See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/268212966

Effects of cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological

communities in northern Lake Victoria, Uganda.

Article  in  Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences · January 2013

CITATIONS READS

14 3,497

6 authors, including:

Kiggundu Vincent Ocaya Henry

National Agricultural Research Organization National Fisheries Resources Research Institute
17 PUBLICATIONS   89 CITATIONS    20 PUBLICATIONS   998 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

MSc thesis View project

MSc thensis View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Kiggundu Vincent on 15 December 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2013, 14 (2): 61 - 75 ISSN 1026-0919
Printed in Uganda. All rights reserved © 2013, National Agricultural Research Organisation

Effects of cage fish culture on water quality and selected

biological communities in northern Lake Victoria, Uganda
L. Mwebaza-Ndawula1, V. Kiggundu1, G. Magezi1, J. Naluwayiro1, W. Gandhi-Pabire1
and H. Ocaya1

1
National Fisheries Resources Research institute (NaFIRRI), P. O. Box 343, Jinja, Uganda
Author for correspondence: mugenda@gmail.com

Abstract

Growing of fish in cages is currently practiced in Uganda and was first introduced in northern
Lake Victoria in 2010. An environment monitoring study was undertaken at Source of the Nile,
a private cage fish farm, in Napoleon gulf, northern Lake Victoria. In-situ measurements of key
environmental (temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity) and biological (algae,
zooplankton, macro-benthos) variables were made at three transects: Transect 1- the site with
fish cages (WC); transect 2- upstream of the fish cages (USC-control) and Transect 3- downstream
of the cages (DSC). Upstream and Downstream sites were located approximately 1.0 km from the
fish cages. Environment parameters varied spatially and temporally but were generally within
safe ranges for freshwater habitats. Higher concentrations of SRP (0.015-0.112 Mg/L) occurred at
USC during February, September and at DSC in November; NO2-N (0.217- 0.042 mg/L) at USC
and DSC in February and November; NH4-N (0.0054- 0.065 Mg/L) at WC and DSC in February,
May and November. Algal bio-volumes were significantly higher at WC (F (2,780)=4.619; P=0.010).
Zooplankton species numbers were consistently lower at WC with a significant difference compared
to the control site (P=0.032). Macro-benthos abundance was consistently higher at the site with
cages where mollusks and low-oxygen and pollution-tolerant chironomids were the dominant
group. Higher algal biomass, concentration of low-oxygen/pollution-tolerant macro-benthos and
depressed zooplankton diversity at WC suggested impacts from the fish cages on aquatic biota.

Key words: Algae, cage fish, invertebrates, water quality

Introduction For example in 8-12 m3 cage, one can

raise one ton of fish in 8 months. In
Growing fish in cages is practiced in many addition, cages can be easily fabricated
parts of the world but has in the last 20 from locally available materials such as
years become a popular fish farming netting mesh, steel bars or bamboo stem
practice in Africa specifically in Ghana, frames, plastic floaters, stone sinkers and
Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, Zambia and ropes. Culturing of fish in cages affords
Zimbabwe (Blow and Leonard, 2007). In greater production rates compared to yield
comparison to traditional pond culture in pond systems. High quality fry and
systems, the advantage of cage fish formulated commercial feeds are fast
culture technology is the possibility of becoming available on the open market
growing a large amount of fish in a as the number of private commercial
relatively small volume or area of water.
62 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.
hatcheries and local feed manufacturers community structure (Dias et al., 2011)
increase in Uganda. that may affect natural fish production.
In the East African region, cage fish Mangaliso et al. (2011) predicted that
farming has not been widely practiced intensive aquaculture is likely to become
despite a large market for fish in the region an important new source of nutrients on
and known potential of the practice (Blow local and lake-wide scale. It is therefore
and Leonard, 2007). Cage fish farming is important that all projects that involve
currently practiced by few commercial intensification of aquaculture should be
fish farmers and is a direct response to backed by a strong environmental
declining fish harvests from wild fish stocks monitoring program.
and increasing market demand from local, The overall objective of this study was
regional and international markets. therefore to evaluate the possible impacts
Uganda is promoting cage fish farming to of cage fish culture on water quality and
improve household incomes and national biological communities in northern Lake
food security (MAAIF, 2010). Production Victoria. The specific research questions
figures of the Source of the Nile (SON) were: “Does cage fish operation influence
fish farm in northern Lake Victoria key physical-chemical parameters of the
indicate high potential for cage fish culture water?”, “Do fish cages have impacts
with increase in yield from 290 tons in 2011 on algal, zooplankton and macro-benthos
to 402 tons in 2012 and 506 tons in 2013 communities within and around the cage
corresponding to 147, 205 and 269 cages operation areas?”.
of approximately 15.625m3 volume (SON
Cage Fish farm records). Materials and methods
Fish rearing in cages in natural
freshwater water bodies (lakes, rivers, Study area and field sampling
reservoirs and dams) raises concerns of The study was undertaken at the Source
water quality and disease impacts from of the Nile (SON) Fish Farm Ltd. located
the caged fish (Pearson and Black, 2001; near the headwaters of the river Nile at
Veenstra et al., 2003; Mangaliso et al., the south western end of the Napoleon
2011) despite the promise for high fish gulf, northern Lake Vitoria (Fig. 1). The
production over relatively short time farm had a total of 147 cages (each with
periods. 2.5x2.5x2.5 meters (long, wide and deep
Other concerns include impacts on respectively) in an area of approximately
biological communities especially in cases 2,112.5 km2 by the end of 2011 (SON Fish
of intensive cage culture (Dias et al., Farm records).
2011). Water quality deterioration may Three study transects were set up as
result from release of solid wastes follows: transect 1 (USC) was
(Merrican and Phillips, 1985; Dias et al., approximately 1 km upstream of the fish
2011) such as un-eaten feeds, faeces and cages; transect 2 (WC) was located
mucus, soluble wastes especially within the fish cage rows and transect 3
phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. (DSC) was approximately 1 km
Overtime, these may cause environmental downstream of the fish cages. Each
impacts such as eutrophication (Demir et transect contained three sampling points,
al. 2001; Santiago et al. 2001), algal at intervals of 50 meters apart.
blooms and changes in zooplankton
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 63

Figure 1. Study area and transect distribution in Napoleon Gulf, northern Lake Victoria.
Transect 1: upstream of the cages (USC1-USC3), Transect 2: within the cage rows (WC1-
WC3) and Transect 3: downstream of the cages (DSC1-DSC3).
64 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.
Field measurement (selected Lund et al. (1958). Algal cells were
environmental parameters) and sampling counted and their cell dimensions
of water, algae, zooplankton and macro- measured using an eye micrometer to
benthos was undertaken in February, May, generate bio-volume data.
September and November, 2011 at fixed
points along each transect. Zooplankton and macro-benthos
Zooplanktons were sampled with a
Physical-chemical parameters conical plankton net of 0.25M mouth
Selected environmental parameters were diameter and 60 µm mesh as in Vincent
measured in-situ with a CTD et al. (2012). Concentrated samples were
(Conductivity, Temperature, Dissolved placed in clean, labeled plastic bottles and
oxygen) multi probe (Sea-Bird Electronics, fixed with 4 % sugar formalin. In the
Model 19-03 with depth range of 197 laboratory, samples were rinsed in tap
meters). water over a 50 µm nitex mesh and diluted
to a suitable volume depending on the
Nutrients, algae and total suspended concentration of each sample. Sub-sample
solids (TSS) series of 2, 2, 5 and 10 ml were taken
Water samples for analysis of nutrients from a well agitated sample in a beaker
and algae were collected with a Van-Dorn using a calibrated automatic bulb pipette
sampler (Alpha, Vertical PVC, Opaque and introduced on to a plankton counting
PVC, 2.2L) at 0.5m depth, and transferred chamber.
to clean and labeled plastic bottles. In the For macro-benthos three hauls of
laboratory, sub-samples of 100 ml were bottom sediments were hauled from each
filtered using a hand pump (pressure sampling point using a Ponar grab (open
ranging from 50 - 100 cent bars depending jaw area, 238 cm2). Each sediment haul
on water hardness) and the filtrate was was concentrated by sieving through a
used to analyze dissolved nutrients 400µm nitex mesh, placed in clean, labeled
(Soluble Reactive Phosphorus (SRP), sample bottle, and preserved with 5 %
Ammonium-nitrogen (NH 4 -N) and formalin.
Nitrite-nitrogen (NO 2 -N) by Zooplankton samples were examined
spectrophotometric methods (Stainton et under an inverted microscope at x40 and
al., 1977). Sub-samples of 400 ml were x100 magnification for counting and
filtered on to Whatman GF/C filter papers taxonomic identification respectively.
47mm and the filtrate used for the Individual organisms were taxonomically
determination of Total Suspended Solids identified to species level using published
(TSS) following APHA (1998) methods. manuals by Boxshall and Braide (1991);
Sub-samples of 20 ml were transferred Korinek (1999) and Koste (1978). Macro-
into clean, labeled glass scintillation vials, benthos samples were examined under a
preserved with Lugol’s solution. 2 ml of dissecting binocular microscope at x 25
the sample were placed in Sedgewick magnification and taxonomically identified
counting chamber, allowed to settle for using identification manuals by Pennak
three hours and examined under an (1953), Mandhal-Barth, (1954) and Epler
inverted microscope (Hund Wolvert s) at (1995). Invertebrate species taxa were
x400 magnification following the tallied and recorded.
procedure of Utermohl as described by
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 65
Distribution and abundance data Algal composition and bio-volumes
generated were stored using Microsoft The algal community was composed of
Excel 2007 and analyzed with SPSS three major taxonomic groups, (blue-green
(Version 12) while Sigmaplot (Version 11) algae, green algae and diatoms) but
was used for graphics. One-way ANOVA occasionally, dinoflagellates,
and LSD post hoc tests were used to euglenophytes and cryptophytes were also
compare mean values. encountered. Most genera and species
were encountered at all the three study
Results sites. There was minimal variation of
species numbers across the three study
Physical-chemical parameters sites for the three major algal groups i.e.
Observed ranges of selected water 30, 33, 34 at USC, WC and DSC
environment variables (Table 1) across the respectively. The blue-green algal group
three sampling sites were compared with contained higher average numbers of
standards of the National Environment species at USC, WC and DSC with 14,
Management (NEMA) and desirable 16, and 16 respectively compared to green
levels for cage culture from literature algae and diatoms, which had 10, 12 and
(Table 1). 12, 5 and 6, respectively.
Blue-green algae registered the highest
Nutrient concentrations across mean bio-volumes in all three study
sample sites and dates transects, with the highest value at the site
NO2-N, SRP and TSS all attained highest with cages (WC) and was closely followed
mean concentrations (0.2-0.25, 0. 1- 0.15 diatoms (Fig. 3) in all study sites. One–
and 7.1 mg /L respectively) at the control way ANOVA indicated significantly higher
site in February and remained at lower algal bio-volumes at WC compared to
levels at other times and study sites. NH4- UPS and DSC (F(2,780)=4.619; P = 0.010).
N registered high and comparable Post hoc LSD test, revealed no significant
concentrations (0.05-0.10 Mg/L) across difference between USC and DSC (P =
all three study sites during November but 0.39). Algal bio-volumes in USC and WC
remained at lower levels at other times increased from February, through May to
and study sites.

Table 1. Ranges of selected physical-chemical parameters at Source of the Nile Fish Farm,
northern Lake Victoria, 2011

Parameters Observed NEMA Desirable levels for cage culture

range Standards

Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 3.4-6.2 Acceptable > 3 (Delong et al., 2009)

pH 7.2-8.7 6.5 - 8.5 6 – 9 (Nathan et al., 2013)
Temperature °C 24.6-26.5 Acceptable 12 – 30 (Joseph et al., 1993)
Conductivity (µSCm-1) 98.1-99.8 30 – 5000 (Nathan et al., 2013)
66 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.

Figure 2. Spatial-temporal variation of mean nutrient concentrations (SRP, NO2-N & NH4-N)
and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) in three transects (USC, WC and DSC) at SON cage fish
farm, northern Lake Victoria, 2011.

September before a drastic decline in higher species numbers across sampling

November (Fig. 4). dates and study sites. WC registered
lower mean species numbers (12-15) in
Zooplankton composition and species May, September and November
richness compared to other sites (Fig. 5A). While
The zooplankton community was one-way ANOVA indicated no significant
composed of three broad taxonomic difference of species numbers between
groups: Copepoda, Cladocera and USC, WC and DSC (F (2,8) =3.868;
Rotifera (Table 2). Rotifers registered P=0.085) and across sampling dates
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 67

Figure 3. Comparison of bio-volumes of different broad algal taxa a cross study sites at SON
cage fish farm, northern Lake Victoria, 2011.

Figure 4. Spatial-temporal variation of mean (±SE) algal bio-volumes at SON cage fish farm,
northern Lake Victoria, 2011.
68 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.

Figure 5. Spatial-temporal variation (mean±SE) of species richness (A) and numerical abun-
dance (B) of zooplankton across study sites at SON cage fish farm, northern Lake Victoria,
2011.

(F(2,32)=1.173; P=0.335), a post hoc LSD significant difference between February

test revealed a significant difference May and September (P < 0.05).
between USC (control) and WC during Copepods constituted the bulk of total
November (P = 0.032). zooplankton abundance throughout the
four survey dates with total density
Zooplankton abundance estimates between 490,000 and 2,030,000
Estimates of numerical abundance ind. m-2; followed by rotifers with 17,000
indicated higher values during February - 280,000 ind. m -2 compared to
and November at all study sites (Fig. 5B). cladocerans with 1,000 -15,000 ind. m-2
One-way ANOVA, however indicated no (Table 2). The three groups showed no
significant differences of abundance consistent abundance patterns across the
between study sites F(3,33) = 0.171, P > study sites (USC, WC and DSC) on
0.05 although significant variation occurred different sampling dates. Copepod and
between sampling dates (F(3,33) = 12.226; rotifer densities differed significantly
P < 0.05). A post hoc LSD test revealed
Table 2. Zooplankton composition and abundance (Indiv. m-2) patterns across study sites at the SON cage fish farm, northern Lake Victoria, 2011.

Copepoda: February-11 May-11 September-11 November-11

USC WC DSC USC WC DSC USC WC DSC USC WC DSC

Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities

Number of species 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 7 5 6
Densities (‘000) 2,030 1,307 1,418 1,047 490 669 933 798 803 1,192 1,189 1,605
Cladocera:
Number of Species 5 3 5 4 4 4 5 3 2 5 2 3
Densities (‘000) 8 9 5 6 1 12 6 2 2 15 5 5
Rotifera:
Number of Species 12 12 11 14 11 10 12 12 10 10 9 13
Densities (‘000) 33 19 21 50 21 39 25 17 21 280 167 107
Total number of species 23 21 22 25 21 20 23 21 18 22 16 22
Total Densities (‘000) 2,070 1,335 1,443 1,103 511 720 964 818 827 1,487 1,361 1,717

69
70 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.
among sample dates (F (3,32) = 10.056; nutrient inputs although the contribution
P<0.05 and F (3,32) = 18.714; P<0.05). from other sources such as soil erosion
Macro-benthos diversity and abundance may also be important. Results of the
The macro-benthos community was present study appear to have been
constituted by four taxa: Bivalvia, influenced by water currents constantly
Gastropoda (freshwater snails), Diptera sweeping across the study area given the
(lakefly larvae), Trichoptera (caddisfly location of SON fish farm near the
nymphs), and Ephemeroptera (mayfly headwaters of the River Nile; hence the
nymphs). As a consistent pattern across importance of undertaking site suitability
the four study dates, higher numerical studies before cage fish culture
abundance (840-3907 ind. m2) and species investments are made. It is also important
richness (4-15) of macro-benthos to note that released soluble nutrients may
occurred at WC (Fig. 6). One way be readily taken up by green micro-plants
ANOVA showed that total macro-benthos (algae) in the water.
densities across study sites were Variability data on algal bio-volume
significantly different (F(2.33) = 12.495, across the three study sites indicated much
P<0.05) while taxa richness was not higher values at the site with cages (WC)
significant (F (2,33) = 12.111, P>0.05). compared to the control (USC) and
Organisms that constituted high downstream (DSC) sites. Given that algal
abundance at WC were Chironomus sp., growth largely depends on nutrient
Bellamya unicolor and Melanoides concentrations (Guo and Li, 2003), results
tuberculata. of this study suggest that the fish cages at
WC may have been associated with
Discussion higher nutrient concentrations, which upon
being taken up by the algal community
Measured ranges of selected physical- resulted into higher algal biomass/bio-
chemical variables were generally within volume recorded at this site.
acceptable levels of NEMA, cage culture Excess algae are known to cause
and freshwater habitats in general. There drastic reduction in dissolved oxygen
was no evidence of impact of fish cages levels after their collapse due to the
on any of the measured parameters. ensuing oxygen-demanding decomposition
Observations on spatial-temporal process (WHO/EC, 2002). High algal bio-
variation of nutrient species and total volumes at WC may thus explain the
suspended solids suggested minimal observed abundance of low-oxygen and
impacts from the fish cages despite an pollution-tolerant macro-benthos such as
increase in the number of cages from 6 in Chironomus sp. at the site with cages also
to147 by November 2011. Zanatta et al. observed by other workers (Holmer, 2010;
(2010) found comparable results in Hatami et al. 2011) and non-occurrence
Jurumirim Reservoir in Brazil although the of oxygen and pollution-sensitive forms
number of cages was low (30) and such Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera at
remained constant throughout the WC. Nonetheless day-time dissolved
investigation. Guo and Li (2003) working oxygen measurements at the study sites
in Niushanhu Lake, China observed that did not show low dissolved oxygen levels
most environmental impacts in cage fish at WC, although the situation could be
farm areas are associated with increased different at night time when no
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 71
photosynthetic oxygen production is was unexpected. However it is noted that
possible. the bulk of algae were blue-green algae,
The zooplankton community whose nutritional value is widely known
composition and abundance patterns at the to be low (Moriarty and Moriarty 1973;
studied cage fish farm were comparable www.dep.state.fl.us/water/bgalgae/
to those recorded elsewhere in Lake faq.htm) Besides, it is known that blue-
Victoria (Mwebaza-Ndawula et al., 2003, green algae or cyanobacteria, which were
2004; Semyalo et al., 2009; Ngupula et the leading contributor to the algal bio-
al., 2012; Vincent et al., 2012) with volume (Fig. 3), contain species that
numerical dominance and wide spatial produce toxins (Fulton and Pearl, 1987;
dispersion of copepods, paucity of Okello et al. 2012).
cladocerans and diverse occurrence of It is thus possible that zooplankton
rotifers in shallow near-shore areas. abundance patterns may not have been
Consistent lower zooplankton species wholly driven by the cyanobacteria-
numbers observed at the site with cages dominated algal abundance (Fig. 3) but
(WC) on all sampling dates was presumed also by other environmental factors
to be an impact from the fish cages. The (Arndt, 2003). Observed significant
numerical superiority of rotifer species density variation of zooplankton among
richness in all the three study transects sampling dates may, to some extent, have
was in agreement with Mwebaza- been due to seasonal influences in Lake
Ndawula et al. (2004) who associated Victoria (Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.,
rotifer prominence with eutrophic 2004). Marked depression of the mean
conditions in most near-shore areas of zooplankton abundance in May and
Lake Victoria. There was no significant September was at variance with the
difference in total mean densities of annual zooplankton pattern for offshore
zooplankton across the study sites for the waters in Lake Victoria showing
four sampling dates, suggesting minimal attainment of peak abundance during May,
or no impacts on abundance so far from which coincides with the onset of the
the fish cages even when the number of annual mixing period in the lake
cage units increased tremendously from (Mwebaza-Ndawula, 2003).
6 to 147 by November 2011. Some zooplankton species including a
While the results of this study are number of copepods are known to avoid
comparable to those of Santos et al. ingestion of endotoxic and nutritionally
(2009) who found that farming of tilapia inadequate cyanobacteria ( Fulton and
in net tanks caused only small differences Pearl, 1987; DeMott, 1989; Ahlgren et
in zooplankton levels, they are in contrast al., 1990; Ahlgren, 1993) and this may to
to those of Dias (2008) cited in Zanatta et some extent explain the density trough
al., 2010) who reported higher rotifer and during May and September (Fig.5B).
Cladocera abundance at a site next to the The dominant status of copepod
fish cages and attributed this to nutrient community, which in Lake Victoria is
enrichment and food availability. dominated by medium-sized cyclopoids is
Given that zooplankton communities in agreement with earlier records by
are primary consumers from algae, the Mwebaza-Ndawula, (1998); Mwebaza-
marked departure of zooplankton Ndawula et al. 2003; 2004 and Ngupula
abundance from that of algal bio-volumes et al. 2010. Results of this study suggest
72 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.
that the cage set-up at the studied fish farm and pollution-tolerant dipteran larvae at the
has so far not caused major changes in site with fish cages suggest influences
the zooplankton composition and from the fish cages.
abundance patterns. Therefore, current efforts to promote
The observed dominance of the commercial cage fish culture enterprises
copepods (490,000-2,030,000 ind. m-2) in Lake Victoria and other water bodies
recorded at the studied cage fish farm is must proceed with caution especially
in agreement with densities reported regarding site location and concentration
elsewhere in Lake Victoria (Ngupula et of cages at any one site; in order not to
al., 2010; Vincent et al., 2010) and compromise the water environment
represent a rich food environment for the quality, which can cause undesirable
pelagic zooplanktivorous fishes especially changes in natural biological productivity
the silverfish, “Mukene” (Rastrineobola processes. In any case, regular
argentea), which in the short run, are not environmental monitoring programs must
likely to be affected by the cage fish be strictly enforced for all cage fish culture
culture operations of the scale currently enterprises.
set up at the studied cage fish farm.
As some elements of the zooplankton Acknowledgement
community are commonly used as bio-
indicators of aquatic environments This study was financially supported by
(Rogozin, 2000; Sukran et al., 2007; Yildz Source of the Nile (SON) Fish Farm to
et al., 2007), it is expected that drastic which the authors are very grateful. The
changes in the environment quality Director of the National Fisheries
resulting from cage fish operations would Resources Research institute (NaFIRRI)
quickly be reflected in the zooplankton is appreciated for logistical support,
community structure. Some macro- laboratory and field facilities. Drs. John
benthos taxa are as well useful bio- Balirwa, Richard Ogutu-Ohwayo and two
indicators of water quality as manifested anonymous manuscript reviewers
by abundant occurrence of well known provided valuable comments and
stress-tolerant forms at the site with fish suggestions.
cages in this study.
References
Conclusions
Ahlgren, G. 1993. Seasonal variation of
Results from the study showed no fatty acid content in natural
discernible effects of the fish cage facility phytoplankton in two eutrophic lakes.
on selected physical-chemical parameters A factor controlling zooplankton
but do indicate possible influence of the species? Verh Int Verein T h e o r.
fish cages on the nutrient status and Angew Limnol 25:144-149.
inherently on the algal as well as Ahlgren, G., Lundstedt, L., Brett, M. and
zooplankton and macro-benthos Forsberg, C. 1990. Lipid composition
communities in the studied cage fish farm. and food quality of some
Nutrient-driven high algal bio-volumes, freshwater phytoplankton for
depressed zooplankton species diversity cladoceran zooplankters. J. Plankton
and numerical abundance of low-oxygen Res, 12:809-818.
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 73
APHA, 1998. Standard methods for the Dias, J.D. 2008. Impacto da
examination of water and waste pisciculturaem tanques-rede sobrea
water.18th Edition 1992 Washington estruturada communidade
DC, American Public Health zooplanctonica em um reservartorio
Association 1015 Fifteenth Street, subtropical, Brasil. Master Thesis,
NW, Washington, DC 20005. Universidade Estadual de Maringa,
Arndt, H. 1993. Rotifers as predators on Maringa, Brasil. pp. 40.
components of the microbial web Epler, J.H. 1995. Identification manual
(bacteria, heterotrophic flagellates, for larval chironomidae of Florida.
ciliates) A review. Hydrobiologia, Revised Edition.
255-256, 231-246. Fulton, R.S. and Paerl, H.I.Y. 1987. Toxic
Blow, P. and Leonard, S. 2007. A review and inhibitory effects of the blue-green
of cage aquaculture: sub-Saharan alga Microcystis aeruginosa on
Africa. In: Halwart, M., Soto, D. and herbivorous zooplankton. J. Plankton
Arthur, J.R. (Eds.). Cage aquaculture Res, 9(5):837-855.
– Regional reviews and global Guo, L. and Li Z. 2003. Effects of
overview. Rome, Italy. FAO Fisheries Nitrogen and phosphorus from fish
Technical paper No. 498. Rome, Italy. cage culture on the communities of a
FAO. 2007. 241 pp. shallow lake in middle Yangtze River
Boxshall, and G.A. Braide, E.I. 1991. The basin of China. Aquaculture 226:201-
freshwater cyclopoid copepods of 212.
Nigeria, with an illustrated key to all Hatami, R., Soofiani, M. Ebrahimi, E. and
species. Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. Hemami, M. 2011. Effluent impact
(zool), 57:185-212. on macro- invertebrate community
Delong D.P., Losordo, T.M. and Rakorcy, and water quality using BMWP index.
J. E. 2009. Tank culture of Tilapia. Journal of Environmental Studies,
Southern Regional Aquaculture Center 37:59.
(SRAC Publication No. 2082). Holmer, M. 2010. Environmental issues
Demir, N., M, K., S, P. and Bekcan, S. of fish farming in offshore waters:
2001. Influence of trout cage culture Perspectives, concerns and Research
on the water quality, plankton and needs. Aquaculture Environment
benthos in an Anatolian Reservoir. Interaction 1:57-70.
Israeli Journal of Aquaculture 53: Joseph K.B., Richard W.S. and Daniel
115-127. E.T. 1993. An introduction to water
Demott, W.R. 1989. Optimal foraging chemistry in freshwater aquaculture,
theory as a predactor of chemically University of Massachusetts.
mediated food selection by Dartmouth North D a r t m o u t h
suspension-feeding copepods. Limnol Massachusetts. 02747. NRAC Fact
Oceanogr 34:140-154. Sheet No. 170-1993.
Dias, J.D., Takahashi, E.M., Santana, N.F. Korinek, V. 1999. A guide to limnetic
and Bonecker, C.C. 2011. Impact of species of Cladocera of African inland
fish cage-culture on the community waters (Crustacea, Branchiopoda).
structure of zooplankton in a tropical The International Association of
reservior. Iheringia Serie Zoologia Theoretical and Applied Limnology.
101:75 - 84. SIL.
74 L. Mwebaza-Ndawula et al.
Koste, W. 1978. Rotatoria. Die Radertiere Mwebaza-Ndawula, L., Kiggundu, V. and
Mitteleuropas. Ein Bestimmungwerk, Pabire Ghandhi, W. 2003. Diversity
begrundet vo Max Voig. Uberrordnung and abundance of invertebrates in the
Monogononta. Gebruder Borntraeger, Victoria basin lakes and their role in
Berlin, Stuttgart. fishery production. Uganda Journal
Lund, J.W.G., Kipling, C. and Le Cren, of Agricultural Sciences 8:209-220.
E.D. 1958. The inverted microscope Mwebaza-Ndawula, L., Kiggundu, V. and
method of estimating algal numbers Pabire Ghandhi, W., 2004. The status
and the statistical basis of estimations and significance of invertebrate
by counting. Hydrobiol., 11:143-170. communities. In: Balirwa, J.S.,
Mandahl-Barth, G. 1954. Freshwater Mugidde, R. and Ogutu-Ohwayo, R.
Molluscs of Uganda and adjacent (Eds.). Challenges for Management of
territories. the Fisheries Resources, Biodiversity
Mangaliso, J.S., Guilford, S.J. and Hecky, and Environment of Lake Victoria. First
R.E. 2011. Physical-chemical ed. Jinja, Uganda, Fisheries Resources
measurements in the water column a Research Institute. pp. 153-171.
long a transect through a tilapia cage Nathan, S., Jay, L.S. Brian, E.H and Hugh,
fish farm in Lake Malawi, Africa. K.T. 2013. Interpretation of Water
Journal of Great Lakes Research 37: Analysis. Reports for Fish Culture.
102-113. Southern Regional Aquaculture
Merican, Z.O. and Phillips, M.J. 1985. Centre, SRAC Publications No. 4606.
Solid waste production from rainbow NEMA. 1995. Environmental standards
trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson, and preliminary Environment Impact
cage culture. Aquaculture Research Assessment for water quality and
16:55-69. discharge of effluents into water and
Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry land in Uganda.
and Fisheries (MAAIF), 2010. Ngupula, G.W., Waya, R.K. and Ezekiel,
Agriculture for Food and Income C. N. 2012. Spatial and temporal
Security. Agriculture Sector patterns in abundance and distribution
Development Strategy and Investment of zooplankton in the Tanzanian waters
Plan 2010/11-2014-15 of Lake Victoria. Aquatic Ecosystem
Moriarty, D.J.W. and Moriarty, C.M. Health & Management 13:451-457.
1973. The assimilation of carbon from Okello, W.C. and Portmann, 2010.
phytoplankton by two herbivorous Occurrence of microcystin-producing
fishes: Tilapia nilotica and cyanobacteria in Uganda freshwater
Haplochromis nigripinnis. Journal habitats. Environmental Toxicology
of Zoology, London 171:41-55. 25:367-380.
Mwebaza-Ndawula, L. 1998. Distribution, Pearson, H.T. and Black, K.D. 2001. The
abundance of zooplankton and environmental impacts of marine fish
Rastrineobola argentea (Pisces: cage culture. In: Black, K.D. (Ed.).
Cyprinidae) and their trophic Environmental Impacts of
interactions in northern Lake Victoria, Aquaculture. UK, Sheffield Academic
East Africa. University of Vienna, Press.
Austria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. pp. Pennak, R.W. 1953. Fresh-water
162. invertebrates of the United States.
 Cage fish culture on water quality and selected biological communities 75
The Ronald Press Company. pp. 326- Lake: Lake Marmara (Manisa).
340. Turkish Journal of Zoology 31:121-
Rogozin, A.G. 2000. Specific structural 126.
features of zooplankton in lakes Veenstra, J., Nolen, S., Carroll, J. and Ruiz,
differing in trophic status: species C., 2003. Impact of net pen aquaculture
populations. Russian Journal of on lake water quality. Water Science
Ecology 31:405-410. and Technology 47:293-300.
Santiago, A.E. 1995. The ecological Vincent, K., Mwebaza-Ndawula, L.,
impact of tilapia cage culture in Makanga, B. and Nachuha, S. 2012.
Sampaloc Lake, Philippines. Third Variations in zooplankton community
Asian Fisheries Symposium. Manila, structure and water quality conditions
Asian Fisheries Society. in three habitat types in northern Lake
Santos, R.M., Rocha, G.S. and Wisniewski, Victoria. Lakes & Reservoirs:
M.J.S. 2009. Influence of net fish Research & Management 17:83-95.
cultures on the diversity of the WHO/EC, 2002. Eutrophication and
zooplankton community in the Furnas Health. European Communities, L-
hydroelectric reservoir, Areado, MG, 2985, Luxembourg.
Brazil. Aquaculture Research 40:1-9. Yildiz, S., Altindag, A. and Ergonul, M.B.
Semyalo, R., Nattabi, J. K. and Larsson, 2007. Seasonal fluctuations in the
P. 2009. Diel Vertical Migration of zooplankton composition of a eutrophic
zooplankton in a eutrophic bay of Lake lake: Lake Marmara (Manisa, Turkey).
Victoria. Hydrobiologia 635:383 - Turkish Journal of Zoology 31:121-
394. 126.
Stainton, P.M. Capel, M.J. and Armstrong, Zanatta, A.S., Paerbiche-Neves, G.,
F.A. 1977. The chemical analysis of Ventura, R., Ramos, I. P. and Carvalho,
fresh water. Fish Mar. Serv. Misc. E.D. 2010. Effects of a small fish cage
Spec. Publ. No. 25 farm on zooplankton assemblages
Sukran, Y., Ahmet, A. and Borga, E.M. (Cladocera and Copepoda: Crustacea)
2007. Seasonal flactuations in the in a sub-tropical reservoir (SE Brazil).
Zooplankton composition of a Eutrophic Pan-American. Journal of Aquatic
Sciences 5:530 - 539.

View publication stats