HISTORY BA Prog 3rd Sem Eng

HISTORY
History of India C. 1200-1700

B.A. Prog. Semester 3rd
Important Questions
with Answer
NOTES
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History of India, c. 1200-1700
Contents
Unit I: Foundation, Expansion and Consolidation of the Sultanates of Delhi c. 13" to 15

century
Unit II: Regional Political Formation: Vijayanagara
Unit III: Foundation, Expansion and Consolidation of The Mughal State, c.16"hto 17 th
Century
Unit IV: 17th Century Transitions: Marathas
Unit V: Art and Architecture in Medieval India
Unit VI: Society, Culture and Religion
Unit VII: Economy and Integrated Patterns of Exchange
All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/
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Q1 – Examine the working of the Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate.
Answer
Introduction
‘Iqta’ is an Arabic word denoting a sort of administrative regional unit. It is usually
considered equivalent to a province Initially the Delhi Sultans had divided their empire
into several ‘Iqtas’ or provinces or spheres of influence and put them under the charge
of officers called ‘Iqtadars’ (governors) The number of Iqtas was not fixed. There was no
uniformity in their administration. Besides ‘Iqtadar’, other names of the heads of an Iqta’
was Naib Sultan, ‘nazim’ might’ or ‘wali’. Each ‘Iqta’ was under the charge of an
experienced general who generally was the member of the royal family or a notable
‘Amir’ (noble) and confidant of the Sultan.
Meaning of Iqta system
Iqta in the Delhi Sultanate means land or land revenue entrusted to a person on
certain conditions. Under the iqta system, the land was divided into several large and
small areas called iqtas, and the sultan ceded these iqtas to his soldiers, officers, and
nobles. The holders of these iqtas were trusted agents of the Sultan.
Iqta was of two types
 Big Iqta - Such areas were given to the important wealthy and the army officers.
These Iqtedars used to do military and administrative duties, along with revenue
recovery in the land of Iqta.
 Small Iqta - These were usually provided to the soldiers in the form of salary. These
Iqtedar used to recover only the revenue.
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Work of Iqtedar
 Iqtedar used to fulfill administrative and military operations in his Iqta. He took out
his salary and administrative & military expenditures from the revenue received from
the lata and deposited the remaining amount in the treasury of Sultan. The balance
was called Fawajil.

 Iqtedar used to rule in the name of Sultan in his lata, his post was not hereditary.
Iqtedar did not even have the right to run coins.
 Iqtedar's post was transferable. The Sultan transferred Iqtedars on time to time. Here
the Sultan's authority glimpses on Iqtedar. Thus, in the feudal method of the Rajput
era, Sultan had more control over his Iqtedars.
 Firoz Tughlaq had made the post of Iqtadar hereditary.
LEVEL OF CENTRAL CONTROL & IMPACT ON SULTANATE
The Iqta system went through gradual process of change under various sultanate
rulers. What started as a simple revenue collection system soon escalated into a
prominent political and military tool which affected the Sultanate as a whole. Itutmish
gave an insititutional form to Iqta but never asserted too much control. We observe that
during Balban's reign an attempt was made to enquire into the income of Muqtis,
marking the start of bureaucratic interventions by sultans. This intervention reached its
peak during the reign of Alauddin Khalji, who brought in several changes to the system.
The central control dipped under Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq introduced changes in the earlier
policy and tried to win over the peasants and village headmen by providing relief
measures. However, Muhammad Tughluq again went ahead and exerted his control via
the introduction of the dual administration. All these efforts by previous sultans to assert
their claim and keep the powers of muqti under check were undermined when the
hereditary aspect was introduced by Firoz Tughlaq as against the transfer principle. This
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allowed muqtis to largely accumulate power in their hands and is believed as one of the
reasons for the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate. The Lodhis were unable to bring any
prominent control in their hands.
EVOLUTION OF IQTA UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
In northern India during the attacks by the Ghorians, the troops were maintained in two
ways either through plunder and collection of tribute or through the Iqtadari system
which during those years remained non-institutionalized. In Delhi Sultanate gradually Iqta
was developed by Iltutmish who was inspired by Muhmmad Ghori's idea. Though
Muhammad of Ghur in 1206 A.D. was the first to introduce the lata system in India,
it was lltutmish (1210-36) who gave it an institutional form. Under the lata system, the
entire Delhi Sultanate was divided into several pieces of land which were assigned to
officials. These officials who held these land assignments were called Muqti. Iqta was not
hereditary and did not entitle the Muqti the right of ownership. Under Iqtedaari system
all the autonomous principalities were converted into real iqtas. Like it had been in earlier
times, the muqti was required to present himself with an army whenever the sultan
demanded but it cannot be proved that he was required to maintain this army by using a
part of the land revenue collected from his iqtas or not.
Even the existence of the duty of paying an amount to the central treasury has no
evidence. The muqti could even maintain his own subordinates who could help him in
revenue collection by sub assigning small Iqtas withing his own larger Iqta. Practice of
transferring muqtis from one iqta to another was introduced. Apart from this under the
reign of Iltutmish attention was paid to expanding the Khalisa i.e., direct revenue
collection for the Sultan's treasure) which covered Delhi region as well as the surrounding
territoriea and parts of Doab.
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Under Balban (1266-86), Irfan Habib highlights that the same practices continued and
even more severe demand of depositing the excess amount collected (called fawazil) to
the Sultan's treasury came up. An official called khwaja i.e., accountant was appointed to
monitor and check the revenue collection in Iqtas.
Local administration
The village, the smallest unit of administration was administered by local hereditary
officers and the ‘Panchayat’ of the village. The ‘Panchayat’ „ looked after education,
sanitation etc. It also acted as a judicial body. The ‘Chaudhri’ the ‘Patwari’ , the ‘Khut’ the
‘Muqaddam’ and the ‘Chankidari’ were the hereditary officers of the village who helped
in the collection of revenue. The Sultan or the governor or officials of the state normally
did not interfere in the village administration.
Duties and powers of the Iqtadar
 He was under the supervision of the Central government and carried on orders of
the Sultan.
 He enjoyed the same powers in the province as the Sultan enjoyed in the empire.
 He maintained large armies and was required to send the same when asked by the
 Sultan.
 He maintained order in the territory under his charge and protected the life and
property of the people.
 He appointed soldiers in his army.
 He collected revenue from the people of his territory.
 From the revenue thus collected he administered expenditure on the maintenance

 of his army, his pay and other administrative expenditure and deposited the rest in
the state treasury.

 He sent yearly report of his income and expenditure to the centre.
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Requirement of Iqta system
The Iqta system started with the need of early Turkish Sultans. Those areas of the Sultanate
located away from the capital, which was not easy for the revenue collection, given as an
Iqta by the Sultan. These provinces(l) were provided in exchange for the administrative
and military service of Sultan.
Thus, by distributing provinces by the Sultan, the influence of the Sultanate was
established in the border areas and revenue were also recovered regularly. On the other
hand, the concerned officer got an area under his own, in which he could get revenue
according to his merit.
Conclusion
From Irfan Habib's account we can conclude that the most significant institution that
evolved and played an important role in effective governance of Delhi Sultanate was the
lata system. The iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the sultanate period
as observed above. Initially iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned
in lieu of salary. However, during Firoz Tughlaq's reign, it became hereditary. Iqta system
was maintained up to powerful rulers and weak rulers could not maintain this system.
Results were disastrous in the reign of weaker sultan. The Iqta served as the foundation
of the political and military system of the Sultans.
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Q 2 Briefly outline the changes in the mansabdari system from Akbar to

Aurangzeb.
Answer
Introduction
Mughal emperor Akbar instituted the Mansabdari System as new administrative
machinery and a revenue system. The Mansabdari system was a grading system used
by Mughal rulers to determine a Mansabdar's rank and salary. They were nobles who held
various positions in the Mughal Empire's administration. The Mughal Emperor appointed
and dismissed them.
The mansbdari system
Mansabdari was a unique system formally introduced by mughal emperor Akbar in
1571AD. The word Mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position. Hence,
Mansabdar means the holder of a rank, or an officer. The Mansabdari system was of
Central Asian origin. All together there were 66 categories of Mansabdars but practically
there were 33 categories. The appointment of Mansabdars was based on decimal system;
within this system Akbar tried to integrate the three major functionaries i.e., the class of
nobility, the armed forces and the bureaucracy into a common pool of administration.
Minimum mansab was ranked 10 and maximum was 10,000.
But during the period of Akbar maximum was 5000, Akbar granted the mansab of 7000,
only to few distinguished nobles of the time i.e., Mirza Ajij Koka and Raja Maan Singh, the
former being Akbar’s foster brother and the latter being related to him by the ties of
matrimony. Although the word mansabdar was a generic term popularly only those
holding ranks upto 500 were called mansabdars, 500-2500 were called Amirs and from
2500 and above- Amir Umda or Amir-i-azam. Since, it was a single service, theoretically,
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a person was supposed to enter at the lowest level, and work his way up. But the king
could and often did appoint distinguished people at a higher level.
Mansabdari System - Origin
 The Mansabdari system can be traced back to Changez Khan.

 Changez Khan organised his army on a decimal basis, with the lowest unit being ten
and the highest ten thousand (toman) whose commander was known as 'Khan.' Babur
was the first to introduce it to North India.
 However, it was Akbar who institutionalized it in Mughal military and civil

administration after reforming and introducing two new concepts, namely 'Zat' and
'Sawar
Mansabdari System - Nature
 The mansabdars were the imperial structure's ruling section. Mansabdars were said to
be the pillars of Mughal administration; in fact, the entire nobility belonged to

mansabs; among them, one or more held a mansab.
 The Mansabdari system was nothing more than a noble or mansabdar system in which
a mansabdar or noble was granted the rights to hold a jaguar, which meant revenue
assignments (not the land itself) for services rendered.
 The authority bestowed upon them was not unbridled, but with direct control of these
nobles in the hands of the king.
Changes in the mansbdari system from Akbar to Aurangzeb.
Mansabdari System under Mughals
 It kept changing from Akbar to Aurangzeb. During Akbar's reign, there were nearly
1800 mansabdars, but by the end of Aurangzeb's reign, their number had risen to
nearly 14,500.
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 The jagirs were given to Mansabdar in such a way that they could not be transferred
to another's name.
 Thus, the post of Mansabdar was not hereditary in any way, and after his death or
dismissal, the emperor confiscated his personal estate, deducting what he
(Mansabdar) owed to the state and returning the balance to his heir. This law or rule
was known as zabti.
 If the son of a mansabdar was granted a mansab, he had to restart his tenure as
mansabdar according to the rules and regulations imposed by the emperor.
 This measure was incorporated into the system so that the mansabdar could not abuse
his position and exploit the masses.
 However, the king could and frequently did appoint distinguished people to higher
positions.
Conclusion
Despite its flaws, the mansabdari system had a significant impact on the medieval military
establishment. However, it could only function under capable leadership, which was only
possible until the reign of Aurangzeb. Later, the Mansabdari system proved to be weak,
leading to the empire's fragmentation. However, it also combined with several
advantages, such as certain Rajput Mansabdars being diplomatically used against other
Rajput chiefs with whom they were at odds. This system ensured the mansabdars'
steadfast loyalty to the emperor.
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Q 3 Evaluate Mira Bai’s contributions to the socio religious life of the contemporary
period.
Answer
Introduction
Mirabai (also known as Meerabai, Meera, Mira) is widely known Hindu devotional
saintess of India. According to old tradition, dates of birth and death of Mirabai are not
known exactly but many researchers assume they are 1498 and 1547 respectively. This
15th century royal enthusiast of Lord Krishna was born in Merta in Rajasthan in the realm
of Marwar, as the only daughter of Ratan Singh, a Rajput noble of the House of Rathor.
As a woman poetess she was the first one who reflect to mankind, nature and God in
creative unity and as a poetess of divinity. She was the first to discover diversity and
disharmony between the mankind and nature.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Scholars believe that the songs/poems sung by Mirabai were in Marwari, Gujarati
and Braj Bhasha language. This is territorial language spoken in the province in which
Mirabai lived. The founder of this traditional language was 13th century poet Jayadeva,
who wrote the poems in Sanskrit language. The poets such as Narsi, Vidyapati and
Chandi das appreciated Jayadeva ‘s work Geeta Govinda as the model for their songs,
written in Maithili, Gujarati and Bengali language. In expressing admiration of Krishna
through songs/padas, Mirabai followed and continued a living intellectual tradition,

although unlike those predecessors, she did not write down the padas of praise for
Krishna. According to Usha S. Nilsson, the padas of Mirabai are the mixture of Mirabai’s
religious skills at various stages in her spiritual life.
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Mira Bai’s contributions to the socio religious life of the contemporary period
Opposition to social evils
In the feudalistic era where Meera was living, around then the spot of woman in the
general public was unimportant. Indecencies like child marriage, Parada framework, sati
practice were common. Quiet acknowledgment of the traditions and orders of spouse and
family was viewed as the good and strict preeminent religion of each significance. Seeing
or talking about a man on the entryway of schooling shut to the female caste "was no not
exactly welcoming passing, in the general public where Alauddin Khilji, showing the
identical representation of Padmini ought to likewise be viewed as a matter of
transgression, the state of women in that society Can be precisely assessed.
The striving life of Mir is a message of awakening for the Indian woman. Meera struggled
with the assistance of her spirit even in the feudal period, who considered the woman as
a simple bhogya. Meera's work in the struggle to dispose of the orthodox society and the
ratty wrongs is excellent. Meera has referenced those patterns and practices in his posts.
The investigation of these stanzas shows that they abandoned the common society
traditions, yet additionally disposed of the traditions and traditions which were important
to do the sacred writings strictly.
Mirabai's contribution to cultural field
Composing the commitment of Mirambai to the cultural field, has written in his authentic
work 'Jaimalvansh Prakash' that the princess Mirambai is the incomparable god, faithful
devotion, Ved Shastra extraordinary, caring, preeminent researcher, verse, dramatic,
instrumental, singing, and so forth I was an expert of music. She was the educator of
music. Indeed, Meera was adored from the root of Merta Nagar and blessed the banks of
Rathore and Sisodia lastly was the sacred Ganges that converged in the ocean of Dwarka.
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It is the consequence of the adoration of individuals that creature butcher was prohibited
in Thikana Raipur for eternity. His psalms have given uncommon significance to Jivadaya
and peacefulness. "
Mirabai's contribution to social sector
Another devotional development got new energy from the stanza created by the
aficionado Shiromani Mirambai, the equivalent, his straightforward and smart voice got a
spot in the core of individuals. Meera-like personality went to the world stage 500 years
prior. Regardless of being related with higher houses, Meeran didn't get the spot in history
which she merited. Yet, his personality and work significantly impacted our general public.
Despite the fact that he didn't discover a spot in the past recorded works, the profound
confidence of the Indian people made him a verifiable personality. Meera's commitment
to the social area is vital. He showed the general public that she could rival the general
public alone, yet couldn't withdraw from her standards. Meera without any help struggled
under friendly conditions.
Today Mirabai's personality has become a symbol of social and strict change for
Indian culture. Meera unequivocally went against numerous social shades of malice like
Sati framework, Parda framework. The boldness with which Meera battled against the
orthodox feudal culture of the medieval period, the men of that time additionally
wondered whether or not to do as such. Meera, having loathed common interest and
material joy before righteousness, given her life to the Lord's means. Meera's personality
symbolizes the interminable estimations of a group arranged life. Meera consistently
offered significance to virtues and pride in her life. In his life we are met by ideals like
straightforward living, high reasoning.
Meera is exhausted as a beam of expectation for the present ethically degenerate society.
The vision of Mir was in every case clear, in which there was no qualification between
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distance, His ideal personality is exemplary and rousing for the more youthful generation
today. She recognized the respect of the independent personality of women in the
general public. In his noble and battling life, the incredible men of India additionally gave
inspiration in life struggle. Their life esteems and ideals are the valuable legacy of our
general public.
Symbol of social and religious change
Neelima Singh composes that "Meera was living in an era when men didn't dare to break
the social untouchable. It was viewed as a matter of pride to take their simple
acknowledgment and respect by the poise. In that climate Meera woman Even at that
point, she was not prepared to kneel. She was not stressed over her life. Yet, she was
unable to persuade her by forfeiting her convictions. "
Social consciousness
The social cognizance of Mirabai is unquestionably worth considering. He didn't

acknowledge the orthodox social meanings and embraced the strategy for fight and gave
significance and supported the components of equality, agreement and organization in
the general public and surprisingly from that point onward, he stirred the values of social
cognizance which had been spent for an extensive stretch of 500 downpour Even today,
imperative to us _ "Mira was positively not an idealist, she was not unconcerned with
society all things considered. Meera's inner voice would never mingle her. Despite the fact
that she had gone out constantly. She was kept up, be that as it may, she didn't go amiss
from the general public, nor did she follow a stately way. Indeed, she couldn't completely
embrace customary social values. She was a defender of eternal values.
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"Meera had voiced the new friendly awareness, dismissing the feudal values. The boldness
and persistence with which she accepted the independent life awareness by dismissing
the frugalness of Rana is an unparalleled foundation of the religious foundation of

obligation. That is the reason His own self-accommodation has end up being the self-
accommodation of the whole human race.
CONCLUSION
Mirabai also importance to only human birth which she narrates as a rare chance to
achieve self-determination from the infinite cycle of birth and death. She believes that
one cannot realize the lord without any one’s guidance who has himself absorbed into
the lord.
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Q 4– Evaluate the administrative system of Vijayanagar Empire with a special

reference to the Nayankara system
OR
Discuss the importance of the Nayankara system in the Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer
Introduction
The rulers of Vijayanagar give due importance to the provincial administration.
The administration that existed in the provinces was called the “Nayankara system
“. It was similar to that of feudalism in Europe. Under the Nayankara system, all land was
owned by the rulers. He distributed the lands to his generals. They functioned under his
control and acted as feudal lords.
This administrative system flourished during the period of the Vijayanagar rulers. Under
the system, most of the land was distributed among the Nayaks (landowners). They lived
with pomp and ostentation and built forts for their protection. They accepted the
supremacy of the Vijayanagar rulers and acted as their protectors.
The Nayankara System
According to the system, all the land were owned by the rulers. He distributed the
lands to his generals. They functioned under his control and acted as feudal lords. This
administrative system flourished during the period of Vijayanagar rulers. Based on the
system most of the lands were distributed among the Nayaks (land lords). They lived with
pomp and show and constructed forts for their protection. They accepted the supremacy
of the Vijayanagar rulers and acted as their protectors.
The Nayaks who received the lands from the ruler, distributed them to the tenants for
cultivation. In turn the Nayaks collected land tax regularly from the tenants. The amount
of tax was very high. Nuniz, in his account mentioned that the Nayaks collected one tenth
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of the total revenue as land tax. They collected the tax by arbitrary method. No sympathy
was bestowed on them. The Nayaks gave half of the revenue to central government. Rest
of the amount was utilized by the Nayaks for administration, military and other charitable
works. Accordingly, the Vijayanagar rulers received seventy lakhs of Varagans from the
Nayaks. Vijayanagar rulers spent the major portions of the revenue for their luxurious life.
According to this system, the maintenance of army was entrusted in the hands of Nayaks.
Nayaks maintained a standing army. The army consisted of the traditional divisions of
infantry, cavalry and Elephantry. They assisted the Vijayanagar rulers with army at the
time of external threat. Particularly, the success and failure of the Vijayanagar ruler
depended on the efficiency of the army sent by the Nayaks. Utilizing the army, the
Vijayanagar rulers defeated the Muslims in several battles for example, Vijayanagar ruler
Krishnadevaraya invaded Raichur fort with the help of Nayak army.
Benefits of Nayankara System
Under this system, the maintenance of the army was entrusted to the Nayaks. Nayaks
maintained a standing army. The army consisted of the traditional divisions of infantry,
cavalry and elephant. They assisted the Vijayanagar rulers with the army at the time of the
external threat. In particular, the success and failure of the Vijayanagar ruler depended on
the efficiency of the army sent by the Nayaks. Using the army, the Vijayanagar rulers
defeated the Muslims in various battles, for example, the Vijayanagar ruler,
Krishnadevaraya, invaded the Raichur fort with the help of the Nayak army.
Local Administration
For the convenience of administration, the Vijayanagar Empire was divided into
provinces or Rajyas. The provinces were further subdivided into Valanadu or Kottam.
Kottams were again divided into Nadu or Chimai. Nadu contained certain traditional
villages or Gramams. Village was known as Isthalam. Traditional administration flourished
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in the villages. The central government did not interfere in the internal administration of
the villages. Nattavar looked after its administration.
The local bodies flourished during the reigns of Kumarakampana, Harihara II and
Devaraya II. Among the local bodies “Sabha” occupied an important place. Sabhas
administered Brahmadhana and Devadhana villages donated to Brahmins. So, most of

the members of the Sabha were Brahmins. The local body which looked after the
administration of the ordinary villages were Urs. Another local body was Nadu. It looked
after the general administration Sabha and Ur. In addition to the above local bodies, there
were separate committees. They looked after the general interest of people in the villages.
This system maintained cordial relations between the Rais and the Nayaks
This system maintained cordial relations between the Rays and the Nayaks. The
Nayaks helped the rulers of Vijayanagar when they were in danger. They presented gold
ornaments and expensive items as gifts to the ruler at the time of temple festivities and
the birth day functions of members of the royal family. They used to present gold coins
worth fifteen lakhs Varagans to the Vijayanagar ruler at an ordinary Deepavali function.
They also provided all the necessary items for the royal family.
The Nayaks who enjoyed enormous powers-maintained law and order in their territories.
Criminals were severely punished. Separate force was used to deal with criminals. Due
attention was paid to the development of agriculture. Irrigation facilities were improved.
Various eries, kulams, and wells were built throughout the kingdom. They were regularly
maintained. With a view to expanding irrigated forests they were destroyed. Generally,
the Nayaks rendered meritorious services to gain the appreciation of the ruler. On certain
occasions, they were honored by the rulers.
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Local Management in Nayankara System
For the convenience of the administration, the Vijayanagar Empire was divided into
provinces or Rajyas. The provinces were subdivided into Valanadu or Kottam. Kottams
were again divided into Nadu or Chimai. Nadu contained certain traditional peoples or
Gramams. Village was known as Isthalam. Traditional administration flourished in the

villages. The central government did not interfere in the internal administration of the
villages. Nattavar took care of his administration.
Local bodies flourished during the reigns of Kumarakampana, Harihara II, and Devaraya
II. Among the local bodies “Sabha” occupied an important place. Sabhas administered the
Brahmadhana and Devadhana villages donated to the Brahmins. So most of the Sabha
members were Brahmins. The local body in charge of the administration of ordinary towns
was Urs. Another local body was Nadu. He looked after the general Sabha and Ur
administration. In addition to the aforementioned local bodies, there were separate
committees. They looked after the general interest of the people of the villages.
Conclusion
During the time of the Vijayanagar rulers, this administrative structure grew. Most of the
land was allocated among the Nayaks depending on the theory. For their defence, they
existed with pomp and show and built forts. They acknowledged the Vijayanagar rulers’
dominance and served as their guardians.
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Q –5 Outline evolute of the Qutub Complex during the Sulanate period.
OR
Trace the different stages of the development of Quab Complex during the
Sultanate.
Answer
Introduction
Layers of cultural, religious, and political history converge in the Qutb
archaeological complex in Mehrauli, in Delhi, India. In its beautiful gateways, tombs,
lofty screens, and pillared colonnades is a record of a centuries-long history of artistic

vision, building techniques, and patronage. At the heart of the Qutb complex is a twelfth
century mosque an early example in the rich history of Indo-Islamic art and architecture.
The Qutb Mosque is important for our understanding of the early part of the Delhi
Sultanate (1206 – 1526), a period when new rulers would seek to cement their authority
and legitimacy as kings in northern India. “Delhi Sultanate” is a collective term that refers
to the Turko-Islamic dynasties that ruled, one after the other, from Delhi. The monuments
discussed in this essay were built by the three earliest rulers of the Sultanate.
In addition to the mosque, this essay discusses the following structures in the Qutb
complex of monuments
 the iron pillars
 Qutab Minar
 the tomb of Iltutmish
 the Alai Darwaza

 the Alai Minar
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Different stages of the development of Qutab Complex during the Sulanate.
IRON PILLAR
Standing at the center of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, the Iron Pillar, an intriguing piece,
a marvel of architecture and traditional knowledge, with its austerity and natural brilliance
has never ceased to amaze archeologists, metallurgists, academicians, and of course
tourists, for the way it has resisted corrosion through the last 1,600 years. The pillar may
originally have been located elsewhere, as the inscription on it says that it was placed on
a hill called Vishnu pada. It may have been shifted to this location during Tomar times.
QUTB MINAR
One of the great iconic buildings of the thirteenth century, the Qutab Minar is a
maznah (a tower adjoining a mosque, from where the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer)
but is too tall to have served such a purpose. In fact, it is simply a victory tower proclaiming
the triumph of Mohammed Ghori over Prithvi raj Chauhan in AD 1192. Begun by his then
viceroy, Qutbuddin Aibak later the first Slave sultan (AD 1192–1210)—who lived only to
see the completion of the base and the fi rest storey, it appears to have been named after
Bakhtiyar Kaki, a local saint popularly known as Qutab Sahib. Tallest of all, the fi rest storey
depicts a rich amalgamation of Indian and Islamic aesthetics with intricate fall oral
patterns, undulating outlines, and even bells at some places blending beautifully with
verses of the Quran. Following Aibak’s death, his successor, Iltutmish (AD 1210–35), took
over the construction work and erected three more storeys over the first floor of this
minaret. Subsequently, the fourth floor was replaced by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in AD 1368
with two storeys, faced in white marble and sandstone, lending a distinctive look and
demonstrating a tale of architectural development from the age of the Slave sultans to
the Tughlaq era.
21
ILTUTMISH’S TOMB
This self-built tomb of the second ruler of the Slave Dynasty, Shamsuddin Iltutmish,
built in AD 1235 sits along the north-west corner of the Qutab Complex, next to Iltutmish’s
own extensions of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque. Interestingly, one of the first tombs to
be built in the city, it fulfils Iltutmish’s desire to be placed where he ruled and secondly to
be close to the dargah (shrine) in Mehrauli. The tomb is a 9 m square in plan. Its sheer
austerity on the exterior, is a striking contrast to the heavily decorated interior.
The structure demonstrates the presence of a dome originally which collapsed twice
perhaps because of the comparatively thinner walls (2.2 m) that might not have been able
to support the outward thrust generated by a dome. The intricately carved double-arched
mihrab (prayer niche in wall), in white marble, includes different scripts and a rich
amalgamation of Hindu art into Islamic architecture.
ALAI MINAR
This incomplete minaret that lies within the northern boundaries of the Qutab Complex
was started by Alauddin Khalji to commemorate his victory in the Deccan campaigns. The
tower was intended to be twice the height of the Qutab Minar and was placed right
opposite it. The incomplete minaret stands in undulating rubble masonry with just a single
storey that ceased to be constructed further after the sultan’s death in AD 1316.
First Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate
Before Qutb al-Din Aibak was the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, he was a Turkic
military slave and a general in the army of the Ghurid dynasty of Afghanistan. He played
an important role in conquering Delhi in 1192, as part of the territorial ambitions of the
eleventh century Ghurid ruler Muhammad Ghuri.
22
As the Ghurid administrator in Delhi, Aibak oversaw the building of congregational
mosques, including the Qutab Mosque. The mosque is believed to have been built quickly
as a matter of necessity not only would the Ghurid forces have needed a place to pray,
but a mosque was crucial for the proclamation of the name of the ruler during the weekly
congregational prayer. In this context, such proclamations would have affirmed the
legitimacy of Muhammad’s Ghori’s right to rule.
The Qutab Mosque and architectural re-use
The main entrance into the mosque today is on its east side. This arched doorway leads
to a pillared colonnade and an open-air courtyard that is enclosed on three sides. Directly
across from the main entrance, at the far end of the mosque, is an iron pillar, a
monumental stone screen, and a hypostyle prayer hall.
The pillar is considered to be a tribute to Lord Vishnu, the patron deity of the Gupta kings;
it is believed that the wonderfully crafted capital was once crowned by a fi guru of Garuda
(Vishnu’s carrier). The pillar is said to have resisted corrosion because of its pure
composition of iron, a high presence of phosphorous, and the method of casting.
Pillars, ceilings and stones from multiple older Hindu and Jain temples were reused in the
construction of the colonnades surrounding the mosque’s open courtyard and in the
prayer hall. Since the desired height for the colonnade did not match the height of older
temple pillars, two or three pillars were stacked, one on top of the other, to reach the
required elevation. Standing at the center of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, the Iron Pillar,
an intriguing piece, a marvel of architecture and traditional knowledge, with its austerity
and natural brilliance has never ceased
to amaze archeologists, metallurgists, academicians, and of course tourists, for the way it
has resisted corrosion through the last 1,600 years. The pillar may originally have been
located elsewhere, as the inscription on it says that it was placed on a hill called Vishnu
23
pada. It may have been shifted to this location during Tomar times. The pillar is considered
to be a tribute to Lord Vishnu, the patron deity of the Gupta kings; it is believed that the
wonderfully crafted capital was once crowned by a fi gure of Garuda (Vishnu’s carrier).
The pillar is said to have resisted corrosion because of its pure composition of iron, a high
presence of phosphorous, and the method of casting.
Conclusion
The Delhi Sultanate was a time of great architectural development. Many new and
innovative techniques were used in the construction of buildings and monuments
during this period. The Sultanate period was also a time of great artistic achievement,
with many new and beautiful works of art being created. The legacy of the Delhi
Sultanate period can still be seen in the many wonderful and historic buildings and
monuments that remain standing today.
24
Q 6 Evaluate the importance of the chisti Silsila in the medieval period
OR
Discuss Sufis as a source of authority and evaluate the significance of Nizamuddin

Auliya on the Chisti Silsia.
Introduction
“The Chisti Silsila” is popular because of its equity in treatment, where poor and rich
people were treated equally. It has been introduced by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti.
“The Chisti Silsila” is a brotherhood community formed by the Sunni Muslims of different
countries like India, Afghanistan and Pakistan. This chain of brotherhood system was
brought to India by “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti”. “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-
Din Chishti” was one of the greatest preachers, religious scholars and sayyid. The great
scholar helped a huge number of Sunni Muslims all across the continents to learn and
educate them about the concept of “The Chishti Silsila”. “Chirag-i-Delhi” is one of the
other significant saints who later turned out to be the successor of Delhi.
Meaning of Sufism
The word sufi originated from Arabic word Shafa, which means piousness i.e, the
person who is spiritually as well as morally can be considered as sufi. The word sufi
was not famous during the time of Prophet Muhommad but it became famous worldwide
during the second Hijri century with the rise of Abbasid Cliphate. Sufism was mainly the
path adopted by Prophet Muhhommad on his practical life as per the lessons of Quran.
According to which a person sheds all his materialistic greed and tension and devote
himself to God. Sufism worked as a ridge between Hindu and muslim religion. Though it
got famous as a religion in 9th century. The two main aim of Sufism was-spiritual
prosperity and welfare of people.
25
Importance of the chisti Silsila in the medieval period
Features of Sufism
There developed a number of sufi orders or Silsila in and outside India, each had their
specific characteristic but had some common features.
 Stress the importance of traversing the sufi path (tariqa) as a method of establishing
direct communion with divine reality (habitat).
 novice has to pass through a succession of "stations" or "stages" and changing

psychological conditions or "states" (maqamat) to experience God.
 sufi path could be traversed only under the strict supervision of a spiritual guide
(shaikh, pir or murshid) who had himself successfully traversed it and consequently
established direct communion with God.

 disciple (murid) progressed through the "stages" and "states" by practicing spiritual
exercises. e.g: self mortification (subjugation of desire by self-discipline), recollection
of God's name for concentration.
 Sufis practiced sama (musical recital) which was intended to induce a mystical state of
ecstasy. Ulema were hostile to this practice.
Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti
“Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” was a well-renowned reformer, religious
teacher, scholar and the most prominent saint of the Indian subcontinent. “Sufi saint
Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” came to India at the beginning of the 13th century in south
Asia. The great “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” firstly landed in Lahore, Pakistan.
In order to gain peace and prosperity, Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti meditated
in the famous tomb of the shrine. In the latter half of the century, “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-
ud-Din Chishti” travelled his way to India to spread the teachings of “The Chishti Silsila”
26
and later got married. “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” got married in Ajmer,
Rajasthan.
Influence of Hinduism on Sufism
According to Alberuni the philosophy of Atma was adopted by sufis from Yogsutra
of Patanjali. He has connected the concept of spiritual worship and value of atma with
the concept of Bhawatgita. Amritkunda the book of Hat yoga had a great influence on
Sufism as the practices of yoga and meditation practiced by the saints of Chistiya Silsila
was adopted from this book. The philosophy of Wahdat-ul-wajood was similar to the
philosophies of the hindu yogi gurus. In the Haikak-i-hind of Mir Abdul Wahid consists of
names and examples of various Hindu deities and Gods such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi,
Braja, Gokul, Yamuna, Ganga, Mathura and Krishna, etc. which depicts its close relation
with Hinduism. A few sufi saints used Hindi language as well as Hindi poetries to influence
people and spread their philosophies. Thus, Hinduism had its great impact on Sufism, and
Sufism acted as a link between Hinduism and Islamic religion.
Impact of Sufism
 The liberal and unorthodox elements of Sufism had a profound impact on
medieval Bhakti saints. In the later period, the Sufi doctrines influenced the religious
perspective of the rulers along with reminding them of their moral obligations. For
example, the Mughal Emperor, Akbar’s religious outlook and religious policies were
shaped a lot under Sufism.
 Sufism influenced both rural and urban regions and had a deep political, cultural and
social influence on the masses. Spiritual bliss became the ultimate aim and the people
could raise their voice against all forms of orthodoxy, falsehood, religious formalism
and hypocrisy. In a world torn by strife and conflict, the Sufis tried to bring peace and
harmony.
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 The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to develop a bond of
solidarity and brotherhood between Hindu and Muslim communities. The Sufi saints
are revered not only by Muslims but also by a huge number of Hindus and their tombs
have become a common place of pilgrimage for both communities
Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti
This Silsila was established by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti in India. They gave importance to
music and considered it to be a medium of getting connected to God. They established
an organization called ‘Vilayat’ which was a spiritual area free from political control. The
Sufi saints of this Silsila also followed Shariyat. Khwaja chisti the pioeer of this Silsila came
to India in 1192 A.D along with Muhommad Ghor. He initially stayed in Lahore, then went
to Delhi and then to Ajmer. His contemporary ruler in Ajmer was Prithvi raj Chauhan.
Khwaja Chishti propagated sufism among all the people regardless of any religion. He
died in 1236 A.D. His shrine was built in Ajmer which was visited by Muhommad Bin
Tughlaq and Akbar.
Chirag-i-Delhi
 “Chirag-i-Delhi” is another great Sufi mystic originally named “Nasiruddin Mahmud”.
This mystic had several other names in his account offered by his followers and dehlavi.
 He was popularly known as the “Illuminated Lamp of Delhi”, while the other people or
the dehlavis have named him, “Roshan Chiragh-e-Delhi” due to their devotion and
love for the mystic and the later king of Delhi.
 “Nasiruddin Mahmud”, came to India during the 14th-century and remained as the
disciple of “Nizamuddin Auliya”.

 After the arrival of “Roshan Chiragh-e-Delhi” people and the dehlvi’s felt the strong
presence and contribution towards the ruler “Nizamuddin Auliya”. Thus, on the demise
of the great ruler of Delhi in the 14th century “Chiragh-e-Delhi”, came to act and ruled
28
the people of Delhi long with the levitation and emphasis on the need for learning
and preaching’s of “The Chisti Sisila” in Sunni Muslim and across all the kingdom.
Sheikh Salim Chishti

 “Sheikh Salim Chishti” is among the topmost Sufi mystics revered in the Mughal
period, who lead or carry forward the concept of “The Chishti Silsila” in the Mughal
generation and period of history.
 The knowledge and the learning of the religious factor and the concept of goodwill to
avoid disintegration among the brothers caused “Sheikh Salim Chishti” to become one
of the favorites of Akbar, the great ruler of the Mughal Empire.
 During the reign of Akbar, he visited and took note of the ideas and concepts to make
out the right decision for his empire.

 The followers of “Sheikh Salim Chishti,” in Memorial of the great mystic demonstrated
an incarnation of the tomb under his name in Fatehpur Sikri.
Significance of Nizamuddin Auliya on the Chisti Silsia
Nizamuddin Auliya
The greatest of all sufi saints in the Chisti Silsila was Nizamuddin Auliya. He was the
follower of Fariduddin Ganj Shakar. He was the only sufi saint of Chisti Silsila who
remained unmarried for his entire life. He witnessed the period of seven sultans of Delhi
sultanate but never visited their court. He did not share good bond with Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq as Ghiyasuddin ordered him to return the grants given by Nasiruddin Khusro
Shah the last ruler of Khilji dynasty. Nizamuddin Auliya was bestowed with various titles
suchas- Mahboo-i-ilahi (favorite of God), Sultan-ul-Auliya (king of the saints). He believed
in the policy of Sulah-i-kul. He adopted the policy of Yoga to such a great extent that he
became famous by the name of Siddha Purusha or the Yogi Siddha.
29
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325) was the most prominent of Baba Farid
 He made Delhi the most famous centre of the Chishti order.
 Though he witnessed the reign of seven sultans of Delhi, he never visited the courts
of any one of them.
 The liberal outlook of the Shaikh as well as his delight in music caused him to be
denounced by the orthodox Ulema.
 He gave an Islamic touch to the socio-cultural atmosphere of the capital.
 He laid stress on the element of love as means of realization of God.
 He inspired men with the love of God and helped them to get rid of their attachment
to worldly affairs.
 Stress on the motive of love which leads to the realization of God, was the main feature
of his teachings.
 He preached that without the love of humanity, love of God will be incomplete.
 He stated that social justice and benevolence are parts of Islam.
 Nizamuddin Auliya practiced celibacy unlike a number of other Chisti saints.
 He adopted yogic breathing exercises so much so that the yogis called him a siddha
or perfect.
 Langar in his khanqah was open to both muslim as well as non-Muslims.

 Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) was a devoted disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.
 Fawaid-ul Fuwad written by Amir Hasan Sijz, records his teachings and conversations.
30
Conclusion
“Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” is one of the important mystics and torch bearer
of “The Chishti Silsila”. “Sufi saint Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti” brought the basic concept
of “The Chisti Sisila” to India, he continues to preach to Sunni Muslims and carry forward
the flag of “The Chisti Sisila” in order to bring unity, and integrity among the people of
Islam. In the latter half of the century, there was the emergence of many more preachers
of “The Chishti Silsila” like “Chirag-i-Delhi”, “Sheikh Salim Chishti” and the former who
later came to be known as “the illuminated lamp of Delhi”.
31
Q 7 – Discuss the impact of European companies on India’s meriting trade in 17th

century.
OR
Discuss the impact of European meriting trade on South Asia Between 15th and
17th centuries.
Answer
Introduction
Between the middle of the 15th century and the middle of the 17th century India’s
overseas trade steadily expanded. This was due to the trading activities of the various
European companies which came to India during this period. India had commercial
relations with the western countries from time immemorial.
The impact of European companies on India’s meriting trade in 17th century
But from the seventh century A.D. her sea-borne trade passed into the hands of the
Arabs, who dominated the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. It was from them that the
enterprising merchants of Venice and Genoa purchased Indian goods. This monopoly of
Indian trade by the Arabs, and the Venetians was sought to be broken by direct trade with
India by the Portuguese. The geo-graphical discoveries of the last quarter of the 15th
century deeply affected the commercial relations of the different countries of the world
and produced far-reaching consequences. The discovery of a new all-sea route from
Europe to India via Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama had far-reaching
reper-cussions on the civilized world.
32
The arrival of the Portuguese in India was followed by the advent of other European
communities and soon India’s coastal and maritime trade was monopolized by the
Europeans. The European merchants who came to India during this period differed from
the earlier foreign merchants and had the political and military support of their respective
governments.
They were not individual merchants but represented their respective countries and tried
to establish and safeguard their maritime trade on the strength of their superior naval
power. In course of time, their commercial motives turned into territorial ambitions.
Trade Routes between Europe and Asia during Antiquity
Long-distance trade played a major role in the cultural, religious, and artistic exchanges
that took place between the major centers of civilization in Europe and Asia during
antiquity. Some of these trade routes had been in use for centuries, but by the
beginning of the first century A.D., merchants, diplomats, and travelers could (in theory)
cross the ancient world from Britain and Spain in the west to China and Japan in the east.
The trade routes served principally to transfer raw materials, foodstuffs, and luxury goods
from areas with surpluses to others where they were in short supply. Some areas had a
monopoly on certain materials or goods. China, for example, supplied West Asia and the
Mediterranean world with silk, while spices were obtained principally from South Asia.
These goods were transported over vast distances either by pack animals overland or by
seagoing ships along the Silk and Spice Routes, which were the main arteries of contact
between the various ancient empires of the Old World. Another important trade route,
known as the Incense Route, was controlled by the Arabs, who brought frankincense and
myrrh by camel caravan from South Arabia.
33
Cities along these trade routes grew rich providing services to merchants and acting as
international marketplaces. Some, like Palmyra and Petra on the fringes of the Syrian
Desert, flourished mainly as centers of trade supplying merchant caravans and policing
the trade routes. They also became cultural and artistic centers, where peoples of different
ethnic and cultural backgrounds could meet and intermingle.
The trade routes were the communications highways of the ancient world. New
inventions, religious beliefs, artistic styles, languages, and social customs, as well as goods
and raw materials, were transmitted by people moving from one place to another to
conduct business. These connections are reflected, for example, in the sculptural styles of
Gandara (modern-day Pakistan and northern India) and Gaul (modern-day France), both
influenced by the Hellenistic styles popularized by the Romans.
The factors which were responsible for opening and development of European trade
in India during the 15th and 17th centuries are as follows:
The finding of direct sea route to India led to booming up of European trade with
India which increased in volume later on. Several factors were responsible for opening
and development of European trade in India during the sixteenth and the seventeenth
centuries. The most important factor in this regard was that the European economy was
growing rapidly at that time due to the expansion of land under cultivation on account of
the drainage of marshes and cutting of forests, the introduction of an improved plough
and a more scientific rotation of crops which also led to increase in supply of meat. The
growth was reflected in the rise of towns, an increase of trade, both internal and external.
Moreover, since the Roman times, there had been a steady demand for oriental goods in
Europe. These included spices and drag from India, silk from China. With the economic
revival, this demand increased, especially the needed to make meat palatable since due
34
to shortage of fodder much of the cattle had to be slaughtered during the winter and the
meat salted up.
The Turks were not opposed to the trade, but the virtual monopoly over the pepper
established by them was bound to act against the Europeans. The expansion of Turkish
power towards Europe made the Europeans uneasy and forced them to look at alternative
trade routes to India. The lead in this was taken up by Portugal and Spain who
commissioned voyages. Once Vasco-da Gama found the new route the European trade
with India expanded and went on expanding.
Critical role in the expansion of trade was played also by certain path breaking inventions,
notably rhe mariner’s compass and the astrolabe for navigation by day. Neither of them
was European invention. The mariner’s compass was known to the Chinese several
centuries earlier, but was not widely met. The astrolabe was however widely used by the
Arabs, Indians and others. Nor were the European ships superior in construction to the
ships used in Asian waters at that time.
The Portuguese
The Portuguese under the leadership of Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut on the 17th
May, 1498 and were received warmly by the Hindu ruler of Calicut bearing the hereditary
title of Zamorin. Profits of goods brought by Vasco da Gama to Portugal were 60 times
cost of the entire expedition to India.
The arrival of Pedro Alvarez Cabral in India in 1500 A.D. and the second trip of Vasco da
Gama in 1502 led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and
Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the Portuguese in India. The Portuguese
maritime empire acquired the name of Estado da India and its initial objective was to seize
the spice trade, but after Cabral’s voyage she decided to divert to herself all the trade of
the east with Europe. A new policy was adopted in 1505, by which a Governor was to be
35
appointed on a three-year term. Francisco de Almeida was the first Portuguese Governor
(1505-09) who defeated the combined alliance of the Sultans of Gujarat, Bijapur and the
Egyptians in 1509 in a naval battle near Diu.
Portuguese settlements in India
The successors of Albuquerque established settlements at Diu, Daman, Salsette, Bassein,
Chaul and Bombay, San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal. In 1534, the Portuguese
secured permission from the Sultan of Bengal to build factories at Satgaon (called Porto
Piqueno, little port) and Chittagong (Porto Grande, great port.)
Decline of the Portuguese
The Portuguese monopoly of the Indian Ocean remained unbroken till 1595 but gradually
lost many of the her settlements in India. Shah Jahan captured Hugli in 1632. In 1661, the
king of Portugal gave Bombay as dowry to Charles II of England when he married

Catherine of Braganza, the sister of Portuguese king.
The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739. In the end the Portuguese were
left only with Goa, Diu and Daman, which they retained till 1961. The decline of
Portuguese power in India was due to several internal and external factors.
Following is some of the main causes:
 The Portuguese failed to evolve an efficient system of administration.

 Their religious intolerance provoked the hostility of the Indian rulers and the people.
 Their clandestine practices in trade went against them, one of which was the Cartage
system by which every Indian ship sailing to a destination not reserved by the
Portuguese for their own trade had to buy passes from the Portuguese Viceroy to
avoid seizures and confiscation of its merchandise as contraband.
 The discovery of Brazil drew the colonising activities of Portugal to the west.
36
 The Portuguese failed to compete successfully with the other European companies.
Conclusion
The prospects of huge profits offered by trade with Asia in general and India in
particular acted as further motivators in expansion of trade. Thus, Vasco da Gama returned
after his first voyage with profits sixty times and value of goods he brought.
37
Q 8 - Critically evaluate the approach of historians to the study of the Mughal

empire.
Answer
Introduction
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur could not have known that the Mughal dynasty that he
founded in India would come to be seen as a symbol of the Muslim or Islamic power in
South Asia. In retrospect, he is seen in many ways much like his descendant, Aurangzeb,
the last great Mughal emperor. Both are perceived as religious zealots out to convert
the Hindus and wage jihad against them.
The Mughal Era
The terrain of history writing becomes more exciting and even more contentious in the
Mughal era and the range of sources more diverse. The period of Mughal history
roughly from 1526 to 1856 or rather 1857 if we take the fall of Bahadur Shah Zafar
constitutes the most important period of Indian history for various reasons. Apart from
the political unification of India, there were also economic and other measures, which
the Mughals had taken during this period. We would look at the sources for the study of
this period (one might say the glorious period of our history) in architecture, in
sculpture, in painting, in economic measures, in all its aspects of life.
Akbar and history writing Official Mughal historiography
In the beginning Akbar did make an attempt to have Payre-Khayalafi written,
which was beginning from the Islamic word, which up till now the tradition was that one
writes in praise God (Ahamd) then Ehnat (in praise of the prophet) and then come over
to the Caliphs and then in one page or chapter devoted to the history of the Islamic
world and then one comes to what happens in India.
38
From the historiographical point of view, the most significant period was the rule of
Akbar. This is the period when history writing in methodology, form and content
reached a new height. This was due to the contribution of an amazing personality –
Akbar’s court historian and ideologue Abul Fazl.
Histories During Shahjahan’s Reign
Mutamad Khan set to write the history Iqbalnama-i Jehangir after Shahjahan’s accession
to the throne. His aim was to jutify Shahjahan’s rebellion against his father because Nur
Jahan Begum wanted to harm him and clear the way for Shaharyar’s accession to the
throne. It is divided into three parts: the first part covers the history of Babur and
Humayun, the second part contain the account of Akbar’s reign while the third is devoted
to Jahangir’s reign. In the last part the first nineteen years are merely an abridgement of
the Tuzuk-i Jahangiri. The account of the last years of Jahangir’s reign is almost an eye
witness account.
A critique of Abul Fazl
There is an allegation against Abul Fazl that he was a court historian, he was flattered,
and he wanted to please Akbar. But only those who have read his work Akbar amah not
very seriously or not reading in between the lines, can say things of this sort. Abul Fazl
has the ways of criticizing his own emperor or his actions, who is his hero because he is
the upholder of the policy of tolerance, the sulh-e-kul. He has a total commitment to
reason and not to orthodoxy, the theocracy. Therefore, he is his idol. But at certain places
he has no qualms in criticizing Akbar seriously such as when Akbar did not come over to
lead the campaign against Bengal and let Munim Khan do it because there was a
superstition that most of the rulers, sultans lost their empire in Bengal and what hurt Abul
Fazl was the superstition than Akbar not going. In Spite of being a court historian Abul
Fazl did not allow his writing to degenerate into mere menagerie. His critical faculty is
39
always at work. Moreover, his interest in geography, culture and ways of life of the
emperor as well as the ordinary Indian also make his work unique. In this he probably
surpasses Badauni, the other great Mughal court historian.
Internal problems emerge
After the first 150 years of Mughal rule, under Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan,
nobles became increasingly rich, emboldened by larger armies, and able to challenge the
weak center in Delhi. Then, around 1700, the Mughal state reached the limits of territorial
growth. When the state ran out of land, it was a lot like running out of money, since
awarding land was how they bought the mansabdars' loyalty. Meanwhile, the mansabdars
had grown extremely powerful. Imagine feeding your pet tiger kitten delicious meat until
it grows to 500 pounds, then running out of meat. As the number of nobles, bureaucrats,
and military commanders grew, the state feared those elites, some of whom could now
maintain massive armies of 40,000 to 60,000. Factions rose and battles over succession
for the imperial throne created political instability.
Two more problems that emerged were the decline of religious tolerance and an era of
continuous war in the late seventeenth century. The vast Mughal state had benefitted,
both financially and culturally, from generations of leaders who were practical and tolerant
with their diverse subjects. Then came Emperor Aurangzeb, a religious and military zealot
squared. After taking power in 1658, he spent most of his 49 years of rule conquering
territories, amassing armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and brutally punishing his
enemies, both Hindu and Muslim. Peace was rare in these times. Millions died in combat,
and millions more civilians died from drought, plague, and famine during these wars.
It was unfortunate timing for the Mughals, but this was right when some well-armed
foreign powers began to put increased pressure on the state.
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Criticize of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb's cruelty produced a high death toll, and he destroyed many Hindu temples
and Muslim holy places during military invasions. However, his failures cannot completely
explain the decline of the empire. Personal bigotry aside, Aurangzeb also built Hindu
temples and hired more Hindus into his bureaucracy than any previous Mughal ruler.
Religious zealotry does not explain the end of the empire, which lingered on for another
150 years. But we might be able to trace the reasons for this empire's slow decline to the
general costs of maintaining a medieval war state in modern times. At the same time,
India's changing role in the global economy now introduced new Indian bankers,
financers, foreign traders and investors of every kind, and that diverted money from the
state. The system had evolved into something they simply could not afford. As Mughal
power diminished, Europeans especially British merchants stepped in to reap the profits.
Conclusion
The story of Mughal India’s historiography, and particularly the role of colonization in this
story, should not be forgotten if we are to ever soften the rigid contours of the myth of
Aurangzeb and Babur. New writings, particularly the recent work done by Truschke, are
an important step in this direction.
41
Q 9 Discuss the emergence of the Maratha State under Shivaji.
Answer
Introduction
Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire, was born in 1627 in the fortress of
Shivneri, in the Western Chats near Poona. His father was a military officer in the state
of Bijapur. Shivaji was brought up at Poona under the careful supervision of his mother
who had infused in him a spirit to defend his nation and religion. Under the guidance of
his tutor Dadoja Kondadev, Shivaji became an expert soldier and an efficient
administrator. He was also greatly influenced by the writings of the religious reformers of
Maharashtra, which inspired him with boundless zeal for Hindu religion and love for his
motherland.
Shivaji's Character
Shivaji was a born leader of man and a great military genius. He was a wonderful
horseman. He fought successfully against the Mughul Empire which was then at the
height of its glory. His main achievement is that he infused a strong spirit of nationality
among the Marathas and made them a united nation. As a result of his efforts the
Marathas became the most powerful power in India in the 18th Century.
Emergence of the Maratha State under Shivaji.
1. Rise of the Marathas
The rise of the Marathas in the seventeen century is an important and fascinating event
in the history of India. This rise is primarily due to Shivaji and the circumstances that
shaped his character and that of his followers. Shivaji welded the Marathas into a superb
mobile fighting force. The Marathas fought for the defence of their religion and territory
against Mughal rulers.
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2. Inspirational influence of religious and social leaders:
Several prominent leaders in the religious and social fields of Maharashtra inspired the
people to unite by preaching faith and Bhakti in one God and by condemning the caste
system which had divided the society. The most famous of these reformers were: Tuka
Ram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit and Eknath. Guru Ram Das exercised a tremendous
influence by underlying the philosophy of ‘Karma’ (action) in his famous book ‘Das Bodh.
3. Love for the motherland
Swami Ram Das’s message to the Marathas was, “Mother and mother country are dearer
than heaven itself. Gods and cows, Brahmans and the faith, these are to be protected.
Therefore, God has raised you up; when faith is dead, death is better than life: why live
when religion has vanished Gather ye, therefore, the Marathas together; make the dharma
live again! For otherwise, our forefathers will laugh at us from heaven.”
4. Character of the Marathas
Elphinstone has observed in this regard. “They (Marathas) are all active, laboriously hardy
and preserving. If they have none of the pride and dignity of the Rajput’s, they have none
of their indolence or want of worldly wisdom too. And all these traits were due to the
peculiar physical features of their country.” Shivaji made the best use of these
characteristics of the Marathas.
5. Influence of language and literature
Eknath taught the Marathas to take pride in their mother tongue which helped in bringing
about a sense of commonness and unity among the Marathas. As remarked by J.N. Sarkar,
“A remarkable community of language, creed and life was attained in Maharashtra in the
17th century even before political unity was conferred by Shivaji”.
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6. The geographical conditions
The location of Maharashtra and its physical features helped in the rise of Maratha power.
The large part of Maratha land is a plateau where the Marathas had to struggle hard for
their existence. This made the Marathas courageous and hard working.
7. Economic equality
The Marathas did not suffer much from economic inequality, as there were not many
people to be accepted as rich. There was no class of economic exploiters. This gave the
Marathas a spirit of self-respect and unity.
8. Guerilla warfare
The mountainous areas made it possible for the Marathas to adopt guerilla warfare very
successfully. The scattered areas in the villages provided provision for soldiers. The
invaders were prone to sudden attacks from forts located on the tops of hills. Means of
communications for the large armies to move freely were not easily available. This
obstructed the deployment of large armies by the outside rulers.
9. Military Organization
Shivaji established a highly organized military system. He had a well-equipped standing
army consisting both of infantry and cavalry. The Commander-in-chief was called Senapati
or Sarnaubat and he was a member of Ashta Pradhan. The officers and soldiers were paid
in cash and were not allowed to live on plunder. No jagirs were given to them. He evolved
an excellent military discipline.
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Conclusion
We have noted causes of the rise of the Maratha power in late medieval India. These
important factors contributed immensely to the rise and growth of Maratha power in
India. However, there must be a number of other factors integrated amongst these that
cannot be discussed here because this lecture is to address primarily students of

undergraduate course.
45
Q 10 Discuss the economic reforms of Alaudin Khalji.
Answer
Introduction
The market control policy introduced by Alauddin in Medieval India was a great step
and a unique one which attract the attention of not only Indian but foreign historians.
Alauddin was forced with the complex task of maintaining resources for a huge standing
army. On the other hand, situation was more complicated because of the frequent wars
that took place combined with the Mongol Invasions.
Economic reforms of Alaudin Khalji.
Principle of Market Reform
The basic principle which Alauddin set for his market policy were division of market,
price control and set up market administration for proper regulation. Discussing general
market in Tarikh-i-firozshahi, Barni says that 'Alauddin spent day and night to set-up the
production cost of everything, even of small things like needles, slippers, shoes etc.
observes that Alauddin came very near to the Marxist principle that prices depend upon
the social necessary labour and labour time.
But Marx was dealing with a free market which had grown up as a result of capitalism,
industrial competition etc. Whereas, Alauddin had to impose the calculated price
according to production cost in medieval society. However, after fixing the prices of the
grain which was not an easy task though Alauddin fixed the prices of other things taking
in account the profit for the merchants and the wages of artisans and laborer’s.
46
Division of Market
After fixing the price of commodities Alauddin went for division of market. He divided the
market broadly into three categories.
 The Central grain market or Mandi with subsidiary control shops in every mahalas of
the city.
 The Ser-i-adl, an exclusive market for cloths and luxury items.

 Market of slaves, horses and cattle’s
Sher-i-Adl (Cloth market)
The Sher-i-Adl was like a super market for manufactured item. This market was also,
for the items purchased from outside and overseas. This market was built near Badayun
gate and the costly commodities were sold from the strongly built shop. The Sultan's
ordinance proclaimed that all items ranging in price from 1 tanka to 10,000 tanka should
be brought to Sher-i-Adl and must be sold at fixed price. The items sold in the market
were cloths and luxury goods. For running this market smoothly, the Sultan had formed
certain rules and regulations.
Impact of the Market Policy of Alauddin Khilji
The market reform policy had different impact on various group but of all the classes the
government was one who was benefitted the most because it successfully achieved its
objective of maintaining a large standing army at unusually low salaries. Because of his
market reform Alauddin raised such a strong army that whether at home or in foreign
kingdom, the army always stood victorious. The Market regulation also proved to be a
source indirect taxation for the state.
47
Moreover, the government did profit on the grain purchased from the farmers, as the rate
at which the government purchased the grain were much lower than the official controlled
rate, prevalent in Delhi. However, the army, the government servants and all other people
who resided in Delhi were benefitted the most.
Impact on Merchants and Traders
The fixation of price of almost every commodity that too at a very low price along with
the severe policy adopted towards the merchants and the traders left no initiative for the
trader and industry to flourish. the one hand the merchants were forced towards under
compulsion, on the other the fear of a slight deviation in weight resulted in giving more
than the actual weight'. However, the class of merchants or traders suffered a stage of
frustration but they always formed an essential power of economic development of state.
Impact on Artisans, Manufacturers and Craftsman
They also suffered an economic setback because reduction in price forced them to reduce
the payment of raw material including that of skilled labour. The manufacturer suffered a
lot because the merchant in spite of all the regulations could always devised means to
purchase commodities at the cheaper rate. Passing the maximum financial burden to the
manufacturer and artisans.
Impact on the farmers and the common people
The most affected class were however the farmers or the cultivator who formed the
backbone of agricultural economy. However, the revenue regulation of the Sultan was
meant to crash the rich middlemen and not the poor farmers However, as most of them
resided out of Delhi and the price control theory was only prevalent in Delhi and areas
around it. In case of emergency the farmers had to pay more to purchase the grain that
they had sold at lesser price to the merchants.
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Conclusion
Alauddin played a very important role in economic reform. Such as the first alternative
was impossible because if Alauddin started paying high salaries to the huge army, he
would soon become bankrupt. But it was also necessary to satisfy the army because the
responsibility of fulfilling the dream of imperial expansion of Alauddin rested on the army.
So, Alauddin went for the second option of price control and market regulation which
would ensure the soldiers maintenance at low cost.
49
Q 11 Trace the contribution of Kabir on medieval society?
OR
Trace the contribution of Kabir on medieval society?
Answer
Introduction
Sant Kabir is one of the medieval Indian saints of Bhakti and Sufi movement. Bhakti
movement was started by Hindu saints while Sufi mysticism by Muslim saints in medieval
India (1200-1700). Kabir immensely contributed to the Bhakti Movement and is

considered a pioneer of Bhakti along with Ravidas, Farid, and Namdev. His concept of
love as a path of suffering may possibly indicate, in some measure, a debt to the Sufis.
These and other elements from Nath tradition, bhakti and sufism, Kabir combined with
his own mystical nature and produced synthesis which is the distinctive religion of Kabir.
Contribution of Kabir on medieval society
Kabir (1440-1518) was born in Benares, his father was a Moslem, and he was profoundly
influenced by the Moslems who dominated India from the eleventh century until the
advent of the British. ‘Rejecting the external authority of the Vedas and the Koran, Kabir,
who was brought up in a Muslim family, preached the goal of inner realization based on
the love of a transcendent and formless divinity.
He was influenced by Vaishnava bhakti primarily but also by yogic and Sufi ideas
and practices, such as the ideals of self- perfection and the oneness of God respectively,
and the meditative recitation of God’s name as an expression of one’s love for him,
common to both Hindu devotees and Muslim Sufis. His followers were drawn mostly from
lower, often untouchable, Hindu castes, and included Muslims. Kabir expressed himself in
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the thought-forms of his own time and his own culture, but he was neither an apologist
nor a critic of any school of philosophy.
Locating Sant Kabir in the Bhakti tradition
The rise of Bhaktism almost coincided with the influx of Islamic groups into India.
Bhaktism a liberal creed. It provided a kind of spiritual forum for people who were drawn
from different castes. The main principles of Bhaktism are cultivation of personal devotion
to a god, deemphasis on rituals, monotheism, and participation in a collectivity built on
brotherhood or equality. Insofar as Bhakti sects were heterodox, they faced uncertainty
and often incurred the hostility of both Hindu and Muslim rulers in the initial stages.
During their early formulations they were ‘liminal groups’. As noted earlier, Indian
reformist sects, such as Kabirpanthi’s (north India), Chaitanyites (Bengal), and Dadupanthis
(western India), were inclusive rather than exclusive.
Indeed, they included some cult-like characteristics. In the Bhakti sects, membership was
not very selective. Discipline was not strictly enforced among the members, and flexibility
enabled marginal individuals and groups to enter the sect. In addition, the cults often
accommodated marginal, fugitive, and individuals. It is very difficult to understand the
contribution of Sant Kabir, without taking into account the Sufi tradition in India which
had a very strong tradition in the time of Kabir. ‘Sufism began around the 8th century with
Saints such as Hadrat Habib Ajami (AD 738). Some scholars feel that Sufism is not against
the Islamic law. In fact, the process of Sufism is closely interwoven in the Islami law. Sufism
can be explained from the viewpoint of three basic religious attitudes found in the Quran.
These are the attitudes of Islam, Iman and Ihsan. The attitude of Islam is that of submission
to the will of Allah and the teachings Quran. Iman designates a further penetration
into the religion and strong faith in its teachings. Ihsan is the highest stage of spiritual
ascent.
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Criticism
Kabir criticized Hindus and the Muslims both, Brahmin and Mullah alike, so, both
hated him, once upon a time Mullah went to Delhi and told Sikander Lodhi, that Kabir
used word Ram-Ram! Publicly, but he is not a Hindu, Similarly, Brahmin also joined them
and accused Kabir that he used the Tilak, which is the symbol of the Hindu though being
himself a Muslim. Lodi was not convinced by their arguments and accusation and let Kabir
go free.
Conclusion
Throughout Kabir’s work the accent is on interiorization: man ought to turn his attention
away from the exterior world, from all sensible forms, in order to withdraw into the
innermost depths of his conscience. Therefore, for Kabir, the religion of the man is to
realize the non-dual aspect of the reality. His conception has come a long way in getting
espoused in our ways of thinking. This continuity in our though shows the relative
importance of his teachings, also in the contemporary world. Kabir’s ideas in the society
are usually scattered a in the forms of the popular idiom and proverbs, which serves us to
find a ray of hope in the domain of darkness and austerity.
It teaches the gospels of love and brotherhood which we can easily relate in our daily life.
So, like in the quotation given in the beginning, we find solace in knowing the presence
of the god in every realm of our life. It therefore from the idiom of the daily life of the
householder and also of our daily conversation, where we argue for the presence of God
in all the realm of life.
52
Q 12 Trace the emergence and the growth of the Jagirdari system under the
Mughals.
Answer
Introduction
Jagir System formed an integral part of Muslim rule and administration in Indian
history. It developed during the period of Islamic rule over Indian Subcontinent. Jagir
system during Mughal Empire was related to Mansabdari system of ranking issued to
military forces.
Mughal Jagirdari System
Jagir system during Mughal Empire was considered as an institution that was mainly
used to reserve the surplus from the class of peasants. Further, jagir system was also
used in order to distribute the income resources among the dominating classes. This
system became all-pervasive and was the institution of month-scales or ratios. This seems
to have arisen out of the discrepancy between the official assessment of jagir (jama) and
the actual revenue collection.
The system of assignment of revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their
services to the state continued under the Mughals also. Under the Mughals, the areas
assigned were generally called Jagir and its holders Jagirdars. The Jagirdari system was an
integral part of the mansabdari system which developed under Akbar and underwent
certain changes during the reign of his successors. The revenue from the first went to
imperial treasury, and that from Jagir was assigned to Jagirdars in lieu of their cash salary.
Salary entitlements of mansabdars were calculated on the basis of their Zat and Sawar
ranks. her salary was paid either in cash (in that case they were called Naqdi) or through
the assignment of a Jagir, the latter being the preferable mode.
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In case the payment was made through the assignment of a Jagir, the office of the central
Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of whose Jama was equal to the salary claim
of the mansabdars.
In case the recorded Jama was in excess of salary claim the assignee was required to
deposit the balance with the central treasury. On the other hand, if it was less than the
salary claims the shortfall was paid from the treasury. However, none of the assignments
was permanent or hereditary. The emperor could shift part or the entire Jagir from one
part of the imperial territory to another at any time.
Origin and Connotation of Jaghirdar System
The term Jagirdar System was derived by combining two Persian words: ‘Jagir’
(which means holding land) and ‘dar’ (which means official). A Jagir is basically a type
of a feudal territory which a ruler grants to an army chieftain in lieu of recognition of his
military service. This system was started in the 13th Century. At that time, the power to
collect tax from a particular estate was accorded to an appointee of the state. Granting
land to an individual for the purpose of collection of revenue in lieu of cash salary is an
age-old practice in India. During the Delhi Sultanate reign, such land grants were called
Iqtas and the holders, Iqtadars. The Mughals also started practicing this system and during
their reign, the lands granted were called Jagirs and their holders, Jagirdars. It is worth
mentioning in this connection that it is not land that was assigned but the right to collect
revenue from the piece of land.
History of Jagir System
The Jagir system was adapted by the Delhi Sultanate, from an already existing
agricultural system. This system was entirely feudalistic, and carried tendencies to weaken
the governing body of the state. The practice of the Jagir system was slowed down by
Sultan Ghiyas al-Din and was abolished during the reign of Alauddin Khilji. However, it
54
was again revived by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq. The early Mughal emperors wanted to
amend the system by preferring to reward the officials with cash salaries. However, the
later Mughal emperors reintroduced the same old system.
During the reign of Akbar, the territory was divided into Khalisa and Jagir. The Mughal
Jagirdari system basically began during Akbar’s reign and as mentioned earlier, in course
of time it underwent few modifications. The Jagirdari system was created by Akbar to
consolidate and expand his empire. This system embraced both civil and military sectors
of administration. During the reign of Babur and Humayun, revenues were collected from
the assigned territories through Wajahdars by fixing ‘wajah’.
Features of Jagir System
There were various types of Jagirs, they included Jagir Tankha (Jagirs given in lieu of pay),
Mashrut Jagirs (Conditional Jagir), Inam Jagirs (those which had no obligations of service
and which were independent of rank), and Watan Jagirs (Jagirs which were granted
Zamindars in their home lands). The grant of the Jagir got reverted to the state upon the
Jaghirdar’s death. However, with time, Jagirs became hereditary and got transferred to
the male heir of the Jagirdar. The Jagirdars did not work alone, but recruited for several
administrative positions for the work of revenue collection. Patwari, Tahsildar, Amil,
Fotedar, Diwan being some of the positions.
The Jagirdars could practice no corruption and were allowed to collect only the amount
decided and fixed by the emperor. There would be a smooth functioning imperial
bureaucracy for keeping a strict watch over the Jagirdars. They were penalized if any
situation of harassment of the peasants for excess payments came into being. In fact,
during Akbar’s reign an ‘Amir’ was appointed in the Suba to see whether the Jagirdars
implemented the royal orders or not.
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System under the Mughal Rulers
As mentioned above, during the Mughal rule, the revenue earned from Jagir was
assigned to Jagirdars as per their ranks in place of their salary in cash or Naqad. Some of
them were given both cash as well as Jagir. During the later years of Shah Jahan, the actual
Basil of the Mughal Deccan amounted to approximately one quarter of the Jama (that is
equal to three months only). The Jagirs of most Mansabdars in the Deccan were not more
than four-monthly and often they were even less. Conditions however appeared to have
been better in northern parts of India. In the later years of Shah Jahan and during the
reign of Aurangzeb, complaints were heard that a transfer from northern India to the
Deccan entailed Jagir on a lower monthly-scale. The monthly Jagir system of Mughal
Dynasty was applied also to cash salaries.
One of the main features of Jagir system during the Mughal era was the changing of
Jagir holders from one to another, for administrative reasons. In the case of the Basil,
realized from his Jagir by an assignee, the proportion it bore to the jama would of course,
only correspond with the exact proportion of month-scale. Jagir system of Mughal Empire
wholly pivoted around the father-son duo, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, standing at
opposing poles. The pay schedule from 12 to 7 months, however, came to be merely of
academic interest, since Aurangzeb decided in his 21st year of reign, to lower Shah Jahan's
maximum allowance from 8 months to 6 months.
As against the sanctioned claim, there used to be a number of deductions in the pay
schedules. The dissimilarities between the Mughals and Maratha warriors manifested
wholly in the Jagir system, with other principles also thrown in. Jagir system under the
later Mughal rulers began to be tightened, with the Jagirdars suffering the most. There
was another deduction in pay scale. This was technically known as ‘Irmas’. According to
historians, this was a synonym for Talab-i-Ijnas (or demand for supplies).
56
It should be mentioned that Akbar had been quite compassionate towards the Jagir
system of Mughal Empire, entrusting Jagirdars with unusual payments.
Decline of the Jagir System
The Jagir system being feudalistic in character eventually started to weaken the Mughal
State. After the collapse of the Mughal Empire, which happened for several other reasons
alongside, the Jagirdar system was retained by Rajput, Saini and the Sikh Jat kingdoms
and later, by the British East India Company. The East India Company was given a Jagir by
Nawab Muhammad Ali of Arcot in present-day Tamil Nadu. During the colonial British
Raj, most princely states of India were Jagirdars. Being an impractical and feudalistic
system, it hampered the proper functioning of the state during the British rule as well.
Also, there were cases of harassment of peasants by the British officials. Shortly following
independence from the British Crown in 1947, the jagirdar system was abolished by the
Indian government in 1951.
Conclusion
As a consequence of a number of disparate but interconnected reasons, the Mughal
Empire declined dramatically within a few decades of Aurangzeb's death. The age of the
great Mughals, a brilliant era in mediaeval Indian history, ended in this fashion, paving the
way for the foundation of several autonomous regional Kingdoms in its aftermath.
57
Q 13 Write short notes on any of the following.
1. Shershah’s administration
2. First battle of Panipat
3. Balban’s theory of kingship
4. Mughal Rajput relation

5. Administration under
6. Architecture in Medieval India
1.Shershah’s administration
Answer
Sher Shah was one of the greatest personalities in history who established Shur dynasty
deafening the mighty Mughal emperor Shah Jahan though for a short period. Although
he ruled only for five years, he established `highly centralised administrative machinery
with all the powers concentrated in his own hands. All the major decisions were taken by
the king.
Ministers of Sher Shah
His administrative works were roughly divided into various departments called "Diwan"s,
each headed by a separate minister.
 Diwan-I-Wizarat: The department was headed by Wazir who looked after finance
and revenue. He maintained regular accounts of the state and exercised general
supervision over the working of other ministers.
 Diwan-I-Ariz: Ariz-i-Mammalik was head of this department who was to look after
the military administration of the state. He was merely in charge of recruitment,

organisation and discipline of the army and did not act as its commander-in-chief.
58
 Diwan-I-Risalat: the head of the department was a sort of foreign minister who
looked after diplomatic relations with other states and sent and received
ambassadors from foreign countries in accordance with the directions of the king.
 Diwan-l-Insha: the head of this department was in charge of the royal
proclamations and dispatches He was to draft the government documents and keep
full records of the same. Generally, he was the channel of communication with the
governors of the states and other local officials.
Provincial Administration
Suba or Iqta:
Very little is known about the provincial administration of Sher Shah and whatever is
known, historians have differed about it. Dr Qanungo has opined that ‘there was no
administrative unit called Iqta or Suba during the reign of Sher Shah. The largest
administrative unit was the Sarkar.’
According to Dr Parmatma Saran there were Sub as where military governors were
appointed by Sher Shah. Srivastava, ‘besides the Hindu rulers who had accepted the
suzerainty of Sher Shah and were left free to manage their internal affairs, there were
provinces called the Iqtas where military governors or Subedars were appointed.
Subedars were appointed in Lahore, Malwa and Ajmer.’
Finance (Revenue)
The main sources of the income of the state were the land-revenue, unclaimed property,
trade-tax, mint, salt-tax, Khams, viz., 1/5th of the plunder taken during the time of war,
jizya and presents from subordinate rulers, governors, nobles, traders, etc. The main
items of expenditure were the expenses to maintain the army, salaries of civilian officers
and the expenditure of the royal household and the Sultan. The local taxes were called
59
abwabs which were levied mostly on production and consumption of various trade and
professions and on transport.
Basic features
 The system which Sher Shah introduced in most of the places was Ryotwari wherein
the state kept direct relations with the peasants for the assessment and collection of
the land revenue. However, the system could not be introduced in Multan, Malwa
and Rajasthan where the Jaghirdar system continued to exist.
 All cultivable land was divided into three categories on the basis of production, viz.,
good, middle and bad.
 The land was measured according to a uniform system and it was ascertained that
what quality of land was possessed by each cultivator. An average of the produce
was estimated in each case and then, according to Dr Qanungo, the peasants were
asked to pay 1/4 of the average produce. But according to Dr Parmatma Saran, Dr
R.P. Tripathi and the majority of historians the cultivators were asked to pay 1/3 of
their produce to the state.
 The state preferred to collect revenue in the form of cash and, for that purpose,
prices of every variety of cereals were fixed in different places. Yet, the cultivators
were given the facility to pay their revenue in kind as well.
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2. First battle of Panipat
The First Battle of Panipat was fought between the invading forces of Babur and the
Lodi Empire, which took place on 21 April 1526 in North India. It marked the beginning
of the Mughal Empire. This was one of the earliest battles involving gunpowder firearms
and field artillery.
Details
In 1526, the Mughal forces of Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabulistan, defeated the much
larger ruling army of Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi. The battle was fought on 21 April near
the small village of Panipat, in the present-day Indian state of Haryana, an area that has
been the site of a number of decisive battles for the control of Northern India since the
twelfth century.
It is estimated that Babur’s forces numbered around 15,000 men and had between 20 to
24 pieces of field artillery. Babur estimated Lodi had around 100,000 men, though that
number included camp followers, while the fighting force was around 30,000 to 40,000
men in total, along with at least 1000 war elephants.
Advantage of Cannons in the Battle
It is generally held that Babur’s guns proved decisive in battle, firstly because Ibrahim Lodi
lacked any field artillery, but also because the sound of the cannon frightened Lodi’s
elephants, causing them to trample Lodi’s own men. However, a reading of the
contemporary sources show that more than the gun, it was the tactics which helped in
winning the day. The new war tactics introduced by Babur were the tulumba and the
araba. Tulughma meant dividing the whole army into various units, viz. the Left, the Right
and the Centre. The Left and Right divisions were further subdivided into Forward and
Rear divisions. Through this a small army could be used to surround the enemy from all
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the sides. the Centre Forward division was then provided with carts (araba) which were
placed in rows facing the enemy and tied to each other with animal hide ropes. Behind
them were placed cannons protected and supported by mantelets which could be used
to easily manoeuvre the canons. These two tactics made Babur’s artillery lethal. The guns
and cannons could be fired without any fear of being hit as they were shielded by the
bullock carts which were held in place due to the hide ropes holding them together. the
nozzle of the heavy cannons could also be easily changed as they could be maneuvered
by the mantelets which were provided with wheels.
Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of battle, abandoned by his feudatories and generals
(many of whom were mercenaries). Most of them changed their allegiance to the new
master of Delhi. However, had Sultan Ibrahim survived another hour of fighting he would
have won, as Babur had no reserves and his troops were rapidly tiring.
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3. Balaban’s theory of kingship
The stern, harsh and violent policy adopted by Balaban to suppress the internal
revolts and meeting with the challenges posed by foreign invaders of Mongols is known
as the policy of blood and iron. The theory of kingship propounded by Balaban led to
the adoption of the policy of blood and iron. Balaban was convinced that the only way
to face the internal and external dangers was to increase the power and prestige of the
Sultan (King).
‘Sword’ was the chief weapon of Balban to achieve his objectives. He used this weapon
with a great vengeance against his rivals, rebels, robbers, thieves and the invaders. By
following this policy, he wanted to create terror in the minds of the people that
whosoever dared to challenge the authority of the Sultan, he would not be spared. On
account of this policy, he was able to remain at the helm of affairs for about 40 years i.e.,
20 years as the Naib/Prime Minister of Nasir-ud-din Mohmud and then after as the
Sultan of Delhi. He executed his policy of blood and iron very successfully and raised the
prestige and power of the Sultan in the eyes of the nobles and his subjects.
Main principles of Ballan’s theory of Kingship
 Divine right of Kings:
Balban said that the king was the representative of God on the earth and Kingship
was a divine institution. He declared this to make the nobles believe that he got the
crown or the Kingship not through their mercy but by the mercy of God.
 Royal descent
Balban realized that people at that time believed that it was only the prerogative of
the ancient royal families to rule and exercise power, he therefore declared that he
was the descendant of the legendary Turkish warrior Afrasiab and that circumstances
only had made him a slave.
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 King as a despot
He said to his son Bughra Khan that “Kingship is the embodiment of despotism”. He
believed that it is the “King’s superhuman awe and status which can ensure people’s
obedience.
 Word of difference between descendants of noble lineage and commoners
Historian Zia-ud-Din Barni has gone to the extent of remarking that whenever
Balban saw a man of low birth, his eyes started burning with rage and anger and his
hands reached his sword to murder him. This view seems to be on the extreme side.
However this much is believable that because of this outlook of Balban, he dismissed
all officials not born of noble families, from all important posts.
 Impact/Achievements of Balban
Baiban’s theory of Kingship coupled with his policy of blood and iron paid him good
dividends. He enhanced the prestige of the Sultan. He crushed the powers of his
opponents. He brought about peace and order. He saved the country from the
invasions of the Mongols.
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4. Mughal Rajput relation
Answer
Akbar was a wise statesman of his time as well as an aggressive imperialist. He understood
that conquests of states without their consolidation would be futile. He used a novel policy
known as the Rajput policy of Akbar to consolidate and conquer his empire. The Rajputs
were a prestigious warrior class in Hindu society at the time, known for their heroism,
sense of duty, and devotion to their motherland. Akbar understood the significance of
this class. He also understood that conquering the Rajputs by force was impossible. As a
result, he changed his policy and extended his hand in friendship to them.
Relation with Rajputs - Background
 Akbar's relations with the Rajputs must be viewed against the backdrop of Mughal
policy toward the country's powerful rajas and zamindars.

 When Humayun returned to India, he pursued a deliberate policy of attempting to
win over these elements.
 According to Abul Fazl, he entered into matrimonial relations with them to "soothe
the minds of the zamindars."

 When Jamal Khan Mewati, the cousin of Hasan Khan Mewati, 'one of the great
zamindars of India,' submitted to Humayun, he married one of his beautiful
daughters himself and married the younger sister to Bairam Khan.
 Over time, Akbar expanded and refined this policy.
 Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber, had arrived at Akbar's court in Agra shortly after his
accession.
 He had made a good impression on the young king, because when everyone else
was fleeing from a maddened elephant, the Rajputs under Bhara Mal stood firm.
65
 When Akbar was on his way to Ajmer in 1562, he learned that the local Mughal
governor was harassing Bhara Mal.
 Bhara Mal paid personal homage to Akbar and sealed the alliance by marrying his
younger daughter, Harkha Bai, to Akbar.
Akbar’s Approach Towards Rajputs
 Babur and Humayun had strained relations with Rajputs. Only Akbar correctly stated
that the Rajput were a valiant and courageous people who could not be easily
crushed by warfare.
 As a result, he set himself the task of conquering Rajputs. He entered into a
matrimonial alliance with the Rajputs.
 He began to elevate Rajputs in Mughal service and treated them on par with Mughal
nobility. He granted the Rajputs religious and political freedom.

 Those who allied with Akbar were largely left in charge of their kingdoms. When
conciliation failed, he returned to warfare. His carrot-and-stick policy won over the
Rajput, and they became a part of the Mughul empire.
 The Raiputs ruled India prior to the establishment of Muslim rule. Despite the fact
that the Turks and Afghans established control over a large portion of India, the
Rajputs continued to oppose the Muslims because they wished to establish a Hindu
Empire in India.
 Babur, Akbar's great grandfather, had to wage a bloody war against the Rajputs in
order to establish his dominance in India.
Conclusion
The Mughal empire reached the pinnacle of progress in all spheres thanks to
Akbar's broadminded Rajput policy. The establishment of peace accelerated the
growth of trade and commerce, which aided greatly in the formation of the nation. The
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Rajputs' cooperation bolstered the Mughal empire's military power. Akbar was the
Mughal ruler who treated Rajputs equally with the rest of the nobility and gave them
access to the highest positions. The Rajput kings were assured of their hereditary claims,
which proved to be a significant benefit to the weaker state. The Rajputs were also
granted religious freedom. Thus, Akbar's liberal Rajput policy proved extremely
beneficial to the Mughal empire.
5. Administration under Vijayanagar Empire
Answer
Vijayanagar empire which lasted for more than two hundred years in the Deccan had a
well-organized administrative system. It was on account of this system that there was an
all-round prosperity in the state. Under the leadership of its several rulers, the state made
a remarkable progress in the economic, cultural, political and social fields. Many foreigner
visitors like Nicolo (onti-ltalian), Abdul Razaq (Persian) and Dominigos Pius (Portuguese)
etc. have praised the prosperity of the state.
Function of Vijayanagar Empire
 Council of Ministers
The king was assisted by ministers who were nominated by the king. The ministers
were appointed from the three classes i.e. The Brahmans, the Kshatriyas and the
Vaishayas. The office of the minister was sometimes hereditary. The three important
key posts of the state were the Prime Minister, the Chief Treasurer and the Prefect of
the Police. Rule of two rulers simultaneously. Sometimes two rulers ruled at the same
time-a strange practice and perhaps the only one in history; Hari Har I and his brother
Bukka Rai ruled at the same time. Likewise, Vijay Rai and Dev Rai ruled at the same
time.
67
 Provincial administration
For purpose of administration, the empire was divided into 6 provinces. A province
was called Prant, or Rajya. Each province was under a viceroy or Nayak who was either
a member of the royal family or influential noble of the state. Every viceroy enjoyed
civil, military and judiciary powers within the province. He was required to submit
regularly account of the income and expenditure to the central government.
 Decentralized administration:
The rulers of Vijayanagar a adopted the principle of the decentralization of political
power. The empire was, divided into provinces prants, districts, ‘Nadus’, ‘Melagrams’
and ‘grams. Administration of the villages was autonomous.
 Local administration
The province was divided into smaller units. The village was the smallest unit. It was
self-sufficient. The village assembly (Panchayat) was responsible for the administration
of the village. Village accountant and the village watchman were the hereditary
officers. These officers were paid either by grants of land or from a portion of the
agricultural produce.
 Administration of justice
The king was the highest authority or the supreme court of justice. His word was final.
Petitions were presented to the king or the Prime Minister by all those who had a
grievance and these were disposed of according to the principles of Hindu Law.
Punishments were very severe. Torture was used to find out the truth from the alleged
culprit. Death sentence, mutilation of the limbs of the body and confiscation of
property were the deterrent punishments for the criminals. In the villages, panchayats
dispensed justice for ordinary crimes.
68
6.Architecture in Medieval India
Answer
The Arab conquest of Sind (712 A.D.) set in motion a series of events that culminated
with an Islamic ruler seizing Delhi in the 11th century. In the following years, the
Architecture in Medieval India changed dramatically. To reflect the tastes and
preferences of the new rulers, new elements such as calligraphy, ornamentation using
inlay work, and so on were introduced. Here we will discuss the Architecture in Medieval
India.
Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture
 With the introduction of arches and domes, the Arcuate style of architecture
replaced the Trabeat style.
 Minars were built around mosques and mausoleums by Islamic monarchs.
 During building, the mortar was utilized as a cementing agent.

 During the architectural process, no human or animal figures were used.
 In contrast to prior structures, when sculptures were employed, calligraphy grew
increasingly popular.
 Indo-Islamic architecture added spaciousness, massiveness, and breadth.
 Geometry was employed as a decorative motif in architecture. The Arabesque style,

which employed geometrical vegetal embellishment, gained popularity.
 Arabesque was defined by the use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation and was
distinguished by a continuous stem that split regularly, producing a series of
counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems. In turn, the secondary stems split or returned
to merge with the main stem, forming a decorative pattern.
69
Division of Medieval Indian Architecture Period
The Medieval Indian Architecture period is further subdivided into:
 Architecture during Delhi Sultanate Period (1206-1526 A.D.)
 Architecture during the Delhi Sultanate period can be divided into two broad
categories:
 Imperial style - It was patronized by Delhi's rulers.
 Provincial Style - It was patronized by local rulers and fiefs.
 The Imperial style of architecture flourished under the various dynasties that ruled
from 1191 to 1557 A.D.
 Each ruler added his own flavor, but the overall style remained consistent.
 The Imperial style of Architecture includes architecture from the following dynasties -
Mameluke style (slave dynasty), Khilji dynasty style, Tuglaq Dynasty style, Lodi Dynasty
style.
Conclusion
Around the 7th century AD, Islam began to influence Indo-Islamic architecture on the
Indian subcontinent. During the Medieval Period, patrons of art and architecture
created numerous monuments and structures in the styles of native/regional Indic,
Persian, Central Asian, Arabic, and Ottoman Turkish architecture. Regional Indian
architecture has influenced several of these styles. It also uses the Arcuate style to replace
the Indian Trabeate style. The architecture was shaped and inspired by Turks and Persians,
who inherited a plethora of different designs from the Sassanian and Byzantine empires.

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HISTORY

History of India C. 1200-1700

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History of India, c. 1200-1700

Unit I: Foundation, Expansion and Consolidation of the Sultanates of Delhi c. 13" to 15

Unit II: Regional Political Formation: Vijayanagara

Unit IV: 17th Century Transitions: Marathas

Unit V: Art and Architecture in Medieval India

Unit VI: Society, Culture and Religion

Unit VII: Economy and Integrated Patterns of Exchange

Q1 – Examine the working of the Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate.

‘Iqta’ is an Arabic word denoting a sort of administrative regional unit. It is usually

Meaning of Iqta system

Iqta was of two types

recovery in the land of Iqta.

was called Fawajil.

Iqtedar did not even have the right to run coins.

LEVEL OF CENTRAL CONTROL & IMPACT ON SULTANATE

EVOLUTION OF IQTA UNDER DELHI SULTANATE

Duties and powers of the Iqtadar

 He appointed soldiers in his army.

 He collected revenue from the people of his territory.

 From the revenue thus collected he administered expenditure on the maintenance

the state treasury.

Requirement of Iqta system

Q 2 Briefly outline the changes in the mansabdari system from Akbar to

Mughal emperor Akbar instituted the Mansabdari System as new administrative

The mansbdari system

Mansabdari was a unique system formally introduced by mughal emperor Akbar in

Mansabdari System - Origin

 The Mansabdari system can be traced back to Changez Khan.

was the first to introduce it to North India.

 However, it was Akbar who institutionalized it in Mughal military and civil

Mansabdari System - Nature

be the pillars of Mughal administration; in fact, the entire nobility belonged to

assignments (not the land itself) for services rendered.

Changes in the mansbdari system from Akbar to Aurangzeb.

Mansabdari System under Mughals

was known as zabti.

his position and exploit the masses.

written in Maithili, Gujarati and Bengali language. In expressing admiration of Krishna

through songs/padas, Mirabai followed and continued a living intellectual tradition,

Opposition to social evils

Mirabai's contribution to cultural field

Mirabai's contribution to social sector

symbolizes the interminable estimations of a group arranged life. Meera consistently

Symbol of social and religious change

The social cognizance of Mirabai is unquestionably worth considering. He didn't

significance and supported the components of equality, agreement and organization in

the frugalness of Rana is an unparalleled foundation of the religious foundation of

Q 4– Evaluate the administrative system of Vijayanagar Empire with a special

Discuss the importance of the Nayankara system in the Vijayanagara Empire.

The rulers of Vijayanagar give due importance to the provincial administration.

The Nayankara System

Benefits of Nayankara System

administered Brahmadhana and Devadhana villages donated to Brahmins. So, most of

Local Management in Nayankara System

Gramams. Village was known as Isthalam. Traditional administration flourished in the

Q –5 Outline evolute of the Qutub Complex during the Sulanate period.