This document discusses bioenergetics and energy transformations that occur in living cells. It explains key concepts such as free energy, ATP, and electron carriers like NADH, NADPH, FAD, and FMN that are involved in biological oxidation-reduction reactions.
This document discusses bioenergetics and energy transformations that occur in living cells. It explains key concepts such as free energy, ATP, and electron carriers like NADH, NADPH, FAD, and FMN that are involved in biological oxidation-reduction reactions.
This document discusses bioenergetics and energy transformations that occur in living cells. It explains key concepts such as free energy, ATP, and electron carriers like NADH, NADPH, FAD, and FMN that are involved in biological oxidation-reduction reactions.
This document discusses bioenergetics and energy transformations that occur in living cells. It explains key concepts such as free energy, ATP, and electron carriers like NADH, NADPH, FAD, and FMN that are involved in biological oxidation-reduction reactions.
BIOENERGETICS ▪ The relation between enthalpy and entropy shown in the
equation below gives the value of the free energy: ▪ Living organisms produce energy to grow and to 𝜟𝑮 = 𝜟𝑯 − 𝑻𝜟𝑺 reproduce ▪ The “∆” notation signifies a change. For chemical ▪ Carry out energy transductions: conversions of one form reactions, ∆𝑇 (where 𝑇 can be any property you wish to of energy to another form measure in a reaction) means: ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ▪ Thus, ∆𝐻 is ∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ▪ or ∆𝐺 is ∆𝐺 = 𝐺𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ▪ A ∆𝐺 < 0 means that the free energy of the product is less than the free energy of the reactants. quantitative study of the energy transductions that occur in living cells and of the nature and function of the chemical process underlying these transductions
FREE ENERGY, G ▪ Direction and extent to which a chemical reaction proceeds is determined by the degree to which two factors: ENTHALPY - measure of the change in heat content of the reactants and products ENTROPY - a measure of the change in randomness or disorder of reactants and products ▪ The change in 𝐺, denoted as ∆𝐺, can be negative or ▪ Neither of these positive. thermodynamic quantities ▪ When ∆𝐺 is negative is defined as an exergonic reaction. by itself is sufficient to These reactions are spontaneous processes which means determine whether a that the chemical reaction released energy. This energy chemical reaction will can be used to do work somewhere else. proceed spontaneously ▪ When ∆𝐺 is positive, this means that the process is an ▪ However, when combined endergonic reaction. This reaction is nonspontaneous, mathematically, enthalpy which means that the reaction used up energy and work and entropy can be used to had to be done to provide energy that was used. define a third quantity, free Phosphoryl Group Transfers and ATP energy (G), which predicts the direction in which a ▪ ATP is the chemical link between catabolism and reaction will spontaneously anabolism. proceed. ▪ It is the energy currency of the living cell. ▪ The exergonic conversion of ATP to ADP and Pi, or to AMP Gibbs free energy, 𝑮, tells about the spontaneity of a process; and PPi, is coupled to many endergonic reactions and has two components: processes. ▪ Enthalpy, 𝑯 – can be thought of as heat content of the system under study and is closely approximated by the number and kinds of bonds (remember, bonds have energies) and interaction present in a molecule or between molecules or groups. ▪ Entropy, 𝑺 – a measure of the randomness or disorder of the system. KMV | PADAYON FUTURE NURSE! ♡ 1 ▪ Direct hydrolysis of ATP is the source of energy in some NADH and NADPH processes driven by conformational changes, but in ▪ Many biological oxidation reactions are dehydrogenations general it is not ATP hydrolysis but the transfer of a in which one or two hydrogen atoms (H+ + e-) are phosphoryl, pyrophosphoryl, or adenylyl group from ATP transferred from a substrate to a hydrogen acceptor. to a substrate or enzyme that couples the energy of ATP Oxidation-reduction reactions in living cells involve breakdown to endergonic transformations of substrates. specialized electron carriers. ▪ NAD and NADP are the freely diffusible coenzymes of many dehydrogenases. Both NAD+ and NADP+ accept two electrons and one proton.
▪ Through these group transfer reactions, ATP provides the
energy for anabolic reactions, including the synthesis of informational macromolecules, and for the transport of molecules and ions across membranes against concentration gradients and electrical potential gradients.
FAD and FMN
▪ FAD and FMN, the flavin nucleotides, serve as tightly bound prosthetic groups of flavoproteins. They can accept either one or two electrons and one or two protons. Flavoproteins also serve as light receptors in cryptochromes and photolyases.
▪ Cells contain other metabolites with large, negative, free
energies of hydrolysis. These high-energy compounds, like ATP, have a high phosphoryl group transfer potential.
Biological Reduction-Oxidation Reaction
▪ The flow of electrons can do biological work. ▪ In many organisms, a central energy-conserving process is the stepwise oxidation of glucose to CO2, in which some of the energy of oxidation is conserved in ATP as electrons are passed to O2. ▪ Biological oxidation-reduction reactions can be described in terms of two half-reactions, each with a characteristic standard reduction potential, E’°. ▪ The standard free-energy change for an oxidation- reduction reaction is directly proportional to the difference in standard reduction potentials of the two half-cells: ΔG’° = -nFE’°.
