EVOLUTION OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

Understanding what a database is, what it does, and the proper way to use it can be clarified
by considering what a database is not. A brief explanation of the preceding methods of data
management wiill enable us understand what a database is and its benefits.

a) Manual systems
Traditionally organizations carried out their core tasks manually by use of paper and
pencil. Papers were stored in files and folders for future reference. They were manually
stored in filing cabinets. However with increase in core activities it was tiresome and
cumbersome to retrieveinformation from these cabinets and hence these necessisitated for
a computerized means to manage data.

b) Computerized file System/ file base approach

Basic file system termilogies

File-based system : A collection of application programs that perform services for the end-
users such as the production of reports. Each program defines and manages its own data.
Field A character or group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific meaning.
A field is used to define and store data.
Record A logically connected set of one or more fields that describes a person, place, or thing.
For example, the fields that constitute a record for a customer might consist of the customer’s
name, address, phone number, date of birth, credit limit, and unpaid balance.
File A collection of related records. For example, a file might contain data about the students
currently enrolled at Gigantic University.

Limitations of the file based approach

Separation and isolation of data
When data is isolated in separate files, it is more difficult to access data that should be
available.
Duplication of data/Data Redundancy
Owing to the decentralized approach taken by each department, the file-based approach
encouraged, if not necessitated, the uncontrolled duplication of data.
Uncontrolled duplication of data is undesirable for several reasons, including:
 Duplication is wasteful. It costs time and money to enter the data more than once.
 It takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs. Often, the
duplicationof data can be avoided by sharing data files.
 Perhaps more importantly, duplication can lead to loss of data integrity; in other
words, the data is no longer consistent.
 Data anomalies. The dictionary defines anomaly as “an abnormality.” Ideally, a field
value change should be made in only a single place. Data redundancy, however, fosters
an abnormal condition by forcing field value changes in many different locations.
Note: Data that display data inconsistency are also referred to as data that lack data integrity.
Data integrity is defined as the condition in which all of the data in the database are consistent
with the real-world events and conditions.
In other words, data integrity means that:
 Data are accurate—there are no data inconsistencies.
 Data are verifiable—the data will always yield consistent results.

Lack of security and limited data sharing

Another fault of a file system data repository is a lack of security and limited data sharing.
Data sharing and security are closely related. Sharing data among multiple geographically
dispersed users introduces a lot of security risks. Having multiple copies of data increases the
chances for a copy of the data to be susceptible to unauthorized access.

Difficulty of getting quick answers.

The need to write programs to produce even the simplest reports makes ad hoc queries
impossible.
Lengthy development times.
The first and most glaring problem with the file system approach is that even the simplest
data-retrieval task requires extensive programming. With the older file systems, programmers
had to specify what must be done and how it was to be done.

Structural and Data Dependence

A file system exhibits structural dependence, which means that access to a file is dependent
on its structure. For example, adding a customer date-of-birth field to the CUSTOMER file
would require the following four steps:
1. Reads a record from the original file.
2. Transforms the original data to conform to the new structure’s storage requirements.
3. Writes the transformed data into the new file structure.
4. Repeats steps 2 to 4 for each record in the original file.

With this change, none of the previous programs will work with the new CUSTOMER file
structure. Therefore, all of the file system programs must be modified to conform to the new
file structure. In short, because the file system application programs are affected by change in
the file structure, they exhibit structural dependence. Conversely, structural independence
exists when it is possible to make changes in the file structure without affecting the application
program’s ability to access the data.

Even changes in the characteristics of data, such as changing a field from integer to decimal,
require changes in all the programs that access the file. Because all data access programs are
subject to change when any of the file’s data storage characteristics change (that is, changing
the data type), the file system is said to exhibit data dependence. Conversely, data
independence exists when it is possible to make changes in the data storage characteristics
without affecting the application program’s ability to access the data.

The practical significance of data dependence is the difference between the logical data
format (how the human being views the data) and the physical data format (how the
computer must work with the data). Any program that accesses a file system’s file must tell
the computer not only what to do but also how to do it.

c) Database systems

The problems inherent in file systems make using a database system very desirable. Unlike
the file system, with its any separate and unrelated files, the database system consists of
logically related data stored in a single logical data repository. (The “logical” label reflects the
fact that, although the data repository appears to be a single unit to the end user, its contents
may actually be physically distributed among multiple data storage facilities and/or
locations.)
Because the database’s data repository is a single logical unit, the database represents a major
change in the way end-user data are stored, accessed, and managed.
The Database System Environment

The term database system refers to an organization of components that define and
regulate the collection, storage, management, and use of data within a database environment.
From a general management point of view, the database system is composed of the five major
parts :

Hardware : Hardware refers to all of the system’s physical devices; for example, computers
(PCs, workstations, servers, and supercomputers), storage devices, printers, network devices
(hubs, switches, routers, fiber optics), and other devices (automated teller machines, ID
readers, and so on).

Software: Although the most readily identified software is the DBMS itself, to make the
database system function fully, three types of software are needed: operating system software,
DBMS software, and application programs and utilities.
 Operating system software manages all hardware components and makes it possible for
all other software to run on the computers. Examples of operating system software
include Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS, UNIX, and MVS.
 DBMS software manages the database within the database system. Some examples of
DBMS software include Microsoft’s SQL Server, Oracle Corporation’s Oracle, Sun’s
MySQL, and IBM’s DB2.
 Application programs and utility software are used to access and manipulate data in the
DBMS and to manage the computer environment in which data access and
manipulation take place. Application programs are most commonly used to access data
found within the database to generate reports, tabulations, and other information to
facilitate decision making. Utilities are the software tools used to help manage the
database system’s computer components. For example, all of the major DBMS vendors
now provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help create database structures, control
database access, and monitor database operations.

People: This component includes all users of the database system. On the basis of primary job
functions, five types of users can be identified in a database system: system administrators,
database administrators, database designers, system analysts and programmers, and end
users. Each user type, described below, performs both
unique and complementary functions.
 System administrators oversee the database system’s general operations.
 Database administrators, also known as DBAs, manage the DBMS and ensure that the
database is functioning properly.
 Database designers design the database structure. They are, in effect, the database
architects. If the database design is poor, even the best application programmers and
the most dedicated DBAs cannot produce a useful database environment. Because
organizations strive to optimize their data resources, the database designer’s job
description has expanded to cover new dimensions and growing responsibilities.
 System analysts and programmers design and implement the application programs. They
design and create the data entry screens, reports, and procedures through which end
users access and manipulate the database’s data.
 End users are the people who use the application programs to run the organization’s
daily operations. For example, salesclerks, supervisors, managers, and directors are all
classified as end users. High-level end users employ the information obtained from the
database to make tactical and strategic business decisions.
Procedures: Procedures are the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the
database system. Procedures are a critical, although occasionally forgotten, component of the
system. Procedures play an important role in a company because they enforce the standards
by which business is conducted within the organization and with customers. Procedures are
also used to ensure that there is an organized way to monitor and audit both the data that
enter the database and the information that is generated through the use of those data.

Data. The word data covers the collection of facts stored in the database. Because data are the
raw material from which information is generated, the determination of what data are to be
entered into the database and how those data are to be organized is a vital part of the database
designer’s job.

Disadvantages of Databases

Although the database system yields considerable advantages over previous data
management approaches, database systems do carry significant disadvantages. For example:

Increased costs. Database systems require sophisticated hardware and software and highly
skilled personnel. The cost of maintaining the hardware, software, and personnel required to
operate and manage a database system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulation
compliance costs are often overlooked when database systems are implemented.

Management complexity. Database systems interface with many different technologies and have
a significant impact on a company’s resources and culture. The changes introduced by the
adoption of a database system must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance
the company’s objectives. Given the fact that database systems hold crucial company data that
are accessed from multiple sources, security issues must be assessed constantly.

Maintaining currency. To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your
system current. Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest patches
and security measures to all components. Because database technology advances rapidly,
personnel training costs tend to be significant.

Vendor dependence. Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training,
companies might be reluctant to change database vendors. As a consequence, vendors are less
likely to offer pricing point advantages to existing customers, and those customers might be
limited in their choice of database system
components.

Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles. DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by

adding new functionality. Such new features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of
the software. Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades
themselves cost money, but it also costs money to train database users and administrators to
properly use and manage the new features.