from the
generation of various options. After evaluating the policy options,
what follows is the adoption of the most efficient options(s) as a
policy decision. The next stage is the application of the policy
option that has been adopted. Policy impact assessment comes
next. There will be an adjustment that will start the policy cycle
all over again if there is any gap or unsatisfactoriness in the policy
impact assessment.
65
Evaluation
Adoption
Polic y Analysis
Adjustment
Application
Assessment
Figure 1: Policy Making Process

Source: Writer s Conceptualization of the Policy Making
Process
The policy process making exercise will then commence with

policy analysis as shown in figure 1. The policy analysis phase
either commences or ends the policy making process. Factors
identified to impede application of the policy are removed during
the time of assessment and adjustments. Also during the time of
analysing the policy, certain factors identified to favour the
adoption of the policy are incorporated or supported for adoption.
A model is a framework that helps us to describe, understand,

predict and explain a phenomenon. In education management, the
following models help us to understand the educational policy
making process.
§ Synoptic Model of policy Making

§ Incremental Model of Policy Making
§ Organizational Process Model
66
ulation
§ Governmental Politics Model

§ Haddad Consolidated Model
Synoptic Model
The synoptic model of policy making proposed by Lindblom and

Cohen (1979) assumes that the policy environment will enable the
education manager to have a complete knowledge of what are
required to make a sound policy. It further assumes that the
existing problem(s), its environment (political and economic
inclusive) and the process itself will be fairly stable. It is assumed,
that the process itself will be fairly stable. In other words, the
actors themselves will be rational and therefore, stick to the
synoptic method of policymaking for a reasonable length of time.
This method is also based on the assumption that there exist
agreed and objective criteria by which solutions can be reached.
Once these assumptions are met, it is the belief of the proponents
that drastic reforms can be introduced by carrying out a situation
analysis and coming up with a solution blueprint that will
automatically lead to the expected outcome without undue
influence. In the developing countries, most of the assumptions of
synoptic approach cannot however hold. This is because there are
unstable political, economic, and social situations that will not
permit a satisfactory extrapolation of data gotten from the analysis
of the existing situations. Human behaviour and the future are
unpredictable for a synoptic view. Moreover, actors in the
developing world are limited by the technical ability to generate
data and solutions. It is therefore difficult to equate the outcome
of an agreed solution to a blueprint that has not been polluted by
influences, subjectivity and human errors. It might be necessary to
note that the rationality behind the assumption of the synoptic
model seems unrealistic since it is necessary for successful
policies to take political realities into consideration. Education
being a social service, must take its inputs from the providers,
consumers (parents, learners and employers of labour) politicians,
technocrats and bureaucrats.
Incremental Method of Policymaking
This involves policymaking under uncertainty, negotiated or

politicized environment and incomplete knowledge approach to
policymaking. Once there is a problem, a tentative or temporary
solution is proffered as a blueprint, but only as a step forward. If
one takes the first step and it works then one moves another step
67
forward. But if it does not work, then one takes a backward step
to start all over. One increases one s step gradually in search of
the best solution. For instance, the incremental approach will talk
about school improvement while the synoptic method will talk
about school reforms. This is because the former focuses on how
to add a small feather to the existing cap of schooling, without
claiming that the best has been achieved. The actors while taking
a step forward will still be expecting the best to happen in a future
date. On the other hand, the synoptic approach assumes that the
best can be achieved now through an agreed and well-thought
guideline on how to reform the schools. This model of making
policy on the incremental basis has its problems in spite of the
fact that it is based on multiple rationalities, principle of
flexibility and participatory approach. It takes political, social and
bureaucratic realities into consideration but with a high degree of
politicization leading to a pattern of vague and unsystematic
political decisions loaded with self-interest, patronage and value
judgments (Haddad, 1994:7).
Organizational Process Model
The organizational process model posits that government s

behaviour is more or less a reflection of what happens in
government s coordinated organizations in the society. These
organizations send signals to the government about problems
within their areas of jurisdiction. Government in response to the
signals sent will define alternatives and identify consequences.
For example, the Ministry of Education will send signals
concerning educational problems and issues. Ministry of Health
will send that of health and so on. All the problems will now be
analyzed centrally by the government as inputs to policymaking.
This decision model is based on rational choice but monolithic in
nature.
Government Politics Model
This model posits that policymaking is a joint action of

individuals or personalities in government and various
organizations. Organizations are not merely signals senders but
active participants in policymaking. Leaders, whose behaviours
are determined by personal conception of the problem as well as
personal and organizational interests represent their organizations
during policymaking. This approach is highly participatory but
68
equally heavily politicized because decisions are reached by

negotiations among interest groups.
Haddad Consolidated Model
Wadi Haddad (1994) proposed a policymaking model that

synthesized the four dimensions involved in Lindblom and
Allison s models. According to Haddad, the synoptic and the
personality modes are political dimensions of policymaking. With
this classification, we can divide policymaking into two broad
categories, namely: the rational and the political/personal. The
rational model, which is composed of the synoptic and the
bureaucratic modes is characterized by unitary, rational, centrally
controlled, and completely technical and value maximizing
decision-making. On the other hand, the political/personal model
which is a combination of incremental and the government
politics models, is characterized by self-interest, political
bargaining, value judgment and multiple rationalities. As argued
by Babalola (2003), most policymaking fall somewhere between
these two extremes. Nevertheless, there is need for a balanced
view of policymaking in which analytical rationality is placed
within the context of political and administrative aspects of
decision-making. This is particularly so in education, which is by
nature, a social service with a complex socio-political context
(Babalola, 2003).

1. What does education policy mean to you?
2. Formulate a policy that will resolve any problem identified by
you in the school system.
3. Can you think of a model that best guides school administrators
in policy formulation?
4.0 Conclusion
You have seen that the educational policy making process is a

continuous exercise. Any gap in the policy evaluation makes it
mandatory for the entire policy document to be reviewed or
adjusted on a continuous basis. It should be noted also that the
existing models that guide policy making are eclectic in nature.
What this means is that the models complement one another in the
policy making process.
69
5.0 Summary
Educational policy has been conceptualized to mean the

principles, regulations and rules that guide the provision and
management of education. The educational policy making process
is a continuous exercise that is guided by available models. The
essence of these models is to ensure that mistakes are not made or
repeated in the course of formulating educational policies.
1. What is educational policy?

2. Describe the educational policy making process
3. Explain any three (3) educational policy making models.
Babalola, J.B. (2003). Basic Text in Educational Planning.

Ibadan: Department of Educational Management, University of
Ibadan
Babalola, J.B. (1993). Diagnosis of Educational Policies and

Reforms. Ibadan: The Department of Adult Education, University
of Ibadan
Haddad, W.D. (1994). The Dynamics of Education Policymaking:

Case Studies on Burkina Faso, Jordan, Peru and Thailand.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Lindblom, C. and Cohen, D.K. (1979). Usuable knowledge:

Social Science and Problem Solving. New Haven, Connecticut:
Yale University.
70
UNIT 2 THE ROLE OF INTEREST GROUPS IN POLICY

MAKING PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Students and Parents Role in Education Policy Making
Process
3.2 Teachers Unions and Education Policy Making Process
3.3 The Role of Civil Servants in Educational Policy Making
Process
3.4 The Role of Political Parties in Education Policy Marking
Process
3.5 The Role of Religious and Ethnic Groups in Education
Policy Formulation.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Do you know that it is very important to familiarize yourself with

the environment within which educational policies are made? Are
you agitated in your mind to know why this is so? If your answer
is yes, to understand the environment is important because policy
analysis is better made when we have a good knowledge of the
major pressures or stakes acting on education matters at the point
of decision making. This unit exposes how major pressure groups
can influence education policy making process.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

o discuss the role of students and parents in education policy
making process.
o highlight the role(s) played by trade unions in the education
sector during policy making process.
o identify the role of civil servants in education policy making
process
71
o discuss the role of political parties in education policy making

process
o identify the role of religious and ethnic groups in education
policy formulation.
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Role of Students/Parents in Education Policy Making

Process
The importance of pressures from students and parents in the

education policy making process can not be over-emphasized.
There is need to know how students unions operate to influence
decisions in education. Are they powerful? If yes, how powerful
are they and how willing are they to exercise their power? There
is need to know whether or not they will support any change in
policy. Students in tertiary institutions of learning for example are
very powerful to the extent that they can support or oppose
government policies in education. It is therefore important to
identify powerful elements within the students with a view to
assessing their respectability or otherwise to policies that are
being proposed. Parents can also organize themselves into
pressure groups providers of education to make policies that will
be favourable to them. Parents that are very close to politicians
and policy makers in Nigeria for example have been observed to
influence several policies.
3.2 Workers Unions and Education Policy Making Process

Workers unions in the education industry directly or indirectly
influence the policy making process. It is important therefore that
these unions interest(s) be considered in the process of decision
making in education. Examples of these workers unions in the
Nigerian school system include the following:
- Nigeria Union of Teachers
- Conference of Secondary School Principals
- Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics
- Non Academic Staff Union of Universities
- Senior Staff Association of Nigeria Universities
- Conference of Secondary School Teachers
- Academic Staff Union of Colleges of Education
72
3.3 The Role of Civil Servants in Education Policy Making

Process
Civil servants are the bureaucrats that draft, gazette and

implement proposed or formulated policies in education. The role
of civil servants in formulation and implementation of education
policies can not be over-emphasized. Verification of factual
documentation with people responsible for educational data
collection and management is carried out by civil servants.
Additionally, civil servants in the education industry do not only
discuss policy options within the education sector but also with
other government agencies like the ministries of finance,
economic planning, industry etc.
3.4 Role of Political Parties in Education Policy Making Process
The political party that controls the government in power no

doubts exerts considerable influence on the education system. In
many countries, especially developing countries, the provision of
education is used as a vote catching device to cajole the
uninformed and poverty stricken electorates. This is why
education policy making process in the final analysis is heavily
politicized. Setting the objectives of education, the provision,
funding and management are tied to politics. Politicians make or
influence educational policies on behalf of the people with the
belief that they know the needs of the people. In those countries,
need assessments are rarely done unlike in the developed
countries such as the United States of America, Canada, England,
Japan, Germany etc. It is for this reason the ever widening gap
between education and the economy exists in less developed
countries.
3.5 The Role of Religious and Ethnic Groups in Education Policy

Formulation.
Religious and ethnic groups are very important interest groups

that influence the way educational policies are formulated. These
religious and ethnic groups are Church leaders, Moslem scholars
including traditional rulers that have the responsibility as
custodians to protect or preserve religious and cultural believes.
In doing this, they ensure that curriculum contents, pedagogy,
planning and administration at all levels of education are in
harmony with the tenets of what they believe in. It is for this
73
reason religious instruction, social studies, traditional dancing,

singing, greeting, cooking, dressing and other sundry crafts are
taught today in all Nigerian schools.
1. Discuss how you as a student can influence policy formulation in

NOUN to your own advantage.
2. Discuss how parents, religious and ethnic groups can organize
themselves into pressure groups to influence government policies
on education.
4.0 Conclusion
An educational system is characteristically multi-faceted in

purpose, the reason why the divergent stakes are difficult to
harmonize. In education policy making process therefore, all the
identified pressure groups are considered and their opinions
utilized for the policy outcome to be purposeful and supported. It
is only when this is done that the policy objective(s) is (are)
achieved.
5.0 Summary
This unit examined the role of pressure groups in education policy

making process. The specific roles of students, parents, workers
unions and political parties were discussed. Also discussed in the
unit is the critical role of civil servants in education policy
formulation.
1. Advance reasons why you think it is important to consider

the opinion of workers unions in the education industry in
formulating educational policies
2. Are political parties important in the education policy
making process? If yes, state your arguments.
3. The involvement of civil servants in education policy
formulation is a matter of debate. Discuss your support or
otherwise.
74
Babalola, J.B. (2003). Basic Text in Educational Planning.

Ibadan: Department of Educational Management, University of
Ibadan
Babalola, J.B. (1993). Diagnosis of Educational Policies and

Reforms. Ibadan: The Department of Adult Education, University
of Ibadan
Miller, S.I. (1976). Policy Issues in Education. London:

Lexington Books.
75
UNIT 3 EXAMINATION OF PAST AND PRESENT

EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.2 Educational Policies by Colonial Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
You have learnt from previous units in this study material that the
provision and delivery of education all over the world are guided
by policies. In Nigeria, educational policies made by missionaries,
British Government that colonized Nigeria and by the Nigerian
government since independence in 1960 will be examined in this
unit.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, learners should be able to:

§ highlight the various educational policies by Missionaries that
brought Christianity and Islamic religions to Nigeria
§ discuss the educational policies by the British government for
Nigeria
§ examine the various educational policies by the Nigerian
government from 1960 to date.
The Christian and Islamic missionaries provided and managed

education to win converts between 1842 and 1882. Each
missionary organization therefore made policies to facilitate the
attainment of this goal. Although there was no official educational
policies in the different parts of the country, two policies were
76
however common in all the missionary-managed schools. The two

policies were:
(i) the policy of mother tongue as a medium of
instruction and;
(ii) the policy of compulsory religious studies
Concerning the policy of mother tongue, it was generally believed

that the gospel is best spread if converts or learners are taught in
their own native language. As a way of implementing this policy,
language teachers in Nigerian languages especially Hausa,
Yoruba and Igbo were trained to instruct school pupils including
adults that took advantage of the adult literacy centers to learn.
Additional, books and other learning aids were developed and
produced in several native languages to facilitate teaching and
learning.
The compulsory religious studies was implemented by making the

teaching of Christianity compulsory in all Christian missionary
schools while Islamic studies was also made compulsory in all
Moslem schools and literacy centers.
3.2 Educational Policies by British Colonial Government
The colonial government strongly criticised missionary schools

that were more or less denominational in nature. The argument
was that the school leavers were not fit to become clerks who
were much needed in the colonial administration and commercial
businesses owned by the colonialists. Some of the policies
formulated to redress this problem are highlighted below:
§ The policy of partnership among missionaries, individuals and
the government in the provision and management of schools.
In this same policy, freedom of religion and a unified
curriculum were incorporated.
§ Vischer s policy of natural adaptation. The essence of this
policy was to ensure that the customs and tradition of school
pupils were preserved. The teaching of local crafts, history,
literature etc were encouraged as a way of implementing this
policy.
The education ordinance of 1926 structured primary education to

last for 8 years for the whole country. Classes 1 and 2 were called
infant classes while standard 1 to 6 were called primary classes.
By 1930, the duration of primary education was again reduced
77
from 8 to 6 by Mr. E.R.Z Hussey. The series of memoranda and

ordinances made to streamline the provision and management of
education especially at the primary level however popularized the
need to universalize access to primary education. In 1955 and
1957 therefore, the Western and Eastern regional government
approved free primary education policy respectively with the
Northern regional government endorsing the policy years later.
The Ashby report of 1960 introduced for the first time a

comprehensive policy on education at all levels. The policy
focused on the production of different categories of manpower
needs for all sectors of the Nigerian economy. Consequently, the
Nigerian school system by the policy was repositioned for this
onerous task.
Soon after independence, plans were made for a national

curriculum conference to re-direct the course of Nigerian
Education. The first national curriculum conference was slated for
1966. Unfortunately, this coincided with the military take-over of
government and the problems and political upheavals which
followed. The conference could not be held therefore until 1969.
th
The National Curriculum conference that held in Lagos from 18
th
12 September 1969 was therefore the first major step the
nation took on the road to a new education policy. In the words of
the then Chief Federal Adviser on Education. It was the
beginning of a national programme to revitalize and renew
education in Nigeria (Aiyepeku, 1989).
The conference was a great success. It was very well attended

from all parts of the country by educationists and non-
educationists (including farmers and traders) and many interesting
papers were read and debated. The conference spelt out in great
detail what it considered the national philosophy, goals, purposes
and objectives of Nigerian education and made recommendations
for a national curriculum reform.
After the National Curriculum Conference, a seminar of experts

drawn from a wide range of interest groups within Nigeria was
convened in 1973. The seminar, which included voluntary
agencies and external bodies, deliberated on what a national
policy on education for an independent and sovereign Nigeria
78
should be. The outcome of the seminar was a draft document

which; after due comments were received by the states and other
interest groups led to the final document, that is today known as
the National Policy on Education.
nd
Since the publication of the first education policy in 1977, the 2
rd th
3 and 4 editions were published in 1981, 1998 and 2004
respectively in keeping with the dynamics of social change and
th
the demands on education. The 4 edition was necessitated by
some policy innovations and changes, and the need to update the
rd
3 edition (1998) accordingly. These innovations and changes
include:
§ The lifting of the suspension order on open and distance
learning programme by government;
§ Revitalization and expansion of the National Mathematical
Center (NMC);
§ Establishment of Teachers Registration Council (TRC);
§ Introduction of information and communication Technology
(ICT) into the school system;
§ Prescription of French Language in the primary and secondary
school curriculum as a second official language;
§ Prescription of minimum number of subjects to be taken by
SSCE candidates;
§ The integration of basic education in the programme of
Quaranic schools, to ensure equal opportunity and effective
implementation of UBE;
§ Repositioning science, technical and vocational education in
the scheme of national education for optimum performance
and;
§ General contextual change to reflect the state of professional
practice in education, among others.
1. Discuss the main contents of any named educational policy in

your local government area.
2. Identify the things that were wrong with both the missionaries
and colonial government educational policies in Nigeria.
79
4.0 Conclusion
You have seen that in this unit, the past and present educational
policies in Nigeria have been examined. One thing that is
common to the policies by missionaries, colonial masters and the
government of Nigeria is that at one time or the other, they were
able to guide the decisions and actions of those that provided or
managed education at all levels.
5.0 Summary
This unit examined past and present educational policies in

Nigeria. Specifically, the educational policies by missionaries,
colonial government and the Nigerian government were
highlighted. The success or failure or even the merits and
demerits of the policies were not discussed, as they are outside the
scope of the unit.
1. Outline the major educational policies made by the British

Colonial government.
2. What are the main features of the educational policies
made by Missionaries?
Aiyepeku, T.F.(1989). 6-3-3-4 System of Education in Nigeria.

Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Limited.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National Policy on

Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of Education in Nigeria. London:

George Allen & Urwin.
The World Bank. (1988). Education in Sub-Sahara Africa:

Policies for Adjustment, Revitalisation and Expansion.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Miller, S.I. (1976). Policy Issues in Education. London:

Lexington Books.
80
UNIT 4 DECISION MAKING AND POLICY

FORMULATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Decision Making Process
3.2 Decision Making Determinants
3.3 Decision Making and Policy Plan
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Do you know that the outcome of any decision making process is

a policy plan? It is when this policy plan is implemented in
organizations that set goals or objectives are achieved. You can
therefore see that decision making is very central or critical in
policy formulation. This unit discusses the relationship between
decision making and policy formulation.
2.0 Objectives

§ discuss the decision making process
§ identify the determinants of decisions making
§ explain the relationship between decision making and policy
plan
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Decision Making Process
The decision making process is simply a cycle of related

activities. The activities are related because they are not mutually
exclusive of one another. Thus, decisions are made at every stage
that will eventually culminate at the final or ultimate decisions.
The diagram in figure 1 explains clearly the cycle of activities.
81
Emergence of Problem
problem from identification and
implementation definition
Hypothesize solutions to
identified problem
Adopt decision for
implementation
Feedback Design framework and

methodology for
arriving at solution
Taking
decisions on
the basis of
findings
Data analysis and Collection of relevant

discussion of data to resolve the
findings problem
Figure 2: The Decision Making Process

Source: Writer s Conceptualization of the Policy Making
Process
The advantage of this scientific model is that decisions arrived at

can be replicated in resolving similar problems either in the future
or other departments in the organization. Another advantage of
this model is that it eliminates personal biases from the decision
making process
3.2 Determinants of Decision Making in Organizations
The following factors influence the type and quality of decisions

taken in organizations:
(i) Environment:- A community where people are more
informed or influential will be able to influence decisions
at any level than other people not so endowed.
(ii) The political party that controls government:- It is believed
that he who pays the piper dictates the tune. Therefore,
politicians and government functionaries influence all
kinds of decisions at all levels in a subtle manner.
82
(iii) Ethnicity and Religion:- These two factors are powerful

instruments used to generate sentiments. These interests
are passionately protected or defended by affected people
whenever decisions that affect their interests are taken.
(iv) Extant Laws and Regulations:- Every organization has a
body of rules and regulations that predict behaviour. To a
very large extent therefore, decisions are heavily
influenced by these laws.
(v) The Peculiarity of the Organization:- Education for
example is a very peculiar organization. It is a public good
and therefore not a profit making organization. The type of
decisions taken therefore must reflect this peculiarity
unlike such other organizations in the manufacturing or
economic sector.
3.3 Relationship between Decision Making and Policy Plan
Policies are products of the decisions making process. That is, any
decision that has been taken and adopted for implementation with
strategic directions is a policy. For example, the present National
Policy on Education (NPE) represents the collective decisions of
the 1969 celebrated National Curriculum Conference that held in
Lagos to chart a new course for the Nigerian educational system.
Laws and Regulations or decisions, as it were, have their origins
and interpretations on the NPE as a clearing house. An
organization is often described as good or bad to the extent that
every of its members are mobilized to participate in the decision
making process that ultimately culminates in policy plans that
guide organizational behaviour.

1. Can you attempt to use a diagram to explain the cycle of
activities in the decision making process?
2. What are the things to be considered in making decision?
3. Why is decision making and policy formulation not the same?
4.0 Conclusion
Administrators are expected to make scientific-based decisions.

This is because decisions made now have implications for both
the present and future. Therefore, personal biases and other
irrational acts must be eschewed from the decision making
process. Good decisions will ultimately lead to good policies.
83
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the relationship between decision making and policy

formulation has been discussed. The scientific model was used to
explain the decision making process while some decisions making
determinants were identified.
1. Explain the decision making process

2. Enumerate the factors that influence decision making
3. Discuss the relationship between decision making and
policy formulation.

Nwagwu, N.A. (2002). The Politics of Education Policies in

Nigeria. Faculty of Education Distinguished Lecture Series.
University of Benin.
Nwagwu, C.C. (2004). Decision-Making in Organizations in N.A.

Nwagwu, M.E. Ijeoma and C.C. Nwagwu. Organization and
Administration in Education: Perspectives and Practices.
(Pp.210-224). Benin City: Festa Printing Press
Okunola, P.O. (2004). Public Participation in Education Policy-

Making in Nigeria: Trends, Issues and Prospects in E.O.
Fagbemiye; J.B. Babalola; M. Fabunmi and A.O. Ayeni.
Management of Primary and Secondary Education in Nigeria.
(Pp. 313-324). Ibadan: NAEAP
84
UNIT 5 DEVOLUTION OF FUNCTIONS IN

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Local Government s Role in Education Management
3.2 State Government s Role in Education Management
3.3 Federal Government s Role in Education Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
You have already been taught that the management of education

in Nigeria is a joint responsibility of the three tiers of
government- Local, States and Federal. What perhaps is not clear
to you is the specific functions the National Policy on Education
(NPE) has assigned to each level of government. In this unit
therefore, the specific role(s) of each tier of government
according to NPE will be outlined.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, learners will be expected to:

§ identify the role of Local governments in education
management
§ highlight the functions the National Policy on Education has
assigned to the States government in education management
§ enumerate the education management functions of the Federal
government
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The Responsibility of Local Governments in Education

Management
Local governments shall, through their Local Education
Authorities (LEAs) have responsibility for the financing and
management of primary education within their local government
85
areas. In particular, the Local Education Authorities shall be

responsible for:-
(i) the payment of primary school teacher s salaries and
allowances;
(ii) the payment of pensions and gratuities;
(iii) the retraining of teachers;
(iv) the overall management of their educational plans; and
(v) supervision and quality control in all primary schools in
their areas in conjunction with Federal and State
authorities.
3.2 States Governments Role in Education Management
State Ministries of Education shall have responsibility for the

following:-
(i) policy and control over primary, secondary education and
tertiary institutions owned by the State in accordance with
the requirements of the national policy on education;
(ii) planning, research and development of education;
(iii) inspectorate services for monitoring and improving
standards;
(iv) the provision of broad educational services;
(v) coordination of activities of school Boards and/or Local
Education Authorities as prescribed by law;
(vi) examinations, testing and evaluation at primary and junior
secondary school levels; and
(vii) providing appropriate education laws and ensuring their
enforcement
3.3 Federal Governments Responsibility in Education

Management
The Federal Ministry of Education shall be responsible for:

(i) enunciating a national policy on education;
(ii) setting and maintaining uniform standards;
(iii) coordinating educational practices in Nigeria;
(iv) establishing a Federal Inspectorate Services;
(v) planning and research on a national scale;
(vi) acquiring, storing and disseminating national education
data;
(vii) coordinating non-formal education including adult
education, vocational improvement centers,
correspondence courses, etc;
86
(viii) coordinating international cooperation in education; and

(ix) coordinating national school examinations, testing and
evaluation
(x) Additionally, the Federal Government shall prescribe the
minimum standards of education at all levels. In this
regard,
§ there shall not be more than 20 pupils to a teacher and a helper
(assistant) in pre-primary schools;
§ there shall not be more than 35 and 40 pupils respectively to a
class in primary and secondary schools;
§ there shall not be more than 20 pupils for practical work in
technical and vocational colleges;
§ primary, post-primary and tertiary education shall be the
responsibility of the Local, State and Federal governments
§ education Boards or similar authorities shall be responsible for
the management of schools and appointment, posting and
discipline of teachers within defined area of authority.
1. Discuss the role of Federal, States and Local governments

in the Nigerian education system.
2. What level(s) of government will you hold responsible for
the observed malady in the Nigerian educational system?
4.0 Conclusion
States Ministries of Education and Local Education Authorities

(LEA) in collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Education
shall be responsible for the organization, supervision and
inspection of educational institutions. It is important to note that
appropriate legislations have been enacted to give legal backing to
the respective ministries and their parastatals.
5.0 Summary
You have learned in this unit that the management of education in

Nigeria is a joint responsibility between the Federal, States and
Local governments. Additionally, you have learned that though
the different levels of government have their specific roles, the
roles however complement one another.
87
1. Identify the role Local governments in educational

Management.
2. What are the responsibilities of the States government in
educational management?
3. Highlight the educational management functions of the Federal
government
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1999). Constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: Government Printing Press

Nwana, O.C. (2000). Aberrations in the Nigerian Education

System. The State of Education in Nigeria. (Pp. 152)
Abuja: UNESCO
Omolewa, M. (2001). The Challenge of Education in Nigeria.

Ibadan: University of Ibadan
Olagboye, A. (1997). Educational System Administration in

Nigeria: Structure Responsibilities and Practices. Lagos: Tisons
Ltd
88
MODULE 3 CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES

IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Unit 1 Contemporary Political Issues of Funding Education and

Universal Basic Education in Nigeria
Unit 2 Contemporary Political Issues of Government Take-
Over/Hand over of School
Unit 3 Contemporary Political Issue of Equality of Educational
Opportunities
Unit 4 The Contemporary Issues of Open and Distance Learning
(ODL) and Private Educational Institutions
Unit 5 Issues of Implementation of the National Policy on
Education.
89
UNIT 1 CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL ISSUES OF

FUNDING EDUCATION AND UNIVERSAL
BASIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.3 Determinant of Cost of UBE Implementation in Nigeria
3.5 The Challenge of Inadequate Funding of UBE Scheme
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The Universal Basic Education (UBE) scheme covers free and

compulsory attendance for the first nine (9) years of schooling.
There is no doubt that the cost of implementing this laudable
project is too enormous for one tier of government to bear. So,
how do you think the cost can be shared among the three tiers of
government?
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, students are expected to:

§ conceptualise the meaning of funding education;
§ identify the sources and stakeholders in the funding of
education;
§ highlight the determinants of cost of implementing UBE;
§ propose a formula for sharing UBE cost amongst the three
tiers of government;
§ discuss the challenges of inadequate funding of UBE scheme;
90
3.0 Main Contents
Education is an expensive social service and therefore requires

adequate financial provision from all stakeholders including
government for successful implementation of all identified
educational programmes adopted for implementation. Education
is expensive because money is needed to hire, train and pay
teachers; provide and maintain facilities (like classrooms,
laboratories, studios, workshops) and replace consumable
equipment on a continuous basis. Unfortunately in Nigeria,
successive governments have erroneously encouraged people to
believe that Government alone can provide free education at all
levels. This state of affairs is not only wasteful in itself but has
made it very difficult to formulate policies that will make the
Nigerian people contribute to finance education. Even though the
government has realized its mistakes and is now begging or
welcoming or encouraging the participation of local communities,
individuals and organization to assist in funding education, there
is an urgent need to embark on a programme of reorientation of
the Nigerian people to appreciate the need to adequate finance
education. On the part of government, relevant sectoral bodies
such as the Education Trust Fund (ETF), Industrial Training Fund
(ITF) and National Science and Technology Fund (NSTF) have
been established to respond (by way of intervention) to the
funding needs of education.

Education is a very expensive social service. The expensive
nature notwithstanding, education can be adequately financed
through various sources. Some of these sources are quite
conspicuous and described as major sources while other neglected
traditional sources if improved upon could augment the funding
of public education in Nigeria. The sources are highlighted below:
Government Grants:- Government is the owner of public schools

and therefore is responsible for the provision of substantial
proportion of the funds expended on education at all levels.
School fees:- School fees are means of generating funds from

students that are direct beneficiaries of education. Appropriate
91
fees for quality education should therefore be charged for

different educational programmes at all levels.
External Aids:- These aids in form of money, equipment, facilities

and even personnel are provided by wealthy countries and
organizations like the United States of America, Britain, Canada,
UNESCO, Ford Foundation, Rockefeller Foundations etc for
indigent countries. Nigeria as a poor country therefore should take
advantage of these aids by applying for them.
School Revenue Yielding Businesses:- Schools can get fund by

establishing revenue yielding projects like farms, consultancy
services, bookshops catering and rental services etc.
Other sources include the following:-

- Endowment funds and donations
- Contributions from parents
- Company profit tax
- Loans
- Work study schemes
- Contribution by industry
- Income tax
- Purchase tax (for goods and services)
- Gift duty or transfer tax
- Entertainment tax.
3.3 Determinants of Cost of Implementing UBE Scheme
The determinants are discussed below:
Class Size
This is the average number of pupils the national policy has

approved to be in one classroom. Here in Nigeria, the approved
class size is 40 pupils per classroom. Dividing total pupils
enrolment or pupils expected in school by the class size therefore
will reveal the number of classrooms needed for the scheme.
Cost of Classroom Construction

This is very simple. The cost of constructing one classroom is
multiplied by the total number of classrooms needed. Information
on cost of classroom construction can be gotten from the Budget
Office of the Ministry of Finance.
92
Pupils-Teacher Ratio
To get the teachers needed to implement the UBE scheme, total

number of pupils expected in UBE classes is divided by 40, being
the approved pupils-teacher ratio in the policy. Information on
cost of paying teachers salary can be obtained from the National
Salaries and wages Commission. The size of the cost will
however depend on the experience, qualification, marital status,
area of specialization of the teacher etc.
Inflation
Inflation has a very devastating effect on the cost of implementing

UBE policy in Nigeria. Costs of stationeries, fuels and other bills
are on the increase daily. As a matter of fact, inflation has not
only made the construction of new classrooms impossible but has
made the cost of maintaining already existing schools prohibitive.
Parents are not even able to afford private cost of schooling
because of inflation.
Other Factors
Other factors such as curriculum, location and age of schools have

the potential to influence the cost of implementing UBE scheme.
One tier of government, whether Federal, States or Local council

can not single handedly fund UBE. The reason for this is because
of the enormity of cost required to finance the scheme. Funding
the scheme successfully therefore will have to be a joint
responsibility of all levels of government. Since the federalism is
lopsided in favour of the federal government, the following cost
sharing formula is proposed.
93
Table 1: UBE Cost Sharing Formula Amongst the Three

Tiers of Government
Tier of Government Cost to be Borne

Federal (i) Construction and furnishing of needed
classrooms
(ii) Payment of teachers salaries
States (i) Provision of books for all pupils
(ii) Provision of laboratories, studios,
workshops facilities and equipment
Local Council (i) Provision of stationeries including chalk
(ii) Payment of bills for fuel, telephone and
other sundry items
3.3 The Challenge of Inadequate Funding of UBE
Funding basic education in Nigeria is very inadequate. According

to a World Bank survey on Nigeria, government expenditure on
education, primary education share of total education budget that
was 16.9 percent in 1998 slumped to a paltry 7.5 percent in 2002.
Sectoral analysis shows that education share of the total national
budget that was 9.9 percent in 1997 fell to 8.0 in 2002. Ever since,
this picture has not significantly changed. The inadequate fund is
further depleted by misappropriation and corruption that
characterize the management of the school system. The issue of
under-funding of education is so endemic that it is now the bane
of poor quality education observed in several primary and post
primary schools in the country.
1. What factors do you think government should take into

consideration when preparing budget to implement UBE
scheme in Nigeria
2. What level of government is responsible for the under-funding
of UBE scheme in Nigeria?
3. Do you think that the Federal government alone can pay the
salaries and allowances of UBE teachers in Nigeria?
4.0 Conclusion
There is need for government to stop playing politics with the

funding of UBE scheme in Nigeria. The national assembly should
94
as a matter of urgency enacts laws to clearly define the extent

each level of government will fund the scheme. If this is done,
Nigerians will know what level of government to hold
accountable for the problem of inadequate funding that currently
characterize the scheme.
5.0 Summary
This unit has discussed the contemporary political issue of

funding UBE scheme in Nigeria. The factors that need to be taken
into consideration during UBE budget preparation have also been
enumerated. The formula for sharing UBE cost among the three
tiers of government was proposed to guide law enactment by the
legislature. Finally, the challenges of under-funding that
characterize UBE implementation were discussed.
1. Discuss the factors to be considered in preparing budget to

implement UBE in your local government area.
2. Discuss how you will like the cost of implementing UBE
scheme be shared among the three tiers of government.
3. What are the implications of inadequate funding on the
UBE scheme?
4. What are the sources for financing education in Nigeria?
95
Adeyemi, J.K. (1998). Cost in Education in M. Nwadiani.

Educational Management for Sub-Sahara Africa. (Pp. 66-80).
Benin City: Nigerian Society for Educational Planning (NSEP).
Durasaro, D.O. (2004). Crucial Issues in the Management of

Primary Education in Nigeria in E.O. Fagbamiye, J.B., Babalola,
M. Fabunmi and A.O. Ayeni. Management of Primary and
Secondary Education in Nigeria (Pp. 73-80), Ibadan: NAEAP
Publication.
The World Bank (2003). School Education in Nigeria: Preparing

for Universal Basic Education. Human Development Africa
Region September.
UNESCO (2003). A Decade of Basic Education Data in Nigeria.

Paris: UNESCO
96

GOVERNMENT TAKE-OVER/HAND-OVER OF
SCHOOLS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 The history of Government Take-Over of Schools in
Nigeria
3.2 Reasons for the Government Take-Over of Schools
3.3 The Effect of Government Take-Over of Schools
3.4 Controversy Over Government Return of Schools to
Original Owners.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Education has witnessed active participation by non-

governmental agencies, communities and individuals as well as
government intervention. The reasons for government s
intervention among others are to prescribe and maintain national
minimum standards in the education system.
2.0 Objectives

§ discuss the history of government take-over of school in
Nigeria
§ enumerates the reasons for the government take-over of
schools
§ discuss the effect of Government take-over of Schools on the
education System.
§ enumerate the arguments for/against government
return/handover of schools to their original owners.
97
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 History of Government Take-Over of Schools in Nigeria
The provision and management of schools in Nigeria by non-

governmental organizations dates back to 1882. This effort was
pioneered by the Wesleyan Methodist Mission that built a school
in Badagry. Other Christian and Islamic groups followed in quick
succession and established schools in different parts of Nigeria.
Soon after independence in 1960, government started making
deliberate policies to use education to forge national unity and
integration in the country. On May 16, 1970 therefore, the
government of the defunct East Central State of Nigeria formally
took over all primary and secondary schools owned by individual
and religious organizations. In 1974, the government of the
defunct Mid-Western State formally took over all primary and
secondary schools owned by voluntary agencies. Other States in
the South and Northern parts of the country formally took over
schools from voluntary agencies at different times before the 1970
decade ended. The Validation Decree of 1977 was promulgated
by the Federal government to give legal backing to all the schools
taken over by the different States governments in the country.
3.2 Reasons for Government Take-Over of Schools
The official reason given for the take-over of schools from

individuals and religious organizations was to guarantee uniform
standards, fair distribution of educational facilities and reduce
cost of running schools. Another reason given for the take-over of
schools was to secularize education. Government emphasized the
need for all schools to be totally non-denominational. Religious
instruction was to be taught in schools only on non-
denominational basis.
3.3 Effect of Government Take-Over of Schools
Government take-over of schools as a policy has both advantages

and disadvantages. For the first time, government has been able to
implement a national policy on education. The policy prescribes
minimum standards for all schools in the different States of the
Federation. Additionally, the government take-over of schools has
also to a large extent guaranteed equal educational opportunities,
quality and access. It needs not to be over-emphasized that the
98
policy of government s control of schools has inculcated religious

tolerance and national unity in different parts of Nigeria.
These advantages not withstanding, some stakeholders,

particularly religious organization are demanding for the return of
schools to the original owners. Moral laxity, the breakdown of
moral values is the reason the agitators are giving why schools
should be returned to religious organizations. Another reason
advanced for schools to be returned to original owners is
government s inability to adequately fund education in Nigeria.
The results of inadequate funding are noticeable in overcrowded
classrooms, shortage of all school input except students and poor
academic performance. It is hoped that with adequate funding and
effective supervision of schools, the agitation of people for the
return of schools to original owners (that lack sincerity and
patriotism) will go into oblivion.
3.4 Controversy Over Government Return of Schools to Original

Owners
Let us recall the reasons for government take-over of schools in
the 1970s in unit 3.2 of this module. It is also important to recall
the effect of government take-over of schools policy on school
administration and students learning outcomes in unit 3.3 of
module 1. The advantages and demerits of the take-over policy
notwithstanding, the call for the schools to be returned or not to
be has continued to re-echo. The original owners of the schools
argument is that the economic and moral well-being of the nation
has been endangered by government take over of schools policy.
Other stakeholders particularly teachers, parents and students
however think differently. According to them, the provision of
education is a social responsibility of government that must never
be allowed to be abdicated. In addition, they argue that returning
schools to erstwhile owners that charged exorbitant fees, poorly
remunerated teachers and religiously denominationalised schools
is akin to commercialization, privatization and talibanalisation of
education with grave consequences for the Nigerian society.
1. Do you support the agitation for the return of schools to

original owners?
2. Recall the antecedents that lead to government take-over of
schools in the 1970s.
99
3. Discuss the effect of government take-over of schools on the

Nigerian education system.
4.0 Conclusion
The contemporary political issue of government take-over/hand-
over of schools has been discussed in this unit. Government s
recognition of private individuals and organizations in the
provision and management of schools in the national policy on
education seemingly make the agitation unnecessary. According
to the Nigerian Union of Teachers NUT, government s
contemplation to return schools to original owners is not only
political but misguided. They argue that the decision is akin to
commercialization and privatization of education. Any individual
or religious organization that is interested in school business
should go ahead and establish schools and stop misguiding (or
hiding under government s insincerity) government to relinquish
its control on the provision and management of schools.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the history of government take-over of schools was

discussed. The reasons for government take-over of schools and
the effects were also x-rayed.
1. Give a historical account of government take-over of

schools in Nigeria.
2. Outline the reasons given for government take-over of
schools in Nigeria.
3. Discuss the effects of government take-over of schools on
the Nigeria educational system.

Education. Lagos: NERDC
Ogunu, M.A. (2004). Government Take-Over of Schools from

Voluntary Agencies and Moves to Return the Schools- A Critical
Appraisal in E.O. Fagbamiye; and A.O. Ayeni. Management of
Primary and Secondary education in Nigeria. (Pp134-156).
Ibadan: NAEAP Publications.
100

EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of Equality of Educational Opportunities
3.3 Government Policy to Remedy Educational Imbalance
3.4 Challenge of Gender Imbalance in Education Participation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Education is a right and not a privilege. This means that nobody,

big or small, male or female, indigene or non-indigene can be
denied education. This notwithstanding, equalizing opportunity or
access to education at every level is a difficult task all over the
world particularly in Nigeria. In what way(s) therefore do you
think the seeming inequality of educational opportunities can be
redressed?
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

§ explain the concept of equality of educational opportunities
§ discuss the reasons for educational imbalance in Nigeria
§ enumerate government policy to remedy educational
imbalance in Nigeria
§ Discuss the challenges of gender imbalance in Nigeria
§ Explain how politics influence the location of new education
institutions.
101
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of Equalization of Educational opportunity

Equality of educational opportunity means the removal of all
forms of imbalances in the course of providing education to every
person in the society. It is not just to universalize access to
education but to ensure that no one is discriminated against in
terms of funding, curriculum, school location, sex and teachers
distribution. It is strongly believed that equality of educational
opportunity is an antidote to solve the problem of social
inequality. In the United States of America for instance, education
was made available to the Blacks, women and people of low
socio-economic status who were identified after the World War II
as victims of discrimination. Today, the educational attainment
gap between all classes of people in the US has become
reasonably low with corresponding political will by the
government to exterminate all traces of inequality among the
American people.
The lack of uniformity in the provision and management of

education in the different parts of Nigeria is as a result of
religious, ethnic and socio-cultural differences. Western education
that Christian missionary groups brought to Nigeria was received
first by Christian adherents in the South before others in the
North. Even within the South, the Yoruba ethnic groups were the
first to receive and benefit from western education not only
because the first school was located in their ethnic area, Badagry
but were privileged to have exposure to persons and institutions
outside the shores of Nigeria. These set of people and areas that
received western education earlier than others became the
dominant groups during the colonial and post colonial political
arrangements. In present day Nigeria, these areas that received
western education earlier have been christened educationally
advantaged and those that received late disadvantaged areas. The
imbalance in the equation however is not only due to religion and
ethnicity but such other factors like geography, socio-economic
background, culture etc.
102
3.3 Government Policies to Remedy Educational Imbalance
As you are already aware, Nigeria is a multi-ethnic and socio-

cultural society. Education has therefore been identified as a
potent instrument of unity in diversity. Additionally, the national
policy on education endorses education as the necessary
foundation for building:
(i) a free and democratic society;
(ii) a just and egalitarian society;
(iii) a strong and self-reliant nation
(iv) a great and dynamic economy and;
(v) a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens
For every Nigerian to have equal opportunity to receive education

therefore, government has formulated the following deliberate
policies.
At the Primary Education Level
Government has formulated the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
policy. This policy makes it mandatory for all Nigerians
irrespective of religion, ethnicity, socio-economic status, sex, and
age to receive primary education free of charge. In this regard
everyone is guaranteed equal opportunity to receive the same type
of primary education.
At the Secondary Education Level

Free and compulsory secondary education for the first three years
has also been provided for in the national policy on education.
Private individuals and organizations are also being encouraged to
partner with government as a matter of policy in providing senior
secondary education for all Nigerians. The reason for this
partnership in principle is to encourage non-governmental
organizations to locate schools in areas where government school
are non-existent. Adult education and literacy centers including
special schools for the physically challenged have been provided
for in the policy to give every Nigerian equal opportunity for both
basic and secondary education.
At the Tertiary Level
To guarantee equal opportunity of all Nigerians to receive higher
education, the government established the Joint Admissions and
Matriculation Board (JAMB) to place suitably qualified
candidates in all universities, polytechnics and monotechnics in
the country. In doing this over the years, JAMB has a well
established and properly defined guidelines for the equitable
103
placements of qualified candidates. The guidelines are listed

below:
(i) The Merit Criterion:- A certain percentage of all
qualified candidates is admitted based on merit.
(ii) The Catchments Area Criterion:- Another percentage is
approved for catchments area. The catchments area in most
cases is the geographical or socio-cultural area contagious
to the university or polytechnic or monotechnic in the area.
The states of the federation and the Catchments/locality
area according to JAMB are listed below in the case of
federal universities:
Table 1: Catchments Areas for Universities

S/N State/Catchments Area Universities
1 Abia FUTO, NAU, UNN
2 Adamawa YOLA, MAIDUGURI, ATBU, ABU
3 Akwa-Ibom UYO, CALABAR, BENIN, UNN
4 Anambra NAU, UNN, FUTO
5 Bauchi ATBU, ABU, YOLA, MAIDUGURI
6 Bayelsa BENIN, CALABAR, UYO, UNN
7 Benue JOS, ILORIN, MINNA, ABU
8 Borno MAIDUGURI, YOLA, ATBU, ABU
9 Cross River CALABAR, UYO, BENIN, UNN
10 Delta CALABAR,UYO, BENIN, UNN
11 Ebonyi UNN, FUTO, NAU
12 Edo BENIN, CALABAR, UYO, UNN
13 Ekiti FUTA, OAU, LAGOS
14 Enugu UNN, NAU, FUTO
15 Gombe ATBU, YOLA, ABU, MAIDUGURI
16 Imo FUTO, UNN, NAU
17 Jigawa BUK, UDU, ABU
18 Kaduna BUK, UDU, ABU
19 Kano BUK, UDU, ABU
20 Kastina BUK, UDU, ABU
21 Kebbi UDU, BUK, ABU, ILORIN, MINNA
22 Kogi ILORIN, JOS, MINNA, ABU
23 Kwara ILORIN, JOS, MINNA, ABU, UDU
24 Lagos LAGOS, OAU, FUTA
25 Nasarawa JOS, MINNA, ILORIN, UDU, ABU
26 Niger JOS, MINNA, ILORIN, UDU, ABU
27 Ogun OAU, LAGOS, FUTA
28 Ondo OAU, LAGOS, FUTA
29 Osun OAU, LAGOS, FUTA
30 Oyo OAU, LAGOS, FUTA
31 Plateau JOS, MINNA, ABU, ILORIN
32 Rivers CALABAR, UYO, BENIN, UNN
33 Sokoto UDU, BUK, ABU, ILORIN, MINNA
34 Taraba YOLA, ABU, ATBU, MAIDUGURI
35 Yobe YOLA, ABU, ATBU, MAIDUGURI
36 Zamfara UDU, ILORIN, BUK, MINNA, ABU
104
The following universities have all the States of the Federation as

their catchments areas: University of Ibadan, University of Abuja,
University of Port Harcourt, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta;
University of Agriculture, Makurdi; Michael Okpara University
of Agriculture, Umudike and Federal University of Petroleum
Resources, Effurun. Note therefore that all the States have their
quota reserved in the universities belonging to the catchments
area or locality.
(iii) Special Consideration for candidates from

Educationally Less Developed States (ELDS)
Criterion:- A proportion is also reserved for candidates
from ELDS. The ELDS States are Adamawa, Bauchi,
Bayelsa, Benue, Borno, Cross River, Ebonyi, Gombe,
Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Kastina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara,
Nasarawa, Niger, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe
and Zamfara. Additionally, States that established
universities to complement Federal government s effort in
providing university education have all the Local
government Areas within the States as catchments areas.
This arrangement no doubt, guarantees fairness and equity

in the placement of qualified candidates in the limited
spaces in the universities and other tertiary institutions in
the country.
3.4 The Challenge of Gender Imbalance in Education

Participati on.
Department of Public Information of the United Nations

Organization (UNO) in 1995 revealed that 67 percent of the world
one billion illiterates are women. The report also shows that more
than 80 million out of the 130 million children that lack access to
primary schools are girls and, that by the age of 18, girls have
received 4.4 years less education than boys. A cursory look at this
research report shows that there is gender inequality of education
opportunities, a situation whereby the males are more favoured
than the females. In Nigeria, Ayo-Sobowale (2006) reported that
less than 50 percent females are in primary and secondary schools
while less than 40 percent in tertiary institutions. Many factors
militate against the girl child education in the Nigerian society.
105
Factors such as religion, poverty, tradition and cultural norms

subordinate the girl child to suffer the following:
- low educational attainments (in most cases, the girl child does
not go beyond primary and secondary school level).,
- prostitution and forced marriages leading to early school dropout
- child abuse in the form of hawking, baby sitting etc.
Effective school mapping is the bane of even school distribution.

The importance of effective school distribution can not be over-
emphasized as access to school and regular school attendance is
improved upon. This distribution framework is however distorted
when politics is taken into consideration in locating new
educational institutions. The result of this is over concentration of
schools is some places while in other places, schools are sparsely
distributed. Even in places where schools are concentrated, they
are still for political reasons located nearer the houses of
politicians that are in control of government than those in
opposition. This explains why more federal universities and
colleges for example are located in the North than in the South
where partisan politicians have always been in opposition.
1. What is the meaning of the concept of equality of educational

opportunities?
2. Identify the causes of educational imbalance in Nigeria.
3. In what ways do you think the problem of education imbalance
can be solved?
4. Discuss the challenges of gender imbalance in Nigeria
5. Explain how politics influence the location of new education
institutions.
4.0 Conclusion
We have seen in this unit the commendable efforts government

has made to universalize access to education at all levels.
Additionally, government has enshrined fairness and equity in the
selection process of all persons that place demand for education.
To a large extent, the observed educational imbalance among
ethnic and social groups in the country is being balanced to foster
development and national unity.
106
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the contemporary political issue of equality of

educational opportunity was discussed. The concept of equality of
educational opportunity was explained and the reasons for
imbalance in the Nigerian educational system discussed.
Government deliberate policies to remedy the observed
educational imbalance were highlighted to guide all stakeholders.
1. Explain the concept of equality of educational opportunity

2. Discuss the reasons for educational imbalance in Nigeria
3. Highlight governments deliberate policies to remedy
educational imbalance in Nigeria.
4. What are the challenges of gender imbalance in education
participation.
5. Explain how politics can influence location of new
educational institutions.
Ayo-Sobowale, S.M.O. (2006). Factors Militating against the

Girl-Child Education in Nigeria in P.M.C Ogomaka and D.A.
Onyejemezi (eds.) The Home, the Society and the Education of
th
the Nigeria Child. Lagos: 20 Annual Congress Book of
Proceedings, Nigerian Academy of Education.
Coleman, J.S. (1968). The Concept of Equality of Educational

Opportunity. Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 38, Pp 7-22
Boudon, R. (1973). Education, Opportunity and Social Inequality.

New York: John Willey and Sons
Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1987). Egalitarianism and Inequalities in

Nigeria Education in A.M. Ejiogu and D. Ajeyaleni (Eds.)
Emergent Issues in Nigerian Education. Lagos: Joja Press Ltd.,
(Pp. 12-18).

Joint Admission and Matriculation Board. (2008). UME/DE
107
Brochure 2009/2010 Academic Session: Guidelines for

Admissions to First Degree Courses in Universities and Degree
Awarding Institutions in Nigeria. Lagos: JAMB.
108
UNIT 4 THE CONTEMPOR ARY ISSUES OF OPEN AND

DISTANCE LEARNING (ODL) AND PRIVATE
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of ODL
3.2 Characteristic of ODL
3.3 Factors that affect ODL Implementation
3.4 Concept of Private Educational Institutions and
Partnerships
3.5 Arguments for and Against Private Participation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Do you know that education is a right and not a privilege? It is the

duty of government therefore to provide education for all persons.
Many persons that can not attend conventional or regular schools
either because of job or distance or health reasons can not be
denied education. The open and distance learning scheme is a sine
qua non that has been recognized all over the world to bring
education to the door steps of people that can not attend
conventional schools.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

§ explain the concept of open and distance learning
§ discuss the characteristic of ODL
§ identify factors that affect ODL implementation
§ discuss the meaning of private education institutions and
partnership
§ what are the arguments for/against private participation in
education?
109
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Concept of Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
Open and distance learning (ODL) is a system where the tutor

contacts the learners in different ways other than the conventional
face-to-face pedagogy. It is based on selective use of instructional
media that promote the self-teaching-learning process. It is the
organization and delivery of instructions to learners that do not
have immediate or physical interactions with teachers. ODL
combines the mixture of learning through print, correspondence
and electronic media instruction. The applicability of ODL cut
across all levels of education. For example, the National Teacher
Institute (NTI) employs the use of ODL to provide education at
all levels for all persons that can not attend conventional schools.
Also, the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) provides
university education using the ODL instrument to persons that
time and space debar from attending regular universities.
3.2 Characteristics of ODL
In ODL, there is freedom from restriction and rigidity which

usually characterize the conventional system of learning. There is
also openness with regards to admission, teaching media, space,
time and course content. According to the Federal Ministry of
Education (2002), a significant proportion of the teaching-
learning process is conducted by teachers removed in space
and/or in time from the learner. The National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN) summarized the major characteristics of ODL as
follows:
(i) There is no fixed location or time for this kind of
education. It can take place anywhere and at any time- at
home, work place and even while traveling.
(ii) There is little or no physical interaction between tutors and
students
(iii) It is learner-centred. Therefore, the learning materials must
be designed to meet learners needs.
(iv) The tutor is built into the text material. This means that in
the text, the writer must invoke the same feelings and
reactions that a student gets when he or she is in a
conventional teaching-learning environment.
110
3.3 Factors that Affect ODL Implementation
The successful implementation of ODL scheme at any level of

education depends on the following factors:
(i) Data for Planning: Planning for ODL requires data on
prospective beneficiaries, facilities, and equipment. The
characteristics of the prospective beneficiaries in terms of
age, sex, culture, occupation, educational preferences etc
have to be investigated and recorded.
(ii) Establishment of study centres: Although ODL is delivered
using communication media like radio and television or
printed materials, there is still the need for the
establishment of study centers to provide opportunities for
students to interact among themselves and with the
teachers. The advantage of this is that the feeling of
isolation associated with ODL by students is removed and,
common problems tackled with avenues for students to
benefit from one another created.
(iii) Production of printed materials: Printed materials are still
very relevant in ODL. Other instructional aids are also
needed to supplement printed texts when the students come
together for tutorial classes at the study centers.
(iv) Funding: Government has to invest adequate resources in
the establishment of study centers and fund the
procurement of facilities and equipment.
(v) Student Support: This include all activities beyond the
production and delivery of course materials that assist in
the progress of students in their studies. There are two
major categories of student support. The first is academic
support that covers cognitive, intellectual and knowledge
issues affecting a course or some courses. The second is
the non-academic or counseling support that focuses on the
affective and the organizational aspects of their
programme(s)
(vi) Student Evaluation: Continuous assessment and
examinations are combined to evaluate students academic
achievements in ODL. Results of continuous assessment
will enable the students to carry out self-analysis about the
progress being made. These assignments have the
additional advantage of helping students to remain focused
in their studies.
111
3.4 Concept of Private Educational Institutions and Partnerships
The concept of private sector participation in the provision and

management of education is akin to privatization/commercialization of
education. Privatization generally is the process of involving private
individuals and organizations in the management and ownership of
public enterprises. Privatization of education is however done with
great caution because of the nature of education as both a public and
merit good. Due to the very expensive nature of education,
governments all over the world encourage individuals and
organizations including communities to establish and manage school at
all levels of education. The role of government in the circumstance is to
make legislations to enforce minimum standards. The extent to which
education is privatized varies from country to country and from time to
time. Two levels or forms of privatization of education have been
identified by Nwadiani (2005). The first is zero privatization of
education a situation whereby the State or the private sector bears the
full cost of providing and managing education. The second form of
privatization is the Public/Private Partnership (PPP) in which private
individuals and agencies are allowed to own and run schools at all
levels.
3.5 Arguments For/Against Private Participation in Educational

Management
Allowing private sector participation in the ownership and

management of schools at all levels of education has been a
matter of debate. Some stakeholders argue that education is both a
public and merit good. Therefore, allowing the private sector to
take over the establishment and management of schools will not
only affect access to the commodity by the poor majority in the
society but will according to Okunamiri (2005) affect the content
and eventual quality of the service.
Another argument is that with government monopolizing the

provision and management of education, the school plant
including school leavers would be of very poor quality and
dysfunctional especially in the market place.
There is still another argument that government has over the years
borne the cost of providing education. Now that the world
economy is experiencing a melt down, users of the end products
of education should take part in sharing the burden of training
these school graduates.
112

1. Explain the concept open and distance learning
2. Discuss the characteristics of ODL
3. What makes the implementation of ODL difficult in Nigeria?
4. Discuss what private education institutions and partnership
mean.
5.What are the argument for/against private participation in
4.0 Conclusion
Teaching and studying at a distance can be affective when the

methods and technologies used are appropriate to the instructional
task. A robust student-to-student interaction combined with a very
timely teacher-to-student feedback will no doubt make the
goals(s) of ODL realizable.
5.0 Summary
The unit examined the contemporary issue of open distance

learning emerging programmes in Nigeria. The concept of ODL
was explained while the characteristics of distant learning were
highlighted. Factors that affect the successful implementation of
ODL were identified and discussed.
1. Explain the meaning of open and distance learning

2. List at least three characteristic of ODL
3. What factors will you consider for the successful
implementation of ODL?
4. Discuss what private education institutions and partnership
mean.
5. What are the argument for/against private participation in
113
Federal Ministry of Education. (2002). Blue Print and

Implementation Plan for the National Open University and
Distance Learning Programmes. Abuja: Federal Ministry of
Education.
Jegede, O. (2001). Producing Teachers for UBE through Open

and Distance Learning. Journal of Basic Education in Nigeria
1(1). 55-65.
Koul, b.N. (2005). Induction Workshop for Staff of the National

Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Lagos: NOUN
Nwadiani, M. (1993). Faster Forward Jump Hypothesis: Implications

for Educational Planning in Developing Countries. Benin City:
University of Benin Press.
Okunamiri, P.O. (2005). The Popularity of Privatization in Education

in Nigeria in G.O. Akpa; S.U. Udoh and E.O. Fagbamiye (eds.)
Deregulating the Provision and Management of Education in Nigeria
(PP 123-129), Jos: NAEAP Publication.
ThisDay Newspapers, (2002, March 13). Taking Distance out of

Education.
114
UNIT 5 ISSUES OF IMPLEMENTA TION OF THE

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (NPE)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 The Philosophy and Goals of Education in Nigeria
3.2 Terms of Reference for NPE Implementation Committee
3.3. Challenges of Implementing the National Policy on
Education
3.4 Revisions and Editions of the NPE
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
A nation s policy on education is government s way of realizing
that part of the national goals which can be achieved using
education as a tool. No policy on education however can be
formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and
goals of the nation. This is why it is severally believed that no
nation can rise above the quality of education that is provided. Do
you believe this? How then can the policy on education be
implemented for the purpose and goals of education to be
achieved.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
(i) state the philosophy and goals of education in Nigeria
(ii) identify the terms of reference for the NPE
implementation committee
(iii) discuss the problems of implementing the national policy
on education
(iv) Identify the revisions and editions in the NPE document
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Philosophy and Goals of Education in Nigeria

Nigeria s philosophy of education is based on:
(i) the development of the individual into a sound and effective
115
citizens
(ii) the full integration of individual into the community
(iii) the provision of equal access to educational opportunities for
all citizens of the country at the primary, secondary and
tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal school
system
For the philosophy to be in harmony with Nigeria s national

goals, education has to be geared towards self-realization, better
human relationships, individual and national efficiency, effective
citizenship, national consciousness, national unity as well as
towards social, cultural, economic, political, scientific and
technological progress.
Based on the above philosophy, the national educational goals

are:
(a) the inculcation of national consciousness and
national unity;
(b) the inculcation of the right type of values and
attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society;
(c) the training of the mind in the understanding of the
world around and;
(d) the acquisition of appropriate skills and the
development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competencies as equipment for the individual to
live in and contribute to the development of the
society
3.2 Terms of Reference for the NPE Implementation Committee
Following the adoption of the NPE document, the federal

government set up a national implementation committee with the
following terms of reference:
(i) Translate the policy into workable blueprint and to

develop programmes for the implementation of the
policy.
(ii) Coordinate and monitor the implementation of the
programmes developed under the policy.
(iii) Advise government on, and to assist in providing
the infrastructures and other requirements for the
policy.
116
(iv) Provide a continuous review and assessment of the

aims, objectives and target of the policy with a view
to ensuring the adequacy and continued relevance of
the policy to our national needs and aspirations and
to propose modifications on any aspects as may be
found necessary.
Each state of the federation was mandated to set up

implementation task force to organize workshops and publicize
the contents of the national policy.
3.3 Problems of Implementing the National Policy on

Education
A number of problems observed in the operating environment

affect the full attainment of the policy expected outcomes. A few
of these problems include:
(i) Inadequate teachers: The country has not been able

to provide adequate teachers, particularly in
technical and science subjects
(ii) Inadequate and unreliable data in the making of
major decisions: Recently for example, the
government came up with the policy of feeding
pupils in all existing primary schools in the country
without first collecting data on pupils that will
benefit from the decision; average cost of feeding a
pupil, availability of water for the pupils to drink
after eating or even data on toilets to serve as
conveniences for the pupil after eating.
(iii) Poor leadership:- Many lapses in various aspects of
administration have also been observed to
negatively impact on the successful implementation
of the education policy.
(iv) Continuous assessment problem:- The importance
of continuous assessment can not be over-
emphasized. It plays corrective roles and help both
students and teachers to be focused on the teaching-
learning process. But today in most schools, no
meaningful continuous assessment is observed.
Even in schools where continuous assessment takes
place, poor administration and falsification of
performance data characterize the exercise.
117
(v) Overcrowded classrooms:- Teacher-pupils ratio in

several schools is observed to be above the
specified standards because classrooms,
laboratories, workshops, library (where available)
benches/desks etc are inadequate.
(vi) Other problems include poor curriculum
development, social violence, poverty, poor
understanding of the purpose of education etc
3.4 Revisions and Editions of the NPE Document
The need for a national policy on education came about as a result

of the 1969 National Curriculum Conference which was attended
by a cross-section of Nigerians. The conference was a
culmination of expressions of general dissatisfaction with existing
education system which had become irrelevant to national needs,
aspirations and goals. After this, another conference of experts
drawn from a wide range of interest groups within Nigeria was
convened in 1973. The conference deliberated on what a national
policy on education for an independent and sovereign Nigerian
nation should be. The outcome of the seminar was a draft
document which, after due comments were received from
government and other stakeholders led to the final document, the
maiden National Policy on Education, first published in 1977.
nd rd
Since the publication of the 1977 edition, the 2 and 3 editions
were published in 1981 and 1998 respectively in keeping with the
dynamics of social change and the demands on education. The
th
present 4 edition came about as a result of some policy
innovations and changes.

1. Highlight the philosophy and goals of education in Nigeria.
2. In your own opinion, is it the implementation committee of the
national policy on education that should be held responsible for
non- achievement of the policy objectives thirty years after
implementation?
3. What problems are militating against the effective
implementation of the national policy on education?
4. Identify the revisions and editions in the NPE document
118
4.0 Conclusion
More than thirty years after the NPE document was adopted for
implementation, no significant achievements have been recorded
in terms of policy objective attainment. Inadequate funding and
poor mal-administration both at micro and macro level have been
identified as reasons for the elusive attainment of policy
objectives. Deliberate policies to redress the identified problems
in the course of implementing the policy will no doubt translate
policy objectives into desired results.
5.0 Summary
This unit examined the issue of implementation of the national

policy on education. The philosophy and goals of education in
Nigeria as well as terms of reference for NPE implementation
committee were highlighted. Finally, the challenges of
implementing the national policy on education discussed.
1. State the goals and philosophy of education in Nigeria.

2. Identify the terms of reference of the committee
implementing the national policy on education.
3. Discuss the problems of implementing the national policy
on education.
4. Give reasons for the revision of NPE from time to time
7.0 References/ Further Readings
Aiyepeku, T.F. (1989). 6-3-3-4. System of Education in Nigeria.

Zaria: NPS Educational Publishers Limited.

Nwagwu, N.A. (2002). From UPE to UBE: Basic Planning

consideration for Effective Implementation of Programmes in T.
Ajayi (Eds.) Universal basic Education in Nigeria. (Pp 10-21).
Abuja: UNESCO Office in Nigeria.
Nwagwu, N.A. (2002). Management structure and Financing of

Education in UNESCO (Ed.) The state of Education in Nigeria.
(Pp. 10-21) Abuja: UNESCO Office in Nigeria.
119
Ogonor, B.O. (2004). Management of Education in Nigeria in

N.A. Nwagwu; M.E. Ijeoma and C.C. Nwagwu (Eds.)
Organizations and Administration of Education: Perspectives and
Practices. (Pp. 304-322) Benin City: Festa printing Press Ltd.
Ojogwu, C.N. (2004). Organization of the Nigerian Education

System in N.A. Nwagwu, M.E. Ijeoma and C.C. Nwagwu (Eds.)
Organization and Administration of Education of Education:
Perspectives and Practices. (Pp.267-301). Benin City: Festa
Printing Press Ltd.
UNESCO. (2000). The State of Education in Nigeria. Abuja:

UNESCO
120

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EDA 852 POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: EDA 852

COURSE TITLE: POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

BLURB (COURSE DESCRIPTIO N)

EDA 852 Politics of Educational Management is a 2 unit course to be

The course is made up of fifteen study units and a course guide. It

POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Course Developer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Unit Writer: Dr. V.O. Igbineweka

Course Editor: Prof. N.A. Nwagwu

Programme overseer Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

Course Coordinator: Dr. Samuel O. Ogundiran

EDA852: POLITICS OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

This course guide is an access device designed to introduce you to the

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction to the Course

Welcome to EDA 852: Politics of Educational Management which is a

I strongly recommend that you go through this Course Guide and

3.2 A Guide Through the Course

3.2.1 Course Aim and Objectives

3.2.2 Course Materials and Structure

Module 1 introduces you to the conceptual issues in politics and

Funding Education and the UBE. in preparing budget to implement

3.2.3 How to Get the Most from this Course

3.3 Course Delivery

3.3.1 Tutorial Sessions

On your part, you will be expected to prepare ahead of time by studying

Tutorial sessions are a flexible arrangement between you and your

Tutorial sessions are optional. However, the benefits of participating in

• provide answers to your questions during tutorial sessions, on

The language of instruction for this course is English. The course

• You do not understand any part of the Study Units.

Counselling forms a part of your learning because it is provided to make

There are three components of assessment for this course: Self

3.4.1 Self Assessment Exercises (SAEs)

3.4.2 Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

There are four Tutor-Marked Assignments for this course. The

tutorial facilitators for formal assessment on or before the stipulated

Guidelines for Writing Tutor-Marked Assignments

1. On the cover page of your assignment, write the course code

2. You should endeavour to be concise and to the point in your

4. Your answers should be hand-written by you. Leave a margin

3.4.3 Final Examination and Grading

1. You should have submitted all the four Tutor-Marked

2. You should have registered to sit for the examination. The

Course Marking Scheme

EDA 852 Politics of Educational Management provides you with a

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(1) State the aim and objectives of this course.

(2) Outline the information on available support services for

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Aderounmu, W.O. and Ehiametor, E.T. (1985). Introduction to

Adeyemi, J.K. (1998). Cost in Education in M. Nwadiani. Educational

Agbebaku, P.E. (2000). Topics in Political Science. Benin City: Sylva

Ailoge, J. and Anegbode, J. (2001). Issues in Nigerian Government and

Aiyepeku, T.F.(1989). 6-3-3-4 System of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan:

Alele-Willaims, G, (1988). The Politics of Administering a Nigerian

Anuna, M.C. (2004). Educational Policies and the Nigerian Legal