Landslides, threshold slopes, and the survival of relict terrain in the

wake of the Mendocino Triple Junction

Georgina L. Bennett1*, Scott R. Miller2, Joshua J. Roering1, and David A. Schmidt3
1
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon, 1275 E 13th Ave, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1272, USA
2
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, 115 S 1460 E, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112-0102, USA
3
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, 4000 15th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98195-1310, USA

ABSTRACT GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND

Establishing landscape response to uplift is critical for interpreting sediment fluxes, hazard The northern Californian Coast Ranges are
potential, and topographic evolution. We assess how landslides shape terrain in response to a modified by geodynamic processes associated
wave of uplift traversing the northern California Coast Ranges (United States) in the wake with the northward migration of the MTJ, which
of the Mendocino Triple Junction. We extracted knickpoints, landslide erosion rates, and marks the transition from a subduction zone to
topographic metrics across the region modified by Mendocino Triple Junction migration. a transform plate boundary along the western
Landslide erosion rates mapped from aerial imagery are consistent with modeled uplift and margin of North America (Fig. 1). MTJ migra-
exhumation, while hillslope gradient is invariant across the region, suggesting that landslides tion is associated with regional changes in crustal
accommodate uplift, as predicted by the threshold slope model. Landslides are concentrated thickness, heat flow, and volcanism associated
along steepened channel reaches downstream of knickpoints generated by base-level fall at with the formation of a slab window in the wake
channel outlets, and limit slope angles and relief. We find evidence that landslide-derived of the triple junction. A geodynamic model of
coarse sediment delivery may suppress catchment-wide channel incision and landscape denu- this process, referred to as the Mendocino crustal
dation over the time required for the uplift wave to traverse the region. We conclude that a conveyor (MCC), predicts a crustal thickening
landslide cover effect may provide a mechanism for the survival of relict terrain and orogenic rate of ~8 mm yr–1 just to the south of the MTJ
relief in the northern Californian Coast Ranges and elsewhere over millennial time scales. and crustal thinning of up to ~6.5 mm yr–1 farther
south (Fig. 2A; Furlong and Govers, 1999, their
INTRODUCTION et al., 2013). In the simplest case, the stream figure 3). Assuming local isostasy and density
While landsliding is commonly identified power model, vertical and horizontal migration variations between mantle and crust (Lock et al.,
as the dominant erosional process in mountain- of knickpoints is predicted to be proportional 2006), these rates translate into a rock uplift rate
ous settings (Hovius et al., 1997; Bennett et al., to the rock uplift rate and the erodibility con- of ~1.2 mm yr–1 and subsidence rate of ~1 mm
2012), we lack regional data sets of landslide ero- stant, K, respectively (Niemann et al., 2001). yr–1, respectively. Integrating rates of thickening
sion rates with which to constrain the response However, the model does not consider the role and thinning through space and time produces a
of landslides to tectonic uplift as well as their of sediment in modulating channel response pattern of crustal thickness variation, which can
potential role in landscape evolution (Korup et (Sklar and Dietrich, 2001). Sediment cover be converted into a pattern of cumulative surface
al., 2010). Landslide deposits may dam rivers may slow knickpoint retreat, delaying catch- uplift over the past ~8 m.y. (Fig. 2B; Furlong and
and even suppress upstream base-level trans- ment denudation in response to base-level fall Govers, 1999, their figure 3).
mission (Ouimet et al., 2007), but the long-term relative to the surrounding landscape (DiBiase Past geomorphologic studies have found
efficacy of hillslope-channel feedbacks and their et al., 2014). Alternatively, sediment may act as evidence for drainage capture and reorganiza-
influence on topographic response to uplift are a tool, enhancing channel incision and landscape tion (Lock et al., 2006), knickpoint migration
poorly known (Egholm et al., 2013). denudation (Sklar and Dietrich, 2001). The role (Willenbring et al., 2013), and spatially vari-
Transient landscapes in which the process of landslides in landscape response to uplift is able erosion rates (Balco et al., 2013) attributed
rates and topography evolve across an uplift important to elucidate, considering that land- to MTJ migration. Studies of landsliding in the
gradient are valuable for deciphering poten- slides dominate sediment supply in mountainous region have revealed pockets of pervasive earth-
tial hillslope-channel feedbacks in landscape settings and thus provide a potential feedback on flow erosion particularly within the mechanically
response to uplift (Miller et al., 2013). Com- landscape response rates (Egholm et al., 2013). weak Franciscan mélange unit (KJf) making up
monly used channel incision models (e.g., In this contribution, we investigate landscape the Central belt of the Coast Ranges Franciscan
Wobus et al., 2006) predict that channels response to a wave of transient uplift migrating Complex (Kelsey, 1978; Mackey and Roering,
respond to base-level fall via a wave of inci- northward through northern California (United 2011). However, few have addressed hillslope-
sion that sweeps upstream via knickpoint retreat. States) in the wake of the Mendocino Triple channel coupling (Roering et al., 2015), and
Knickpoints separate the actively adjusting Junction (MTJ) (Furlong and Govers, 1999). more importantly, previous analysis has been
channel commonly bounded by steep slopes and This tectonic setting enables us to observe the spatially restricted, precluding a systematic com-
active landslides (e.g., Gallen et al., 2011) from initiation of landsliding in response to fluvial parison with the regional uplift pattern.
gentler “relict” upstream terrain that has yet to incision on the leading edge of the uplift field,
experience base-level adjustment (Willenbring as well as landslide feedbacks on channel inci- METHODS
sion and denudation. In particular, we assess We measured landslide erosion rates
*Current address: Department of Geosciences, the role of landslides as either a tool enhancing through mapping of debris slides and earth-
Colorado State University, 1482 Campus Delivery, denudation, or cover suppressing denudation in flows from imagery in Google Earth spanning
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1482, USA. response to uplift. A.D. 1988–2014 (Table DR1 in the GSA Data

GEOLOGY, May 2016; v. 44; no. 5; p. 1–4  |  Data Repository item 2016119  | doi:10.1130/G37530.1  |  Published online XX Month 2016
GEOLOGY 
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2016 Geological 44  | ofNumber
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5  For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. 1
 Figure 2. A: Predicted uplift rate calculated from crustal thickening
rate as modeled along Mendocino crustal conveyer (MCC) transect
in Figure 1B. B: Observed elevation (z) and modeled cumulative
uplift as calculated from MCC-modeled crustal thickness variation.
C: Franciscan mélange unit (KJf) swath-averaged hillslope gradi-
ent. D: Unit KJf normalized channel steepness index, ksn, averaged
by swath and downstream of knickpoints. E: Swath-averaged
landslide erosion rates in KJf and non-KJf lithologies compared to
Figure 1. A: Regional and geological setting and land­slides cosmogenic nuclide and suspended sediment erosion rates (latter
mapped within four study catchments spanning Mendocino converted from catchment yields based on bedrock density of 2.5
crustal conveyer (MCC) transect in B (northern California, USA). g cm–3) and predicted exhumation as depicted in A. Pink—Balco
B: Normalized channel steepness index, ksn, and knickpoints et al. (2013); blue—Willenbring et al. (2013); black—Roering et al.
mapped across study catchments. MTJ—Mendocino Triple Junc- (2015). Tails on cosmogenic nuclide and suspended sediment ero-
tion; CA—California. sion rates depict upstream area over which these rates integrate.

Repository1). Debris slides are instantaneous converted into a bedrock erosion rate following We analyzed our data by swath along the
failures that leave easily detectable scars in the Mackey and Roering (2011). MCC model transect (Fig. 1) and by subcatch-
landscape (Fig. DR2 in the Data Repository). We calculated debris-slide volume from ment (Fig. DR8) for comparison with published
Earth­flows are slow-moving landslides that mapped area using an empirical scaling rela- cosmogenic nuclide (CN) and suspended sedi-
exhibit flow-like features (Fig. DR3). tionship for landslides in northern California ment erosion rates and modeled uplift. In order
Where present, we identified features on (Larsen et al., 2010). Volume was converted into to detect any lithological control on landscape
sequential images to measure earthflow velocity. annual flux to the channel network using the response to uplift, we also separated data by
We assigned the mean velocity (1.44 m yr–1; Fig. estimated age of debris-slide scars. We deter- geology, differentiating between the KJf unit
DR4) to active earthflows with unconstrained mined that 10–30 yr is required to revegetate prone to earthflows (Fig. 1A) and other predomi-
velocities, as well as to dormant earthflows on debris-slide scars, enabling us to estimate a nantly sandstone units making up the Coastal
the supposition that these features were active in range of debris-slide erosion rates (Fig. DR2). belt of the Coast Ranges that we collectively
the recent past based on their morphologic sig- We calculated topographic slope and local refer to as non-KJf (Fig. DR1).
nature (Mackey and Roering, 2011). Earthflow relief with a 10 m U.S. Geological Survey
width and depth were estimated from area using (USGS) National Elevation Dataset (NED) RESULTS
empirical scaling relationships (Hand­werger digital elevation model, and extracted normal- We mapped 122 knickpoints (Fig. 1B), 1600
et al., 2013; Fig. DR5). Finally, the earthflow ized channel steepness index (ksn) (e.g., Kirby debris slides, 246 active earthflows (174 with
sediment flux into the channel network was and Whipple, 2012) using a reference concavity measured velocities), and 324 dormant earth-
index of 0.55 (Shi, 2011). We developed an auto- flows across the study area (Fig. 1A). Taken
mated technique to map migratory knickpoints, together, these two styles of landsliding denude
GSA Data Repository item 2016119, Figures
1 
calibrated on knickpoints in the southern part of the study area at an average rate of 0.18 ± 0.04
DR1–DR12 and Tables DR1 and DR2, is available the study area (Shi, 2011). To avoid anchored mm yr–1 (Table DR2).
online at www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2016.htm, or on
request from editing@geosociety.org or Documents knickpoints, we omitted knickpoints within 1 Mean hillslope gradient (~20°) is rela-
Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301, km of a geological contact (Fig. DR1) and those tively invariant across the zone of uplift, while
USA. associated with reservoirs. landslide erosion rates are highly variable and

|  Volume 44  |  Number 5  |  GEOLOGY

2 www.gsapubs.org 
broadly reflect modeled uplift and exhumation
(Fig. 2).
Our landslide erosion rates also correspond
with published CN erosion rates (Balco et al.,
2013; Willenbring et al., 2013; Roering et al.,
2015) and suspended sediment erosion rates
(Wheatcroft and Sommerfield, 2005) (Fig.
2E; Fig. DR9), suggesting persistence of the
present-day spatial pattern of landsliding over
cosmogenic (100–1000 yr) time scales.
Comparison of subcatchment-averaged hill­
slope gradient and ksn (Fig. 3A; Fig. DR8) reveals
that hillslope gradient becomes insensitive to
further increases in ksn (and by inference, uplift)
(Ouimet et al., 2009) at 15–20°. The coincidence
of threshold hillslopes with the highest density
of active earthflows suggests that earthflows are
responsible for maintaining this gradient.
Faster landslide erosion rates coincide with
higher ksn (Fig. 3B), particularly below knick-
points (e.g., Fig. 3C; Roering et al., 2015).
Analysis of the Mad River on the leading edge of Figure 4. A: Landslides and knickpoints along
the uplift wave reveals a concentration of land- Mad River, California (USA). ef—earthflow.
Only streams of order >2 are shown. Verti-
slides along a steep knickzone with high ksn and cal lines depict landslide elevation range,
hillslope relief containing several knickpoints with dots denoting their median elevations.
(Figs. 4A–4E). Similar patterns are found along B: Mean normalized channel steepness
other channels within unit KJf (Figs. DR10 and index, ksn, calculated in 100 swaths (~160 m)
DR11). We consider lower-relief terrain above along channel. C: Mean relief calculated as
difference between ridgeline and channel ele-
these knickzones to be relict topography yet to vation. D: Mean hillslope gradient. E: Mean
experience the observed pulse of erosion (Figs. landslide erosion rates. Gray shading denotes
1B and 4). main knickzone.
We observe that subcatchment-averaged
land­s lide erosion rates correlate with k sn <
400 m1.1 (Fig. 3B); this correlation may disap- though one that counters expectations. If we
pear for steeper channels. We observe a similar consider that the relationship between erosion
relationship of CN erosion rates with ksn (Fig. rate and ksn (Fig. 3C) is a function of K (erod-
3C) and note that streams in unit KJf are steeper Figure 3. A: Relationship between mean hill- ibility) and Qs (sediment supply) (Gasparini et
slope gradient and mean normalized channel
for a given erosion rate than streams in non-KJf al., 2006), this implies either a difference in
steepness index, ksn, calculated for catch-
units, suggesting that the former have a lower ments with >50% Franciscan mélange unit lithology or the role of sediment (i.e., tools/
erosional efficiency. We also observe that land- (KJf), overlaid by kernel density of mean cover effect) between KJf and non-KJf units,
slide erosion rate peaks in non-KJf units ~0.5° slope gradient and ksn of active earthflows. given a constant climate. Catchments within unit
in latitude to the south (Fig. 2E), i.e., farther The ksn of an earthflow is that of the closest KJf, dominated by highly sheared mudstones,
10 m channel node. Points are colored by sub-
upstream, compared to the parallel KJf domain, catchment average landslide erosion rate. B: might be expected to have a greater erosional
suggesting a shorter erosional response time in Relationship of landslide erosion rate with ksn. efficiency than those in non-KJf units of pre-
non-KJF watersheds. Gray shading denotes potential cover effect dominantly sandstone, given the higher relative
at high ksn by which landslide deposits limit erodibility of mudstone (Sklar and Dietrich,
further channel incision and landslide ero-
DISCUSSION 2001). However, KJf catchments exhibit lower
sion. C: Relationship of cosmogenic nuclide
Our results suggest that the northward- erosion rate with ksn showing decreased land- erosional efficiency and a longer response time.
migrating increase in crustal thickness predicted slide erosion at high ksn and also showing We observe prevalent channel reaches mantled
by the MCC model is accommodated by higher erosional efficiency, K, in non-KJf com- by boulders (commonly >10 m) within unit KJf,
increased landslide erosion rather than hillslope pared to KJf catchments. Points 1 and 2 refer particularly at earthflow toes (Figs. DR2A and
to above and below the Kekawaka knickzone,
steepening, lending support to the threshold respectively (Fig. DR11 in the Data Repository DR12), that are not apparent in channels within
slope model (Burbank et al., 1996; Larsen and [see footnote 1]). non-KJf units. We suggest that resistant blocks
Montgomery, 2012). We find that landsliding is eroded from the mélange by earthflows armor
driven by focused channel incision downstream the channel bed and have a negative feedback on
of knickpoints that were initiated by uplift and of past divide migration and internal drainage ongoing landscape response to uplift, i.e., slow-
relative base-level fall at channel outlets. The reorganization (Lock et al., 2006). On this basis, ing channel incision and knickpoint propagation
prevalence of threshold hillslopes and existence we redefine our meaning of relict topography and ultimately retarding landscape denudation
of scattered knickpoints and landslides above the for this setting to describe relatively low-relief (DiBiase et al., 2014). This would imply that
zone of rapid erosion (e.g., Fig. 4) may result topography at the heads of our catchments yet to the current pulse of erosion may be stalled on
from either previous waves of erosion (e.g., experience the current pulse of erosion. the frontal edge of the uplift wave in unit KJf,
Grimaud et al., 2015) or background erosion We find evidence for a profound lithologi- providing an appealing explanation for the long-
processes. We may also be observing remnants cal control on landscape response to uplift, lived nature of the landslide erosion pattern we

GEOLOGY  |  Volume 44  |  Number 5  | www.gsapubs.org 3

infer from the close correspondence of landslide knick­zones in controlling the style and pace of evolution of active earthflows determined from
and cosmogenic erosion rates. landscape adjustment in the western San Gabriel air­borne LiDAR and historical aerial photo-
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Kelsey, H.M., 1978, Earthflows in Franciscan melange, Wheatcroft, R.A., and Sommerfield, C.K., 2005, River
We thank O. Korup, Ben Crosby, and an anonymous Van Duzen River basin, California: Geology, v. 6, sediment flux and shelf sediment accumulation
reviewer for very helpful and encouraging reviews, p.  361–364, doi:​10​.1130​/0091​-7613​(1978)6​<361:​ rates on the Pacific Northwest margin: Continen-
and the editor J. Spotila. This research was funded by EIFMVD>2​.0​.CO;2. tal Shelf Research, v. 25, p. 311–332, doi:​10​.1016​
NASA grant NNX12AL93G. We are grateful to Wolf- Kirby, E., and Whipple, K.X., 2012, Expression of /j​.csr​.2004​.10​.001.
gang Schwanghart and Dirk Scherler for help adapting active tectonics in erosional landscapes: Journal Willenbring, J.K., Gasparini, N.M., Crosby, B.T., and
TopoToolbox2, and Gene Humphreys and his students of Structural Geology, v. 44, p. 54–75, doi:​10​ Brocard, G., 2013, What does a mean mean? The
for helpful discussions. .1016​/j​.jsg​.2012​.07​.009. temporal evolution of detrital cosmogenic denu-
Korup, O., Densmore, A.L., and Schlunegger, F., 2010, dation rates in a transient landscape: Geology,
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