This module is prepared by Wachemo University

Collage of engineering and technology

School of computing and informatics
Department of information systems
Introduction to Computer and Information Systems
Course Module

(Course Code : INSY1011)

Developed and edited by
Yehitfenta Minuyelet (Msc in Information System Engg )
Reviewed by:
1. Wegderes Tariku(Msc)
2. Israel mitiku(Msc)

Monday, 08 August 2022

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 Module Preface
This resource module is designed and developed in support of Introduction to Computer and
Information Systems Course. It provides learning resources as well as teaching ideas.

The module is organized into 6 chapters. Each chapter is comprised of subtopics. At the end of the
subtopics, exercises are included to assist the students in improving their understanding of the
course..

In this module reader expected to understand an overview of computer and Information Systems
(IS). It includes: the development of computers, data representation, and logical organization of a
computer system, computer software, computer arithmetic, computer system architecture, internet,
computer network and communication, problem solving using computers, operating systems,
windows environment and office application.
Theoretical and conceptual foundations of Information Systems (IS); organizational and
technological aspects of IS; development of IS; overview of database design and management;
telecommunications and networks; applications of IS in business: TPS, MIS, DSS, electronic
commerce, AI, expert systems, virtual reality and other specialized systems; management of IS
resources; overview of software quality and project management; legal, security, social, and ethical
issues in IS; contemporary trends in IS

Upon the completion of this course, a student will be able to:

 Use computes as a prime tool in solving common problems with in various facets of our
society
 Explain the major components, functions and principles of computes
 Explain historical development of computer with their characteristics
 Describe data representation techniques and computer arithmetic
 Define basics terms associated with communication and networking.
 Make use of the basic office application
 Describe basic concepts in internet
 Understand theoretical and conceptual foundations of IS.
 Understand the importance and relevance of IS and technological aspects of IS

 Understand IS and database development methodologies.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Overview of Computers and their Historical development ......................................................... 2
1.1. Overview of Computers .............................................................................................................. 2
1.2. History of computers .................................................................................................................. 5
1.3. Generations of computers ........................................................................................................ 10
1.4. Characteristics of computers ................................................................................................... 13
1.5. Applications of computers ........................................................................................................ 15
1.6. Types of computers ................................................................................................................... 18
1.6.1 Classification of computers According to Purpose ........................................................ 18
1.6.2 Classification of computers based on Data-handling Technique .................................. 19
1.6.3 Classification According to Functionality ....................................................................... 23
Chapter 2: Computer Systems .................................................................................................................... 31
2.1 Hardware ................................................................................................................................... 31
2.1.1 The processing unit (CPU) ............................................................................................... 31
2.1.2 Input unit (device) ............................................................................................................. 34
2.1.3 Output unit (device) .......................................................................................................... 51
2.1.4 Storage devices .................................................................................................................. 60
2.1.5 Memory Unit ..................................................................................................................... 63
2.2 Software ..................................................................................................................................... 74
2.2.1 System software ................................................................................................................. 74
2.2.2 Application software ......................................................................................................... 76
2.3 Database ..................................................................................................................................... 77
Chapter 3: Computer networks ................................................................................................................... 79
3.1 Data transmission...................................................................................................................... 79
3.2 Types of Network ....................................................................................................................... 83
3.3 Network topology ...................................................................................................................... 84
3.4 Internet and the World Wide Web .......................................................................................... 87
Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Information Systems ...................................................................................... 89
4.1 Overview of IS ........................................................................................................................... 89
4.2 Data vs. Information ................................................................................................................. 89
4.2.1 Information Overload ....................................................................................................... 90
4.3 IS building blocks ...................................................................................................................... 92

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 4.4 IS development phases .............................................................................................................. 95
4.5 IS development methodologies ................................................................................................. 97
Chapter 5: Major Issues in Computer and IS ............................................................................................ 106
5.1 Impact of IS ............................................................................................................................. 106
5.2 Computer Ethics, Crime, and Privacy .................................................................................. 108
5.3 Security concerns and security management strategies in e-business applications .......... 112
5.4 Ethical issues in Information system ..................................................................................... 117
Chapter 6: Major Applications and Current trends of Computer and Information Systems ..................... 119
6.1 Office Automation System........................................................................................................ 120
6.2 Transaction Processing System ............................................................................................... 121
6.3 Management Information System ......................................................................................... 122
6.4 Decision Support System ........................................................................................................ 122
References ................................................................................................................................................ 127

Chapter 1: Overview of Computers and their Historical development

1.1. Overview of Computers

The term ‘computer’ is derived from the word ‘compute’, which means to calculate.
Computer is defined as an electronic devices, operating under control of instruction (software)

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 stored in its own memory unit, that can accept data(input), manipulate data (process), and
produce information(output) from processing.
A computer can also be defined as an electronic device which accepts an input, process the
input according the instruction provided and produce the desired output. Computer composed
of hardware device, Software and electric circuit.
Generally, Computer is a device or set of devices that work under the control of a stored
program, automatically accepts and processes data to provide information. It simplifies human
works by automating
A computer is a machine that can:
 Accept input. Input could be entered by a human typing at a keyboard, received over
a network, or provided automatically by sensors attached to the computer.
 Execute a mechanical procedure, that is, a procedure where each step can be executed
without any thought.
 Produce output. Output could be data displayed to a human, but it could also be
anything that effects the world outside the computer such as electrical signals that
control how a device operates.

Functionalities of a Computer

If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers

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 Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.

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  Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers

Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency

 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment

 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling

 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.
1.2. History of computers

The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago in Babylonia (Mesopotamia), at the
birth of the abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them.
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and
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 bones as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more
computing devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the
first to recent ones are described below;

Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were
moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations.
Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia, Japan and etc . An image of this
tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-
1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones
marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's
Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.

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Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it
was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform
addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a
wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is
given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in

1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical
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 calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted
drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine

In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was
a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

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Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical

tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the
Hollerith? Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business
Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical
signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

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Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken
planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In
1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first
programmable digital computer.

1.3. Generations of computers

A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with

time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;

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First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape
and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation; Some of the popular
first generation computers are;

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like
COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems
were used in these computers. Some of the popular second generation computers are;

o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

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 The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single
IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These
generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating
system. Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation. Some of the popular third generation
computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits;
a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this generation. Some of the popular fourth
generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

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 In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with
ten million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc. Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

1.4. Characteristics of computers

Man developed computers so that he could perform intricate operations such as calculation
and data processing or simply for entertainment. Today, computers are everywhere – in
our offices, homes, appliances, automobiles – the list is endless. Much of the world runs
on computers, and computers have profoundly changed our lives, mostly for the better. Let
us discuss some of the characteristics of a computer, which make them an essential part
of every emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development.
Speed: The computers process data at an extremely fast rate, that is, to the tune of million
instructions per second. In a few seconds, computers can perform such a huge task that a
normal human being may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer
is calculated in MHz (Megahertz), that is, one million instructions per second. At present,
a powerful computer can perform billions of operations in just on second.
 Accuracy: -Besides the efficiency, the computers are also very accurate. The level of
accuracy depends on the instructions and the type of machines being used. Since we know
that the computer is capable of doing only what it is instructed to do, faulty instructions for
processing the data automatically lead to faulty results. This is known as GIGO, that is,
Garbage In Garbage Out. Errors may occur in the results, but due to increased efficiency
of error-detecting techniques, they can be minimized. Thus, the probability of errors in a

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 computer is negligible. Computers can performing millions of instructions without
commuting any error, or they done their activities without any error/mistake.
 Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer,
which is measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure.
The major reason behind the reliability of the computers is that, at hardware level, it does
not require any human intention between its processing operations. Moreover, computers
have the built-in diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous monitoring of the
system.
It refers to a computer is a trustfulness (acceptance) machine.
 Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the required
information almost instantaneously. Anyone can store data in a computer for several years
and you will find it the same whenever you came back your data. Different computers have
different memory and storage capacity. The memory of the computer is relatively small
and it can hold only a certain amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on storage
devices such as CD-ROM and a hard disk. A single CD-ROM can store up the 700 MB of
data while a hard disk can have a capacity of around 80 GB (1 GB=1024 MB). Storage
capacity of a computer is measured by bite, bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes and
terabytes. Bite: is the smallest measurement unit of data either 0 or 1 (off or on). Gigabytes
and Terabytes: are the largest measurement units of data. A group of bites is called byte.
8 bites = 1 byte = 1 character, 1KB = 1024 byte, 1MB = 1024 KB , 1GB = 1024 MB ,
1TB = 1024 GB
 Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously with equal ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a
letter, the other moment it can be used to play music and in between you can print a
document as well. All this work is possible by changing the program (sequence of
instructions for computers). In brief, we can say that a computer can perform various tasks
by reducing the task to a series of logical steps.
 Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness
and lack of concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the
computer will perform the last four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and
speed as the first calculation.

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  Automatic: A computer can work without human involvement after starting the
programming.
Computers have certain limitations too. As a machine, a computer can only perform what
it is programmed to do, nothing more and nothing less. It can only operate on the user
provided data, that is, it can accept data, process it, and communicate the results to the
user. In addition, a computer needs well-defined instructions to perform any operation.
Therefore, computers are unable to give anywhere qualitative considerations are important.
For instance, it can make plans based on situations and information though it cannot foresee
whether they will succeed or not. Other limitations of a computer are:
 Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for human.
 Do not provide their own input, unless people provide it with the input.

1.5. Applications of computers

Why we use Computers?

For the last few decades, computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other
aspects of human life all over the world. Practically, every company, large or small, is now
directly or indirectly dependent on computers for information processing. Computer systems
also help in the efficient operations of railway and airway reservation, hospital records,
accounts, electronic banking, and so on computers not only save paper work.
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use
Computers.

 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;
Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these
abilities. Some of the areas where computers are being used are listed below.

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 Education:
Computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education currently, the
classrooms, libraries, and museums are efficiently utilizing computers to make the
education much more interesting. Unlike recorded television shows, computer-aided
education (CAE) and Computer Based Training (CBT) packages are making learning
much more interactive.
Medicine and Health Care:
There has been an increasing use of computers in the field of medicine. Now, doctors
are using computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring patient’s status
during complex surgery. By suing automated imaging techniques, doctors are able to
look inside a person’s body and can study each organ in detail (such as CAT scans
or MRI scans), which was not possible few years ago. There are several examples of
special purpose computers that can operate within the human body such as a cochlear
implant, a special kind of hearing aid that makes it possible for deaf people to hear.
Entertainment:
Computers are finding greater use in entertainment industry. Computers are used to
control the images and sounds. The special effects, which mesmerize the audience,
would not have been possible without the computers. In addition, computerized
animation and colorful graphics have modernized the film industry.
Communication:
E-Mail or Electronic Mail is one of the communication media in which computer is
used. Through e-mail the messages and reports are passed from one person to one or
more persons by the aid of computer and the telephone line. The advantage of this
service is that while transferring the messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper,
and so on. Moreover, the person who is receiving the messages can read the messages
whenever he is free and can save it, reply it, forward it or delete it from the computer.
Commercial or business applications

Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large
amounts of data. Several computer applications are available to assist business in working
with large volumes of data.

Examples are:

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  Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
Scientific-engineering and research application
 Computers are using for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations,
design work, and analysis and control of physical system.
Examples are:
o Space technology
o Meteorological observatory system
o Astronomical investigations
o Design of machines and
o Control of manufacturing process
Weather and Environment

Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow and
can used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming environmental
hazards.

Transportation

Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under
the control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by
telling the computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such
as spark and fuel control

Household Control

A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled. For
example: Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and
televisions. This computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken

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 glass, unlawful entry without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police
department.

Banking:

In the field of banking and finance, computers are extensively used. People can use the
ATM (Automated Teller Machine) services 24 hours of the day in order to deposit and
withdraw cash. When the different branches of the bank are connected through the
computer networks, then the inter branch transaction such as check and draft can be done
by the computers without any delay.
1.6. Types of computers

These days, computers are available in many sizes and types. You can have a computer
that can fit in the palm of your hand to those that can occupy the entire room; single user
computers can be used by hundreds of users simultaneously. Computers also differ based
on their data processing abilities. Hence, computers can be classified according to purpose,
data handling, and functionality.
1.6.1 Classification of computers According to Purpose

Computers are designed for different purposes. They can be used either for general
purposes or for specific purposes.
A. General Purpose computers:
A general-purpose compute, as the name suggests, is designed to perform a range of
tasks. These computers have the ability to store numerous programs. These machines may
be used for various applications, ranging from scientific as well as business purpose
applications. Even though such computers are versatile, they generally lack in speed and
efficiency. The computers that you use in your schools and homes are general-purpose
computers.
Examples:

Desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis for general purposes.

B. Specific Purpose Computers:

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 These computers are designed to handle specific problems or to perform a single specific
task. A set of instruction for the specific task is built the machine. Hence, they cannot be
used for other applications unless their circuits are redesigned, that is, they lacked
versatility. However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide the result very
quickly and efficiently. These computers are used for airline reservations, satellite tracking,
and air traffic control.

Examples:

 Automatic teller machines (ATM),

 Washing machines,
 Surveillance equipment,
 Weather-forecasting simulators,
 Traffic-control computers,
 Defense-oriented applications,
 Oil-exploration systems,
 Military planes controlling computers.
1.6.2 Classification of computers based on Data-handling Technique

Different types of computers process the data in a different manner. According to the
basic data handling principle, computers can be classified into three categories: analog,
digital, and hybrid.
1. Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue
computers are used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical
quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

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Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of
transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice
versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their
effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To
perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another
rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It
performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential
calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time,
the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the
length of the day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals
flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the
mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical
signal generates the appropriate displays.

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 2. Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed.
It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and
processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern
computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are
digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily

whenever you need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program
without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.

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 3. Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process
both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital
form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both
analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps
that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are
used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the
analogue subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing

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 1.6.3 Classification According to Functionality

Based on physical size, performance and application areas, we can divide computers
generally into four major categories: micro, mini, mainframe, and super computers.
A. Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as

weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first
supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security
reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can
run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that
can execute any type of simple and logical data.

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 o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their
training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system.
For example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock
market and bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results
in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.

Super computer

A. Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high
volume of data.

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 Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can
execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make
them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and
process a high volume of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons,
etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If
any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information
and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in

order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates
or disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data
related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated
schools and colleges.

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 o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches
use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

B. Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can

support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and
departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:

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 o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs
two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs
in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store
and share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their
patients and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

C. Micro Computers:
A microcomputer is a small, low cast digital computer, which usually consists of a
microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel, and an output channel, all of which may be on
one chip inserted into one or several PC boards. The addition of a power supply and connecting
cables, appropriate peripherals (keyboard, monitor, printer, disk drives, et.) an operating system
and the software programs can provide a complete micro computer system. The microcomputer
is generally the smallest of the computer family. Originally, they were designed for individual
users only, but nowadays they have become powerful tools for many businesses that, when
networked together, can serve more than one user. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and
hand-held models such as PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants.)
i. Desktop Computer:
Desktop computer or PC (personal Computer) is the most common microcomputer. It is principally
intended for stand-alone use by an individual. These microcomputers typically consist of a system

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unit, a display monitor, a keyboard, internal hard disk storage, and other peripheral devices. The
major criterion behind the importance of the PCs is that they are not very expensive to purchase
by the individuals or the small businesses.
ii. Laptop:
A laptop is a portable computer that a user can carry it around. Since the laptop computer resembles
a notebook, they are also known as notebooks. Laptops are small computers enclosing all the basic
features of normal desktop computer. The biggest advantage of this computer is that one can use
this computer anywhere and at anytime. Moreover, these computers do not need any external
power supply, as a rechargeable battery is completely self-supply as them. These computers are
expensive as compared to desktop computers.
iii.Hand-Held Computers:
A hand-held, also called personal Digital Assistant (PDA), is a computer that can conveniently be
stored in a pocket (of sufficient size) and used while the user is holding it. PDAs are essentially
small portable computers and are slightly bigger than the common calculators. Since, these
computers can be easily fitted on the palmtop, they are also known as palmtop computers.
In general, microcomputers are used for

a. Word processing (automated, electronic typing and editing) to prepare letters, reports,
memos and other documents.
b. Computerized worksheet analysis and modeling. This computerizes business planning,
budgeting, and analysis of business performance and assists decision-making activities.
c. Graphics in the generation of charts and other graphic images. This visually enhances
both the analysis and presentation of information in reports and group presentations.
d. Engineering activities. Computer-aided design and analysis can be performed by the use
of powerful microcomputers.
e. Personal and home use. Entertainment, home management, personal finances, education,
and other activities can easily supported by the use of personal computers.

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 Iv Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific

applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic
adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of
different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design
workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or

professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be
used as a workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory
errors before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard
drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can

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 be multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work
than other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so
the chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less
work while processing the screen output.

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 Chapter 2: Computer Systems
The computer system refers to the computer itself and all the components interconnected to it.
Basically, the computer system is categorized into two components.

Hardware – the physical architecture of the computer or the physical devices that
carry out the activities of capturing, processing, storing and communicating to other
computer.

Software – the program or instructions that control the system.

2.1 Hardware

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer

system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software
without using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a
hardware.

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or
additional hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A
common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's
total memory, and video card upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced
with the new one. Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described
below.

2.1.1 The processing unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or

microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output
accordingly. It stores all important programs like operating systems and application
software. CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other.
Owing to these features of CPU, it is often referred to as the brain of the computer.

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 CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard.
Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the
CPU cool and functioning smoothly. Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical
signals to instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions. It
takes instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions.
So, it controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of the computer. The
Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of information across
the processor. It does not take part in processing and storing data.

ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical
functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication
division, and comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing,
and merging the data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU. Furthermore, ALUs
can be used for maintaining timers that help run the computer.

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 Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory (RAM).
It temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of
processing. So, it acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data temporarily,
which is used to run the computer.

Types of CPU:

CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own
types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the
basic types of CPUs are described below:

Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the
1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation
at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when
more than one program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the performance will
be reduced if more than one application runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly
dependent on the clock speed. It is still used in various devices, such as smartphones.

Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single
Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked
together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core processors
and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.

Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated
circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units
called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple
instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed for programs that are
compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores) to
run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU, higher
performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the performance
increases only when the computer's software supports multiprocessing. The software which

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 supports multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple processors instead
of using one processor at a time

2.1.2 Input unit (device)

Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and
processes it to produce the output. Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1. Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other
electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers,

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 characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a
Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and
language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is

named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in
countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people
think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input device.

The most popular keyboard used today is the101-keys called QWERTY

keyboard. The keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows.

 Typing Keys: these keys work just like a conventional typewriter. These keys include
English Alphabets A-Z, digits 0-9, the Enter key, Space, the backspace key, the Shift
key, the Caps Lock key, etc.
 Function Keys: these keys perform different tasks based on the type of software being
used. These keys are labeled as F1, F2, …, and F12.
 Numeric Keys: these keys let you enter numerical data more easily when you are
working on number intensive tasks. To use this section of the keyboard make sure that
the Num lock key is on.
 Navigation Keys: these are keys that are used to navigate through your document. The
following are navigation keys.
Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, ,,,, etc.

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  Computer Keys: these are keys not found on typewriters. They perform different tasks
when used alone or in conjunction with other keys.
Esc, Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen, Scroll lock, Pause, Insert, Delete

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative

layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other European countries.
Some countries have manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the keyboard.
The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in QWERTY
keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters
but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for
writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are
kept in a home row to improve typing
2. Mouse

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 The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the
screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and
a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a
mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over
the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform
different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball
integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with
optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light beam. A
mouse is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the type of
computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the
screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or
the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the rotation of
ball. It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an
ideal device if you have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

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 It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of
mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that they
tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

ii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a
mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is
affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used
for best results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system,
and the glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

Iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such
as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It

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 is used to improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.
3. Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document.
The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file and is
displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to
convert images into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates
the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across
the glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will
need a transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a
flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand
should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the

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 commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would have
seen in shopping stores.
iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main
components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration
sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the
scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like
books, magazines, etc.
iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a
charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely
sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across
the image, which produces a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT
and processed. These scanners have high resolution and are suitable for detailed
scans.
v) Photo Scanner:

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 It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are
required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built
software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4. Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a
spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The
movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A
joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks,
hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the
direction of the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when
the mouse moves.

5. Light Pen

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 A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains
a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display
screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals
to the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps
you draw on the screen if needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of
the Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

6. Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus.
It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with
a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or
display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert
handwritten text to typewritten words.

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 It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send output
to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus, it
allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing.

7. Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives
the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording
medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.
The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used
to add sound to presentations and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone
can capture audio waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types
are described below:

i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is
wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers
vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which transmit the
sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

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 It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It has a
front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits the
diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between the two plates. The
changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or
nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the ribbon,
which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is
transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase
the output voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to
produce a strong signal.

8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

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MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to
magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations where
security is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent
accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic ink. A
laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed in
magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic
information is then translated into characters.

9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten,
typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert
documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying the
documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black and white),

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 version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas are
selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to
convert hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be
edited if required like we edit documents created in ms word.

10. Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores them
on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed
to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is connected to your
computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the light
strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current, which is used to
create the images.

11. Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by
hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease
the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a
back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides

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 this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld devices designed to control a
function in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12. Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving
programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by
allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with acceleration
and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games
more adventurous and entertaining.

13. Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to
gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the movement of a player's
body and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is also
available in certain tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as
taking pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

14. Light Gun:

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As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot the targets
on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the first time on the MIT
Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled,
the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode, which is
present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks in a duck
hunt game.

15. Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or
control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two
buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that
you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete,
open a file or folder, and more.

16. VR:

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 VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated
by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment
using some input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he
or she can find himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match,
walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing all this.

17. Webcam

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera provided
on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures, and
can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are stored in the computer
memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the
digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos
that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the internet.

18. Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological features
such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric devices, which
can be of different types based on their scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

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It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face measurements of a
person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms
the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to differentiate between a person's picture
and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a unique
pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage of this feature; it
identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns
and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is
developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the same
fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to mark the
attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found on
a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you press your finger on the given space, it
verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

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It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more secure than
others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's blood
vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be
identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's eyepiece.
Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and uses it to verify a person's
identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or
template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice of
a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or
same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be
misused using a tape recording.

2.1.3 Output unit (device)

The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display output
in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video. Some of the popular
output devices are:

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 1. Monitor

The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that
displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video. The types of
monitors are given below.

I. CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which
produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of
electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen
to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red,
green and blue color. These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this
phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection
plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front (outer surface) of
the screen onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber
optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors
which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The magnetic field
guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT
monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.

II. LCD Monitor

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The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT
monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops,
tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid
crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric current
aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through
the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs had passive-
matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a charge. A few electrical
charges could be sent each second that made screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly
on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with
capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make screen blurry
when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.

III. LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and
uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference between them lies in
the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each
panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode
fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED

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TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance
and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

IV. Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It has
small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a small
amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits
ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of
plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also
offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios, wide
viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique viewing experience while
watching action movies, sports games, and more.

2. Printer

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or
any other information onto the paper. Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two
types: Impact Printers and Non-impact Printers.

Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers

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 i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer

The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the paper.
The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters and
images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A. Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or
hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are
character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low speed and because
only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns of
dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a print

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head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual
characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix printer,
so it produces more dots which results in better printing of characters. To produce color output,
the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around
200-500 characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists of a wheel
or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At
the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a character the printer rotates
the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer hits disk and the
extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. It cannot be used to print
graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second.
Due to these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

B. Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact printer
as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples of line
printers.

i) Drum Printer:

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Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has
circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of characters.
When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer, the
hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very high
speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters
are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a
predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy
due to the use of hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are
embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for
each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the total
number of print positions.

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The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print location,
the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and character on the chain.They can
type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:

Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on the ink
ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without direct physical contact
between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time,
so they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer
and Inkjet printer:

i. Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The
laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by
altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image
on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure.
Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining toner
is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and
produce quality print objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

ii. Inkjet Printer:

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 The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying
fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head
moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through
the printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to
print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers
that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black.
It is capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print
objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

3. Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large
surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices
to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts,
images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large
number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI ports
for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors are
designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling, placed
on a stand, and more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving presentations,
home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are very
popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses

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 transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light source, which is a standard
lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal light panels. Some colors pass through
the panels and some are blocked by the panels and thus images are on the screen.

Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a separate
mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images. These projectors
are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-quality video output.

4. PLOTTERS

A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings. They
are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture
(CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts. Plotters are ideal
output devices for architects, engineers, city planners, others who need to routinely
generate high precision, hard copy, graphic output for widely varying sizes.

2.1.4 Storage devices

Two types of Storage:

1. Primary Storage
2. Secondary Storage
1. PRIMARY STORAGES/INTERNAL STORAGES
Primary storage (memory) holds the immediate instructions that are to be performed by the
CPU. It is therefore very important that the primary storage can be accessed quickly so that the
CPU is not waiting for the next set of instructions.

A. RAM
RAM (Random Access memory) is a temporary storage device for the current data and
instructions that are required by the current program being processed by the CPU and for
storing the results. Therefore, RAM can both be written to and read from. It is called Random
Access because the time taken to access data within the RAM does not depend upon the
location at which the data is stored. A typical RAM has an access time of 70 ns that means that
14 million words of data can be accessed from the RAM in one second. However, RAM is
volatile, which means that any data stored in it is lost when the computer is turned off or when
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 there is a power failure. RAM comes in varying sizes, measured in megabytes (MB). The more
RAM you have, the faster your applications will run.

Using slots attached to the motherboard it is possible to increase the amount of RAM available
to your computer system.

Features of RAM

 We can write data on it and read data from it.

 It is volatile in nature, means the information stored in it lost, if a power suddenly
failure.
 It stores data and instruction temporarily.
B. ROM
ROM (Read Only Memory) can only be read from. One use of ROM is to store the startup
instructions for the computer when it is turned on. Whenever a computer is turned on it needs
to follow a programmed sequence of events such as checking that all the hardware is working
and then loading the files of the operating system into RAM (the operating system is stored on
the hard disk drive). This process is known as booting the system.

Features of ROM

 The contents of ROM are not losing even in case of a sudden power failure, making it
non-volatile in nature.
 It is also random access in nature.
 It reads only, but cannot write.
 It contains permanent recorded instruction.
Difference between ROM and RAM

ROM RAM

ROM is nonvolatile RAM is volatile

ROM is cheaper than RAM RAM is very expensive

The contents of ROM are always known The contents are not known

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 and can be verified

ROM cannot be updated or corrected RAM can be updated and corrected

ROM serves as permanent data storage RAM can serve as temporary data storage

Secondary storage/ external storages

Secondary storage devices are a permanent storage area for your data. They allow a large amount
of data to be stored, although the time taken to access it is longer than that taken to access primary
storage (although the time difference is not usually noticeable)

HARD DISK DRIVE

Most computers have one hard disk drive (HDD) installed within the systems case. They are used
to store the operating system, applications (Word, Excel, Turbo C) and files written by the user.
The HDD is usually a stack of rigid magnetic disks contained within a sealed unit so that dust and
dirt will not damage the disks. Data is transferred to or from the disk using read/write heads close
to the surface of each disk (top and bottom) that detect magnetic variations on the disk surfaces as
they rotate.

The operating system uses letters to identify the different types of secondary storage installed in
the computer. The HDD is allocated the letter C and is known as the root drive. It is possible to
separate the HDD to include virtual drives D, E according to the user’s wishes.

HDD’s come with varying storage capacities, measured in gigabytes (GB).

FLOPPY DISK DRIVE

Floppy disks (floppy or diskettes) contain a single small magnetic disk housed within a protective
plastic case. They are used to transfer data between computers or to provide back-up copies of data
stored on the HDD. Data is transferred from or to a floppy by using read/write heads in the floppy
disk drive (FDD) that detect magnetic variations on the disk surface.

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The standard 3 ½ inch floppy has a storage capacity of 1.44 MB. The FDD is always allocated the
letter A and so is known as the A drive. If another FDD is installed (rarely) then it is allocated the
letter B.

COMPACT DISK DRIVE

Compact disk (CD) drives allow data to be read from compact disks. A CD is usually about 12
inches in diameter and data is transferred to or from a CD by using a laser. A typical CD has a
storage capacity of 650 MB. There are 3 types of compact disk

 CD-ROM - Compact Disk – Read Only Memory. They are mainly used by manufacturers
to distribute their software. Therefore, Microsoft Windows (operating system) and Office
(applications) are supplied to the user on CD-ROM with the programs then being installed
onto the HDD of the computer.
 CD-R - Compact Disk Recordable. Allows the computer user to write data to a CD. Each
area of the CD can only be written to once and once data is written to the CD it cannot be
removed. The CD can be written to as many times as the user likes until the CD is full.
 CD-RW - Compact Disk – Re-Writeable. Allows the user to perform multiple read/write
operations on the same CD until it is full. Data can be later removed from the CD-RW and
other data placed on it.
DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK DRIVE

Digital video disk (DVD) drives look similar to a CD except that they can store from 4.7 – 17 GB
of data. A standard DVD can store over 2 hours of high quality video and CD quality audio.

2.1.5 Memory Unit

 Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the commonly used
memory units are: When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer
system, it is packed in units;
 Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte and word;
 These units are based on the binary number system;
2. Bit: Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 bit stands for binary digits;
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON”

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 indicating 1 or “OFF” indicating 0;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is
represented by the non existence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity or
magnetized particles on the disk’s surface;
3. BYTE

 Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and meaningful
information;
 This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a
computer system;
 The commonly used byte contains 8 bits;
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data that
can be represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations;
 Each byte can represent a character(a character is either a letter, a number or a special
symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit,
external storage and during communication;
 If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is expressed in short by saying 512KB,
where KB stands for kilobyte.

 1 Kilobyte(1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes

 1 Megabyte(MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes
 1 Gigabyte(GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes or 210 megabytes
4. WORD

 Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission
media transmits at a time
 Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can even be faster if more
than one byte is processed at a once;
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the computer;

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  Word length is usually given in bits
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate
that the amount of data it can process at a time;
The larger the word length a computer has, the more powerful and faster it is.

2.1.5.1 Data representation and Numbering Systems

A. Data Representation
Objectives:

 To understand how actually data are represented, flow, stored and processed
inside the computer.
 To know the different coding systems & unit of data representation.
We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer using the
letter of alphabet, various special symbols, and the numerals in the decimal number
system. But since computer is an electronic device which understands electrical flow
(signal) there is no letter, symbol or number inside the computer. Computer works
with binary numbers. As a semiconductor is conducting or isn’t conducting; a switch
is closed or opened.

So data are represented in the form of a code which can have a corresponding
electrical signal.

B. Number System
 A number system is a set of symbols used for counting
 There are various number systems
E.g. Decimal, Binary, octal-decimal, hexadecimal etc.

 For the purpose of understanding how data are represented, stored and
processed in computer, we will discuss only two of them, the Decimal and
the binary number system.
The Decimal Number System

 The Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits (or symbols)
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
 We say it is a base ten number system

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  Though it is widely used, it is inconvenient for computer to represent data. So we
need another number system.
The Binary number system

 Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1;

 It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent binary
number;
 Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent
binary is possible;
 Operation on binary number system is also possible
Binary Decimal

0 0
1 1
10 2
11 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
1000 8
1001 9

 The most elementary form to organize data within a computer (an electronic device) is in the
form of a code which utilizes the “ON” and “OFF” states of electric switches or there is
“current” and “no current” condition of the electronic components;
 We see that the nature of the electronic devices has similarity with the binary number system
in that both represent only two elementary states;
 It is therefore convenient to use binary number system to represent data in a computer;
 An “ON” corresponds to a 1;
 An “OFF” corresponds to a 0;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of a current and “OFF” is represented by
non existence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity of magnetized
particles on the disk’s surface.

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Conversion via Decimal

A. Decimal to Binary:
2 4706
470610 = _________________ 2 2 2353 0
Answer: 10010011000102 2 1176 1
More examples: 2 588 0
▪ 169410 = ?2
▪ 13510 = ?2 2 294 0
2 147 0
2 73 1
2 36 1
2 18 0
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
B. Decimal to Octal number 0 1
Example: 250210 = ________ 8

Answer: 47068
8 2502
More Examples:
▪ 56210 = ?8
▪ 261410 = ?8
8 312 6
8 39 0
8 4 7
0 4

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 C. Decimal to Hexadecimal

16 428
Example: 42810 = _______ 16

Answer: 1AC16
More samples: 16 26 12 = C
 257310 = ?16
 456310 =?16
16 1 10 = A
0 1
D. Binary to Decimal:
Example:
110012 = _______ 10
Answer: 2510
More Examples:
• 1111012 = ?10
• 101010102 = ?10

E. Octal to Decimal
Example:
5628 = ________ 10
Answer: 37010
More samples:
• 7628 = ?10
• 51278 = ?10

F. Hexadecimal to Decimal
Example:
2A3B16 = _________ 10
Answer: 1081110

More samples:

• A2BD416 =?10
• CFFE216 = ?10

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Other Conversions

a. Binary to Octal
Octal Binary
Example:
0 000
1011102 = _____ 8 1 001
Answer: 568 2 010

3 011
b. Octal to Binary
4 100
Example:
5 101
5628 = _____ 2
6 110
Answer: 101 110 0102
7 111

c. Binary to Hexadecimal
Example: 110100112 = _______ 16 1101 0011
Answer: D316
D 3
Example: 1110001102 = ______ 16
Answer: 1D316 0001 1100
1
0110 D 3
d. Hexadecimal to Binary

Example: 2AB16 = _______ 2

216 = 00102
Answer: 0010101010112
A16 = 10102
B16 = 10112
HEXA- Binary
DECIMAL

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 0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111
Fractional Numbers

It is generally same way in the decimal number.

 0.235 = (2X10-1) + (3X10-2 )+ (5X10-3)

 68.53 = (6X101) + (8X100) + (5X10-1) + (3X10-2)
Example:

Find the decimal equivalent of the binary number 110.1012.

Solution:
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
110.1012 = 1 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2
= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6 + 0.5 + 0.125 = 6.62510
Another example:

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Find the decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number 2B.C416.

1 0 -1 -2
2B.C416 = 2x16 + Bx16 + cx16 + 4x16
= 32 + 11 + 12/16 + 4/256
= 43 + 0.75 + 0.015625
= 43. 76565210

Another example:
Find the decimal equivalent of the octal number 127.548.

Solution:

Converting fractional numbers to binary.

0.256 x 2 = 0.512 0
Example: 0.25610 = ______ 2
0.512 x 2 = 1.024 1
Answer: 0.0100000112
0.024 x 2 = 0.048 0
0.048 x 2 = 0.096 0
0.096 x 2 = 0.192 0
0.192 x 2 = 0.384 0
0.384 x 2 = 0.768 0
0.768 x 2 = 1.536 1
0.536 x 2 = 1.072 1
0.072 x 2 = 0.144 0
0.144 x 2 = 0.288 0
0.288 x 2 = 0.576
Computer Arithmetic:

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 A. Binary Addition
 Is performed in the same manner as in decimal arithmetic.
 Since 1 is the largest digit in the binary number system, any sum greater than 1 requires a
digit to be carried over.

0 +0 0

0+1 1

1+0 1

1+1 0 plus a
carry of 1

Example:
1.) 1012 + 102
Binary Decimal
101 5
+ 10 +2
111 7
2.) 100112 + 10012
carry - 1 1

10011 19
+ 1001 + 9
28
11100
B. Binary Subtraction – is applied to subtraction of numbers in other number systems.
a. Determine if it is necessary to borrow.

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 b. If the subtrahend (the lower digit) is larger than the minuend (the upper digit), it is
necessary to borrow from the column to the left.
c. It is important to note here that the value borrowed depends upon the base of the
number system.

d. Simply to subtract lower value from the upper

value. 0–0 0
1–0 1
1–1 0
0–1 1 with a borrow
from the next
column

Example:
Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 1001

Solution:
1010 Multiplicand
X 1001 Multiplier
1010 Partial product
0000 Partial product
0000 Partial product
1010 Partial product
1011010 Final
product
C. Binary Division – it is similar to decimal division. The rules for binary division are:

1. Start from the left of the dividend

2. Perform a series of subtractions, in which the divisor is subtracted form the dividend.
3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor form the
corresponding digits of dividend.
4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than remainder), record a 0 in the quotient

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 5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder digits. Proceed as before in a manner
similar to long division.
0÷1 0

1÷1 1

Example:
Divide binary 100001 by 110.

2.2 Software

Software is a sequence of instructions, written language, which can be understood by a

computer. A term refers to the set of computer programs procedures, and associated
documents, which describe the programs, and how they are to be used.

2.2.1 System software

System software is a set of one or more program, designed to control the operation and
extend the processing capability of a computer system. System software helps run the
computer hardware and computer system.

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 1. Supports the development of other application program
2. Support the execution of other application software.
3. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources, such as CPU,
memory, peripherals, etc.
4. Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices, such as
printer, disk, etc.
5. System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system.
Types of System Software:

1. Operating system
a. Operating system is the most important component of the computer’s
software system that manages and coordinates the overall operations of the
computer.
b. Operating system acts as a host for application software. By handling the
details of the computer’s hardware operations, it eases the burden of the
application software.
c. Generally, it is the operating system that loads the application software
themselves to the RAM. It helps to store and retrieve data from the storage
media. .
2. Programming language software
Programming language software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in
writing computer programs and software using different programming languages in a
more convenient way.

Types of Programming language:

 Machine language- There is the only language that the computer understands
directly zero. A machine language is a set of machine instructions which consists
of zeros and ones. A machine instruction contains two parts an operation code (op
code) and an address. The OP code tells the microprocessor system what operation
it should perform, add, transfer, compare, or move data to output device, etc.
The address identifies the location (memory, register) holding the required operands
that is, the data to be operated upon. The address part may contain one, two or more

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 addresses that is, there may be one (or single address, two (double) address, and
three (or triple) address instructions.

 Low-level Languages - In machine language we have seen that the OP code and the
address are represented as a binary sequence but it is difficult for the programmer to
write a big program using binary sequence and it is difficult to debug an error from
such program so instead of representing the OP code and the adders as a binary
sequence we can represent them in mnemonics (terms). A low-level language is a
programming language which uses mnemonics to write in program Low-level
languages are machine dependent.
Ex: Assembly language

 High-level language - We have seen that writing a program in low-level languages

is easier and simple compare to machine languages. But still low-level languages
have their own draw bakes that is they are machine dependent. So we need another
type of languages which are not machine dependent and more flexible there
languages are called high-level languages third generation languages.
Example:- Fortran, COBL, ALGOG 80, Basic, Scientific & engineering
applications.

Advantages of high-level languages:

 Easier to learn and understand (Look like English)

 Require less time to write and easier to debugged errors.
 Can be used on different machines with little modifications.
There are also other languages which are still simplest and easier then high-level languages
which we called then fourth generation languages. These languages are application oriented
languages.

2.2.2 Application software

Application Software - allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer
related) tasks. Typical applications include industrial automation, business software,
educational software, medical software, databases, and computer games. Businesses are
probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity

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 now uses some form of application software. Some most commonly known application soft
wares are

 Word-processing software- it enables us to make use of computer system for creating,

editing, viewing, formatting, storing, retrieving, and printing documents.
 Spread sheet software- it is a numerical data analysis tools which allows to create a kind
of computerized ledger
 Database software- it is a collection of related data stored and treated as a unit for
information retrieval purpose. It is a set of one or more programs, which enable us to
create a database.
 Graphic software
 Personal Assistance software
 Educational software, Entertainment software
2.3 Database

A database intends to have a collection of data stored together to serve multiple

applications as possible. Hence a database is often conceived of as a repository of
information needed for running certain functions in a corporation or organization. Such a
database would permit not only the retrieval of data but also the continuous modification
of data needed for control of operations. It may be possible to search the database to obtain
answers to queries or information for planning purposes.

A database should be a repository of data needed for an organization's data processing.

That data should be accurate, private, and protected from damage. It should be accurate so
that diverse applications with different data requirements can employ the data. Different
application programmers and various end-users have different views upon data, which
must be derived from a common overall data structure. Their methods of searching and
accessing of data will be different.
Advantages of using database

 Database minimizes data redundancy to a great extent.

 The database can control the inconsistency of data to a large extent.
 Sharing of data is also possible using the database.

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 Database enforce standards.
 The use of Databases can ensure data security.
 Integrity can be managed using the database

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 Chapter 3: Computer networks

A network set up by connecting two or more computers and other supporting hardware devices
through communication channels is called a computer network. It enables computers to
communicate with each other and to share commands, data, etc., including the hardware and
software resources.

3.1 Data transmission

Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices.
There are three types of transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full–duplex.

i. Simplex: transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one direction across the
circuit, with no capability to support response in the other direction. Only one of the
communicating devices transmits information, the other can only receive it. Television
transmission can be considered as an example of simplex mode of transmission where the
satellite only transmits the data to the television, vice versa is not possible.

SENDER RECIEVER

Fig: Simplex

ii. Half-duplex, in half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit
information, but not at the same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive
at that point of time. In half-duplex transmission mode, the entire capacity of the transmission
medium is taken over by the device, which is transmitting at that moment. The most common
example of half-duplex transmission is the wireless handsets (generally used by military
personnel) where one user talks at a time and another listens.

SENDER RECIEVER

Fig: Half - duplex

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 iii. Full-duplex: Full-duplex transmission mode, also known as the duplex mode, allows both
communicating devices to transmit and receive data simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can
be compared to a two-way road with traffic flowing in both directions. A common example
of full-duplex transmitting mode is the telephone network, where two people communicate
over a telephone line; both can talk as well as listen at the same time.

SENDER RECIEVER

Fig: Full – duplex

Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical or logical media through which communication
signals (data and information are transmitted. Transmission media can be divided in to two
broad categories: guided media and unguided media.

A. Guided media
Guided transmission media use a cabling system that guide the data signals along a specific
path. The data signals are bound by the cabling system. Cabling refers to transmission medium
that consists of cables.
There are four basic types of guided media. These are

 Open wire
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
 Open wire:
Traditionally used to describe the electrical wire system or power transmission wire
strung along power pole.
No shielding or protection from noise interface.
It suffers from lose of energy problem and it can be easily tapped.
 Twisted Pair:

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 o In this kind of cabling, pairs of wires are twisted together which are surrounded by an
insulating material and an outer layer called Jacket.
o Each pair consists of a wire, used for receiving data signal, and for transmission data signal.
o The wires are twisted in order to reduce noise (unwanted signal) and interface for external
sources.
o Used in short distance communication (<=100 meters).
Forms of Twisted Pair: There are two forms of Twisted Pair. These are

 Unshielded Twisted Pair, and

 Shielded Twisted Pair
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
 It is the most common type of telecommunication medium in use today.
 It is most suited for both data and voice transmission, and hence is commonly use in
telephone system.
 Have a maximum transmission speed of up to 9600 bps.

Fig: UTP

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

1. Has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that covers each pair of insulated conductor.
2. The metal foil is used to prevent infiltration of electromagnetic noise.
3. Helps to eliminate cross talk.

Fig: STP
 Coaxial cable:
 Has a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper). This
conductor is surrounded by an insulator.
 It is very robust and is commonly used in cable TV network.

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  As compared to twisted pair, it offers higher band width.
 Transmitting data at a rate of 10mbps.
Types of Coaxial cable:

 Thin net: - it goes up to 185m

- Its speed is 10mbps

 Thick net: - it covers a distance of 500m

 its speed is 10mbps
 commonly used in cable TV network

Copper
core
Insulation Metal connector

Braided outer conductor

Protective plastic
covering Fig: Coaxial cable

 Optical fiber:
 Both twisted pair and coaxial cable transmit data in the form of current, but optical fiber
carry information in the form of visible light.
 Has three parts, i.e. Core, cladding , and jacket

Fig: Optical fiber

Advantages of Optical fiber

 Since transmission is light based rather than electricity, it is immune to noise

interface.
 Transmission distance is greater than other guided media, because of less signal
attenuation.

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  It is more secure because cable cannot be tapped.
 They are smaller and lighter than copper wire and are free from corrosion as well.

Disadvantages of Optical fiber

 It is expensive
 They are more fragile.

B. Unguided media
Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through air. They are not bounded to a
fixed channel to follow. The most common unguided Medias are radio frequency propagation,
Microwave and Satellite.

3.2 Types of Network

According to Geographical Span: Based on Geographical span computer networks can be

classified into three major groups:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Local Area network (LAN)

A LAN, or local Area Network, is a computer network that spans only a small geographical
area (usually within a square mile or less), such as an office, home or building.

2. Metropolitan Area network (MAN)

A MAN, or Metropolitan Area network, is a network of computers spread over a
“Metropolitan” area such as a city and its suburbs, As the name suggests, this sort of network
is usually reserved for metropolitan areas where the city bridges its local area networks with a
series of backbones, making one large network for the entire city. It may be a single network
such as a cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs, Note
that, MAN may be operated by one organization ( a corporate with several offices in one city),
or be shared resources used by several organization the same city.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 A WAN, or Wide Area Network, is a system of interconnecting many computers over a
large geographical area such as cities, states, countries or even the whole world. These kinds
of networks use telephone lines, satellite links, and other long-rang communications
technologies to connect. Such networks are designed to serve an area of hundreds or
thousands of miles such as public and private packet switching networks and national
telephone networks.

3.3 Network topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are :
1. Bus Topology

Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone ( a single cable) to connect all devices with
terminators at both ends. The backbone acts as a shared communication medium and each
node (file server,

Workstations, and peripherals) is attached to it with an interface connector. Whenever a

message is to be transmitted on the network, it is passed back and forth along the cable, past
the stations (computers) and between the two terminators, from one end of the network to the
other.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.

 This topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers
and therefore, less expensive than other cabling arrangement.
 It is easy to extend a bus since two cables can be joined into longer cable
with a connector.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a failure is on the backbone

 Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do
not coordinate with each other to reserve time to transmit.

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 2. Ring Topology
In ring topology, computers are placed on a circle of cable without any terminated ends since there
are no unconnected ends. Every node has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) until it
reaches its destination. Each node in the ring incorporates a repeater.

Advantage of Ring Topology

 Ring topology is easy to install and reconfigure.

 Every computer is given equal access to the ring. Hence, no single computer can
monopolize the network.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can take down the entire
network.
 Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.

3. Star Topology
In star topology, devices are not directly linked to each other but they are connected via a
centralized network component known as hub or concentrator.

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The hub acts as a central controller and if a node wants to send data to another node, it boosts up
the message and sends the message to the intended node. This topology commonly uses twisted
pair cable, however, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable can also be used.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Star topology is easy to install and wire.

 The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network.
 Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier in star topology.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

 It requires a longer length of cable.

 If the hub fails, nodes attached to it are disabled.
 The cost of the hub makes the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.

4. Mesh Topology
In the mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other node.
Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination.

 Advantages of Mesh Topology

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  The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion.
 If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 The amount of required cabling is very large.
 As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
 The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to
implement
3.4 Internet and the World Wide Web

The word Internet is derived from two words: Interconnection and Networks. Also referred to
as ‘the Net’. Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks, that is, a network of
networks, which allows the participants (users) to share information on those linked computers.

Web page: The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages which contain information
and links to resources throughout the Internet. A web page is an electronic document written
in a computer language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

Web Site: A web site is a set of related (linked through hypertext links) web pages, published
by an organization or individual. Normally a web site contains a home page along with other
additional web pages. Each web site is owned and updated by an individual, company or
organization..

Home page:. A home page is the starting point or a doorway to the web site. Like the table of
contents of a book, the home page usually provides an overview of what could be found at the
web site.

Note: Home page is also known as the index or index page.

Browser: A browser (short for web browser) is a computer program that accesses web pages
and displays them on the computer screen.

Uniform resource locator (URL): Each web page has a unique address, called a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL) that identifies its location on the Internet. Web browsers utilize the
URL to retrieve a file from the computer on which it resides. Usually, the format of an URL

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 consists of four parts: protocol, server (or domain), path, and filename. Here is an example,
http://www.xyz.com/tutor/start/main.htm. The structure of this URL
Protocol: http
Host computer name: www
Domain name: xyz
Domain type: com
Path: tutor/Start/
File name: main.htm

Hypertext: Hypertext refers to the text that connects to other documents. These texts are
known as hypertext link, hyperlink, hotlink or simply links. A hyperlink is used to “jump” to
another part of the same page or to load a different web page. Hypertext is a method of instant
cross-referencing. It is used for organizing information and to link related documents together
using words and graphics (also known as image maps).
Internet service provider (ISP): An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that
provides the required software, which is used to connect to the Internet.
Web server: A server is a computer equipped with server software, which provides a specific
kind of service to client software running on other computers.

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 Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Information Systems

4.1 Overview of IS

An information system (IS) is a set of interrelated components that collect or retrieve,

process, store, and distribute information to support decision making and control in an
organization. It can also be used to analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create
new products. In general information system is a specific type of system.

A system is a set of components (subsystems) that operate together to achieve certain

objectives. The objectives of a system are realized in its outputs. In particular, the objective of
an information system is to provide the appropriate outputs to the members of the organization.
Any specific IS aims to support operations, management and decision-making.
Information System is the information and communication technology (ICT) that an
organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of
business processes.

4.2 Data vs. Information

The term "information" has become a universal keyword in almost all areas of our modern
world – be it in science or society in general. This is not only obvious from the naming of
whole scientific branches like Information theory, Informatics but even more from common
speaking-characterizing our present time and society as information age viz. information
society. However, what "information" might mean, is by no means clear and there is a wide
range of interpretations covering, among others, its technical, communicational, educational,
mental, and scientific aspects.

Usually, the terms “data” and “information” are used interchangeably. However, there is a
subtle difference between the two. These terms can no longer be taken as synonymous or
interchangeable terms. This requires a careful use of these terms and is often in conflict with
currently common, mostly non-reflecting, and ambiguous speaking. In a nutshell, data can be
a number, symbol, character, word, codes, graphs, etc. On the other hand, information is data
put into context. Information is utilized by humans in some significant way (such as to make
decisions, forecasts etc). Let us have a detailed look at the difference between data and
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 information in a tabular column below.

Information is meaningful data. Or data arranged or interpreted in a way to provide meaning.

Information is the end product of data processing. Knowledge is internalized or understood
information that can be used to make decisions. Knowledge is the end product of information
processing. In much the same way as raw data are used as input, and processed in order to get
information, the information itself is used as input for a process that results in knowledge.
4.2.1 Information Overload

Information overloading is being provided or exposed to more information than a person

is able to process in order to make sensible decisions. It occurs when the amount of input
to a system exceeds its processing capacity. Decision makers have fairly limited cognitive
processing capacity. Consequently, when information overload occurs, it is likely that a
reduction in decision quality will occur.”

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 Why is information overload an increasing problem?
1. The Advancement Of Technology
o New systems, software programs and devices create/deliver MASSIVE amounts of data.
o Hyper-connectivity puts an endless flow of information at our fingertips
o Anyone can share or access information instantaneously
Additional Contributing Factors:
• People
– people produce information
– phone calls / email
– conversation / interaction
• our surroundings: environment
– we are sensory beings;
– everything we see
– everything we hear
– everything we smell
– everything we feel or sense in any way

To help reduce some of the negative effects, and begin a path to winning the fight against
Information Overload, we must first focus on personal practices that will help improve

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cognitive performance and help ‘filter’ through the daily mass of information.

Thinking Straight:

1. Brain Dump: Write down thoughts that interrupt your workflow, Once on paper,
prioritize
2. DO NOT multitask: Our brains use oxygenated glucose as fuel,Staying engaged
in a centrally focused mode uses less energy
3. Lump together similar tasks: Completing similar tasks is another way of being
efficient with your mental resources, Get more done and finish with more.
4. Only spend as much time and effort on a task or information as it is worth:
Conserve your brain’s energy, don’t go overboard on things that don’t mean that
much.
5. Take Breaks: 15 min breaks, every couple of hours, Relax and allow your mind
to wander, Avoid social media during breaks

4.3 IS building blocks

Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware, software,
data, people, and processes. The first three are technology. These are probably what you
thought of when defining information systems. The last two components, people and
processes, separate the idea of information systems from more technical fields, such as
computer science. In order to fully understand information systems, you will need to
understand how all of these components work together to bring value to an organization.

• Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge for practical

purposes. From the invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for artificial
lighting, technology has become ubiquitous in daily life, to the degree that it is assumed to
always be available for use regardless of location. As discussed before, the first three
components of information systems – hardware, software, and data – all fall under the
category of technology. At this point a simple introduction should help you in your
understanding.

Hardware: Hardware is the tangible, physical portion of an information system – the part

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 you can touch. This category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment
like keyboards, disk drives, and flash drives are all examples of information systems
hardware.

Software: it comprises the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do (i.e to
function in ways that produce useful information from data).

• Software is not tangible – it cannot be touched. Programmers create software by typing

a series of instructions telling the hardware what to do.

Data: The third technology component is data. It a collection of facts.

• For example, your address (street, city state, postal code), your phone number, and your
social networking account are all pieces of data. Pieces of unrelated data are not very
useful. But aggregated, indexed, and organized together into a database, data can become
a powerful tool for businesses. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make
decisions which can then be analyzed as to their effectiveness. The analysis of data is then
used to improve the organization’s performance.

Networking Communication: Besides the technology components (hardware, software, and

data) which have long been considered the core technology of ISs, it has been suggested that
one other component should be added communication. An IS can exist without the ability to
communicate – the first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the
Internet. However, in today’s hyper-connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that
does not connect to another device or to a network. Technically, the networking communication
component is made up of hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s ISs
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 that it has become its own category.

People

• When thinking about ISs, it is easy to focus on the technology components and forget to
look beyond these tools to fully understand their integration into an organization.
• It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system.
• People are the end user of the information system, end-user use information produced for
their own purpose, the main purpose of the information system is to benefit the end user.
• The end user can be accountants, engineers, salespersons, customers, clerks, or managers
etc.
• People are also responsible to develop and operate information systems.
• They include systems analysts, computer operators, programmers, and other clerical IS
personnel, and managerial techniques.
• The telecommunication networks like intranet, extranet and the internet.
• These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organization.
• Networks consists of both the physicals devises such as networks cards, routers, hubs and
cables and software such as operating systems, web servers, data servers and application
servers.

Process

• The last component of information systems is process.

• A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal.
• Information systems are becoming more integrated with organizational processes, bringing
greater productivity and better control to those processes.
• But simply automating activities using technology is not enough – businesses looking
to utilize ISs must do more.
• The ultimate goal is to improve processes both internally and externally, enhancing
interfaces with suppliers and customers.
• Technology buzzwords such as “business process re-engineering,” “business process
management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with the continued
improvement of these business procedures and the integration of technology with them.

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 • Businesses hoping to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors are highly
focused on this component of information systems
4.4 IS development phases

 As the name suggests, information system development or commonly known as SLC

(Systems Life Cycle) or SLDC (Software/Systems Development Life Cycle) is a
process of making and changing the system and the model and methodology used.
 The methodology which named as systems-development life cycle (SDLC) was first
developed in the 1960s to manage the large software projects associated with corporate
systems running on mainframes.
 It is a very structured and risk-averse methodology designed to manage large projects
that included multiple programmers and systems that would have a large impact on the
organization.
 In other words, an SDLC is the preparation of a new system to replace the old system,
both in whole and only partially.
 Development of ISs is generally done because of problems that cannot be
accommodated by the old system.
 As for carrying out an IS development, the related team will consist of several personnel,
namely the project coordinator, system analyst and design, network designer,
programmer, technician (hardware), administrator, software tester, graphic designer, and
documentary. Various of the SDLC exist, but most contain the following phases are the
following:
A. Preliminary Analysis
o In this phase, a review is done of the request.
o Is creating a solution possible?
o What alternatives exist? What is currently being done about it? Is this project a good fit
for our organization?
o A key part of this step is a feasibility analysis, which includes an analysis of the technical
feasibility (is it possible to create this?), the economic feasibility (can we afford to do
this?), and the legal feasibility (are we allowed to do this?).
o This step is important in determining if the project should even get started.

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 B. System Analysis
 In this phase, one or more system analysts work with different stakeholder groups
to determine the specific requirements for the new system. No programming is
done in this step.
 Instead, procedures are documented, key players are interviewed, and data
requirements are developed in order to get an overall picture of exactly what the
system is supposed to do. The result of this phase is a system-requirements
document.
C. System Design

 In this phase, a designer takes the system-requirements document created in the

previous phase and develops the specific technical details required for the system.
 It is in this phase that the business requirements are translated into specific
technical requirements.
 The design for the user interface, database, data inputs and outputs, and reporting
are developed here. The result of this phase is a system-design document.
 This document will have everything a programmer will need to actually create the
system.
D. Programming

 The code finally gets written in the programming phase. Using the system-design
document as a guide, a programmer (or team of programmers) develop the
program.
 The result of this phase is an initial working program that meets the requirements
laid out in the system-analysis phase and the design developed in the system-
design phase.
E. Testing
 In the testing phase, the software program developed in the previous phase is put
through a series of structured tests. The first is a unit test, which tests individual
parts of the code for errors or bugs.
 Next is a system test, where the different components of the system are tested to
ensure that they work together properly.

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  Finally, the user-acceptance test allows those that will be using the software to test
the system to ensure that it meets their standards. Any bugs, errors, or problems
found during testing are addressed and then tested again.
F. Implementation
 Once the new system is developed and tested, it has to be implemented in the
organization.
 This phase includes training the users, providing documentation, and conversion
from any previous system to the new system. Implementation can take many
forms, depending on the type of system, the number and type of users, and how
urgent it is that the system become operational.
G. Maintenance

 This final phase takes place once the implementation phase is complete.
 In this phase, the system has a structured support process in place: reported bugs
are fixed and requests for new features are evaluated and implemented; system
updates and backups are performed on a regular basis.

4.5 IS development methodologies

The whole purpose of system development is the enhancement of the productivity of the
organization and the group of people working in that organization, as system development got
bigger there was a need to systemize the process of system development and come up with a
set of steps that are required for any system development. The system development life cycle
is a common methodology used in all most every organization, as the system development
projects got bigger and the discipline of software engineering begun to set some standards to
its own a lot of methodologies have seen light and were put together by organizations seeking
success according to their own measurement of success. Before we get to further details about
various system development methodologies, we would like to give a basic definition of a
system development methodology.

• It's " a standard process followed by an organization to conduct all the steps necessary to
analyze, design, implement, and maintain information systems“. A methodology is also
defined as follows " A method describes the activities involved in defining, building, and

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 implementing a system; a method is a framework”. Since a method is a logical process
for constructing systems (process), it is known as a meta-process (a process for modeling
processes). The definition does not mention the reason why the organizations want to
follow those steps in system development,

• but it seems very obvious that one of the goals was to facilitate tracking problems whenever
they might occur, and build better and successful systems.

A methodology has micro and macro components. The macro components define the
overall flow and time-sequenced framework for performing work. The micro components
include general design rules, patterns and rules of thumb. General design rules state
properties to achieve or to avoid in the design or general approaches to take while building
a system. Patterns are solutions that can be applied to a type of development activity; they
are solutions waiting for problems that occur during an activity in a method. Rules of
thumb consist of a general body of hints and tips. A rule of thumb is a rule or principle
that you follow which is not based on exact calculations, but rather on experience and
common sense..

The SDLC methodology is sometimes referred to as the waterfall methodology to represent

how each step is a separate part of the process; only when one step is completed can another
step begin. After each step, an organization must decide whether to move to the next step
or not. This methodology has been criticized for being quite rigid. For example, changes
to the requirements are not allowed once the process has begun. No software is available
until after the programming phase. Again, SDLC was developed for large, structured
projects. Projects using SDLC can sometimes take months or years to complete. Because
of its inflexibility and the availability of new programming techniques and tools, many
other software-development methodologies have been developed. Many of these retain
some of the underlying concepts of SDLC but are not as rigid.

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The RAD methodology consists of four phases:

A. Requirements Planning.

This phase is similar to the preliminary-analysis, system-analysis, and design phases of the
SDLC. In this phase, the overall requirements for the system are defined, a team is
identified, and feasibility is determined.

B. User Design.

In this phase, representatives of the users work with the system analysts, designers, and
programmers to interactively create the design of the system. One technique for working
with all of these various stakeholders is the so-called JAD session. JAD is an acronym for
joint application development. A JAD session gets all of the stakeholders together to have
a structured discussion about the design of the system. Application developers also sit in
on this meeting and observe, trying to understand the essence of the requirements.

C. Construction.

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 In the construction phase, the application developers, working with the users, build the next
version of the system. This is an interactive process, and changes can be made as
developers are working on the program. This step is executed in parallel with the User
Design step in an iterative [the repetition of a process in order to generate an outcome]
fashion, until an acceptable version of the product is developed.

D. Cutover.

In this step, which is similar to the implementation step of the SDLC, the system goes live.
All steps required to move from the previous state to the use of the new system are
completed here.

As you can see, the RAD methodology is much more compressed than SDLC. Many of the SDLC
steps are combined and the focus is on user participation and iteration. This methodology is much
better suited for smaller projects than SDLC and has the added advantage of giving users the ability
to provide feedback throughout the process. SDLC requires more documentation and attention to
detail and is well suited to large, resource-intensive projects. RAD makes more sense for smaller
projects that are less resource-intensive and need to be developed quickly.

Agile Methodologies

• Agile methodologies are a group of methodologies that utilize incremental changes with a
focus on quality and attention to detail.

• Each increment is released in a specified period of time (called a time box), creating a
regular release schedule with very specific objectives.

• While considered a separate methodology from RAD, they share some of the same
principles: iterative development, user interaction, ability to change.

• The agile methodologies are based on the “Agile Manifesto,” first released in 2001.

The characteristics of agile methods include:

• small cross-functional teams that include development-team members and users;

• daily status meetings to discuss the current state of the project;

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 • Short time-frame increments (from days to one or two weeks) for each change to be
completed; and at the end of each iteration, a working project is completed to demonstrate
to the stakeholders.
• The goal of the agile methodologies is to provide the flexibility of an iterative approach
while ensuring a quality product.
Lean Methodology

• One last methodology we will discuss is a relatively new concept taken from the business
bestseller The Lean Startup, by Eric Reis.
• In this methodology, the focus is on taking an initial idea and developing a minimum viable
product (MVP).
• The MVP is a working software application with just enough functionality to demonstrate
the idea behind the project.
• A MVP is the first form of a product that you can release to users.
• It provides core functionality without any additional features.
• Once the MVP is developed, it is given to potential users for review.
• Feedback on the MVP is generated in two forms:
• direct observation and discussion with the users, and
• Usage statistics gathered from the software itself.
• Using these two forms of feedback, the team determines whether they should continue in
the same direction or rethink the core idea behind the project, change the functions, and
create a new MVP. This change in strategy is called a pivot.
• Several iterations of the MVP are developed, with new functions added each time based
on the feedback, until a final product is completed.
• The biggest difference between the lean methodology and the other methodologies is that
the full set of requirements for the system are not known when the project is launched.
• As each iteration of the project is released, the statistics and feedback gathered are used to
determine the requirements.
• The lean methodology works best in an entrepreneurial environment where a company is
interested in determining if their idea for a software application is worth developing.
Sidebar: The Quality Triangle
• Quality triangle, also known as a project management triangle, iron triangle, or project

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 triangle.
• When developing software, or any sort of product or service, there exists a tension between
the developers and the different stakeholder groups, such as management, users, and
investors.
• This tension relates to how quickly the software can be developed (time), how much money
will be spent (cost), and how well it will be built (quality).
• The quality triangle is a simple concept. It states that for any product or service being
developed, you can only address two of the following: time, cost, and quality.

• So what does it mean that you can only address two of the three? It means that you cannot
complete a low-cost, high-quality project in a small amount of time.
• However, if you are willing or able to spend a lot of money, then a project can be completed

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 quickly with high-quality results (through hiring more good programmers).
• If a project’s completion date is not a priority, then it can be completed at a lower cost with
higher-quality results.
• Of course, these are just generalizations, and different projects may not fit this model
perfectly.
• But overall, this model helps us understand the tradeoffs that we must make when we are
developing new products and services.
Criteria for system development methodologies comparison

• In the following section we would list and define some criteria that would be helpful for
any IS professional involved in a system development project to choose among the existing
methodologies to determine which one would fit the project he/she is working on based on
a predefined objective. So, all the criteria would be related to a component of a
methodology or one of its phases. As stated in the definition above, a methodology is a set
of steps to follow for a system development.
• One of the difference between the step by step methodologies and the SCURM
methodology is that the latter has only two defined processes planning and closure, whereas
the waterfalls admit that all processes are defined and well known, and the various step are
implemented in a linear fashion.
– note: SCURM is an agile development methodology used in the development of
Software based on an iterative and incremental processes
Processes definition

• By process definition we mean does the methodology assume that every step in the
development life cycle is well known? And that there is no room for environmental
changes? Or does the methodology allow a big deal of flexibility in all stages of the
development cycle to incorporate those changes that needs to be incorporated in the project
before its closure.

Final product determination

• Another criteria would be related to the final product. Does the methodology define the
final product early on in the planning stage or does it define it during the project and close

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 to project closure time.

Project cost

• This criterion is related to the estimation of the cost of the project and at what stage of the
project it's done.

Project completion date

• Estimation of a schedule of deliverable based on the estimation of the tasks to be

accomplished. Is that done up front or as the project progresses?

Responsiveness to environment

• This criterion measures the flexibility that the methodology allows to incorporate changes
during the project, changes due to the environment, technology, competition or other.

Team dynamic and creativity

• The steps predefined by the methodology could be an obstacle to creativity among teams,
as the linear model suggests that some work needs to be done first by a small group and
then the project moves to the next stage.

• This criterion try to measure the ability of allowing some team work and interactions
among the team members.

Role of the upper management

• Is management an obstacle in creating a better system, or is the role of management to

empower the team by taking care of any obstacles that impact the team performance.

Training and knowledge

• Does the methodology steps allow training and knowledge transfer during the project or
does it put a limitations to what a team member can do and learn?

Probability of success

• This criterion measures the probability of success of a project using a certain methodology

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 by embracing a certain degree of complexity and unpredictability. (a successful project is
defined as a system that is useful when delivered).

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 Chapter 5: Major Issues in Computer and IS

5.1 Impact of IS

An IS in an organization is like the nervous system in the human body: it is the link that
connects all the organization's components (human resource, marketing, accounting and
finance, operations (i.e. production and service) etc.) together and provides for better operation
and survival in a competitive environment. For this reason, the right amount of information at
the right time is a key factor for every organization. Every person in the company needs or
generates information, and therefore no person in an organization can be totally detached from
its IS.

Impact of IS on managers: IS can change the manner in which many decisions are made, and
consequently change managers’ jobs. Every organization’s management makes decision,
prepare, plans, and controls activities by using information which is obtained from two major
sources namely: formal and informal sources such as face-to-face conversations e.g. telephone
calls, social contacts and so on.
Impact of IS on employees:
• People in all jobs benefits in many ways from IS even they are not computer specialists.
Since the IS works on the basic systems such as transaction processing and databases, the
labor of the clerical work is transferred to the computerized system, and relieving the
human mind for better work.
– Also it creates an information- based work culture in the organization
• Each day IS helps a million of peoples do their jobs more effectively with:
– greater efficiency,
– higher quality product or services,
– better information retrieval,
– eliminate paper works,
– Instant share of information etc.
• In spite of its positive impact IS has its own negative impact.
• The major limitation or negative impact of IS includes:
– displace employees (eliminate jobs),

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 – violate privacy,
– Information anxiety i.e. frustration, stress, injuries etc.
The impact of IS on organizational performance

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 Organizational performance comprises the actual output or results of an organization as measured
against its intended outputs
Manager’s measure and control organization performance because it leads to:
– better asset management,
– an increased ability to provide customer value,
– improve measures of organizational knowledge and measure of organizational
performance do have an impact on an organization’s status.
When the performance of the organization is assessed:
– the past management decisions that shaped investments,
– operations and financing are measured to know whether all resources were used
effectively, weather the profitability of the business met or even exceeded
expectations, and whether financing choice were made prudently.
In general, ISs helps every business company to maintain and provide good service satisfaction
for customers & make it possible for companies to manage all their information, make better
decisions, and improve their business processes.

5.2 Computer Ethics, Crime, and Privacy

Information Systems Ethics: is a set of concepts or principles that guides us on proper use of
information.

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 • Information accuracy
– Deals with authentication and fidelity of information
• Information property
– Deals with who owns information about individuals and how information can be
sold and exchanged
• Information accessibility
– Deals with what information a person has the right to obtain about others and how
the information can be used
– Issues in information accessibility
• Carnivore: software application designed to be connected to Internet
Service Providers’ computers and eavesdrops on all communications.
• Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA): it offered stronger
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 support for voice mail than it did for e-mail. No other laws at federal or
state levels protect e-mail privacy
• Monitoring e-mail
• The need for a code of ethical conduct
– Business ethics
– Plagiarism
– Cybersquatting: registering a domain name and then trying to sell the name for
big bucks to a person, company. Domain names are a scarce resource – one of the
few scarce resources in cyberspace
Computer Crime: the act of using a computer to commit an illegal act

– Authorized and unauthorized computer access

– Examples
• Stealing time on company computers
• Breaking into government Web sites
• Stealing credit card information
– Federal and State Laws
• Stealing or compromising data
• Gaining unauthorized computer access
• Violating data belonging to banks
• Intercepting communications
• Threatening to damage computer systems
• Disseminating viruses
– Hacking and Cracking
• Hacker – one who gains unauthorized computer access, but without doing
damage
• Cracker – one who breaks into computer systems for the purpose of doing
damage
• Types of computer crime
– Data diddling: modifying data
– Salami slicing: skimming small amounts of money
– Phreaking: making free long distance calls

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 – Cloning: cellular phone fraud using scanners
– Carding: stealing credit card numbers online
– Piggybacking: stealing credit card numbers by spying
– Social engineering: tricking employees to gain access
– Dumpster diving: finding private info in garbage cans
– Spoofing: stealing passwords through a false login page
• Computer viruses and destructive code
– Virus – a destructive program that disrupts the normal functioning of computer
systems
– Types:
• Worm: usually does not destroy files; copies itself
• Trojan horses: Activates without being detected; does not copy itself
• Logic or time bombs: A type of Trojan horse that stays dormant for a
period of time before activating
Computer Security – precautions taken to keep computers and the information they contain safe
from unauthorized access
 Recommended Safeguards
o Implement a security plan to prevent break-ins, Have a plan if break-ins do occur
o Make backups!, Only allow access to key employees
o Change passwords frequently, Keep stored information secure
o Use antivirus software, Use biometrics for access to computing resources
o Hire trustworthy employees
 Encryption – the process of encoding messages before they enter the network or
airwaves, then decoding them at the receiving end of the transfer
 Internet Security
o Firewall – hardware and software designed to keep unauthorized users out of
network systems
 Virus prevention
o Install antivirus software, Make backups
o Avoid unknown sources of shareware, Delete e-mails from unknown sources
o If your computer gets a virus…

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  How to maintain your privacy online
o Choose Web sites monitored by privacy advocates
o Avoid “cookies”, Visit sites anonymously
o Use caution when requesting confirming e-mail
 Avoid getting conned in cyberspace
o Internet auctions, Internet access, International modem dialing
o Web cramming, Multilevel marketing (pyramid schemes)
o Travel/vacations, Business opportunities
o Investments, Health-care products
5.3 Security concerns and security management strategies in e-business applications

Electronic (e-) business, refers to the use of digital technology and the Internet to carry out key
business processes within the company. It includes activities for the company's internal
management and for coordination with suppliers and other business partners. This also includes
e-commerce and it is a part of e-business that deals with the purchase and sale of goods and
services through the internet.
E-Business Security Concerns
• Internet can seem like an entrepreneur's dream come true. The Web offers instant access
to millions of consumers around the world and the ability to set up a virtual store, which
can limit start-up costs. While the Web does offer a powerful platform for launching new
venture, e-businesses are subject to a variety of unique security concerns.

Viruses and Other Malware

• E-businesses count on their Web servers and computers to run smoothly to keep business
humming along. Computers that communicate with other devices on the Internet have the
potential to download malicious software like computer viruses, worms and other malware
that can inhibit a machine's ability to function properly. Malware can potentially result in
data loss or the need for maintenance, both of which can cost e-businesses time and money.
Malware can also impair customers' ability to use their own computers and access e-
business sites. According to Consumer Reports, malware cost consumers about $2.3
billion in 2010.
Software Bugs

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 The term software bug sounds similar to a virus or worm, which are themselves types of
malicious programs, but it means something different entirely. A software bug is simply a
mistake or oversight in a computer program or website coding that makes the site or
program behave in an unintended way. A bug could result in something relatively benign,
like minor aesthetic errors on a website. On the other hand, a bug could potentially cause
major problems like site crashes and allowing users access to data that they are not
supposed to see.
Active Malicious Threats
While malware can passively infect computers, outside parties can also actively attack web
companies. An e-businesses usually lets users interact with a website, possibly by
registering for an account and submitting various forms to the business's web server.

Experienced computer users may be able to exploit weaknesses in a website to gain access
to or "hack" into data that they are not supposed to be able to access. Hackers can
potentially steal information like customer names, credit card numbers and passwords, or
they may inject malicious code into a website that causes data loss.

For example, Sony's PlayStation Network was the victim of a major hacking operation in
2011 that resulted in the theft of millions of users' personal information.

Malicious users may also pretend to be trusted authorities or friends in an attempt to trick
employees or managers into divulging sensitive information. This method of stealing data
is called "phishing."
Physical Data Theft
Most of the threats to e-businesses come through the Internet itself, but businesses can also
be subject to physical data theft. If a thief steals the physical hardware that a company uses
to conduct business, such as hard drives or Web servers, he may be able to recover
confidential information. Since there are several ways e-businesses can potentially lose
important data, it is important to make backup copies of data on a regular basis and ensure
that physical plants are secure.
Wireless and Mobile Security
Many businesses use wireless Internet connections and mobile devices to access the Web.
Wireless networks present a security hazard, since outside users can attempt to connect to

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 a wireless network, allowing them to potentially eavesdrop on communications. Securing
a wireless network with a password can make it more difficult for outside users to connect
to the network and access sensitive information, but a wireless connection is not as secure
as a wired connection, even if it has password protection. Mobile devices can be a security
concern both because they use wireless communication and because they are easy to
misplace.
Security management strategies in e-business applications

• E-commerce security is the protection of e-commerce assets from unauthorized access,

use, alteration, or destruction. We wanted to take the time to discuss why e-commerce
security is becoming more necessary than ever before and break down steps companies can
take to ensure their applications are safe from a vulnerability or data breach.
The importance of securing web applications
• Today, many web apps are experiencing increased use, from online food ordering apps to
athleisure, consumers are using web apps more—and hackers are exploiting them more,
too. Thus, it is necessary to take web application security seriously and the security
implications to not only keep business safe, but customers’ data and credit card
information, too. Application security is not just one thing you set and forget. It requires
testing, monitoring, and adhering to applicable compliance requirements (Payment Card
Industry [PCI] `, for all those revenue-generating apps taking credit cards). Here are the
three best practices you need to cover
1. Securing third-party/open-source code
 If you think about the way an app is created, more often than not, it’s with
borrowed code (otherwise known as third-party or open-source code).
 In fact, up to 96 percent of new apps use borrowed code.
 It’s a great way to get an app up and running fast and save a lot of
development time and resources, but it can also introduce vulnerabilities
(that allows an attacker to cause harm to the stakeholders of an application)
into your environment.
 Open-source vulnerabilities and exploits in proprietary products share
similarities.

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  Both involve poorly written code, leaving “holes” or gaps that attackers can
use to carry out malicious activities, such as modifying the code to extract
sensitive data or damage the system.
 Recent research found that vulnerabilities in open source libraries are
growing rapidly.
 That’s where software composition analysis comes in.
 Tools like tCell and InsightVM look at all third-party packages to see if
any borrowed code has vulnerabilities.
2. Earlier dynamic web application testing
 Given how fast many web apps have been created over these past few
weeks and months, as well as how much traffic they are receiving, it’s
important to test your web apps pre-production to identify security
weaknesses earlier in the software development lifecycle and ensure your
business and users are protected.
 Having the ability to continuously scan for potential issues, especially on
apps that drive revenue or are at the forefront of your customer
experience, can help mitigate issues before they become one, and keep
your business and customers safe.
 It also helps mitigate a breach that could land you in the not-so-favorable
news headlines (and can ruin your brand reputation).
 Dynamic Application Security Testing (DAST) solutions
like InsightAppSec and AppSpider are built to dynamically scan and test
modern applications with fewer false positives and are scalable across
your entire application portfolio.
 InsightAppSec, for example, is designed to detect more than 95 attack
types and offers Attack Replay,
 a feature that allows you to reproduce an issue after you implement a fix to
immediately test the work and close out the ticket.
 Want to make sure that you build application security into your
development lifecycles?
 Integrate your DAST tool with a Continuous Integration and Continuous

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 Delivery or Continuous Development (CI/CD) platform so as new features
are released, they are being tested for both quality assurance and any
potential security weaknesses.
 It also provides compliance-specific report templates for an immediate
understanding of the compliance risk of your web applications.
 Tools like InisghtAppSec are specifically designed to automatically assess
modern web apps and APIs,
 fast-track fixes with rich reporting and integrations, keep compliance and
development stakeholders informed, and effortlessly scale as your
application portfolio grows.
 APIs (Application Programming Interfaces), which is a software
intermediary that allows two applications to talk to each other.
 Each time you use an app like Facebook, send an instant message, or
check the weather on your phone, you're using an API.
3. Application monitoring and protection
 With secure code that’s been tested for potential vulnerabilities or issues,
the last (but equally important) piece is continually monitoring and
protecting your application from future issues.
 It’s not enough to scan or test once and consider yourself secure. Today,
attackers are continuously looking for holes and adapting their attack
strategies, so your application needs a way to keep up.
 As e-commerce applications are being used more than ever before, these
are prime targets for attack, and it’s your job to ensure your apps are
protected in order to keep your business and customers safe, and your
company name out of the headlines.
 Monitoring and protecting your applications with Next-Gen Web
Application Firewalls (WAFs) and Runtime Application Self-Protection
(RASP) tools allow you to know that your application is protected in
production.
 Tools like tCell by Rapid7 are specifically designed to provide visibility
into your application and protection at runtime.

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  There are many ways to get a handle on application security, and securing
your web applications should be one of the first.
 To get started, check out InsightAppSec and tCell for production and live
code scanning to ensure you’re not carrying around unwanted
vulnerabilities.

5.4 Ethical issues in Information system

 Ethics in ISs can be defined as "ethics that focuses on the relationship between the
creation, organization, dissemination, and use of information, and the ethical standards
and moral codes governing human conduct in society".
 These ethical issues include:
 Information Rights: Privacy and Freedom in the Information Rights
o Privacy: Most people have their personal data spread throughout the digital world.
o Even things thought to be secure, such as email or private accounts, can be
accessed by unintended sources.
o Most employers actively check their employees’ computer habits.
o Privacy has evolving legal implications, but there are also ethical considerations.
o Do people know how their accounts are monitored? To what extent is such
monitoring occurring?
 Intellectual Property Rights
• Trade secrets
• Copyright
• Patents
 Accountability, liability, and control
• Who is liable (legally responsible) for injuries that result from machines
controlled by software?
• Computer-related liability problems
 System quality: data quality and system errors
• Software bugs and errors
• Hardware or facility failures caused by natural or other causes
• Poor input data quality

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  The Spamming Problem
o What are its causes?
o What techniques/ solutions do you use to shield yourself from spam?
o How affective are these techniques/solutions?

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 Chapter 6: Major Applications and Current trends of Computer and
Information Systems

As stated in previous chapter, an IS is a set of interrelated components that collect (or retrieve),
process, store and distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization.
Its role is to support the key aspects of running an organization, such as communication, record-
keeping, decision making, data analysis and more. Companies use this information to improve
their business operations, make strategic decisions and gain a competitive edge.

Using ISs effectively requires an understanding of the organization, management, and IS shaping
the systems. All ISs can be described as organizational and management solutions to challenges
posed by the environment. Three basic activities—input, processing, and output—produce the
information organizations need. Feedback is output returned to appropriate people or activities in
the organization to evaluate and refine the input. Environmental actors, such as customers,
suppliers, competitors, stockholders, and regulatory agencies, interact with the organization and
its information systems.

IS handles the flow and maintenance of information that supports a business or some other
operation in the following ways and more.

 Information Storage: Keeping a log of activities is important for all the organizations, to
understand the reason for the problems and so to provide solution to the same.
 it simple to store operational data, revision histories, communication records and
documents.
 It simplifies the process of finding the data easily.
 Simplified Decision Making: eases the process of decision making and simplifies the
process of delivering the required information and hence assists in taking better decisions
instantly.
 helping decision makers by providing accurate and time based information helping
them in making the right decisions
 Behavioral Change: help communication better between the employers and the employees.
 as it stores documents and files in folders that can be accessed and shared by the
employees.

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  This ensures to oversee the flow of information between the management and the
lower-level employees.
 This also allows the front-line employees to be a part of the decision making
process and hence feel motivated and committed towards doing a task.
An understanding of the effective and responsible use and management of IS is important for
managers, business professionals, and other knowledge workers in today’s internetworked
enterprises. ISs play a vital role in the e-business and e-commerce operations, enterprise
collaboration and management, and strategic success of businesses that must operate in an
internetworked global environment. E-business is a very broad concept that involves a business
organization to use electronic medium to carry out all specialized or overall business activities.

 It includes any process that a business organization conducts over electronic and
computer enabled network.

E-commerce is the buying and selling of products and services via the internet. Thus, the field of
ISs has become a major functional area of business administration. In the business environment
there is a range of requirements for information.

Senior managers need information to help with their corporate planning. Middle management
needs more detailed information to help monitor and control business actions. Teams with
operational roles need information to help carry out their duties. Thus, companies tend to have
several IS operating at the same time. The most common types of IS include: Office Automation
System, Transaction Processing System, Management Information System, and Decision Support
System.

6.1 Office Automation System

An office automation system (OAS) is a collection of communication technology, computers, and

persons to perform official tasks. It executes office transactions and supports official activities at
every organizational level. These activities can be divided into clerical and managerial activities.
Clerical activities performed with the help of an office automation system include preparing
written communication, typesetting, printing, mailing, scheduling meetings, calendar keeping. etc.
Under managerial activities, an office automation system helps in conferencing, creating reports
and messages, and controlling the performance of the organization. Many applications like word

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processing, electronic filing, and e-mail are integrated into the office automation systems.

Word Processing
• Word processing is used for the preparation of documents like letters, reports, memos, or
any type of printable material by electronic means. The text is entered by keyboard and
displayed on the computer’s display unit and can be edited, stored, and reproduced with
the help of commands present in the word processor.
• Word processors have facilities for spell checking, grammar checking, counting (character,
lines, pages, etc.), automatic page numbering, index creation, header, and footer, etc
Email
• E-mail or electronic mail facilitates the transfer of messages or documents with the help
of computers and communication lines. This helps in the speedy delivery of mails and
also reduces the time and cost of sending paper mail.
• E-mail supports not only the transfer of text messages but also has options for sending
images, audio, video, and many other types of data.
Voice Mail
• Voice mail, an important call service, allows the recording and storing of telephone
messages into the computer’s memory. The intended person can retrieve these messages
at any time.
6.2 Transaction Processing System

Every firm needs to process transactions in order to perform its daily business operations. A
transaction refers to any event or activity that affects the organization. Transaction process is
a term that refers to the adding, changing, deleting, or looking up of a record in a data file or
database by entering the data at a terminal or workstation. Depending on the organization’s
business, transactions may differ from one organization to another.

In a manufacturing unit, for example, transactions include order entry, receipt of goods,
shipping, etc., while in a bank, transactions include deposits and withdrawals, cashing of
cheques, etc. However, some transactions, including placing orders, billing customers, hiring
employees, employee record keeping, etc., are common to all organizations.

To support the processing of business transactions, transaction processing systems (TPS) are

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 used in organizations.

Example: Bill system, payroll system, Stock/ inventory control system.

6.3 Management Information System

Management information systems (MIS) are specially developed to support the planning,
controlling, and decision-making functions of middle managers. MISs extracts transaction data
from underlying TPSs, compiles them, and produces information products in the form of reports,
displays, or responses. These information products provide information that conforms to the
decision-making needs of managers and supervisors.

MISs use simple routines like summaries and comparisons which enable managers to take
decisions for which the procedure of reaching a solution has been specified in advance.
Generally, the format of reports produced by MIS is pre-specified.

A typical MIS report is a summary report, such as a report on the quarterly sales made by each
sales representative of the organization. Another type of MIS report is an; for example, exception
report that specifies the exception conditions the sales made by some sales representative is far
below than expected. Usually, MISs are used to produce reports on a monthly, quarterly, or yearly
basis. However, if managers want to view the daily or hourly data, MIS enables them to do so.

In addition, they provide managers online access to the current performance as well as past records
of the organization. Many different types of report are produced in MIS. Some of the reports are
a summary report, on-demand report (user selects a particular profile and then clicks the "Report"
button), ad-hoc reports (create reports on an as-needed basis one time) and an exception report.

• Example: Sales management systems, Human resource management system.

6.4 Decision Support System

A decision support system (DSS) is an interactive computer-based IS that, like MIS, also serves at
the management level of an organization. However, in contrast to MIS, it processes information to
support the decision-making process of managers. It provides middle managers with the
information that enables them to make intelligent decisions. A DSS in a bank, for example, enables
a manager to analyze the changing trends in deposits and loans in order to find out the yearly

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DSSs are designed for every manager to execute a specific managerial task or problem.
Generally, they help managers to make semi-structured decisions, the solution to which can be
arrived at logically. However, sometimes, they can also help in making complex decisions.

To support such decisions, they use the information generated by OASs and TPSs. DSSs have
more analytical power as compared to other ISs. They employ a wide variety of decision
models to analyze data or summarize a vast amount of data into a form (usually form of tables
or charts) that make the comparison and analysis of data easier for managers.

They provide an interactive environment so that the users could work with them directly, add
or change data as per their requirements, and ask new questions.
Example: Financial planning systems, Bank loan management systems.
Current trends of Information Systems
An IS is a complex decision support system which is used by firms to enhance and improve their
business operations. It is a tool used to help management make informed decisions for their
business based on information gathered from all business departments. There are many more
trends emerging through advances in ISs.
 Globalization
• The first trend to note is the continuing expansion of globalization.
• The use of the Internet is growing all over the world, and with it the use of digital
devices.
 Data mining is used by companies to collect data regarding consumer purchases and
other economic trends.
• An important trend in ISs is the ability for firms to use data mining.
• Using a broad range of techniques, you can use this information to increase revenues,
cut costs, improve customer relations
• This allows management to use the information gathered to establish goals and
directions for future business operations
 Collaborative: is the ability for firms to network with other companies for business
purposes.
• Electronic data interchange (EDI) is used by manufacturing firms to shorten their
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 supply chain.
• EDI is used to transfer the necessary information for ordering more products.
• Networking also allows companies to transfer money through different bank
accounts which gives firms the opportunity to pay bills and purchase materials
much quicker.
• Advances in ISs have led to the creation of new careers in both database
management and consultancy.
 Social media
• Social media growth is another trend that continues. Facebook now has over one
billion users!
 Personalization
• Ever since the advent of Web 2.0 and e-commerce, users of ISs have expected to be
able to modify their experiences to meet their personal tastes.
• From custom backgrounds on computer desktops to unique ringtones on mobile
phones, makers of digital devices provide the ability to personalize how we use them.
• More recently, companies such as Netflix have begun assisting their users with
personalizations by making suggestions.
 Mobile
• Perhaps the most impactful trend in digital technologies in the last decade has been
the advent of mobile technologies.
• Beginning with the simple cellphone in the 1990s and evolving into the smartphones
and tablets of today, the growth of mobile has been overwhelming.
• Here are some key indicators of this trend: Mobile device sales, Internet access via
mobile, The rise of tablets.
 Wearable
• The average smartphone user looks at his or her smartphone 150 times a day for
functions such as messaging (23 times), phone calls (22), listening to music (13), and
social media (9).
• Many of these functions would be much better served if the technology was worn on,
or even physically integrated into, our bodies.
• This technology is known as a “wearable.”

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 • Wearables have been around for a long time, with technologies such as hearing aids
and, later bluetooth earpieces.
• But now, we are seeing an explosion of new wearable technologies.
• Perhaps the best known of these is Google Glass, an AR device that you wear over
your eyes like a pair of eyeglasses.
• Visible only to you, Google Glass will project images into your field of vision based
on your context and voice commands.
• Another class of wearables are those related to health care.
• The UP by Jawbone consists of a wristband and an app that tracks how you sleep,
move, and eat, then helps you use that information to feel your best.
• It can be used to track your sleep patterns, moods, eating patterns, and other aspects
of daily life, and then report back to you via an app on your smartphone or tablet.
• As our population ages and technology continues to evolve, there will be a large
increase in wearables like this.
 Findable
• The “Internet of Things (IoTs)” refers to the idea of physical objects being connected
to the Internet.
• Advances in wireless technologies and sensors will allow physical objects to send and
receive data about themselves.
• Many of the technologies to enable this are already available – it is just a matter of
integrating them together.
 Autonomous
• A final trend that is emerging is an extension of the IoTs: autonomous robots and
vehicles.
• By combining software, sensors, and location technologies, devices that can operate
themselves to perform specific functions are being developed.
• These take the form of creations such as medical nanotechnology robots (nanobots),
self-driving cars, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
• A nanobot is a robot whose components are on the scale of about a nanometer, which
is one-billionth of a meter.
• While still an emerging field, it is showing promise for applications in the medical

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 field.
• For example, a set of nanobots could be introduced into the human body to combat
cancer or a specific disease.

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 References

Text book
1. Belle, Jean-Paul Van et al. 2001.Discovering Information Systems. California, USA.
2. Jason, Charvat. 2003. Project Management Methodologies: Selecting, Implementing, and
Supporting Methodologies and Processes for Projects. John Wiley & Sons.
3. Satzinger, John W.,Jackson, Robert B., and Burd, Stephen D.2007. Systems Analysis and
Design. Course Technology,Australia.
4. Hoffer, Jeffrey A., George, Joey F., and Valacich, Joseph S.1999. Modern Systems Analysis
and Design.5th ed. Addison-wesley,inc, Reading.
5. Project Cycle Management Technical Guide. 2001. FAO. Rome, Italy.
6. Whitten, Jeffer L. and Bentley, Lonnie D. 2007.Systems Analysis & Design Methods.7th ed.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
7. Informaiton systems Today, By Leonard, M. JessupReferences
8. Computer Science: An Overview: International Edition, (10 ed), Pearson Higher Education,
2007

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